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Dictionary  of  the  Bible  : 


INCLUDING 


BIOGRAPHY,  NATURAL  HISTORY,  GEOGRAPHY,  TOPOGRAPHY, 
ARCHiEOLOGY,  AND  LITERATURE. 


ii*< 


WITH    TWELVE    COLOEED    MAPS 


OVER  FOUR  HUNDRED    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


EDITED  BY 


PHILIP   SCHAFF,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

Professor  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York. 


THIRD  EDITION. 
revised  and  enlarged 

PHILADELPHIA : 
AMERICAN   SUNDAY-SCHOOL  UNION, 

1122   Chestnut  Street. 

NEW  YORK:  8  and  10  BIBLE  HOUSE,  ASTOR  PLACE. 


Copyright,  18S5,  by  the  American  Sunday-School  Union, 


PREFACE  TO  THIRD  EDITIOF. 


This  edition  has  been  carefully  revised  and  brought  up  to  the  latest  bib- 
lical scholarship.  Since  the  first  edition  was  issued,  five  years  ago,  much 
progress  has  been  made.  The  Revision  of  the  New  Testament  appeared  in 
1881,  and  the  Eevision  of  the  Old  Testament  has  been  completed.  The 
"Palestine  Exploration  Fund"  has  published  the  final  results  of  its  scientific 
survey  of  Western  Palestine  in  seven  magnificent  volumes  and  twenty-six 
sheet  maps  (London,  1881-84).  Important  discoveries  have  also  been  made 
in  Egypt,  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula,  and  in  the  East-Jordanic  territory. 

These  and  other  recent  works  on  biblical  literature  and  criticism  have 
been  consulted.  Several  geographical  and  topographical  articles  have  been 
rewritten,  and  others  revised.  The  Committee  of  the  Palestine  Exploration 
Fund  kindly  gave  oflficial  authority  for  the  use  of  all  its  researches,  illustra- 
tions, and  photographs.  Of  the  biblical  places  now  known  in  Western  Pales- 
tine, "two-fifths  are  the  discoveries  of  this  survey."  New  sites  or  modifi- 
cations of  former  sites  for  over  one  hundred  biblical  places  have  been  noted 
in  this  edition.  Any  Bible  Dictionary  based  on  knowledge  attained  ten  or 
fifteen  years  ago  must  be  behind  the  times  in  completeness  and  accuracy. 

By  permission  of  Dr.  H.  Clay  Trumbull,  a  new  map  of  Sinai,  based  upon 
that  in  his  Kadesh  Barnea  (New  York,  1884),  has  been  inserted,  and  the 
maps  of  Palestine  have  been  made  to  conform  to  the  recent  surveys  west 
and  east  of  the  Jordan. 

In  thus  perfecting  this  Dictionary  I  have  been  aided  in  the  geographical 
articles  and  the  revision  of  maps  by  the  Rev.  Edwin  W.  Rice,  D.  D.,  and 
(for  the  East-Jordanic  localities)  by  Dr.  Selah  Merrill,  U.  S.  Consul  in 
Jerusalem. 

The  Editor  takes  this  opportunity  to  express  his  grateful  acknowledgment 
for  the  signal  favor  with  which  this  Dictionary  has  been  received  in  this 
country  and  in  Europe.  Several  translations  have  appeared  or  are  in  prep- 
aration, for  which  permission  has  been  cheerfully  granted  by  the  American 
Sunday-School  Union. 

PHILIP  SCHAFF. 

Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  January,  1885. 


PEEFACE  TO  SECOISTD  EDITION. 


The  call  for  a  new  edition  of  this  Dictionary  has  given  me  a  favorable 
opportunity  to  remove  a  few  obscurities  and  inaccuracies  and  to  introduce 
some  important  results  of  the  most  recent  biblical  investigation. 

I  express  my  grateAil  acknowledgments  for  the  signal  favor  with  which 
this  book  has  been  received  throughout  the  country. 

PHILIP  SCHAFF. 

New  York,  April,  1881. 


PEEFACE  TO  FIEST  EDITIO]^. 


This  Dictionary  aims  to  be  a  useful  companion  in  the  study  of  the 
Scriptures  by  furnishing,  in  convenient  alphabetical  order  and  in  popular 
form,  the  condensed  results  of  the  most  recent  investigations  in  biblical 
literature,  history,  biography,  geography,  topography,  and  archaeology. 

The  American  Sunday-School  Union  first  published  a  Bible  Dictionary  in 
1831  under  the  editorship  of  the  late  venerable  Dr.  Archibald  Alexander,  of 
the  Theological  Seminary  at  Princeton,  which  was  revised  by  F.  A.  Packard, 
LL.D.,  in  1837,  and  again  by  the  same  in  1855.  It  served  a  good  purpose 
in  its  day,  but  biblical  learning  has  since  made  such  vast  progress  that  an 
entirely  new  work,  with  new  illustrations  and  maps,  was  needed. 

I  have  been  effectually  aided  in  the  preparation  of  this  volume  by  several 
competent  scholars.  The  Rev.  S.  M.  Jackson  and  Mr.  Clemens  Petersen 
have  devoted  nearly  two  years'  uninterrupted  labor  on  it  in  my  library, 
and  prepared  under  my  direction  most  of  the  historical,  biographical,  and 
archffiological  articles ;  the  Rev.  Edwin  W.  Rice  wrote  the  geographical 
and  topographical  articles,  and  supervised  the  selection  and  preparation 
of  the  illustrations  and  maps,  crediting  them  to  their  proper  sources;  the 
Rev.  W.  P.  Alcott  has  had  charge  of  the  department  of  natural  history. 
The  editor  has  also  had  the  co-operation  of  the  Rev.  David  Schley  vSchaff, 
the  late  Rev.  Isaac  Riley,  the  Rev.  Moseley  H.  Williams,  and  S.  Austin 
Allibone,  LL.D.,  in  otherwise  perfecting  the  work. 

The  full-page  colored  maps  at  the  end  of  the  Dictionary  were  prepared 
and  engraved  specially  for  it  by  the  Messrs.  W.  &  A.  K.  Johnston,  of  Edin- 
burgh, Scotland,  whose  reputation  as  geographers  is  a  sufficient  guarantee  of 
the  accuracy  and  scholarship  of  these  important  aids  to  the  student. 

The  multiplication  of  Bibles  and  Bible  helps  in  our  age  and  country  is 

truly  astonishing,  and  furnishes  the  best  evidence  of  the  divine  origin  and 

power  of  the  Boak  of  books, 

PHILIP  SCHAFF. 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York, 
April,  1880. 


LIST   OF   COLORED   MAPS. 

[these  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  the  volume.] 

1.  Distribution  of  the   Descendants  of  Noah  after  the  Deluge. 

2.  Canaan  in  Patriarchal    Times, 

3.  Egypt,  Ancient  and  Modern. 

4.  Sinai  and  the  Route   of  the  Israelites  to  Canaan. 

5.  Canaan  as  Divided   among  the  Twelve  Tribes. 

6.  Kingdom  of  David    and  Solomon,  and  the  two  Kingdoms  of  Israel   and 

JUDAH. 

7.  Lands  of  the   Jewish    Captivities,    including   the   four   great   Empires 

on  the  Euphrates. 

8.  Palestine  in  the  Time  of  Christ. 

9.  Journeys  of  St.  Paul. 

10.  Modern  Palestine,  showing  its  Physical  Features. 

11.  Environs  of  Jerusalem. 

12.  Modern  Jerusalem,  indicating  also  its  Ancient  Divisions. 


LIST   OF   MAPS   NOT   COLOEED. 

PAGE 

Sketch-map  of  Abana  and  Pharpar 11 

Plan  of  Alexandria 39 

Sketch-map  of  Arabia 61 

Sketch-map  of  Assyria  and  Mesopotamia 81 

Plan  of  Babylon 91 

Sketch-map  of   Canaan  before  the  Conquest 156 

Sketch-map  of   Cyprus 212 

Sketch-map  of   Decapolis 226 

Sketch-map  of   Egypt 254 

Sketch-map  of  Route  of  the  Exodus  ........  294 

Sketch-map  of  Sea  of  Galilee 320 

Sketch-map  of   Greece 347 

Plans  of  Ancient  Jerusalem 447 

Sources  op  'Ae  Jordan 477 

Course  op  the  Jordan  from  the  Sea  of  Galilee  to  the  Dead  Sea       .  478 

Map  of  Macedonia 534 

Sketch-map  of  St.  Paul's  Bay 560 

Sketch-map  op  Nineveh 613 

The  Holy  Land  during  the  Monarchy  (based  on  Smith  and  Grove)     646,  647 

The  Salt  or  Dead  Sea         . 753 

Outline-map  of  Mount  Sinai 807 

Plans  of  the  Temple-area 854 

Plan  of  Herod's  Temple 856 


[An  Index  of  Illustrations  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  the  book.] 
4 


LIST   OF  WORKS   ON   BIBLICAL  LEARNING  MADE 
USE  OF  IN   THIS  DICTIONARY. 


1.  Dictionaries  and  Concordances  to  the  Original  Languages. 

W"iLHELM  Gesenius  :  Hebrdisches  u.  Chalddisches-Handwdrterbuch  iiher  da^  Alte  Testament, 
8th  revised  ed.,  by  Miihlau  u.  Volck  (Leipzig,  1878),  also  bis  Thesaurus.  Hebrew  Lex- 
icon, translated  from  the  Latin  and  edited  by  Edward  Robinson  (1854 ;  20th  ed.,  Bos- 
ton, 1872). 

Julius  Fuerst  :  A  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicon,  translated  by  Samuel  Davidson  (4th  ed., 

Leipzig  and  London,  1871). 
EnwAKD  Kobinson:  A  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  of  the  New  Testament  (New  York,  ISoO). 

A  thorough  revision  on  the  basis  of  the  last  German  ed.  of  Gesenius  is  in  course  of 

preparation  (1884). 

C  L.  W.  Grimm  :  Lexicon  Grceco-Latimim  in  Libros  Novi  Testamenti  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1879). 
An  English  ed.  enlarged  by  Dr.  Thayer  will  bepubl.  by  the  Harpers,  N.  Y.,  in  1884 
or  1885. 

Herrmann  Cremer,  Bibli^ch-Theologisches  Worterbuch  der  NeutestamenUichen  Grdcitdt  (3d 
revised  ed.,  Gotha,  1882) ;  Engl,  transl.  by  W.  Urwick ;  BibHco-Greek  Lexicon  (Edin- 
burgh and  New  York,  1878). 

C.  H.  Bruder  :  Concordantice  N.  T.  Gneci  (Lips.,  1853). 

G.  V.  Wigram  :  The  Englishman''s  Hebrew  and.  Chaldee  Concordance  of  the  Old  Testament  (.3d 
ed.,  London,  1866;  4  parts,  2  vols.);  The  Hebi-aist's  Vade  Mecum  (London,  1867)  ;  The 
Englishman's  Greek  Concordance  of  the  New  Testament  (5th  ed.,  London,  1868). 

C.  F.  Hudson:  A  Critical  Greek  and  English  Concordance  of  the  New  Testament,  revised  and 
completed  by  Ezra  Abbot  (7th  ed.,  Boston,  1883). 

Robert  Young:  Analytical  Concordance  to  the  Bible  (Edinburgh,  1879;  New  York,  1881). 

Abr.  Trommius  :  Concordantice  Grcecce  Versionis  LXX.  Interpretum  (Amstel,  1718 ;  2  vols, 
folio). 

William  Henderson:  Dictionary  and  Concordance  of  Scriptural  Names  {Edinburgh,  1869). 

2.  General  and  Special  Introduction  to  the   Old  and  New  Testaments. 

K.  F.  Keil:  Einleitung  in  das  A.  Test.  (Frankfurt,  2d  ed.,  1859) ;  English  transl.  with  Sup- 
plementary Notes,  by  Principal  G.  C.  M.  Douglas  (Edinbui-gh,  1869;  in  2  vols.). 

F.  Bleek:  Einleitung  in's  A.  T.  (4th  ed.,  Berlin,  1878) ;  translated  into  f^nglish  by  G.  H. 
Venables  (London,  1869;  2  vols.).  By  the  same:  Einleitung  in's  N.  T.  (3d  ed.,  Berlin, 
1875) ;  translated  by  Kev.  W.  Urwick  (Edinburgh,  1870  ;  2  vols.). 

Ed.  Reuss  :   Gesch.  d.  heil.  Sch.  N.  T.  (5th  ed.  Braunschweig,  1874) ;  Gesch  d.  heil.  Schr.  A.  T. 

(1881). 

W.  M.  L.  De  Wette  :  Hislorisch-kritische  Einleitung  in  die  Bibel  (8th  ed.,  Berlin,  1869). 
E.  H.  Plumptre  :   The  Bible  Educator  (London  and  New  York,  1876-78 ;  4  vols.). 
E.  C.  Bissell  :  The  Historic  Origin  of  the  Bible  (New  York,  1873). 
T.  H.  HoRNE,  Introduction  to  the  Holy  Scriptures  (14th  ed.,  London,  1877,  4  vols.). 

3.   Bible  History  and  Theology. 

The  Works  of  Philo  and  Josephus. 

Philip  Schaff  :  History  of  the  Apostolic  Church  (New  York,  1853 ;  new  ed.,  1880). 

Heinrich  Ewald  :  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel  (3d  ed.,  Gottingen,  1864-1868  ;  8  vols.);  Eng- 
lish translation.  History  of  Israel  (London,  1871-1876;  5  vols.) ;  Life  of  Jesus  Christ  (Cam- 
bridge, 1865) ;  Antiquities  of  Israel  (London,  1876). 

Rabbi  Raphall:  Post-Biblical  History  of  the  Jews  (New  York,  1866  ,  2  vols.). 

CoNYBEARE  AND  HowsoN :  Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  (London,  1853  ;  often  reprinted). 

William  Brown:  The  Tabernacle:  Its  Priests  and  Services.  With  diagrams,  etc.  (Edin- 
burgh, 1872). 

George  Rawlinson:  The  Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Eastern  World  (2d.  ed.,  London  and 
New  York,  1873;  3  vols.). 

5 


LIST  OF  WOKKS. 


Thomas  Lewin:  The  Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  (revised  ed. ;  London,  1875;  2  vols.). 
A.  P.  Stanley  :  History  of  the  Jewish  Church  (London  and  New  York,  1876  ;  revised  ed., 
1880,  3  vols.). 

A.  Edersheim  :  Jewish  Social  Life  in  the  Days  of  Christ  (London,  1876). 

F.  W.  Farrar:  lAfe  and  Epittles  of  St.  Paul  (London  and  New  York,  1879;  2  vols.). 
C.  F.  Schmid:  Biblische  Theologie  des  Neuen  Testaments  (Stuttgart,  1853). 

G.  F.  Oehler  :   TheoJoqie  des  Alien  Testament  (Tiibingeu,  1863  ;  Engl,  transl.,  Edinb.,  and 

as  revised  by  Dr.  Day,  N.  Y.,  1884). 
H.  ScHULTZ :  Theologie  des  Allen  Testament  (Frankfurt ;  2d  ed.,  rewritten,  1878). 
J.  J.  Van  Oosterzee:  Theology  of  the  New  Testament  (London,  1870). 
Paul  Scholz  :  Gotzendienst  u.  Zauberwesen  bei  den  alien  Hebriiern  (Regensburg,  1877). 

B.  Weiss:   Biblical  Theology  of  the  New  Testament  (Engl,  transl.  of  the  3d  ed.,  London, 

1882-83,  2  vols.). 

Jf,.  Bible  Lands,  especially  Palestine. 

Hadrian  Reland  (professor  in  Utrecht ;  died  1718) :  Palestina  ex  monum^ntis  veteribus 

illustrata  (Traj.,  1714;  2  vols.). 
H.  Maundrell  :  Aleppo  to  Jerusalem,  and   Cairo  to  Mount  Sinai,  by  Rt.  Rev.  R.  Clayton 

(London,  1810). 

A.  H.  La  YARD :  Nineveh  and  its  Remains  (London,  1849  ;  2  vols.). 

Edward  Robinson  (professor  in  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York ;  died  1863) : 

Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine  and  the  adjacent  Regions:  A  Journal  of  Travels  in  the 

Years  1838  and  1852,  by  E.  Robinson  and  Eli  Smith  (new  ed.,  Boston,  1856 ;  3  vols. 

Published  simultaneously  in  America,  England,  and  Germany);  Physical  Geography 

of  the  Holy  Land  (New  York,  1865). 

W.  M.  Thomson  (American  missionary  in  Beirut):  Tfie  Land  and  the  Book  (Edinburgh 
and  New  York,  1859;  2  vols.  A  new  and  enlarged  edition  in  3  vols.,  with  superior 
illustrations,  New  York,  1880,  sqq.). 

John  Wilson  :  The  Lands  of  the  Bible  (Edinburgh,  1845;  2  vols.). 

Carl  Ritter  (who  made  thorough  and  comprehensive  studies  of  the  subject,  although 
he  never  visited  the  country):  Vergleichende  Erdkunde  der  Sinai- Halbinsel,  von  Palestina 
und  Syrien  (Berlin,  1848-55,  4  vols.)'.  Parts  14-17  of  tbe  second  edition  of  the  author's 
great  work,  Die  Erdkunde.  Abridged  translation  by  W.  L.  Gage  (New  York  and  Lou- 
don, 1866 ;  4  vols.). 

W.  F.  Lynch  :  Exploration  of  the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea  (U.  S.  Expedition).  (Philadel- 
phia, 1849.) 

Carl  von  Raumer:  Paldstina  (Leipzig,  1835;  4th  ed.,  1860). 

Arthur  P.  Stanley  (Dean  of  Westminster,  who  visited  the  Holy  Land  in   1853,  and 

with  the  prince  of  Wales,  1861):  Sinai  and  Palestine  in  Connection  with  their  History 

(London  and  New  York,  1853;  thoroughly  revised,  1883). 

H.  B.  Tristram  (Canon  of  Durham) :  The  Land  of  Israel  (with  special  reference  to  its 
physical  features)  (London,  1865;  3d  ed.,  1876);  Bible  Places:  or.  The  Topography  of 
the  Holy  Land  (London,  1871 ;  new  ed.  1875) ;  The  Land  of  3Ioab  (London,  1873). 

J.  Macgregor:  Rob  Roy  on  the  Jordan  (London  and  New  York,  1870). 
E.  H.  Palmer  :  The  Desert  of  the  Exodus  (Cambridge,  1871,  2  vols. ;  N.  Y.,  1872,  1  vol.). 
J.  L.  Porter:  Giant  Cities  of  Bashan  (New  York,  1873). 
George  Smith:  Assyrian  Discoveries  (New  York,  1875). 

H.  J.  Van  Lentjep:  Bible  Lands  :  their  Modern  Customs  and  Manners  illustrative  of  Scripture 
(New  York,  1875). 

C.  R.  Conder:  Tent-Work  in  Palestine  (London  and  New  York,  1878;  2  vols.). 

Philip  Schaff:  Through  Bible  Lands:  Notes  of  Travel  in  Egypt,  the  Deseii,  and  Palestine 
(New  York  and  London,  1878;  revised  and  e"nlarged,  London  ed.,  1880). 

J.  G.  WiLKiN.*!ON :  Mannei-s  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians.    New  ed.  ;  revised  by 

Samuel  Birch,  LL.D.  (London,  1878;  3  vols.). 
E.  W.  Lane  :  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Modern  Egyptians  (London,  1836  ;  5th  ed.,  1871). 
Samuel  Manning:  Land  of  the  Pharaohs  (London,  1878);  Those  Holy  Fields  (London,  1879), 
S.  C.  Bartlett  :  lYom  Egypt  to  Palestine  (New  York,  1879). 
6 


LIST  OF  WOEKS. 


British  Palestine  Exploration  Fund:  Quarterly  StatemenUi  (London,  1868,  .-t^g.) ;  Our 

Work  in  Palesline  (London,  1875) ;  Maps  and  Mevioirs  (1880-1884,  8  vols). 
American  Palestine  Exploration  Society:  Occasional  Reports  (New  York,  1872,  sqq.). 
Deutscher  Palestina-Verein  :  Zeitschrift  (Leipzig,  1878,  s^^.)- 
J.  L.  Porter:  Handbook  for  Tiavellers  in  Syria  and  Palestine  (London,  Murray,  ixirt). 
K.  Baedeker  :  Palestine  and  Syria,  Handbook  for  Ti-avellers  (IjCipzig,  187(1 ;  "id  (iorinaii  ed., 

revised  and  enlarged,  1880).    By  the  same :  Egypt  and  Sinai  (Leipzig,  1878). 
M.  E.  Brugsch  :  La  Trouvaille  de  Deir-El-Bahari  Vingt  Photographies;   Ti'xli'  par  G.  Ma.s- 

pero,  d'A7itiquites  Directeur  General  des  Musies  d'Egypte,  Le  Caire,  Iinpriinerie  1'  ran- 

caise,  F.  Monres  et  C'*,  1881. 

Georg  Ebers  :  Durch  Gosen  zum  Sinai  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1881). 
Selah  Merrill  :  East  of  the  Jordan,  (1  vol.,  N.  Y.,  1881). 
H.  C.  Trumbull:  Aadesh-baiiiea  (New  York,  1884:  1  vol). 

5.  Topography  of  Jerusalem. 

George  Williams  :  Tlie  Holy  City  (2d  ed.,  London,  1849;  2  vols.). 

Dr.  Titus  Tobler  (a  Swiss  physician  and  very  accurate  archaeologist ;  died  1877) :  Topo- 
graphie  von  Jenisaleni  (Berlin,  1854 ;  2  vols.). 

J.  T.  Barclay,  M.  D.  :  T/ie  City  of  the  Great  King ;  or,  Jerusalem  as  it  Was,  as  it  Is,  and  as 
it  Is  to  Be  (Philadelphia,  1858). 

E.  Pierotti:  Jerusalem  Explored.  Trans,  by  Bonney  (London,  1864;  2  vols,  quarto.  The 
second  vol.  contains  plates). 

The  Recovery  of  Jerusalem  (London  and  New  York,  1871),  Contains  the  reports  and 
journals  of  Captains  Wilson  and  Warren,  etc.,  relating  to  the  recent  excavations  of 
the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  during  the  preceding  three  years;  with  an  Introduc- 
tion by  Dean  Stanley, 

Walter  Besant  and  E,  H,  Palmer:  Jerusalem,  the  CUy  of  Herod  and  Saladin  (London, 
1871). 

Charles  Warren  (captain  of  Royal  Engineers  ;  late  in  charge  of  the  explorations  in  the 
Holy  Land):  Underground  Jerusalem  {IjonAon,  1876). 

Dr.  Carl  Zimmermann  :  Karten  und  Plane  zur  Topographic  des  Alien  Jerusalem^  (Basel, 

1876). 
Bernhard  Neumann  (a  Jewish  physician  who  resided  in  Jerusalem  fifteen  years) :  Die 

heilige  Stadt  und  deren  Bewohner  (Hamburg,  1877).    Instructive  for  modern  Jerusalem. 

6.  Bible  Maps. 

Samuel  Clark  :  Biblical  Atlas.  Index  of  geographical  names  by  George  Grove  (quarto ; 
London,  1868). 

William  Smith  :  Atlas  of  Ancient  Geography,  Biblical  and  Classical.  Edited  by  William 
Smith,  D..C.  L.,  LL.D.,  and  George  Grove  (folio ;  London,  1874). 

7,  Natural  History  and  Mineralogy  of  the  Bible. 

Petrus  Forskal:  Flora  JEgyptiaco-Arabica  {Ha\msd  [Copenhagen],  1775). 

C.  W.  King:  Antique  Gems  and  Rings  (London,  1860). 

S.  Tenney  :  Natural  History  of  Animals  (New  York,  1865). 

H.  B.  Tristram  :  Natural  History  of  the  Bible  (London  and  New  York,  1867). 

J.  D.  Dana,  LL.D. :  A  System  of  Mineralogy  (New  York,  1869). 

J.  G.  Wood  :  Bible  Animals  (London,  1869). 

E.  LOOMIS,  M.  D. :  A  Treatise  on  Meteorology  (New  York,  1872). 

J.  T.  Moggridge:  Harvesting- Ants  (London,  1873), 

Edmond  Boissier:  Flora  Orientalis  CBi^&ie:  now  issuing). 

J.  G.  Wood:  Animal  Kingdom  (London  and  Boston,  1870). 

Bohn's  NaturalisVs  Library.    Edited  by  Sir  William  Jardine,  F.  R,  S,  E.,  etc.  (Edinburgh 

and  London,  1858,  sqq.;  40  vols.), 
CasseWs  Nalural  History.    Edited  by  Dr,  P.  M,  Duncan,  F,  R.  S.  (London  and  New  York, 

1878-1880), 

7 


LIST  OF  WOKKS. 


8.  History  of  the  English  Bible. 

B.  F.  Westcott:  History  of  the  English  Bible  (London,  1868). 
John  Eadie:  History  of  the  English  Bible  (London,  1876;  2  vols.). 

W.  F.  MouLTON  :  History  of  the  English  Bible  (London,  Paris,  and  New  York). 

John  Stoughton  :  Our  English  Bible  (London,  1878). 

H.  Stevens  :  The  Bibles  in  the  Chxton  Exhibition  (London,  1878). 

J.  I.  MoMBERT :  Handbook  of  the  English  Versions  (N.  Y.  and  London,  1883). 

P.  ScHAFF :  Companion  to  the  Greek  Text  and  the  English  Version  (N.  Y.  and  London,  1883 ; 
revised  ed.,  1884). 

9.  Commentaries. 

J.  P.  Lange:   Commentai-y  on   Old  and  Neiv   Testaments  (Anglo- American  edition.  New 
York  and  Edinburgh,  1864-80,  25  vols. ;  new  ed.,  1884). 

The  Bible  (Speaker's)  Commentary  (London  and  New  York,  1871-82;   10  vols.).    Edited 
by  Canon  F.  ('.  Cook. 

H.  A.  AV.  INIeyer  :   Commentary  on  the  New  Testament  (Engl,  transl.,  Edinburgh,  1873-82, 
20  vols. ;  partly  republ.  with  additions,  N.  Y.,  1881,  sqq.). 

C.  J.  Ellicott:  New  Testament  Commentary  for  English  Readers  (London,  1878;  3  vols.). 

J.  B.  Lightfoot:  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Galaiians  (6th  ed.,  London,  1880);  Coin- 

mentury  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  (3d  ed.,  Loudon,  1873);   Commentary  on  ihe 

Epistle  to  the  Colossians,  Philemon  (London,  1875). 
Philip  Schaff:  Popular  Illustrated  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament  (New  York  and 

Edinb.,  1879-83,  4  vols.).    Also  since  1882  in  small  vols,  under  title  of  International 

Revision  Commentai-y. 


A  number  of  other  commentaries,  German  and  English,  on  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, have  been  used  more  or  less.  Among  these  the  German  commentaries  of 
Keil  and  Delitzsch,  translated  in  Clark's  Library,  and  the  Scotch  of  Jamieson,  Fausset, 
and  Broivn,  deserve  mention. 

10.  Biblical  Oyclopoidias. 

(a)    ENGLISH    WORKS. 

William  Smith:  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (London,  1863,  3  vols.).  .  Am.  ed.  complete,  with 
a  number  of  original  contributions  and  bibliographical  supplements  by  Prof.  H.  B. 
Hackett,  D.  D.,  and  Ezra  Abbot,  LL.D.  (New  York,  1868-70  ;  4  vols.). 

J.  KiTTO  :  Cyclopredia  of  Biblical  Literature.  3d  ed.  by  W.  L.  Alexander,  D.  D.,  of  Edin- 
burgh (London  and  Philadelphia,  1866,  3  vols.). 

P.  Faikbairn  :  The  Imperial  Bible  Dictionary,  Illustrated  (Edinburgh,  1867  ;  2  vols.). 
M'Clintock  and  Strong  :   Cyclopcedia  of  Biblical  Theology  and  Ecclesiastical  Literature 

(New  York,  1867-81 ;  10  vols. ;  3  vols,  of  supplements).  ' 
J.  Ayre  :  The  Treasury  of  Bible  Knowledge  (new  ed.,  London,  1870). 

Potter's  Bible  Encyclopcedia.  Edited  by  W.  Blackwood,  D.D.,  LL.D.  (Philadelphia,  1876 ; 
2  vols.). 

A.  R.  Fausset  :  The  Englishman's  Bible  Cyclopmdia  (London,  1878). 

Schaff-Herzog  :  Encyclopcedia  of  Religious  Knowledge  (N.  Y.,  1882-84 ;  3  vols.). 

{h)    GERMAN    WORKS. 

G.  B.  Winer  :  Biblisches  Realworterbuch  (3d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1849 ;  2  vols.). 

H.  Zeller  (with  Fronmuller,  Hainlen,  Klaiber,  Leyrer,  ^lerz,  D.  Volter,  L.  Volter,  Wun- 
derlich,  etc.):  Biblischoi  Worterbuch  fiir  das  christliche  Volk  (2d  ed.,  Gotha,  1866;  2  vols.X 

D.  Schenkel  (in  connection  with  Bruch,  Diestel,  Dillraann,  Fritzsche,  Gass,  Graf,  Haus- 
rath,  Hitzigr,  Holtzmann,  Keim,  Lipsius,  Mangold,  Merx,  Noeldeke,  Reuss,  Roskofl", 
Schrader,  Schwarz,  Schweizer):  Bibel-Lexikon  (Leipzig,  1869-75  ;  5  vols.). 

Ed.  G.  Aug.  Riehm  (aided  by  G.  Baur,  Beyschlag,  Delitzsch,  Ebers.  Kamphausen,  Kleinert, 
Schlottmann.  Schrader,  Schurer) :  'Handworterbuch  des  Biblischen  Altertums.  With 
many  illustrations  (Bielefeld  and  Leipzig,  1875,  sqq.). 

Herzog  and  Plitt:  Real-Encyklopmdie  fiir  Protest.  Theologie  %md  Kirche.  (New  ed.,  Leip- 
zig, 1876,  sqq.    To  be  completed  in  15  vols.    The  first  edition  had  22  vols.). 

8 


Dictionary  of  the  Holy  Bible. 


A  AND  O,  or  ALPHA  and  OMEGA, 
the  first  and  the  hist  letters  of  the  Greek 
alphabet,  are  four  times  used  by  Christ, 
Rev.  1 :  8,  11  [omitted  in  oldest  MSS.] ; 
21  :  6;  22  :  13,  just  as  the  phrase  "  The 
first  and  ....  the  last"  is  used  by  Jeho- 
vah, Isa.  41 :  4 ;  44  :  6,  to  express  the  idea 
of  eternit}',  and  also  of  divine  causality. 
The  Church  very  early  adopted  these 
two  letters  as  a  symbol  of  the  eternal 
divinity  of  our  Lord,  and  used  it  exten- 
sively on  monuments  of  every  description, 
sometimes  alone,  but  more  frequently  in 
connection  with  the  cross  and  the  mono- 
gram of  Christ  in  its  various  forms,  as 


a|w  Api 


di) 


AA'RON  {mountaineer,  or  more  prob- 
ably, from  another  root,  enliyhtened),  the 
first  high  priest  of  the  Jews;  eldest  son 
of  Amram,  the  grandson,  and  Jochebed, 
the  daughter,  of  Levi;  brother  of  Mir- 
iam, who  was  several  years  older,  and 
of  Moses,  who  was  three  years  younger. 
Ex.  6  :  20  ;  cf.  2  :  1,  4 ;  7:7;  Num.  26  : 
59.  The  family  of  Aaron  belonged  to  the 
Kohathite  branch  of  the  tribe  of  Levi, 
the  most  numerous  and  powerful.  This 
gave  them  prominence,  so  that  the  lead- 
ership naturally  fell  to  them.  When  first 
mentioned  he  is  called,  Ex.  4  :  14,  the 
''  Levite,"  which  implies  that  he  was  a 
recognized  leader  in  his  tribe,  and,  as 
the  first-born  son,  he  would  be  the 
priest  of  the  household.  Aaron's  wife 
was  Elisheba,  daughter  of  the  prince  of 
Judah,  and  he  had  four  sons,  Nadab, 
Abihu,  Eleazar,  and  Ithamar.  Ex.  6  : 
23.  The  greater  portion  of  his  life  is 
passed  over  in  silence  by  the  Bible 
writers,  and  he  was  eighty-three  years 
old  before  he  is  introduced  to  us.   Moses 


AAR 

had  timidly  declined  to  be  the  leader  of 
his  people  out  of  captivity,  and  had  as- 
signed as  a  reason  that  ho  was  "slow  of 
speech  and  of  a  slow  tongue,"  Ex.  4:10; 
whereupon  God  tells  him  that  Aaron, 
his  brother,  was  coming  toward  him, 
evidently  under  divine  direction,  and 
that  he  would  act  as  his  mouthpiece, 
because  he  possessed  in  a  high  degree 
popular  gifts  of  speech  and  ai-gument. 

Thus  brought  together,  and  under- 
standing their  respective  functions,  the 
brothers  started  for  the  court  of  Pha- 
raoh, and  from  that  time  on  Aaron 
played  a  very  prominent  part  in  the 
drama  of  Israel's  deliverance.  Side  by 
side  Moses  and  Aaron  stand  before  the 
Lord,  before  Pharaoh,  before  the  en- 
raged elders  of  Israel.  Furnished  with 
words,  Aaron  utters  them  in  these 
several  presences,  works  miracles,  and 
evinces  courage.  His  work  was  by  no 
means  easy,  but  he  carried  it  on  suc- 
cessfully. 

On  the  way  to  Sinai  the  battle  with 
Amalek  was  fought,  and  Aaron  joins 
Hur  in  holding  up  the  weary  arms  of 
Moses.  Ex.  17  :  9,  13.  With  his  two 
sons,  Nadab  and  Abihu,  and  seventy 
of  the  elders  of  Israel,  he  and  Moses 
saw  the  Lord.  Ex.  24.  But  when  Moses 
was  not  with  him,  then  he  showed  him- 
self weak,  and  it  will  always  be  told,  to 
his  discredit,  that  he  made  the  golden 
calf — not,  indeed,  as  a  substitute  for 
Jehovah,  but  rather  as  a  concession. 
He  proclaimed  a  feast  to  the  Lord,  but 
the  people  ran  into  great  excesses,  and 
as  Moses  was  descending  from  the 
mount  it  was  the  noise  of  the  dancing 
and  music  which  so  raised  his  anger. 
Ex.  32.  Notwithstanding  this  griev- 
ous sin  Aaron  and  his  sons  were  con- 
secrated as  the  first  priests  of  the  Israel- 

9 


AAE 


ABA 


ites.  Ex.  40 :  12-15 ;  cf.  Ex.  28  ;  Lev.  8. 

See  Priest.  He  was  forbidden  to  mourn 
for  his  sons,  Nadab  and  Abihu,  who  were 
destroyed  for  offering  strange  fire.  Lev. 
10.  Miriam,  becoming  jealous  of  Moses' 
wife,  probably  because  her  influence  was 
weakened,  induced  Aaron  to  murmur 
against  Moses  on  the  ground  that  he 
assumed  too  much  authority.  Aaron 
deeply  repented  when  rebuked,  and 
joined  with  Moses  in  a  prayer  for  Mir- 
iam's recovery.  Num.  12.  See  Miriam. 
Twenty  years  later  the  Lord  interposed 
to  vindicate  Aaron's  authority  against 
Korah  and  his  company,  and  by  a  mir- 
acle, the  budding  rod,  confirmed  the  orig- 
inal choice.  Num.  16,  17.  The  plague 
which  broke  out  was  stopped  by  Aaron's 
atonement.  He  stood  between  the  liv- 
ing and  the  dead. 

Aaron  fell  under  the  influence  of 
whichever  strong  nature  was  nearest 
to  his  at  the  time.  So  he  was  carried 
away  by  Moses  into  sin  at  the  waters 
of  Meribah,  and  in  punishment  they 
were  both  kept  out  of  the  Promised 
Land.  Aaron  died  first,  upon  Mount 
Hor,  from  whence  he  could  obtain  a 
distant  view  of  Palestine,  and  there, 
in  the  presence  of  Moses,  who  stripped 
him  of  his  priestly  garments  and  put 
them  upon  Aaron's  son,  Eleazar,  the 
first  high  priest,  who  for  nearly  forty 
years  had  discharged  his  sacred  office, 
in  spite  of  his  faults  thus  highly  ex- 
alted, fell,  at  the  age  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty-three,  under  the  dominion 
of  the  universal  conqueror,  and  was 
buried  upon  the  mountain.  Num.  20  : 
23-29.  A  Mohammedan  mosque  marks 
the  supposed  grave  of  Aaron,  on  one 
of  the  two  tops  of  Mount  Hor,  which 
is  near  Petra,  in  the  desert.  See  Hor, 
Mount. 

Aaron  is  called  the  "  saint  of  the 
Lord "  with  reference  to  his  official 
character,  Ps.  106  :  16,  but,  as  the  most 
superficial  study  of  his  life  shows,  he 
was  far  from  perfect.  He  was  a  better 
servant  than  master.  He  was  weak  in 
command,  but  faithful  in  duty.  He 
yielded  like  wax  to  the  impressions  of 
the  moment.  Yet  it  may  readily  be 
believed  that  the  people  loved  him, 
perhaps  more  than  Moses,  and  that 
the  mourning  over  his  death,  which 
lasted  thirty  days,  Num.  20  :  28,  was 
sincere.  One  of  the  fasts  of  later  Ju- 
10 


daism  was  one  in  his  memory,  held 
on  the  first  day  of  the  fifth  month, 
Ab,  our  July  or  August. 

The  Jewish  priesthood  began  in  the 
family  of  Aaron  and  remained  its  posses- 
sion, though  not  uninterruptedlj',  in  the 
line  of  Eleazar;  it  passed  into  the  family 
of  Ithamar,  the  brother  of  Eleazar,  in  the 
person  of  Eli ;  but,  in  consequence  of  the 
excesses  of  Eli's  sons,  God  declared  that 
it  should  be  taken  from  his  family,  1  Sam. 

2  :  30,  and  this  prophecy  was  fulfilled  in 
the  time  of  Solomon,  who  took  the  priest- 
hood from  Abiathar  and  restored  it  to 
Zadok,  of  the  line  of  Eleazar.  1  Kgs. 

3  :  27. 

AA'RONITES.  1  Chr.  12  :  27. 
Levites  of  the  family  of  Aaron  :  the 
priests  who  served  the  sanctuary.  Elea- 
zar, Aaron's  son,  was  their  chief.  Num. 

4  :  16. 

AB.     See  Month. 

ABAD'DON  {destruction),  the  He- 
brew name  for  the  angel  of  the  bottom- 
less pit,  and  answering  to  the  Greek 
name  Apollyon,  the  destroyer.  Rev.  9  :  11. 

ABAG'THA  (derivation  doubtful; 
probably  God-given),  one  of  the  seven 
chamberlains  of  the  court  of  Ahasuerus. 
Esth,  1:10. 

AB'ANA  (stony),  a  river  of  Da- 
mascus, 2  Kgs.  5  :  12,  and  supposed 
to  be  identical  with  the  Amana  of 
Song  Sol.  4  :  8.  Probably  the  mod- 
ei*n  Barada,  which  the  Greeks  called 
the  Chrysorrhoas  (golden  stream).  It 
rises  in  the  mountains  of  Anti-Libanus, 
about  23  miles  N.  W,  of  Damascus,  runs 
through  the  city  in  several  streams  or 
canals,  thence  across  the  plain,  and  18 
miles  east  of  Damascus  falls  by  several 
branches  into  the  marshy  Bahret-el- 
Kihliyeh,  or  so-called  "  Meadow  Lakes." 
The  river  is  a  clear,  limpid,  copious,  and 
perennial  stream,  and  is  the  chief  source 
of  the  fertility  of  the  plain  of  Damascus, 
making  it  a  garden  in  the  desert.  It 
falls  1149  feet,  and  waters  800  square 
miles  of  territory  containing  about  14 
villages. 

AB'ARIM  {mountains  beyond,  or  of 
the  fords),  a  range  of  mountains  east 
of  the  river  Jordan,  in  the  land  of  Moab, 
opposite  Jericho.  Num.  27  :  12 ;  33  : 
47  ;  Deut.  32  :  49.  Nebo,  Peor,  and 
Pisgah  belong  to  this  range.  In  Jer. 
22  :  20  the  word  is  translated  "  pas- 
sages."     Ije-abarim   in   Num.    21  :  11 


ABB 


ABE 


Sketch-Map  of  the  Abana  and  Pharpar  Rivers. 


means  heaps  or  ruinn  of  Aharim,  and 
was  near  the  same  range. 

AB'BA,  the  Chaldee  form  of  the 
Hebrew  word  ah,  signifying  father.  Ap- 
plied to  God  in  the  New  Testament  by 
Christ,  Mark  14  :  36,  and  by  Paul,  Rom. 
8:15;  Gal.  4  :  6.  The  syllable  ah,  in 
the  sense  of  "possessed  of,"  "endowed 
with,"  frequently  occurs  in  the  compo- 
sition of  Hebrew  proper  names;  e.  g. 
Abner,  Absalom. 

AB'DA  {servant,  Chaldee  form).  1. 
Father  of  Adoniram.  1  Kgs.  4  :  6. 

2.  Son  of  Shammua,  Neh.  11 :  17 ;  called 
Obadiah  in  1  Chr.  9  :  16. 

AB'DEEL  [servant  of  God),  father 
of  Shelemiah.  Jer.  36  :  26. 

AB'DI  {my  servant).  1.  A  Merarite 
Levite,  and  ancestor  of  Ethan  the  singer. 
1  Chr.  6  :  44. 

2.  A  Levite  of  the  same  family,  father 
of  Kish.  2  Chr.  29  :  12. 

3.  One  of  the  sons  of  Elam,  who  had 
taken  a  foreign  wife.    Ezr.  10  :  26. 

AB'DIEL  {servant  of  God),  a  chief 
of  Gad.   1  Chr.  5  :  15. 

AWDO^  {servile).  1.  An  Ephraim- 
ite  who  judged  Israel,  Jud.  12  :  13-15; 
perhaps  the  same  with  Bedan  of  1  Sam. 
12  :  11. 

2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shashak. 
1  Chr.  8  :  23. 

3.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jehiel,  of  Gib- 
eon.  1  Chr.  8  :  30 ;  9:36. 


4.  A  son  of  Micah,  one  of  Josiah's 
officers,  2  Chr.  34  :  20 ;  called  Achbor. 
2  Kgs.  22  :  12,  14. 

AB'DON  {servile),  a  city  in  tho 
territory  of  Asher,  assigned  to  the  Le- 
vites.  Josh.  21  :  30 ;  1  Chr.  6  :  74.  It 
may  be  located  at  the  modern  Ahdeh, 
ruins  10  miles  N.  E.  of  Accho. 

ABED'-NEGO  {servant  of  Ne,jo, 
perhaps  the  same  as  Nebo,  the  Chal- 
dean name  of  the  planet  Mercury,  who 
was  worshipped  as  the  scribe  and  inter- 
preter of  the  gods),  the  Chaldee  name 
given  by  an  officer  of  the  king  of  Baby- 
lon to  Azariah,  one  of  the  four  youths 
mentioned  in  the  book  of  Daniel  who  were 
taken  captive  at  Jerusalem,  B.  c.  604,  and 
carried  to  Babylon,  where  they  were 
trained  for  the  royal  service.  Dan.l :  7. 
The  names  of  the  others  were  likewise 
changed.  .Daniel  was  called  Belteshaz- 
zar ;  Hananiah,  Shadrach  ;  and  Mishael, 
Meshach.  Daniel,  j^romoted  in  conse- 
quence of  his  interpretation  of  the  king's 
dream,  secured  positions  for  his  three 
companions.  These  three  are  immortal 
because  on  the  occasion  of  the  dedica- 
tion of  a  golden  image  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar they  refused  to  bow  down  and 
worship  it.  Accordingly,  they  were  cast 
into  a  burning  fiery  furnace,  from  which 
they  were  miraculously  delivered  un- 
scathed. Dan.  3.     See  Daniel. 

A'BEJL    (Ileb.   Hehel—i.  e.  breathf 

11 


ABE 


ABI 


vapor),  the  second  son  of  Adam  and 
Eve,  so  called  perhaps  from  the  fleeting 
character  of  his  life,  or  because,  since 
Cain  was  not  the  promised  seed,  as  Eve 
expected  at  his  birth,  life  itself  seemed 
of  little  worth  ;  it  was  but  "  a  vapour, 
that  appeareth  for  a  little  time,  and 
then  vanisheth  away."  Gen.  4:2.  He 
was  a  keeper  or  feeder  of  sheep,  and  in 
process  of  time  brought  of  the  firstlings 
or  first-fruits  of  his  flock  an  oifering 
unto  the  Lord.  God  accepted  his  off'er- 
ing  and  gave  him  evidence  of  it.  Heb. 
11 :  4.  Not  so  with  Cain.  Either  his 
sacrifice,  or  the  manner  of  presenting 
it,  ofi'ended  God,  and  the  ofl'ering  was 
rejected.  1  John  3  :  12.  Cain,  exceed- 
ingly angry,  and  filled  with  envy, 
embraced  an  opportunity  when  they 
were  in  the  field  together  to  take  his 
brother's  life.  Gen.  4. 

Our  Saviour  distinguishes  Abel  by 
the  title  "righteous."  Matt.  23:35. 
He  is  also  one  of  the  faithful  "elders" 
mentioned  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
ch.  11,  and  is  justly  called  the  first 
martyr. 

A'BEIi  (meadoio),  a  prefix  in  the 
names  of  several  places,  as  below. 

A'BEIi,  of  the  vineyards,  see  mar- 
gin, Jud.  11  :  33,  or  "plain  of  the  vine- 
yards," as  the  text  reads,  was  a  place 
east  of  the  Jordan,  perhaps  the  present 
MerJ  Ekkeh. 

A'BEL,  AND  A'BEL-BETH- 

MA'ACHAH  (meadow  of  the  house 
of  ojypression),  a  town  in  the  north  of 
Palestine  near  Cesarea  Philippi,  the 
modern  Ahil-el-Kamh,  a  ruin  on  a 
stream  north  of  the  waters  of  Merom. 
It  was  attacked  by  Joab,  2  Sam.  20  : 
14, 15  ;  by  Benhadad,  1  Kgs.  15  :  20  ;  and 
by  Tiglath-pileser.  2  Kgs.  15  :  29. 

A'BEL-MA'IM  {meadoin  of  wa- 
ters), another  name  for  Abel-Beth- 
Maaehah.   2  Chr.  16  :  4. 

A'BEL  -  MEHO'LAH  [meadoio 
of  the  dance),  a  place  in  the  Jordan  val- 
ley between  the  Sea  of  Galilee  and  the 
Dead     Sea.    1    Kgs.    4:12.        Gideon 

Pursued  the  Midianites  near  it,  Jud. 
:  22 ;  and  it  was  the  home  of  Elisha. 
1  Kgs.  19  :  16.  Van  de  Yelde  locates 
it  10  miles  south  of  Bethshean  ;  Conder, 
in  Wadi/  Maleh,  on  the  road  from  Bei- 
san  to  the  Jordan,  at  Ain  Helweh. 

A'BEL-MIZ'RAIM    {meadow  of 

Egypt),  a  name  given  by  the  Canaanites 

12 


to  the  floor  of  Atad,  where  Joseph 
mourned  for  his  father,  Jacob.  Gen. 
50:11.  It  was  "  beyond  " — that  is,  west 
of— the  Jordan,  as  the  writer  was  on  the 
east  side.  Some  place  it  at  Beth-hog- 
lah,  or  near  Jericho ;  others  think  it 
was  near  Hebron. 

A'BEL- SHIT'TIM  {meadow  of 
the  acacias),  the  name  of  the  last  halt- 
ing-place of  the  Israelites  before  enter- 
ing Canaan,  and  in  the  plain  of  Moab, 
near  the  Jordan.  Num.  33  :  49.  It  is 
also  called  Shittim.  Num.  25  : 1. 

A'BEL,  STONE  OF.  1  Sam. 
6  :  18.  A  place  near  Beth-shemesh, 
where  the  ark  of  the  Lord  was  set 
down. 

A'BEZ  {tin  ?  or  lofty),  2i  town  of  Is- 
sachar.  Josh.  19  :  20.  Some  think  it 
the  same  as  Thebez,  Jud.  9  :  50,  near  to 
En-gannim  and  Shunem  ;  others  iden- 
tify it  with  Kuehiz,  three  miles  S.  W. 
of  Iksal.     Conder  suggests  el-Beida. 

A'BI  (/a?^e?-  =  progenitor),  the  mo- 
ther of  Hezekiah,  2  Kgs.  18  :  2 ;  called 
more  fully  Abijah.   2  Chr.  29  :  1. 

ABI'A,  ABFAH,  and  ABI'JAH 
{tchose  father  is  Jehovah)  are  all  the 
same  name. 

ABI'A.  1.  Abijah,  king  of  Judah, 
so  called  in  1  Chr.  3  :  10;    Matt.  1  :  7. 

2.  The  Greek  form  of  Abijah,  head  of 
one  of  the  courses  of  priests.  Luke 
1  :  5.     See  Abijah. 

ABI'A,  COURSE  OF.  Luke  1  : 
5.  In  1  Chr,  24  we  have  an  account  of 
the  divisions  of  the  priests  into  twenty- 
four  classes,  courses,  or  orders,  who 
ministered  at  the  altar  in  rotation.  The 
courses  were  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  the  most  prominent  member  of  the 
family  from  which  the  course  was  taken. 
The  eighth  of  these  courses  fell  to  the 
family  of  Abia  or  Abijah ;  and  to  this 
course  belonged  Zacharias,  the  father  of 
John  the  Baptist. 

ABI'AH.    1.  Second  son  of  Samuel. 

1  Sam.  8  :  2 ;  1  Chr.  6  :  28. 

2.  The  wife  of  Hezron.  1  Chr.  2  :  24. 

3.  Son  of  Becher,  Benjamin's  son.  1 
Chr.  7  :  8. 

A'BI-AL'BON  {father  of  strength, 
i.  e.  stron<i),    one    of   David's    warriors, 

2  Sam.  23  :  31 ;  called  Abiel.  1  Chr. 
11  :  32. 

ABI'ASAFH  {father  of  gathering, 
i.  e.  gathered),  a  Levite,  one  of  the 
sons  of  Korah,  and  head  of  one  of  the 


ABI 


ABI 


Korhitic  families,  Ex.  6  :  24 :  called 
Ebiasaph   in  1  Chr.  6  :  37  and  9  :  19. 

ABI'ATHAR  {father  of  abun- 
dance, i.  e.  liberal),  the  tenth  high  priest 
of  the  Jews,  and  fourth  in  descent  from 
Eli.  1  Sam.  22  :  20.  lie  was  the  son  of 
Ahimelech,  and  the  only  one  who  escaped 
when  Doeg  at  Saul's  command  slew  the 
priests  at  Nob  in  revenge  for  Ahimelech's 
service  to  David  in  inquiring  of  the 
Lord  for  him,  and  in  giving  him  the 
shew-bread  to  eat,  and  Goliath's  sword. 

1  Sam.  22.  Abiathar  fled  to  David  at 
Keilah,  and  told  him  what  Saul  had 
done.  David  received  him,  and  he  af- 
terward became  high  priest.  Thus 
there  were  two  high  priests  in  Israel  at 
the  same  time — Abiathar,  in  the  party 
of  David,  and  Zadok,  in  the  party  of 
Saul,  2  Sam.  8  :  17;  but,  in  consequence 
of  his  supporting  Adonijah  in  his  pre- 
tensions to  the  throne  of  David,  Solo- 
mon, upon  becoming  king,  thrust  Abi- 
athar out  of  the  priesthood,  1  Kgs.  2  : 
27,  and  conferred  the  ofiice  exclusively 
upon  Zadok.  See  Zadok,  Thus  was 
fulfilled  the  word  of  God  to  Eli,  1  Sam. 

2  :  31 ;  for  Abiathar  was  the  last  of  the 
priests  of  the  house  of  Ithamar,  to  which 
Eli  belonged  ;  and  Zadok,  who  succeed- 
ed him,  was  of  the  family  of  Eleazar; 
and  so  the  priesthood  passed  into  its 
former  channel.  Abiathar,  mentioned 
in  Mark  2  :  26,  has  been  supposed  by 
some  to  be  the  same  with  Ahimelech. 
The  most  probable  solution  of  the  dif- 
ficulty is,  perhaps,  that  Abiathar  and 
Ahimelech  may  have  been  hereditary 
names  in  the  family,  and  therefore  were 
both  borne  by  the  same  person.  Hence 
the  name  Abiathar,  being  that  of  David's 
friend,  would  be  more  commonly  used 
than  Ahimelech.  This  theory  also  ac- 
counts for  the  substitution  of  one  name 
for  another  in  2  Sam  8:17;  1  Chr.  18 : 
16,  and  1  Chr.  24  :  3,  6,  31.  The  facts 
to  which  the  Gospel  alludes  in  the  pas- 
sage cited  are  fully  stated  in  1  Sam.  21. 

A'BIB  (month).     See  Month. 

ABI'DA,  OR  ABI'DAH  {fither  of 
knotcledge,  i.  e.  wise),  a  son  of  Midian. 
Gen.  25:  4;  1  Chr.  1  :  33. 

AB'IDAN  {father  of  the  judge), 
prince  of  Benjamin.  Num.  1  :  11;  2  : 
22 ;  7  :  60,  65 ;  10  :  24. 

ABI'EL  (father  of  strength,  i.  e. 
strong).  1.  The  father  of  Kish  and 
Ner.     1  Sam.  9:1;  14  :  51. 


2.  One  of  David's  warriors.  1  Chr.  11 : 
32.     See  Abi-ai.bon. 

ABIE'ZER  {the  father  of  help,  i.  e. 
helpful),  the  eldest  son  of  Gilead,  Josh. 
17  :"2 ;  Num.  26  :  30  ;  or  of  a  sister  of 
Gilead,  1  Chr.  7  :  18;  founded  a  family 
at  Ophrah,  from  which  sprang  Gideon. 
Jud.  8  :  32. 

ABIEZ'RITE  {the  father  of  help), 
a  family  descended  from  Abiezer.  Jud. 
6  :  11,  24;  8  :  32. 

AB'IGAIL  {father,  i.  e.  source,  of 
joy).  1.  The  wise  and  beautiful  wife 
of  the  churlish  and  wicked  Nabal,  a 
wealthy  man  of  Carmel.  1  Sam.  26  :  3. 
When  her  husband  had  exposed  him- 
self to  the  anger  of  David  by  his  rude 
and  contemptuous  treatment  of  his  mes- 
sengers, Abigail  hastened  to  meet  him 
while  he  was  on  his  way  with  four  hun- 
dred men  to  revenge  the  insult.  She 
managed  the  affair  with  so  much  pru- 
dence as  to  pacify  David  and  obtain 
his  blessing.  About  ten  days  after  her 
return  the  Lord  visited  Nabal  with 
sickness,  and  he  died,  and  Abigail  be- 
came David's  wife. 

2.  One  of  David's  sisters,  married  to 
Jether,  and  mother  of  Amasa.  2  Sam. 
17:25:   1  Chr.  2:17. 

ABIHA'IL  {father  of  strength,  i.  6. 
the  strong  one).  1.  The  father  of  Zuriel, 
"  chief  of  the  . .  .  house  of  the  families  of 
Marari."    Num.  3  :  35. 

2.  The  wife  of  Abishur.  1  Chr.  2  :  29. 

3.  The  son  of  Huri,  of  the  tribe  of 
Gad.    1  Chr.  5:14. 

4.  The  wife  of  Rehoboam.  2  Chr. 
11:18. 

5.  The  father  of  Esther.  Esth.  2:15; 
9:29. 

ABI'HU  {ichose  father  is  He,  i.  e. 
God),  the  second  son  of  Aaron,  who 
with  his  elder  brother,  Nadab.  his 
fathei",  and  70  of  the  elders  of  Israel, 
went  upon  Mount  Sinai  with  Moses. 
Ex.  6:23;  28:1.  lie  was  afterward 
set  apart  by  God,  with  his  brothers, 
Nadab,  Eleazar,  and  Ithamar,  to  the 
priesthood.  Soon  after  they  entered  on 
their  sacred  duties.  Nadab  and  Abihu 
violated  God's  commands  res])ecting  the 
manner  of  offering  incense,  and  were  in- 
stantly consumed.  Lev.  10  :  1.  2.  This 
event  happened  in  the  wilderness  of 
Sinai.  The  nature  of  their  offence  is 
very  obvious  ;  they  used  common  fire 
instead  of  the  fire  which  burnt  contin- 

13 


ABI 


ABI 


ually  upon  the  altar  of  burnt-offering, 
and  some  suppose  they  were  drawn  into 
this  presumptuous  sin  by  the  too  free 
use  of  wine.  Their  father  and  brothers 
were  forbidden  to  make  public  mourn- 
ing for  them. 

ABI^HUD  (whose  father  is  Jtidah, 
i.  e.  renown),  the  son  of  Bela  and 
grandson  of  Benjamin.  1  Chr.  8  :  3. 

ABI'JAH  {whose  father  is  Jehovah). 
1.  A  son  of  Jeroboam  I.,  king  of  Israel, 
who  died  under  interesting  circum- 
stances in  early  life.  1  Kgs.  14  :  1. 
See  Jeroboam. 

2.  Abijah  or  Abijam,  2  Chr.  13  :  1, 
the  son  of  Rehoboam  and  Michaiah, 
succeeded  his  father  as  king  of  Ju- 
dah  B.  c.  959.  He  made  war  against 
Jeroboam,  king  of  Israel,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  getting  back  the  kingship  of  the 
ten  tribes,  and  defeated  him,  with  a  loss 
of  500,000  men.  These  figures  are  prob- 
ably through  a  mistake  made  too  large ; 
the  loss,  it  is  likely,  was  not  greater  than 
50,000.  He  began  to  reign  in  the  18th 
year  of  Jeroboam,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Asa  in  the  20th  year  of  Jeroboam, 
so  that  he  reigned  only  a  part  of  three 
years.  The  apparent  contradiction  in 
respect  to  the  parentage  of  this  person, 
as  it  is  given  in  1  Kgs.  15  : 2  and  2  Chr. 
13  : 2.  may  be  explained  by  supposing 
that  his  mother  Maachah  (or  Michaiah) 
was  the  daughter  of  Uriel  and  the 
granddaughter  of  Absalom,  who  is  called 
Abishalom.  1  Kgs.  15  :  2.  The  term 
"daughter"  is  given  in  the  Bible  to 
other  relatives  than  one's  own  child; 
e.  g.  to  a  niece,  granddaughter,  or  great- 
granddaughter. 

3.  The  head  of  one  of  the  courses  of 
priests,  1  Chr.  24  :  10;  Neh.  12  :  17; 
termed  Abia  in  Luke  1 :  5. 

4.  The  mother  of  Hezekiah,  2  Chr. 
29  : 1  :  also  called  Abi  in  2  Kgs.  18  :  2. 

5.  One  of  the  priests  who  "sealed  the 
covenant ;"  i.  e.  appended  their  seals 
unto  it  to  signify  that  they  were  parties 
to  it.    Neh.  10:7. 

6.  A  priest  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel   from   Babvlon.    Neh.  12  :  4,  17. 

ABI'JAM  [father  of  the  sea,  i.  e.  a. 
maritime  persoji).  1  Kgs.  15  :  1,  7,  8. 
See  ABT.rAH  (2). 

ABILE'NE  (from  Abila),  a  small 

district  of  Palestine  on  the  eastern  slopes 

of  Anti-Libanus,  of  which  Abila  on  the 

river  Barada  was  the  capital.     It  was 

14 


governed  by  Lysanias  in  the  time  of 
John  the  Baptist.  Luke  3:1. 

ABIM'AEL  (father  of  Mael),  a 
descendant  of  Joktan,  and  supposed 
progenitor  of  the  Arabian  tribe  Mali. 
Gen.  10  :  28  ;   1  Chr.  1 :  22. 

ABIM'EL,BCU  (father  of  the  king). 
1.  A  king  of  the  Philistines  at  Gerar. 
Gen.  20  :  2.  Being  deceived  by  Abra- 
ham, he  took  Sarah,  Abraham's  wife, 
to  be  his  wife.  God  warned  him,  how- 
ever, in  a  dream  of  Sarah's  relation  to 
Abraham,  and  thus  withheld  him  from 
the  commission  of  sin,  because  he  did  it 
in  ignorance.  Gen.  20  :  6.  Abimeleeh, 
having  rebuked  Abraham,  restored 
Sarah  to  him  with  many  gifts,  and  of- 
fered him  a  dwelling-place  in  any  part 
of  the  land.  God  afterward  remitted 
the  punishment  of  the  family  of  Abim- 
eleeh. 

2.  At  a  subsequent  period,  Abimeleeh, 
a  successor  of  the  preceding,  was  de- 
ceived in  like  manner  by  Isaac,  respect- 
ing his  wife  Rebekah,  while  they  dwelt 
in  Gerar  during  a  time  of  famine  in  Ca- 
naan.  Gen.  26. 

3.  A  son  of  Gideon,  who,  after  the 
death  of  his  father,  persuaded  the  men 
of  Shechem  to  make  him  king.  Jud. 
8  :  31  ;  9  :  18.  He  afterward  put  to  death 
seventy  of  his  brothers  who  dwelt  in  his 
father's  house  at  Ophrah,  leaving  only 
Jotham,  the  youngest,  alive.  On  learn- 
ing of  his  exaltation  to  the  kingship  of 
the  Shechemites,  who  had  formed  them- 
selves into  an  independent  state,  Jotham 
told  them  the  fable  of  the  trees,  Jud.  9  : 
7,  etc.,  which  is  the  oldest  fable  extant. 
The  Shechemites  in  the  third  year  of 
his  reign  rebelled  against  him  during 
his  absence,  but  he  put  the  revolt  down 
on  his  return.  Shortly  afterward,  while 
storming  the  fortress  of  Thebez,  he  was 
mortally  wounded  by  a  piece  of  a  mill- 
stone thrown  upon  his  head  by  a  woman 
from  the  top  of  a  tower.  That  it  might 
not  be  said  a  woman  slew  him,  he  called 
to  his  armor-bearer  to  stab  him  with  his 
sword,  and  thus  he  died.  Jud.  9  :  54-57. 

4.  A  son  of  Abiathar.  1  Chr.  18  : 
16. 

5.  The  name  given  to  Achish  in  the 
title  of  Ps.  34. 

ABIN'ADAB  (father  of  nohleness, 
i  e.  noble).  1.  A  Levite  of  Kirjath- 
jearim,  with  whom  the  ark  of  the  Lord 
was    deposited    when   it   was    brought 


ABI 


ABN 


back     from    the    Philistines.     1   Sam. 
7:1  and  1  Chr.  13  :  7. 

2.  The  second  of  the  eight  sons  of 
Jesse,  and  one  of  his  three  sons  who 
followed  Saul  in  battle.    1  Sam.  16  :  8. 

3.  One  of  Saul's  sons  who  was  slain 
at  the  battle  of  Gilboa.  1  Sam.  31:  2. 

4.  The  father  of  one  of  the  twelve 
officers  appointed  by  Solomon  to  pro- 
vide alternately,  month  by  month,  food 
for  the  king  and  his  household.  1  Kgs. 
4:11. 

AB'INER  {father  of  light).  1  Sam. 
14  :  50,  margin,  same  as  Abner. 

ABIN'OAM  {father  of  pleasant- 
ness), the  father  of  Barak.  Jud.  4 :  6, 
12;  5:1,  12. 

ABI'RAM  {father  of  height,  i.  e. 
renowned).  1.  One  of  the  sons  of  Eliab, 
the  Reubenite,  who  were  destroyed  with 
Korah  for  a  conspiracy  against  Moses. 
See  Korah.     Num.  16  :  1. 

2.  The  first-born  of  Hiel  the  Beth- 
elite.  1  Kgs.  16  :  34.  His  death  at  the 
time  his  father  began  the  rebuilding  of 
Jericho  fulfilled  the  first  part  of  Joshua's 
curse.  Josh.  6  :  26. 

AB'ISHAG  {father  of  error),  a 
fair  woman  of  Shunem,  in  the  tribe  of 
Issachar,  who  was  selected  by  the  ser- 
vants of  David  to  minister  to  him  in  his 
old  age  and  to  cherish  him,  1  Kgs. 
1 : 1-4.  After  David's  death  and  the  as- 
cension of  Solomon  to  the  throne,  Adon- 
ijah  desired  Abishag  in  marriage,  but 
Solomon  perceived  his  policy  (see  Adon- 
ijah),  and  caused  him  to  be  put  to  death. 

1  Kgs.  2  :  25. 

ABISH'AI  {father  of  a  gift), 
the  eldest  son  of  Zeruiah,  David's 
sister,  and  among  the  chief  of  his 
mighty  men.  2  Sam.  2  :  18.  He  ac- 
companied David  to  the  camp  of  Saul, 
and  counselled  him  to  take  Saul's  life, 
which  David  refused  to  do,  1  Sam. 
26  :  5-12,  and  was  probably  with  David 
during  the  latter's  wandering  life.  He 
was  associated  with  Joab  in  the  assassi- 
nation of  Abner.  2  Sam.  3  :  30.  The 
victory  over  the  Edomites  in  the  valley 
of  Salt,  which  is  ascribed  to  David  in 

2  Sam.  8  :  13,  is  ascribed  to  Abishai  in 
1  Chr.  18  :  12.  Probably  Abishai  actu- 
ally obtained  the  victory ,  but  as  he  was 
an  officer  under  David,  it  might  also 
with  propriety  be  spoken  of  as  David's 
achievement.  Abishai,  with  Joab  his 
brother,  attacked  and  defeated  the  Syr- 


ians and  the  children  of  Ammon.  2  Sam. 
10.  David  appointed  him,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Joab  and  Ittai,  to  the  command 
of  the  people  when  they  went  forth  to  bat- 
tle against  Israel  in  the  wood  of  Eph- 
raim.  2  Sam.  18  :  2.  He  afterward  res- 
cued David  from  the  giant  Philistine, 
Ishbi-benob,  whom  he  smote  and  killed. 
2  Sam.  21:16,  17. 

ABISH'ALOM  {father  of  peace), 
father  of  Maachah ;  called  Absalom  in 
2  Chr.  11 :  20,  21,  and  undoubtedly  the 
same  person.    1  Kgs.  16  :  2,  10. 

ABISH'UA  {father  of  deliverance). 
1.  Son  of  Phineas  the  high  priest.  1  Chr. 
6:4,  5,  50;  Ezr.  7:5. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Benjamin.  1  Chr. 
8:4. 

AB'ISHUR  {father  of  the  wall,  i.  e. 
stronghold),  a  descendant  of  Judah. 
1  Chr.  2  :  28,  29. 

AB'ITAL  {lohose  father  is  the  dew), 
one  of  David's  wives.  2  Sam.  3:4; 
1  Chr.  3  :  3. 

AB'ITUB    {father  of  goodne.<<s),  a 

descendant  of  Benjamin.    1  Chr.  8  :  11. 

ABl'UD    {whose  father    is    Judah), 

a  descendant  of  Zerubbabel,  mentioned 

in  our  Lord's  genealogy.    Matt.  1 :  13. 

AB'NER  {father  of  light),  the  son 
of  Ner,  was  a  first  cousin  of  Saul,  and 
a  faithful  and  distinguished  general 
of  his  armies.  1  Sam.  14  :  50.  We 
first  hear  of  him,  particularly,  as  the 
captain  of  the  host,  of  whom  Saul  in- 
quired concerning  the  stripling,  David, 
whose  victory  over  Goliath  had  excited 
his  astonishment ;  and  after  a  little  time 
Abner  introduced  David  to  Saul,  with 
the  head  of  the  giant  Philistine  in  his 
hand.  1  Sam.  17  :  57.  It  was  through 
the  want  of  vigilance  in  Abner  that 
Saul's  life  was  placed  in  David's  power 
in  the  wilderness  of  Ziph.  1  Sam. 
26.  See  David,  Saul.  After  David 
was  anointed  king  of  Judah,  Abner 
procured  the  appointment  of  Ish-bo- 
sheth,  Saul's  son,  as  king  of  Israel :  and 
in  process  of  time  the  army  of  David, 
under  Joab,  and  the  army  of  Israel, 
under  Abner,  arrayed  themselves  on 
either  side  of  the  pool  of  Gibeon.  While 
occupying  this  position  twelve  men  of 
each  army  met  and  fought  desperately. 
This  contest  was  followed  by  a  general 
battle,  which  resulted  in  Abner's  defeat. 
He  fled,  but  was  pursued  by  Asahel, 
who  "  was  light  of  foot  as  a  wild  roe." 

15 


ABO 


ABE 


When  in  the  heat  of  pursuit,  Abner 
counselled  him  to  desist,  and  threatened 
to  turn  upon  him  and  sla}^  him  if  he  did 
not,  but  Asahel  refused  to  turn  aside, 
and  Abner,  ''  with  the  hinder  end  of  the 
spear,"  smote  him  so  that  he  died.  Joab 
and  Abishai  were  also  engaged  in  the 
pursuit,  but  at  Abner's  entreaty  they 
desisted  and  returned.  2  Sam.  2. 

As  David's  strength  increased,  the 
house  of  Saul,  though  faithfully  served 
by  Abner,  became  gradually  weaker, 
till  at  length  Ish-bosheth  charged  Abner 
with  an  offence  against  Saul's  family. 
2  Sam.  3  :  7.  He  had  taken  Rizpah, 
the  concubine  of  Saul,  into  his  harem,  j 
and  this  act  was  interpreted  according 
to  Oriental  ideas  as  an  attempt  to  seize 
the  throne.  He  was  exceedingly  irri- 
tated by  the  charge,  and  immediately 
forsook  the  interests  of  Saul's  house  and 
espoused  the  cause  of  David.  David  re- 
ceived him  cordially,  and  sent  him  away 
in  peace  to  persuade  Israel  to  submit  to 
David's  government. 

While  he  was  gone  on  this  errand, 
Joab  returned  ;  and  hearing  what  had 
been  done,  he  went  to  the  king  and 
warned  him  against  Abner  as  a  spy  and 
traitor.  Soon  after,  and  without  Da- 
vid's knowledge,  Joab  sent  for  Abner ; 
and  when  he  arrived,  took  him  aside 
privately,  and  murdered  him  in  revenge 
of  the  death  of  his  brother  Asahel ;  and 
they  buried  him  in  Hebron.  The  esti- 
mation in  which  he  was  held  by  the 
king  and  people  appears  from  the  sa- 
cred history.  The  king  wept  and  re- 
fused his  food,  and  all  the  people  wept; 
'"  And  the  king  said  unto  his  servants. 
Know  ye  not  that  there  is  a  prince  and 
a  great  man  fallen  this  day  in  Israel  ?" 
2  Sam.  3  :  38. 

ABOMINABLE,  ABOMINA'- 
TION.  1.  An  abomination,  or  an 
abominable  thing,  is  a  thing  hateful  or 
detestable,  as  the  employment  or  call- 
ing of  shepherds  was  to  the  Egyptians. 
Gen.  46  :  34. 

2.  Under  the  Mosaic  law  those  ani- 
mals and  acts  are  called  abominable 
the  use  or  doing  of  which  was  pro- 
hibited.   Lev.  11 :  13  and  Deut.  23  :  18. 

3.  Idolatry  of  every  kind  is  especially 
denoted  by  this  term.  Jer.  44 : 4  and 
2  Kgs.  23  :  13. 

4.  So  of  sins  in  general.  Isa.  66  :  3. 
The  Abomination  op  Desolation,  Matt 

16 


24 :  15  and  Dan.  9  :  27  and  12  :  11.  prob- 
ably  refers  to  the  ensigns  or  banners  of 
the  Roman  army,  with  the  idolatrous, 


Roman  Standards.      {After  Fairhairn's  "Impe- 
rial Dictionary.") 

and  therefore  abominable,  images  upon 
them,  the  approach  of  which  would  warn 
the  city  of  its  desolation.  When  the  city 
should  be  besieged,  and  these  idolatrous 
standards  should  be  seen  "  in  the  holy 
place,"  or,  more  strictly,  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  holy  city,  thus  threatening  a  com- 
plete conquest  and  speedy  destruction, 
it  would  be  time  for  the  men  of  Judea 
to  flee  to  places  of  refuge  to  save  them- 
selves from  tribulation  and  death.  The 
words  are  hard  to  interpret.  To  the  ex- 
planation given  it  is  objected  that  unless 
the  standards  were  worshipped  they 
would  not  properly  be  "  abominations."' 
Others  say  the  words  refer  to  the  '*  inter- 
nal desecration  of  the  temple  by  the 
Jewish  zealots,  under  pretence  of  de- 
fending it." 

A'BRAM  {father  of  elevation), 
A'BRAHAM  [father  of  a  multitude), 
the  greatest,  purest,  and  most  venerable 
of  the  patriarchs,  held  in  equal  rever- 
ence by  Jews,  Mohammedans,  and  Chris- 
tians. Gen.  11 :  27.  The  leading  trait  in 
his  character  is  unbounded  trust  in  God ; 
hence  he  is  called  "the  friend  of  God" 
and  "  the  father  of  the  faithful."  He  was 
the  son  of  Terah,  born  at  Ur,  a  city  of 
Chaldea,  which  has  been  identified  with 
Mngheir.  The  family  was  probably  idol- 
atrous, but  all  trace  of  monotheism  may 


ABE 


ABR 


not  have  been  lost.  Abram  would  seem 
always  to  have  been  the  consistent  ser- 
vant of  the  one  God,  While  he  was 
dwelling  in  his  father's  house  at  Ur,  God 
directed  him  to  leave  his  country  and  kin- 
dred and  go  to  a  land  which  should  be 
shown  him  :  promising,  at  the  same  time, 
to  make  of  him  a  great  nation,  and  to 
bless  him,  and  to  make  his  name  great, 
and  that  in  him  all  the  families  of  the 
earth  should  be  blessed. 

Obedient  to  the  heavenly  calling, 
Abram  took  Sarai  his  wife,  and,  Avith 
Terah  his  father  and  other  members  of 
the  family,  left  Ur  to  remove  to  Canaan, 
and  stopped  at  Haran  in  Mesopotamia. 
There  Terah  died.  Abram,  who  was 
then  seventy-five  years  old,  with  his 
wife  and  Lot,  his  nephew,  pursued  his 
journey  to  Canaan  ;  and  having  reached 
Sichem,  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Pales- 
tine (see  Shechem),  the  Lord  appeared 
to  him,  and  repeated  his  promise  to  give 
him  the  land.     Gen.  12  :  7. 

A  grievous  famine  soon  visited  the 
country,  and  Abram  was  obliged  to  go 
into  Egypt.  Fearful  that  Sarai's  beauty 
might  attract  the  notice  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  that,  if  they  supposed  her  to 
be  his  wife,  they  would  kill  him  to  se- 
cure her,  he  proposed  that  she  should 
pass  for  his  sister.  It  happened  as  he 
expected.  The  servants  of  Pharaoh,  the 
king  of  Egypt,  commended  her  beauty 
so  much  that  he  sent  for  her,  and  took 
her  into  his  house,  and  loaded  Abram 
with  tokens  of  his  favor;  but  the  Lord 
punished  him  severely,  so  that  he  sent 
away  Abram  and  his  wife,  and  all 
that  he  had.  His  stay  in  Egypt  was 
probably  very  brief. 

Having  become  very  rich  in  cattle, 
silver,  and  gold,  he  returned  from  Egypt 
to  Canaan,  and  encamped  between  Bethel 
and  Ai,  in  Southern  Palestine.  Lot,  his 
nephew,  had  been  with  him,  and  shared 
his  prosperity ;  and  it  happened  that 
his  servants  fell  into  some  strife  with 
the  servants  of  Abram.  Their  property 
being  too  great  for  them  to  dwell  together, 
Abram  generously  proposed  to  his  ne- 
phew to  avoid  controversy  by  an  ami- 
cable separation.  He  offered  Lot  his 
choice  of  the  territory,  on  the  right  or 
left,  as  it  pleased  him — a  rare  illustra- 
tion of  meekness  and  condescension. 
Lot  chose  to  remove  to  the  eastward, 
and  occupy  that  part  of  the  fertile  plain 
2 


of  Jordan  where  Sodom  and  Gomorrah 
stood,  having,  perhaps,  a  desire  to  quit 
the  wandering  life. 

Then  the  Lord  appeared  again  to 
Abram,  and  renewed  the  ])romise  of  the 
land  of  Canaan  as  his  inheritance  in 
the  most  explicit  manner.  He  thence 
removed  his  tent  to  the  oak-groves  of 
Mamre  in  Hebron.  In  an  invasion  of 
the  cities  of  the  plain  by  several  of  the 
petty  kings  of  the  adjoining  provinces, 
under  the  leadership  of  Chcdorlaomer, 
king  of  Elam,  Sodom  was  taken  and 
Lot  and  his  family  carried  captive. 
When  Abram  received  intelligence  of  it 
he  armed  his  trained  servants,  born  in 
his  house  (three  hundred  and  eighteen 
in  number),  defeated  the  kings,  and 
brought  Lot  and  his  family  back  to 
Sodom ;  restoring  to  liberty  the  cap- 
tives who  had  been  taken,  with  all  their 
property,  of  which  he  generously  refused 
to  take  any  part  as  the  reward  of  his 
services  or  as  the  spoils  of  victory.  On 
his  return  he  was  met  by  Molchisedek, 
king  of  Salem  and  priest  of  the  most 
high  God,  to  whom  he  gave  a  tenth  of 
all  that  he   had.     Gen.  14.     See   Mel- 

CHISEDEK. 

While  in  Hebron  the  Lord  appeared 
again  to  Abram  in  a  vision,  repeated  to 
him  the  promises,  and  accompanied 
them  with  the  gracious  declaration  of 
his  favor.  He  appointed  a  certain  sac- 
rifice for  him  to  offer,  and  toward  night 
caused  a  deep  sleep  to  fall  ujion  him, 
attended  by  a  horror  of  great  darkness, 
during  which  there  were  revealed  to  him 
some  of  the  most  important  events  in  his 
future  history  and  in  that  of  his  poster- 
ity, which  were  all  accomplished  in  du  • 
time  and  with  wonderful  exactness.  Th  ; 
revelation  related — 1.  To  the  captivity 
of  Israel  by  the  Egyptians  and  their  se- 
vere and  protracted  bondage  ;  2.  To  the 
judgments  which  Egypt  should  suffer 
because  of  their  oppression  of  God's 
chosen  people,  and  the  circumstances 
under  which  they  should  leave  Egypt; 

3.  To  Abram's  death  and  burial;  and, 

4,  to  the  return  of  his  posterity  to  the 
promised  land. 

In  the  same  day  the  covenant  respect- 
ing the  land  of  promise  was  renewed  and 
confirmed  with  the  strongest  expressions 
of  divine  favor.  Sarai,  however,  was 
childless,  and  she  proposed  to  Abraham 
that  Hagar,  an  Egyptian  woman  living 

17 


ABE 


ABE 


with  them,  should  be  his  concubine ;  by  { 
whom   he   had    a   son,  called    Ishmael. 
He  was  then  in  his  eighty-sixth  year. 
Gen.  16. 

At  ninety-nine  years  of  age  he  was 
favored  with  another  remarkable  vision. 
The  Almighty  was  revealed  to  him  in 
such  a  manner  that  he  was  filled  with 
awe  and  fell  upon  his  face,  and  we  are 
told  that  ''  God  talked  with  him."  The 
promise  respecting  the  great  increase  of 
his  posterity  and  the  possession  of  Ca- 
naan was  repeated  in  the  most  solemn  and 
explicit  terms  ;  his  name  was  changed 
from  Abram  (a  high  father)  to  Abraham 
{father  of  a  great  multitude),  and  the 
circumcision  of  every  male  child  at  eight 
days  old  was  established  as  a  token  of 
the  covenant  between  him  and  God. 
See  Circumcision.  At  the  same  time  the 
name  of  Sarai  {^ny  jyrincess)  was  changed 
to  Sarah  [the  2i>'i»eens),  and  a  promise 
was  given  to  Abraham  that  Sarah  should 
have  a  son  and  be  the  mother  of  nations 
and  kings. 

It  seemed  so  entirely  out  of  the  course 
of  nature  that  they  should  become  pa- 
rents at  their  advanced  age  that  Abra- 
ham, filled  with  reverence  and  joyful 
gratitude,  fell  upon  his  face  ''  and  said 
in  his  heart.  Shall  a  child  be  born  unto 
him  that  is  a  hundred  years  old  ?  and 
shall  Sarah,  that  is  ninety  years  old, 
bear?"  Nevertheless,  against  hope  he 
believed  in  hope ;  and  being  not  weak 
in  faith,  he  staggered  not  at  the  promise 
of  God,  but  was  fully  jjersuaded  that 
what  he  had  promised  he  was  able  also 
to  perform ;  and  his  faith  was  imputed 
to  him  for  righteousness.  Rom.  4  : 
18-22. 

;  Abraham,  finding  that  the  blessings 
of  the  covenant  were  to  be  bestowed  on 
his  future  offspring,  immediately  thought 
of  Ishmael,  in  whom  he  had  probably  be- 
fore supposed  the  promises  were  to  be 
fulfilled,  and  he  uttered  the  solemn  and 
affecting  prayer,  "  0  that  Ishmael  might 
live  before  thee !"  God  heard  him,  and 
almost  while  he  was  yet  speaking  an- 
swered him  by  making  known  to  him 
his  great  purposes  respecting  Ishmael. 
Gen.  17:20  and  25:16. 

As  soon  as  the  vision  had  closed, 
Abraham  hastened  to  obey  the  divine 
command,  and  with  Ishmael,  his  son, 
and  all  the  men  of  his  house,  was  cir- 
cumcised in  the  self-same  day.  He  was 
18 


not  long  without  another  divine  commu- 
nication. As  he  sat  in  the  door  of  his 
tent  in  the  heat  of  the  day  three  men 
approached  him.  He  received  them 
with  all  the  courtesy  and  hospitality 
customary  in  the  East,  and  after  they 
had  refreshed  themselves  they  inquired 
of  him  respecting  Sarah  and  repeated 
the  promise  respecting  the  birth  of  her 
son. 

It  was  on  this  occasion,  or  in  connec- 
tion with  these  circumstances,  that  a 
divine  testimony  was  given  to  the  pa- 
triarchal character  of  Abraham.  Gen. 
18  :  19.  It  was  because  of  his  faithful- 
ness that  he  was  favored  with  a  revela- 
tion of  God's  purposes  respecting  the 
devoted  cities  of  the  plain,  and  with 
an  opportunity  to  plead  for  them  ;  and 
it  was  for  Abraham's  sake,  and  probably 
in  answer  to  his  prayers,  that  Lot  and 
his  family  were  rescued  from  the  sudden 
destruction  which  came  upon  Sodom. 

After  this,  Abraham  removed  to  Ge- 
rar,  perhaps  because  the  Amorites,  with 
whom  he  was  in  alliance,  had  been 
driven  from  Hebron  by  the  Hittites. 
Here  he  made  a  second  attempt  to  have 
Sarah  taken  for  his  sister.  See  Abim- 
ELECH.  Here,  also,  the  prediction  was 
fulfilled  respecting  the  birth  of  a  son. 
Sarah  had  a  son,  whom  he  called  Isaac, 
and  who  was  duly  circumcised  on  the 
eighth  day. 

AVhen  Isaac  was  weaned,  Abraham 
made  a  feast.  Ishmael,  being  then  a 
lad  of  thirteen  years,  mocked  Isaac, 
quite  possibly  without  malicious  intent. 
This  roused  the  jealousy  of  Sarah,  who 
urged  Abraham  to  drive  out  Hagar  and 
her  son.  Abraham,  although  unwilling 
to  do  this  injustice,  at  last  obej'ed  at  the 
command  of  God.  Thus  it  came  to  pass 
that  the  prophecy  of  the  wild  life  Ish- 
mael was  to  lead  was  realized.  Gen. 
21 : 10-13. 

Abraham  so  obviously  enjoyed  the 
favor  and  blessing  of  God  in  all  that  he 
did  that  Abimelech,  the  king,  proposed 
to  make  with  him  a  covenant  of  perpet- 
ual friendship ;  and  a  matter  of  wrong 
about  a  well,  of  which  Abimelech's  ser- 
vants had  violently  deprived  Abraham, 
was  thus  happily  adjusted.  This  trans- 
action was  at  a  place  which  was  there- 
after called  Beer-sheba  {the  well  of  the 
oath,  or  the  well  of  swearing).  Gen.  21 : 
23-31. 


ABS 


ABS 


The  events  of  many  years  are  now 
passed  over  in  silence,  but  the  scene 
next  related  shows  how  worthy  Abra- 
ham was  to  be  called  the  father  of  the 
faithful.  He  was  commanded  to  take 
his  son,  his  only  son,  Isaac,  then  a 
young  man,  and  to  offer  him  up  for  a 
burnt-offering  upon  a  distant  mountain. 
Without  an  inquiry  or  murmuring  word, 
and  with  a  prompt  submission,  Abra- 
ham obeyed  the  couiuiand.  A  journey 
of  three  days  was  accom2)lished.  Every 
preparation  for  the  offering  was  made, 
and  the  knife  was  uplifted  to  slay  his 
son.  when  his  purpose  was  arrested  by 
a  voice  from  Hea- 
ven requiring  him 
to  spare  the  lad. 
A  ram  was  pro- 
vided in  the  neigh- 
boring thicket, 
which  he  took  and 
offered  up ;  and, 
after  having  been 
favored  with  spe- 
cial tokens  of  the 
divine  approba- 
tion, he  returned 
with  his  son  to 
Beer-sheba.  This 
grand  trial  and 
proof  of  the  patri- 
arch's faith  took 
place  upon  Mount 
Moriah  (or,  as 
others  suppose,  on 
Mount  Gerizim). 
In  commemoration 
of  it  he  gave  to  the 
place  the  name  Je- 
hovah-jireh  {the 
Lord  will  provide), 
intimating  a  general  truth  respecting 
the  divine  faithfulness  and  care,  and  in 
prophetical  allusion  to  the  great  sacri- 
lice  which  was  to  be  offered  for  the  sins 
of  mankind.     Gen.  22  :  14. 

At  the  age  of  one  hundred  and  twen- 
ty-seven years  Sarah  died,  and  Abraham 
purchased  the  cave  of  Machpelah,  in  the 
field  of  Ephron  at  Hebron,  for  a  family 
burial-place,  and  there  buried  his  wife. 
Gen.  23:19,  20, 

Isaac  had  now  arrived  at  mature  age, 
and  Abraham  called  one  of  his  servants, 
probably  Eliezer,  Gen.  15  :  2,  and  made 
him  promise  to  obtain  a  wife  for  Isaac, 
not  among  the  Canaanites,  but  in  Abra- 


ham's native  country  and  from  among 
his  own  kindred.  This  enterprise  ter- 
minated successfully,  and  every  desire 
of  the  patriarch  respecting  Isaac's  mar- 
riage was  answered.     Gen.  24. 

Abraham  married  a  second  time  and 
had  several  sons,  but  he  made  Isaac  his 
sole  heir,  having  in  his  lifetime  distrib- 
uted gifts  among  the  other  children,  who 
were  now  dispersed.  He  died  in  jicace 
at  the  age  of  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
five  years,  and  was  buried  by  Isaac  and 
Ishmael  inthe  same  sepulchre  with  Sarah, 
in  the  cave  of  Machpelah.  Gen.  25:  8.  It 
is  now  in  the  possession  of  the  Moham- 


Abrahani's  Oak,  near  Hebron.     Gen.  13 


medans,  and  jealously  guarded  by  them 
as  a  most  sacred  spot  beneath  the  great 
mosque  of  Hebron.  See  Machpelah. 
On  Abraham's  Oak,  see  Hebron. 

Abraham's  Bosom.     See  Bosom. 

AB'SAIiOM  {father  of  peace)  was 
the  third  son  of  David  by  Maacah, 
daughter  of  Talmai,  king  of  Geshur. 
2  Sam.  3  :  3.  He  was  remarkable  for  his 
beauty,  and  for  his  hair,  which  is  said 
to  have  weighed  200  shekels  when  cut 
off  every  year.  But  if  the  royal  shekel 
equal  the  sacred  shekel,  this  would  make 
6  pounds,  which  is  incredible.  The  dif- 
ficulty is  not  removed  by  reducing  the 
value  of  the  shekel  one-half  or  one-third. 

19 


ABS 


ABS 


The  simplest  explanation  is  that  by  the 
error  of  a  copyist  the  200  was  written 
for  20,  the  difference  between  the  figures 
being  very  slight  in  Hebrew  notation. 

Absalom's  fair  sister,  called  Tamar, 
having  been  violated  by  Amnon,  his 
half-brother,  he  meditated  revenge, 
since  he  was  her  natural  avenger  ;  and 
after  brooding  over  the  outrage  for  two 
years,  he  at  last  took  Amnon's  life  at  a 
feast  to  which  he  had  invited  him,  and 
then  at  once  fled  to  Talmai,  his  mater- 
nal grandfather,  at  Geshur,  where  he 
stayed  three  years. 

Joab,  in  order  to  secure  Absalom's 
return  and  restoration  to  his  father's 
favor,  employed  a  woman  of  Tekoa  to 
appear  before  David  and  feign  a  case 
similar  to  the  situation  of  Absalom,  and 
having  obtained  his  decision,  to  apply 
the  principle  to  the  real  case.  After  a 
favorable  decision  was  obtained  in  the 
feigned  case,  the  woman  began  to  plead 
for  Absalom's  return.  The  king  sus- 
pected Joab's  concern  in  the  plot,  and 
the  woman  confessed  that  it  was  wholly 
planned  hj  him.  David,  however,  di- 
rected Joab  to  go  to  Geshur  and  bring 
Absalom  back  to  Jerusalem,  but  would 
not  receive  him  into  favor  nor  admit 
him  to  his  presence,  nor  did  he  see  his 
face  for  two  years  more. 

Wearied  with  his  banishment,  Absa- 
lom often  attempted  to  obtain  an  inter- 
view with  Joab,  but  for  spme  cause  Joab 
was  not  disposed  to  go  to  him.  To 
compel  him  to  come,  Absalom  resorted 
to  a  singular  expedient :  he  directed  his 
servants  to  set  fire  to  Joab's  fields. 
Joab  immediatelj^  came  to  Absalom,  was 
persuaded  to  plead  with  the  king  in  his 
behalf,  succeeded  in  his  effort,  and  Ab- 
salom was  received  into  full  favor. 

Absalom  then  showed  the  object  of 
his  ambition  was  to  obtain  his  father's 
throne.  He  was  jealous  of  the  favor 
his  father  gave  to  Solomon,  Bath-sheba's 
son,  for,  since  he  was  the  oldest  living 
son  of  David,  he  was  by  birth  the  right- 
ful heir  to  the  kingdom.  To  this  end 
he  lived  in  great  pomp,  procured  char- 
iots and  horsemen  and  other  appendages 
of  royalty,  and  stood  in  the  public  places 
courting  the  favor  of  the  people  by  the 
meanest  arts,  persuading  them  that  their 
rights  were  not  regarded  by  the  govern- 
ment, and  that  it  would  be  for  their  in- 
terest to  elevate  him  to  power,  that  equal 
20 


justice  might  be  administered  to  all.  By 
these  and  other  means  Absalom  stole  the 
hearts  of  the  men  of  Israel. 

In  pursuing  his  traitorous  design,  and 
with  a  pretended  regard  to  filial  duty,  he 
asked  his  father's  permission  to  go  to 
Hebron  and  pay  a  vow  which  he  said 
he  had  made.  The  unsuspicious  king 
consented,  and  Absalom  immediately 
sent  men  throughout  Israel,  who  were, 
at  a  given  signal,  to  proclaim  him  king 
in  Hebron.  He  also  took  two  hundred 
men  with  him  from  Jerusalem,  though 
they  did  not  know  his  plan,  and  then 
sent  for  Ahithophel,  who  was  David's 
counsellor,  that  he  might  have  his  ad- 
vice and  assistance.  Absalom's  party 
increased  rapidly,  and  intelligence  of 
the  conspiracy  was  communicated  to 
the  king,  and  so  alarmed  him  that  he 
fled  from  the  city. 

At  length  David  persuaded  Hushai  to 
go  to  Absalom,  who  had  now  come  back 
to  Jerusalem  with  his  party,  and  become 
his  servant,  and  when  opportunity  oc- 
curred to  give  such  counsel  as  should 
defeat  Ahithophel's  plans  and  bring 
confusion  and  discomfiture  upon  Absa- 
lom. By  a  train  of  providential  inter- 
positions Absalom's  ruin  was  hastened. 

Before  David's  men  went  out  to  battle 
with  the  revolted  party,  he  gave  them 
special  charge  respecting  Absalom,  and 
commanded  them  to  deal  gently  with 
him  for  his  father's  sake.  The  two  par- 
ties met  in  the  wood  of  Ephraim,  and 
the  battle  was  bloody.  Absalom  rode 
upon  a  mule,  and  in  passing  under  the 
thick  boughs  of  an  oak  he  was  caught 
by  his  head  in  the  fork  or  angle  of  two 
branches,  and  the  mule  passed  onward, 
leaving  him  suspended  in  the  air.  Joab, 
one  of  David's  chief  captains,  being  in- 
formed of  it,  took  three  darts  and  thrust 
them  through  the  heart  of  Absalom 
while  he  was  yet  alive  in  the  midst  of 
the  oak  ;  and  they  took  his  body  and 
cast  it  into  a  pit  in  the  wood,  and  cov- 
ered it  with  stones. 

ABSALOM'S  PLACE, orPIL- 
LAR,  Avas  in  the  ''  king's  dale,"  or  val- 
ley of  the  Kedron.  2  Sam.  18  :  18. 
"  The  Tomb  of  Absalom,"  now  stand- 
ing east  of  Jerusalem,  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Olivet,  is  supposed  by  the  Jews 
to  be  the  one  erected  by  Absalom  dur- 
ing his  lifetime,  and  is  pelted  by 
them  with  stones,  as  they  pass  by,  in 


ACC 


ACH 


execration  of  his  treason ;  but  the  monu- 
ment betrays  Grajco-Latin  architecture 


Absalom's  Tomb.     (Fro7n  original  Photographs. 
Bonfils.) 

(especially  the   Ionic  columns),  and  is 
not  mentioned  before  A.  i).  333. 

AC'CAD  (fortress),  one  of  the  four 
cities  in  the  kingdom  of  Nimrod.  Gen. 
10:10.  It  was  in  the  land  of  Shinar, 
and  George  Smith  locates  it  at  AyudI, 
on  the  Euphrates,  north  of  Babylon. 
Rawlinson  places  it  at  Aker-Kuf,  10 
miles  west  by  north  of  Bagdad.  Others 
had  regarded  it  as  identical  with  Ctesi- 
2)ho)i. 

AC'CARON,  the  same  as  Ekron. 

ACC  HO  {heated  sand),  a  seaport- 
town  of  Phoenicia,  about  8  miles  north 
of  Mount  Carmel,  given  to  Asher.  Jud. 
1:  31.  In  New  Testament  times  it  was 
called  Ptolemais.  Acts  21 :  7.  It  now 
has  about  6000  inhabitants,  and  is  call- 
ed Acre  (Arabic,  Akkn). 

ACEL'DAMA  (Jield  of  blood),  the 
"potter's  field''  purchased  with  the 
money  given  to  Judas  for  betraying 
Christ.  Matt.  27  :  7 ;  Acts  1  :  18,  19. 
Tradition  locates  it  on  the  southern 
slope  of  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  near  the 
pool  Siloam,  and  now  Hahk  ed  Dnmm. 


ACHA'IA  (trouble),  a  Roman  prov- 
ince in  the  New  Testament  times  nearly 
co-extensive  with  the  modern  kingdom 
of  Greece.  Paul  visited  the  churches  in 
that  region.  Acts  18  :  12,  27  ;  19  :  21  ; 
Rom.  15  :  26  ;  16  :  5  ;  2  Cor.  1:1;  9:2; 
11 :  10  ;  1  Thess.  1 :  7,  8.  For  its  towns 
see  Corinth,  Cenchrea. 

ACHA'ICUS  (belonging to  Achaia), 
a  Christian  mentioned  in  1  Cor.  16:  17. 

A'CHAN,  OR  A'CHAR  (trouhler), 
son  of  Carmi,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
whose  concealment  of  a  part  of  the 
spoils  of  Jericho  in  violation  of  the  di- 
vine command.  Josh.  6  :  18,  brought  de- 
feat upon  his  countrymen  at  Ai.  Josh. 
7:18;  1  Chr.  2:7.  He  was  providen- 
tially convicted,  and  with  his  family  was 
stoned  to  death,  and  his  property,  to- 
gether with  their  remains,  was  burnt. 
The  valley  in  which  this  event  occurred 
was  called  after  him.     See  Achor. 

A'CHAZ,  Matt.  1 :  9,  the  Greek  form 
of  Ahaz. 

ACH'BOR  (mouse).  1.  The  father 
of  Baal-hanan,  king  of  the  Edomites. 
Gen.  36 :  38,  39 ;  1  Chr.  1  :  49. 

2.  An  officer  of  Josiah,  2  Kgs.  22  : 
12,14;  Jer.  26:22;  36:12;  called  Ab- 
don  in  2  Chr.  34:20. 

A^CHIM  (Hebrew  form  is  Jachin, 
a  contraction  of  Jehoiachin,  the  Lord 
will  establish),  an  ancestor  of  Christ. 
Matt.  1 :  14. 

A'CHISH  (serpent-charmer  ?),  a 
king  of  Gath,  called  Abimelech  in  the 
title  of  Ps.  34,  to  whom  David  fled 
twice.  The  first  time,  being  in  danger, 
he  feigned  madness,  whereupon  he  was 
dismissed.  1  Sam.  21  :  10.  The  sec- 
ond time  Achish  received  him  cordial- 
ly because  of  his  supposed  hostility  to 
Saul,  gave  him  Ziklag,  and  took  him  on 
his  campaign  against  Saul,  but  finally 
dismissed  him,  with  commendations  of 
his  fidelity,  because  of  the  mistrust  of 
his  princes.     1  Sam.  27,  29. 

The  Achish  to  whom  Shimei  went 
seeking  for  his  servants  may  have  been 
this  same  king,  but  much  more  prob- 
ably his  grandson,  since  David's  first 
flight  took  place  fifty  years  before.  1 
Kgs.  2:39.  40. 

ACH'METHA,  a  city  of  Media. 
Ezr.  6  :  2.     See  Ecbatana. 

ANCHOR  (trouble),  a  valley  near 
Jericho  where  Achan  was  stoned.  Josh. 
7  :  24.     Probably  the   Wady  Kelt. 

21 


ACH 


ADA 


ACH'SA  (anklet),  daughter  of  Ca- 
leb, the  son  of  Hezron.     1  Chr.  2:49. 

ACH'SAH  {anklet),  the  daughter 
of  Caleb  the  son  of  Jephunneh,  married 
to  Othniel,  her  cousin  or  uncle  (who  took 
Kirjath-sepher  or  Debir),  in  accordance 
with  Caleb's  promise  to  give  her  hand  to 
whomsoever  should  first  smite  the  city. 
Achsah  after  her  marriage  obtained  the 
upper  and  lower  springs,  with  the  fields 
in  which  they  were,  in  addition  to  her 
dowry.  Josh.  15  :  15-19  ;  Jud.  1 :  11-15. 
See  Othniel. 

ACH'SHAPH  (enchantment),  a  city 
of  Canaan,  Josh.  11 : 1  ,•  12  :  20,  allotted  to 
Asher.  Josh.  19:  25.  Some  have  located 
it  at  Khaifa,  near  Mount  Carmel :  Rob- 
inson at  El-Kesaf,  above  the  sources  of 
the  Jordan;  the  Palestine  Fund  "  Me- 
moirs "  give  Kesaf,  as  Khurhet-Iksaf, 
and  accept  Robinson's  suggestion. 

ACH'ZIB  (fahe).  1.  A  town  of 
Asher,  Josh.  19  :  29,  now  ez-Zib,  20 
miles  north  of  Acre,  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean. 

2.  A  city  of  Judah,  Josh.  15  :  44  ;  Mic. 
1  :  14 ;  perhaps  identical  with  Chezib. 
Gen.  38  :  5.  Conder  locates  it  at  the 
modern  Ain  Kezbeh. 

ACRAB'BIM.  Josh.  15:3,  mar- 
gin.    See  Maaleh-acrabbim. 

ACTS  OF  THE  APOS'TLES, 
the  fifth  book  in  the  New  Testament. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  compiled 
by  Luke  the  evangelist  in  Rome,  during 
Paul's  imprisonment  or  shoi'tly  after,  a.d. 
63,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  continua- 
tion of  his  Gospel.  It  contains  the  history 
of  the  Christian  Church  from  Jerusalem 
to  Rome,  or  the  establishment  of  Chris- 
tianity among  the  Jews  by  Peter,  and 
among  the  Gentiles  by  Paul.  It  begins 
with  the  ascension  of  Christ  and  the  out- 
pouring of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  concludes 
with  the  first  imprisonment  of  Paul  in 
Rome,  61  to  63.  It  is  the  first  history 
of  the  Christian  Church,  and  contains 
the  only  trustworthy  account  of  the  mis- 
sionary labors  of  the  apostles. 

The  book  of  Acts  has  been  subjected 
to  very  rigid  and  critical  examination 
in  connection  with  the  apostolic  Epistles, 
and  the  genuineness  of  both  is  proved 
by  coincidences  so  minute  and  yet  so 
undesigned,  so  obvious  and  yet  so  re- 
mote, that  no  unprejudiced  mind  can 
entertain    a   doubt   of    their    truthful- 


ness. 


22 


The  period  of  time  embraced  in  this 
history  is  about  thirty-three  years,  and 
includes  the  reigns  of  the  Roman  em- 
perors Tiberius,  Caligula,  Claudius,  and 
Nero.  See  the  Missionary  Map  at  the 
close  of  the  volume. 

AD'ADAH  (boundary, ox  festival), 
a  town  in  the  south  of  Judah,  Josh.  15  : 

22  ;  probably  either  the  modern  el-Folca 
or  Adaduh. 

A'DAH  (ornament).  1.  One  of  the 
two  wives  of  Lamech  in  the  line  of  Cain. 
Gen.  4:19. 

2.  One  of  Esau's  wives,  a  Hittitess, 
daughter  of  Elon,  Gen.  36  :  2,  4,  etc. : 
called  Bashemath  in  Gen.  26  :  34. 

ADAI'AH  (whom  Jehovah  adorns). 
1.  The  maternal  grandfather  of  King 
Josiah.     2  Kgs.  22  :  1. 

2.  A  Levite.     1  Chr.  6  :  41. 

3.  A  Benjamite.     1  Chr.  8:21. 

4.  A  priest.     1  Chr.  9:12. 

5.  A  descendant  of  Bani  who  had  taken 
a  foreign  wife.     Ezr.  10  :  29. 

6.  Another  descendant  guilty  of  the 
same  oifence.     Ezr.  10  :  39. 

7.  A  man  of  Judah.    Neh.  11 :  5. 

8.  An  ancestor  of  Maaseiah,  a  cap- 
tain who  supported  Jehoiada.      2  Chr. 

23  : 1. 

ADALI'A  (strong  of  heart  ?),  a  son 
of  Haman.     Esth.  9  :  8. 

AD'AM  (red  ear'h),  a  city  in  the 
Jordan  valley  near  Zaretan.  Josh.  3 : 
16.  It  has  been  located  at  ed-Dami- 
eh,  but  Drake  suggests  Khurbet-el- Ham- 
rath,  or  "  the  red  ruin,"  1  mile  south  of 
Tell  Sarem. 

ADAM  (red,  or  earth-horn).  The  word 
is  used  in  the  Bible  in  two  senses : 
1.  Man  generically,  including  woman 
(in  the  English  Version  translated  man). 
Gen.  1 :  26,  27 ;  5:1;  6:1;  Job  20  : 
29:  21:33;  Ps.  68:18;  76:10. 

2.  Man  historically,  or,  as  a  proper 
name,  Adam  individually,  the  first  man, 
who  was  at  the  same  time  the  represent- 
ative man.  Gen.  2:7;  3:8.  Adam  was 
not  born,  but  created ;  not  in  feeble, 
helpless  infancy,  but  in  the  maturity  of 
his  physical  and  intellectual  nature ; 
not  a  sinful,  diseased,  dying  creature, 
but  pure  and  free  from  sin,  yet  liable  to 
temptation  and  in  need  of  trial  in  order 
to  be  confirmed  in  his  innocence.  He 
was  the  crown  of  creation,  made  on  the 
sixth  day,  after  the  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal world.    Adam  was  the  root  of  hu- 


ADA 


ADA 


manity,  and  all  that  affected  him  aflfect- 
ed  his  posterity.  His  sin  tainted  their 
blood  and  poisoned  their  nature  ;  while 
the  Saviour  promised  to  him  was  the 
Saviour  of  all  who  came  after  him.  His 
mortality  in  consequence  of  sin  has  re- 
mained as  a  permanent  fact  in  man  ;  his 
immortality  in  consequence  of  faith 
upon  the  promised  Saviour  will  be 
shared  in  by  all  of  like  belief.  In  him 
God  put  humanity  to  the  test.  If  Adam 
had  kept  his  first  estate,  the  world 
would  never  have  been  darkened  by 
sin  and  guilt. 

Adam  was  also  the  beginning  of  a 
new  order  of  beings.  He  was  of  the 
earth,  earthy — the  earth  is  called  ada- 
mah  in  Hebrew  in  Gen.  2  :  7 — dust  from 
dust,  as  to  his  physical  organization, 
but  into  him  God  had  breathed  a  living 
soul ;  he  was  an  immortal  spirit,  made  in 
the  very  "  image  and  likeness  of  God." 
This  is  the  noblest  conception  of  man. 
The  ''image  of  God"  means  man's  per- 
sonality, his  rational,  moral,  and  im- 
mortal nature,  which  is  destined  for 
the  glory  and  communion  of  God  and 
for  everlasting  felicity.  It  also  includes 
dominion  over  the  creatures. 

God  created  Eve  to  be  a  help  meet 
for  Adam.  He  dreamt  of  woman,  and 
awaked  to  find  her  at  his  side.  .  The 
pair  lived  together  in  happiness  and 
innocence,  the  keepers  of  a  garden 
which  yielded  abundantly  of  fruit  and 
flowers  for  their  nourishment  and  pleas- 
ure. The  fruit  of  one  tree  only,  the 
tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil, 
was  forbidden  to  them.  But  the  pro- 
hibition piqued  their  desire.  Eve  lis- 
tened to  the  specious  arguments  of  Satan, 
who  had  come  to  her  under  the  form  of 
a  serpent ;  "  she  took  of  the  fruit  there- 
of, and  did  eat,  and  gave  also  unto  her 
husband  with  her;  and  he  did  eat."  Gen. 
3:6;  comp.  2  Cor.  11 :  3 ;  1  Tim.  2  :  14 ; 
John  8  :  44. 

In  this  simple  language  does  the 
Bible  describe  the  most  momentous 
event  in  history  previous  to  the  birth 
of  Christ.  For  then  happened  the  Fall ; 
sin  was  let  loose  to  ravage  the  world ;  a 
blight  had  fallen  upon  the  race.  The 
first  proof  of  sin  was  shame.  The 
wretched  folly  of  all  attempts  to  cover 
sin  is  symbolized  by  the  fig-leaf  aprons 
of  our  first  parents :  they  were  no  cov- 
erings at  all.     The  second  proof  of  sin 


was  their  fear  before  God.  They  stood 
condemned,  and  owned  his  dreadful 
sentence  just.  They  were  banished 
from  Paradise.  The  ground  was  cursed 
for  their  sake.  In  the  hardship  of  toil 
and  labor,  in  the  care  and  suffering  of 
childbirth  and  parentage,  they  began  to 
feel  at  once  the  woes  their  transgression 
involved.  All  the  burdens  of  life,  the 
heavy  cross,  sickness,  disaster,  trouble, 
death,  come  from  the  action  of  that  fa- 
tal day.  They  are  the  dread  remind- 
ers of  our  fallen  state.  Our  first  pa- 
rents involved  all  their  posterity  in  that 
ruin  they  first  experienced. 

But  in  the  narrative  of  the  Fall  there 
stands  also  the  promise  of  a  deliverer, 
the  woman's  seed  (the  son  of  Mary), 
who  should  crush  the  serpent's  head — 
that  is,  destroy  the  power  of  sin  and 
Satan.  Gen.  3  :  15.  This  promise, 
which  is  called  the  "  first  gospel,"  was 
fulfilled  in  the  Crucifixion.  Christ  is 
the  second  Adam,  as  Paul  shows  in  Rom. 
5  :  12  fif.  and  1  Cor.  15  :  45.  He  undid 
the  work  of  the  first.  He  abolished  the 
power  of  sin  and  death  for  believers,  and 
brought  life  and  immortality  to  light 
through  the  gospel.  2  Tim.  1 :  10.  The 
redemption  by  Christ  is  the  glorious 
solution  of  the  fall  of  Adam.  Christ 
has  given  us  much  more  than  we  lost 
by  Adam.  Paradise  regained  is  better 
than  Paradise  lost,  and  can  never  be 
lost  again.  God  in  his  infinite  wisdom 
and  mercy  overruled  the  fall  of  man 
for  the  revelation  of  his  redeeming  love, 
which  in  turn  calls  out  the  deepest  grat- 
itude and  bliss  of  the  redeemed. 

"  In  Christ  the  tribe  of  Adam  boast 
More  blessings  tdan  their  father  lost." 

AD'AMAH  (earth),  a  fortified  city 
of  Naphtali,  Josh.  19  :  36 ;  probably 
Ddmieh,  west  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

AD'AMANT.  Eze.  3  :  9.  This 
word  means  the  %inconquerable,  and  de- 
notes some  very  hard  stone.  The  same 
substance  in  Jer.  17  :  1  is  called  dln- 
niond,  which  it  cannot  be,  for  the  He- 
brew name  there  used  is  never  men- 
tioned with  precious  stones.  Probably 
it  was  the  mineral  emery,  one  of  the 
hardest  of  rocks. 

AD'AMI  (earth,  or  huniati),  a  place 
on  the  border  of  Naphtali,  Josh.  19  :  33  ; 
probably  the  modern  Khurhct  Admah. 

A'DAR  (heif/ht),  a  town  on  the 
southern     boundary    of   Judah,    Josh. 

23 


ADA 


ADM 


15  :  3,  and  the  same  as  Hazar-addar, 
Num.  34:4;  possibly  the  modern  Ain 
el-Kadeirat. 

A'DAR.     See  Month. 

AD'ASA,  OR  HAD'ASHAH,  a 
town  in  Judah,  Josh.  15  :  37,  near  Beth- 
horon  ;  now  'Adaseh. 

AD''BEEIj  {miracle  of  God),  a  son 
of  Ishmael.    Gen.  25  :  1 3  ;  1  Chr.  1 :  29. 

AD'DAN  {8to),i/).  Ezr.'  2  :  59  ;  called 
also  Addon.  Neh.  7  :  61.  Its  site  is 
unknown. 

AD'DAR  (ehief),  a  son  of  Bela,  1 
Chr.  8:3;  called  Ard  in  Num.  26  :  40. 

AD'DER.  The  word  translated 
thus  in  various  passages  of  the  Bible 
does  not  always  mean  what  the  English 
word  denotes.  1.  In  Gen.  49  :  17  it  in- 
dicates a  venomous  serpent  (jierhaps  the 
cerastes,  or  horned  snake)  which  lurks  in 
the  path.     The  usual  habit  of  the  ceras- 


Horned  Cerastes.     (Pi'om  specimen  in  British  Museum.) 

tes  is  "to  coil  itself  on  the  sand,  where 
it  basks  in  the  impress  of  a  camel's  foot- 
mark, and  thence  suddenly  to  dart  out 
on  any  passing  animal.  So  great  is  the 
terror  which  its  sight  inspires  in  horses, 
that  I  have  known  mine,  when  I  was  rid- 
ing in  the  Sahara,  to  suddenly  start  and 
rear,  trembling  and  perspiring  in  every 
limb,  and  no  persuasions  would  in- 
duce him  to  proceed.  I  was  quite  un- 
able to  account  for  his  terror  until  I 
noticed  a  cerastes  coiled  up  in  a  depres- 
sion two  or  three  paces  in  front,  with  its 
basilisk  eyes  steadily  fixed  on  us,  and 
no  doubt  preparing  for  a  spring  as  the 
horse  passed." — Tristram. 

2.  In  Ps.  58  :  4  and  91 :  13  the  Egyp- 
tian cobra  is  probably  meant,  for  it  is 
found  in  southern  Palestine,  dwells  in 
holes,  is  used  by  snake-charmers,  and  is 
very  dangerous.  This  is  the  animal 
24 


seen  on  Egyptian  monuments,  symbol- 
izing immortality,  and  always  connected 
with  the  winged  globe.  In  the  former 
passage  above,  there  is  reference  to  the 
fact  that  there  are  serpents  of  some 
kinds  or  particular  individuals  which 
will  not  yield  to  the  charmer.  Though 
capable  of  hearing,  they  iP<7/ not  hear,  and 
are  properly  termed  "  deaf."     See  Asp. 

3.  Still  other  kinds  of  serpents  are 
referred  to  under  this  name  in  Ps.  140  : 
3  ;  Prov.  23  :  32 — species  of  viper,  it  is 
thought. 

AD'DI  {ornament),  one  of  the  pro- 
genitors of  Christ.     Luke  3  :  28. 

A'DER  {Jiock),  a  Benjamite.  1  Chr. 
8:15. 

AD'IDA,  a  fortified  town  overlook- 
ing the  low  country  of  Judah  and  near 
Jerusalem,  noticed  in  1   Mace.  12  :  38, 
and  used  by  Vespasian  in  his  siege  of 
Jerusalem  ;  probably  the  same  as 
Hadid.     Ezr.  2  :  33.     Conder  lo- 
cates it  at  the  modern  Haditheh. 

A'DIEL  {ornament  of  God). 
1.  A  Simeonite.     1  Chr.  4  :  36. 

2.  A  priest.     1  Chr.  9  :  12. 

3.  The  ancestor  of  David's 
treasurer,  Azmaveth.  1  Chr.  27  : 
25. 

A'DIN  {delicate),  one  whose 
descendants  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel.  Ezr.  2:15;  8:6;  Neh.  7  : 
20;  10:16. 

AD'INA  {slender),  a  Reuben- 
ite,  one  of  David's  warriors.      1 
Chr.  11 :  42. 
AD'INO  THE  EZNITE.  2  Sam. 
23  :  8.     See  Jashobeam. 

ADITHA'IM  {double  booty),  Ato\vn 
of  Judah,  Josh.  15  :  36  ;  afterward  called 
Hadid,  which  see. 

ADJURE'.  1.  To  bind  under  a 
curse.    Josh.  6  :  26. 

2.  Solemnly  to  require  a  declaration 
of  the  truth  at  the  peril  of  God's  dis- 
pleasure. Matt.  26  :  63.  Such  is  the  in- 
terpretation of  the  language  of  the  high 
priest,  "I  adjure  thee,"  etc.,  or,  *' I  put 
thee  to  thy  oath,"  addressed  to  our  Sa- 
viour when  he  declined  to  answer  the 
false  accusations  of  his  persecutors. 
Compare  1  Sam.  14:  24  and  1  Kgs.  22  : 
16  with  Josh.  6:26. 

AD'LiAI  {Justice  of  Jehovah),  the 
father  of  one  of  David's  chief  herdsmen. 
1  Chr.  27:29. 

AD'MAH  {earth,  or  fortress),  one  of 


ADM 


ADO 


the  five  cities  in  the  vale  of  Siddim 
taken  by  Ohedorlaomer,  Gen.  10  :  19  ; 
14  :  2.  and  destroyed  with  Sodom.  Deut. 
29  :  23  ;   Hos.  11 :  8;  now  cd  JJdinieh. 

AD'MATHA  {earthy  ?),  one  of 
the  seven  Persian  princes.     Esth.  1  :  14. 

AD'NA  [pleasure).  1.  One  who 
married  a  foreign  woman,     Ezr.  10  :  30. 

2.  A  prieL^t.    Neh.  12:  15. 

AD'NAH  (pleasure).  1.  A  Manassite 
captain  of  Saul  who  followed  David. 
1  Chr.  12  :  20. 

2.  A  captain  of  Jehoshaphat.  2  Chr. 
17  :U. 

ADON  I-BE'ZEK.  Jud.  1  :  5. 
Lord  or  king  of  Bezek,  a  city  of  the 
Canaanites.  See  Bezek.  His  name 
was  a  title,  not  a  proper  name.  He 
fled  from  the  armies  of  Judah,  but  was 
caught  and  his  thumbs  and  great  toes 
cut  off,  so  that  he  could  neither  fight 
nor  flee.  He  was  then  carried  to  Jeru- 
salem, where  he  died.  He  seems  to 
have  regarded  the  maiming  he  suffered 
as  a  just  requital  of  his  own  cruelty,  he 
having  mutilated  seventy  kings  or  chief- 
tains in  the  same  inhuman  manner. 

ADONI'JAH  {»,y  Lord  is  Jehovah). 
1.  David's  fourth  son.  2  Sam.  3  :  4.  He 
was  born  at  Hebron,  and  after  the  death 
of  his  brothers,  Amnon,  Chileab,  and  Ab- 
salom, he  made  pretensions  to  the  throne 
of  his  father,  because  he  was  then  the 
oldest  living  son  of  David.  He  prepared 
himself  with  horses  and  chariots  and 
other  marks  of  royalty,  and  took  counsel 
with  Joab  and  Abiathar  how  he  could 
best  accomplish  his  purpose.  Bath- 
sheba,  Solomon's  mother,  fearing  that 
her  son's  title  to  the  throne  might  be  dis- 
turbed, immediately  informed  the  king 
of  Adonijah's  revolt;  and  Nathan  the 
prophet  having  confirmed  the  statement 
of  the  matter,  David  gave  Bath-sheba  the 
strongest  assurances  that  her  son  should 
reign  after  him  ;  and  he  caused  Solomon 
to  be  anointed  and  proclaimed  king  amid 
general  rejoicings.     1  Kgs.  1  :  39. 

Adonijah  was  just  ending  a  feast  when 
he  heard  the  noise  of  the  shouting,  and 
Jonathan  came  in  and  told  him  all  that 
had  taken  place.  His  guests  fled  pre- 
cipitately, and  Adonijah  himself  ran 
and  caught  hold  of  the  horns  of  the 
altar,  which  from  long-existent  custom 
was  regarded  as  a  place  of  safety.  But 
Solomon  sent  for  him,  and  pardoned  him 
on  condition  that  he  showed  himself  "  a 


worthy  man."     1  Kgs.  1 :  52.     This  was 
an  act  of  rare  clemency. 

After  David's  death,  Adonijah  per- 
suaded Bath-sheba  to  ask  Solomon,  her 
son,  who  was  now  on  the  throne,  to  give 
him  Abishag  for  his  wife.  This  request 
was,  according  to  Oriental  court-eti- 
quette, equivalent  to  a  fresh  attempt  on 
the  throne.  So  Solomon  caused  him  to 
be  put  to  death  by  the  hand  of  Benaiah. 
1  Kgs.  2:25. 

2.  A  Levite  in  Jehoshaphat's  time.  2 
Chr.  17  : 8. 

3.  One  who  sealed  the  covenant.  Neh. 
10:16. 

ADON'IKAM  (lord  of  the  enemij), 
one  whose  descendants  came  back  with 
Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  2:  13;  8  :  13;  Neh. 
7:18. 

ADONI'RAM.     See  Adoram. 

ADON'I-ZE'DEK  (lord  of  jus- 
tice), the  Amorite  king  of  Jerusalem  at 
the  time  the  country  was  entered  by  the 
Israelites.  Josh.  10: 1.  The  name  was 
probably  the  oflicial  title  of  the  Jebusite 
kings  of  Jerusalem.  Hearing  of  Josh- 
ua's victories  over  Ai  and  Jericho,  and 
finding  that  the  inhabitants  of  Gibeon, 
one  of  the  most  important  cities  of  the 
kingdom,  had  made  a  league  with  him, 
he  called  four  other  kings  of  the  Am- 
monites to  his  aid  and  laid  siege  to 
Gibeon,  with  a  view  to  destroy  it  as  a 
punishment  for  their  conduct. 

But  Joshua  came  to  the  assistance  of 
the  Gibeonites  ;  hailstones  fell  upon  the 
armies  of  the  five  kings,  and  after  a 
hard  battle  they  were  overthrown.  See 
Joshua. 

Adoni-zedek,  with  his  allies,  fled  to  a 
cave  at  Makkedah,  in  which  they  were 
soon  discovered  and  brought  before 
Joshua,  who  caused  them  to  be  slain 
and  hanged  on  separate  trees  until  even- 
ing, and  then  their  bodies  were  taken 
down  and  cast  into  the  cave  in  which 
they  had  concealed  themselves.  Josh. 
10:27. 

ADOP'TION  is  an  act  by  which  a 
stranger  is  received  into  a  man's  family 
as  his  own  child,  and  becomes  entitled 
to  the  peculiar  privileges  of  that  con- 
nection as  fully  and  completely  as  a 
child  by  birth.  So  Moses  was  adojited 
by  Pharaoh's  daughter,  Ex.  2:  10,  and 
Esther  by  her  cousin  Mordecai.  Esth. 
2:7. 

In  the  figurative  use  of  the  term  by 

25 


ADO 


ADU 


the  sacred  writers  it  indicates  that  in- 
timate relation  of  the  believer  to  God 
which  follows  regeneration  and  conver- 
sion from  sin  to  holiness,  when  we  are 
received  into  the  family  of  God  and 
are  made,  by  grace,  his  children  or 
sons,  and  heirs  of  God  and  joint-heirs 
with  Christ.  Gal.  4  :  4,  5  ;  Rom.  8  :  14-17. 

ADORA'IM  {doable  mound),  a  city 
of  Judah  fortified  by  Rehoboam,  2  Chr. 
11 :  9 ;  supposed  to  be  the  modern  Dura, 
about  6  miles  west  of  Hebron. 

ADO'RAM,  contr.  from  ADON- 
I'RAM  {lord  of  height).  J.  An  officer  of 
the  customs  under  David.  2  Sam.  20  :  24. 

2.  An  officer  of  Rehoboam's  treasury 
(perhaps  the  son  of  the  former),  who  was 
stoned  to  death  by  the  people  of  Israel 
who  followed  Jeroboam.  1  Kgs.  12  :  18. 
Some  suppose  him  to  have  been  the 
same  with  Adoniram,  1  Kgs.  5 :  14,  who 
was  over  the  customs  in  Solomon's  reign, 
and  that  the  people  were  so  indignant  at 
the  oppression  they  had  suffered  through 
his  agency  that  they  took  this  method 
of  revenge. 

ADORA'TION.  The  word  means 
to  2i>'(fiJ  ^'^j  ^iid  is  properly  applied  to  the 
worship  of  God.  Among  the  Hebrews 
adoration  by  outward  act  was  variously 
performed.  We  gather  from  different 
Scripture  passages  that  it  consisted  in 
putting  off  the  shoes,  bowing  the  knee 
or  the  head,  or  in  slowly  prostrating  the 
body  by  first  falling  on  the  knees  and  then 
bending  the  body  until  the  head  touched 
the  ground.  But  these  forms  of  adora- 
tion were  not  limited  to  the  worship  of 
Jehovah.  The  Eastern  mode  of  saluta- 
tion is  very  obsequious,  and  so  between 
an  inferior  and  a  superior  the  same  cer- 
emonies would  be  performed,  and  also 
between  equals.  Similar  was  their  con- 
duct in  the  worship  of  idols  '.vhen  seek- 
ing the  good-will  of  one  whom  they  had 
offended.  Kissing  the  hand  of  an  idol 
was  a  common  mode  of  adoration. 
These  acts  were  often  repeated  more 
than  once.  In  the  New  Testament  we 
read  that  our  Lord  was  treated  with 
these  outward  signs  of  respect  and  rev- 
erence. So,  too,  in  the  case  of  Peter, 
to  whom  Cornelius  prostrated  himself. 
See  AVoRSHip. 

ADRAM^MELECH  {Icing  of/ire). 
1.  An  idol-god  of  Sepharvaim,  sup- 
posed to  represent  the  sun,  while  an- 
other idol,  called  Anammelech,  repre- 
26 


sented  the  moon.  2  Kgs.  17  :  31.  Sac- 
rifices of  living  children  were  made  to 
these  idols,  as  to  Moloch. 


Adrammelech.     {Fron  Nimrud.     After  Layard.) 


2.  A  son  of  Sennacherib,  king  of  As- 
syria. Isa.  37  :  38.  He  and  his  brother, 
Sharezer,  killed  their  father  while  he 
was  in  the  act  of  idolatry.  Their  mo- 
tive for  this  parricidal  deed  is  not 
known.  They  both  fled  to  Armenia, 
and  Esar-haddon  succeeded  to  the  crown. 

ADRAMYT^TIUM,  named  from 
Adramys,  bi'other  of  Croesus,  a  seaport- 
town  of  Mysia,  Acts  27  :  2-5,  on  a  bay 
of  the  ^gean  Sea  north  of  Smyrna.  It 
is  now  a  poor  village  known  as  Advamyti. 

A'DRIA.  Acts  27:  27.  The  northern 
part  of  the  Ionian  Sea  between  Greece, 
Italy,  and  Sicilv. 

A'DRIEL.'    See  Merab. 

ADUIj'IjAM  {justice  of  the  jjeojile, 
or  hidiug-  or  resting-place),  a  cave  not 
far  from  Bethlehem  in  which  David  hid. 

I  Sara.  22  : 1 ;  2  Sam.  23  :  13  ;  1  Chron. 

II  :  15.       Tradition    has   located    it   in 
Wady    Khureitun,    east    of    Bethlehem. 

The  cave  is  said  to  be  well  fitted  for  a 
robbers'  hold,  being  dry  and  airy  and 
full  of  intricate  passages.  The  greatest 
length  of  this  cave  is  550  feet.  Lieut. 
Conder,  however,  places  the  cave  of 
Adullam  in  the  valley  of  Elah,  not  far 
from  the  city  of  Adullam,  about  13 
miles  west  from  Bethlehem.  Near  it 
are  numerous  caverns,  each  as  large  as 
an  ordinary  cottage,  which  would  give 
room   for   David    and   his    band.      He 


ADU 


AGA 


states  that  the  great  caverns  at  Beit  Jih- 
rin,  which  some  have  regarded  as  the 
cave  of  AduUam,  are  damp,  cold,  and 
full  of  bats  and  creeping  things,  and 
carefully  avoided  by  the  cave-dwelling 
peasants,  while  the  smaller  caves  north 
and  west  of  Adullam  are  almost  constant- 
ly in  use,  and  are  from  their  position 
strong  and  defensible.  A  row  of  these 
caves  has  been  found  north  and  west  of 
the  city  of  Adullam  capable  of  holding 
200  to  300  men.  M.  Ganneau  lirst  sug- 
gested this  location  in  1872,  from  the 
resemblance  of  the  modern  name  Aid  el- 
Ma,  and  it  seems  to  answer  the  require- 
ments of  the  Scripture  narrative. 

ADUL'LAM,  a  royal  city  of  the 
Canaanites  allotted  to  Judah,  Gen.  38 : 
1 ;  Josh,  12  :  15  ;  15  :  35  ;  fortified  by 
Rehoboam,  2  Chr.  11  :  7  j  repeopled 
by  the  Jews  after  the  Captivity,  Neh. 
11 :  30.  See  also  Mic.  1 :  15.  Ganneau 
and  Conder  locate  it  in  Wady  es-Sutit, 
about  2J  miles  south  of  Socoh  or  Sho- 
coh,  where  they  found  heaps  of  stones 
and  ruined  walls,  called  Aid  el-Ma. 

ADUL'TERY,  the  crime  forbid- 
den in  the  seventh  commandment.  Ac- 
cording to  Jewish  law,  it  is  the  unlawful 
intercourse  of  a  man,  whether  married 
or  not,  with  a  married  or  betrothed 
woman  not  his  wife.  The  crime  was 
punished  in  patriarchal  times,  if  Tamar's 
be  a  specimen  case,  by  burning.  Gen. 
38  :  24,  or  at  least  capitally.  Under  the 
Mosaic  law  in  the  case  of  the  free 
woman  both  offenders  were  stoned. 
But  a  bondwoman  thus  guilty  was  to 
be  scourged,  and  the  man  must  make  a 
trespass-offering.  Lev.  19  :  20,  22.  The  so- 
called  "  water  of  jealousy,"  by  which  the 
guilt  of  the  accused  woman  was  proven  or 
refuted,  was  simply  some  "  holy  water," 
or  that  from  the  laver  which  stood  near 
the  altar  in  an  earthen  vessel,  into  which 
dust  from  the  floor  of  the  tabernacle 
was  sprinkled.  This  mixture  was  given 
to  the  woman,  who  was  solemnly  charged 
by  the  priest  with  an  oath  of  cursing. 
If  she  was  guilty,  then  by  divine  inter- 
position— for  it  contained  nothing  in- 
jurious— this  test  proved  her  guilt. 
If  innocent  no  effect  was  produced. 
The  accuser  in  these  cases  was  the  hus- 
band. Num.  5  :  11-31.  There  is  no  case 
of  the  use  of  this  test  in  Scripture. 
Adultery  is  the  only  ground  of  divorce 
recognized  by  our  Lord.  Matt.  5 :  32. 


Adultery  is  used  in  the  Bible  in  a 
spiritual  sense  to  denote  the  unfaithful- 
ness and  apostasy  of  the  Jews,  because 
the  union  between  God  and  his  people 
was  set  forth  as  a  marriage.  In  the 
N.  T.  "  an  adulterous  generation " 
means  a  faithless  and  God-denying 
people. 

ADUM'MIM  {red  ones),  an  ascent 
or  steep  pass.  Josh.  15 :  7,  on  the  road 
from  Jericho  to  Jerusalem,  upon  the 
south  side  of  the  Wady  Kelt,  ''  over 
against  Geliloth  "  or  Gilgal.  Josh.  18 : 
17.  Our  Lord  probably  refers  to  this 
dangerous  pass.  Luke  10  :  30-36;  now 
Talat   ed  Dunnn. 

AD^VOCATE,  OR  PAR'A- 
CLETE.  1  John  2  :  1.  One  who 
pleads  another's  cause,  a  counsellor, 
an  intercessor.  It  is  the  term  used  by 
Christ  to  describe  the  oflice  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  John  14:16;  15:26;  16:7,  but 
translated  in  A.  V.  "  Comforter."  It  is 
also  applied  to  Christ  as  our  intercessor. 
1  John  2:1.  The  forensic  office  of 
advocate  was  unknown  among  the  Jews 
before  their  subjection  to  the  Romans; 
then  they  were  obliged  to  conduct  their 
trials  before  the  Roman  magistrates 
after  the  Roman  manner.  Their  ignor- 
ance of  their  conquerors'  law  compelled 
them  to  employ  udvocaten  or  lawyers 
speaking  Greek  and  Latin.  Such  an 
advocate  was  Tertullus,  whom  the  Jews 
hired  to  accuse  Paul  before  Felix.  Acts 
24:1.     See  Trial. 

^'NEAS,  OR  ENE'AS,  the  para- 
lytic at  Lydda  healed  by  Peter.  Acts 
9 :  33,  34. 

iE'NON.     See  Enon. 

AFFIN'ITY.  1  Kgs.  3  :  1.  Re- 
lation by  marriage,  in  contradistinction 
from  consanguinity,  which  is  relation 
by  birth.  The  degrees  of  affinity  which 
should  prevent  marriage  under  the  Mo- 
saic law  may  be  found  in  Lev.  18  :  6-17. 
See  Marriage. 

AG'ABUS  (possibly  locust),  a 
prophet  who  foretold  in  Antioch  while 
Paul  and  Barnabas  were  there,  A.  i). 
43.  Acts  11:  28.  A  famine  took  place  the 
following  year.  It  was  probably  limit- 
ed to  Judaea,  where  it  was  severe.  The 
poor  Jews  were  relieved  by  Helena,  the 
queen  of  Adiabene,  who  bought  corn 
for  them  out  of  Alexandria.  Aid  was 
sent  to  the  Christians  in  Jerusalem  from 
Antioch.  Acts  11 :  29.    Many  years  after, 

27 


AGA 


AGR 


Agabus  met  Paul  at  Cesarea,  and  warned 
him  of  the  suflferings  he  would  endure 
if  he  went  to  Jerusalem.  Acts  21 :  10. 

A'GAG  (flame)  was  probably  the 
title  of  the  Amalekite  kings,  like  Pha- 
raoh of  the  Egyptian  rulers.  Two  kings 
of  this  name  are  mentioned  in  Scripture. 

1.  In  Num.  24  :  7,  the  way  in  which 
this  Agag  is  referred  to  indicates  that 
he  was  very  jjowerful,  above  all  other 
kings  known  to  Balaam. 

2.  An  Agag  who  was  captured  by  Saul, 
but  was  spared,  contrary  to  the  express 
prohibition  of  Jehovah.  He  was  after- 
ward brought  to  Samuel,  who  hewed 
him  in  pieces.  This  act  was  not  only 
the  execution  of  the  divine  order,  but 
it  would  seem  an  act  of  retributive  jus- 
tice as  well,  since  Agag  is  charged  with 
infamous  cruelty.     1  Sam.  15:  8,  33, 

A'GAGITE.  Haman  is  called  an 
Agagite,  perhaps  because  of  his  ancestry. 
Esth.  3:1. 

A'GAR.  See  Hagar. 
•  AG'ATE.  Ex.  39  :  12.  A  precious 
stone,  variegated  chalcedony,  translu- 
cent or  opaque.  It  is  often  banded 
in  delicate  parallel  lines,  waving  or 
zigzag  in  their  course,  and  of  white, 
tendon-like,  wax-like,  pale  and  dark 
brown,  black  or  sometimes  bluish  colors. 
It  is  sometimes  clouded,  and  at  other 
times  presents  a  group  of  figures  dis- 
posed with  so  much  regularity  as  to 
seem  like  a  work  of  art,  showing  trees, 
plants,  rivers,  clouds,  buildings,  and 
human  beings.  The  name  is  supposed 
by  some  to  be  derived  from  the  river 
Achates,  in  Sicily,  Avhere  the  stone  was 
fox'merly  found  in  great  abundance. 
The  agate  of  Isa.  54:12  and  Eze.  27  : 
16  (a  different  Hebrew  word)  was  doubt- 
less the  riibi/.  The  agate  was  the  second 
stone  in  the  third  row  of  the  high  priest's 
breastplate.     Ex.  28  :  19. 

AG'EE  (fugitive),  the  father  of  one 
of  David's  might.y  men.    2  Sam.  23  :  11. 

AG'RICULTURE.  In  its  special 
sense,  and  as  here  employed,  the  term 
denotes  the  cultivation  of  grain  and 
other  field  crops.  In  a  broader  mean- 
ing, the  threefold  business  of  many  ag- 
riculturists includes,  besides  such  culti- 
vation, the  keeping  of  flocks  and  herds, 
and  horticulture. 

History. — To  dress  and  keep  the  gar- 
den of  Eden  was-the  happy  employment 
given   to    man    at   his   creation.     After 
28 


the  Fall,  Adam  was  driven  forth  to  till  the 
ground  as  the  first  farmer.  This  was 
also  the  employment  of  Cain,  but  Abel 
was  a  keeper  of  sheep.  After  the  Flood, 
"  Noah  began  to  be  an  husbandman,  and 
he  planted  a  vineyard."  The  patriarchs 
and  their  descendants,  till  their  settle- 
ment in  Palestine,  gave  little  attention 
to  agriculture.  Joseph's  words  compre- 
hensively describe  their  occupation : 
"The  men  are  shepherds,  for  their  trade 
hath  been  to  feed  cattle."  With  the  pos- 
session of  the  cultivated  lands  of  the  Ca- 
naanites,  the  Hebrews  adopted  a  more 
strictly  agricultural  life,  and,  in  general, 
the  methods  of  farming  of  those  whom 
they  conquered.  Pastoral  employments 
were,  however,  never  wholly  abandoned. 
The  tribes  east  of  the  Jordan  were 
possessed  of  "  a  very  great  multitude 
of  cattle,"  and  in  Judaea  and  all  the 
more  hilly  districts  shepherds  always 
abounded. 

Soil. — Palestine  is  divided  agricultu- 
rally, and  as  to  all  its  physical  condi- 
tions, into  four  districts  :  1.  The  mari- 
time plains,  including  the  rich  coast- 
lands  of  Gaza,  Sharon,  etc.,  with  a  mild 
and  equable  climate,  under  which  even 
the  orange  and  banana  flourish.  2.  The 
valley  of  the  Jordan,  reaching  from  the 
waters  of  Merom  to  the  southern  end 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  having  a  tropical  tem- 
perature. 3.  The  hill-country  between 
these  divisions  eastward  of  Carmel,  bi- 
sected by  the  rich  plain  of  Jezreel,  and 
bosoming  many  fertile  vales,  such  as 
those  of  Nazareth,  Shechem,  Samaria, 
Hebron,  but  often  rising,  especially 
southward,  into  bleak  moors  and  high- 
lands, where  snow  sometimes  falls  in 
winter.  4.  Perasa,  the  rolling  and  often 
mountainous  plateau  east  of  the  Jordan 
valley,  not  very  different  in  climate  from 
the  last  division,  but  in  soil  more  fertile. 
In  this  last  region  Dr.  Merrill  reports 
the  tillable  area  of  the  Hauran  (ancient 
Bashan)  to  be  150  by  40  miles  in  extent, 
and  one  vast  natural  wheat-field.  Here 
he  has  "seen  a  peasant  plough  a  furrow 
as  straight  as  a  line,  one  and  even  two 
miles  long."  In  Argob  and  Trachonitis 
he  saw  one  of  the  largest  lava-beds  in  the 
world,  covering  400  or  500  square  miles, 
and  the  source  of  inexhaustible  fertilit}^ 
Of  Palestine  west  of  the  Jordan,  which 
is  less  in  extent  than  the  State  of  Ver- 
mont, Captain  Warren  says:  "The  soil 


AGR 


AGR 


is  so  rich,  the  climate  so  varied,  that 
within  ordinary  limits  it  may  be  said 
that  the  more  people  it  contained  the 
more  it  may.  Its  productiveness  will 
increase  in  proportion  to  the  labor  be- 
stowed on  the  soil,  until  a  population  of 
fifteen  millions  may  be  accommodated 
there."  By  others  we  are  told  that  the 
very  sand  of  the  shore  is  fertile  if  wa- 
tered. The  soil  of  Palestine  is  enriched 
by  the  disintegration  of  the  rocks,  which 
are  commonly  limestone,  often  quite 
chalky. 

Seanons. — Of  these  there  are  practi- 
cally but  two — the  rainy  and  the  dry — 
nearly  divided  from  each  other  by  the 
vernal  and  autumnal  equinoxes.  The 
showers  begin  to  fall  in  November,  at 
the  latest,  and  the  rains  of  the  winter 
months,  except  it  be  February,  are 
heavy.  These  are  "the  former  rain" 
of  Scripture,  which  rarely  fails,  while 
"the  latter  rain"  of  March  and  early 
April  is  more  uncertain ;  and  as  the 
filling  of  the  ears  of  grain  depends  upon 
it,  this  "  latter  rain  "  is  eagerly  expected. 
Job  29  :  23  ;  Zech.  10  :  1.  Storms  in 
Palestine  are  ordinarily  brought  by  the 
west  or  south-west  wind.  l»Kgs.  18  : 
44;  Luke  12:  54. 

Without  question,  this  country  was  in 
Bible  times  better  supplied  with  forests 
and  orchards  than  now,  and  its  climate 
was  more  humid  and  equable.  The 
hills  were  generally  terraced  and  pro- 
vided with  reservoirs,  as  abundant  ruins 
testify,  and  the  sudden  torrents,  which 
now  wash  away  what  little  soil  they 
find,  were,  by  these  means  and  others, 
dispersed  and  absorbed  by  the  ground. 
Many  of  the  most  rugged  districts  were 
covered  with  vineyards  and  olive-or- 
chards, so  that  Deut.  8  :  7-9  is  but  a  lit- 
eral description  of  what  the  land  once 
was,  and,  in  particular  localities,  still 
remains.  Unlimited  extortion,  in  ad- 
dition to  heavy  taxes  upon  every  crop 
and  every  tree,  even  to  the  oak  upon  the 
hills,  the  unrestrained  pillage  of  the  har- 
vests by  Bedouins,  with  other  causes,  are 
fast  abandoning  this  fertile  land  to  de- 
nudation, drought,  and  the  desert. 

Calendar  of  Labor. — There  have  been 
few  changes  in  the  art  or  instruments  of 
agriculture  in  Western  Asia  since  ancient 
times.  The  present  tense  may  therefore 
ordinarily  be  used  for  the  past.  Plough- 
ing and   sowing  grain  begin  with  the 


rainy  season,  and,  as  the  ground  does 
not  freeze,  continue,  when  the  weather 
permits,  till  March.  Then  are  sown  the 
podded  and  garden  plants,  the  melons, 
and  all  the  crops  which  demand  a  warm- 
er soil.  Barley-harvest  quickly  follows 
the  cessation  of  the  latter  rain,  and  then 
wheat-harvest.  The  remaining  crojis 
having  one  after  another  been  brought 
to  perfection  and  gathered,  the  droughts 
of  summer  now  end  most  agricultural 
operations  till  the  ingathering  of  the 
fig,  the  olive,  and  the  grape  in  August 
and  Se])tember.  Occasionally,  during  the 
busy  season,  the  husbandman  tents  upon 
the  land  he  cultivates.  Ordinarily,  his 
home  is  in  some  village  or  walled  town, 
perhaps  miles  away  from  his  farm.  In 
the  early  morning  he  walks  or  rides  to 
his  labor,  the  patient  ass  or  the  camel 
bearing  his  light  ploughs  and  other  im- 
plements. Thus  in  the  parable  the 
"  sower  went  forth  to  sow."  So  varied 
is  the  character  of  the  soil  and  climate 
within  short  ranges  as  often  greatly  to 
prolong  the  season  of  planting  and  har- 
vesting. Grain  frequently  requires  re- 
planting or  replacing  with  other  crops. 
Where  there  are  permanent  streams  or 
opportunities  for  irrigation,  sowing  fol- 
lows harvest,  crop  succeeds  crop  through 
the  entire  year,  and  the  promises  of  Lev. 
26  :  5  and  Am.  9  :  13  are  verified. 

Crops. — In  this  fertile  soil,  with  an 
almost  unparalleled  variety  of  climate 
and  exposure,  between  such  points  as 
Jericho,  Hermon,  and  Gaza,  there  is  op- 
portunity for  the  cultivation  of  nearly 
all  plants  either  of  the  torrid  or  tempe- 
rate zones ;  and  we  find  in  the  Bible,  for 
such  a  book,  a  very  extended  botanic 
list.  The  variety  of  cultivated  species 
was,  however,  much  less  than  now. 
Wheat,  barley,  millet,  and  spelt  (not 
rye)  were  the  only  cereals.  Beans  and 
lentiles  vpere  staples,  while  flax,  cucum- 
bers, fitches,  cummin,  and  the  onion  fam- 
ily were  often  extensively  cultivated. 
Jewish  writers  mention  peas,  lettuce, 
endives,  and  melons  as  ancient  garden- 
plants.  Fruit-  and  nut-bearing  trees 
were  cultivated  for  the  most  part  within 
enclosures. 

Methods  and  Instrnments. — As  popu- 
lation increased,  irrigation,  by  conduct- 
ing water  to  the  crops  from  brooks  and 
reservoirs,  became  more  common.  The 
painful  Egyptian  labor  of  raising  a  sup- 

29 


AGE 


AGE 


ply  from  a  lower  level  was  rarely  neces- 
sary. Such  passages  as  Jer.  9  :  22  show 
that  the  use  of  dung  as  manure  was  not 
uncommon.  In  Jer.  4:3;  Hos.  10  :  12 
there  is  reference  to  the  practice  of  leav- 
ing the  land  fallow  for  a  time.  The 
former  passage,  with  many  others,  re- 
minds us  of  the  great  variety  and  abun- 
dance of  thorny  plants  in  Palestine,  said 
to  be  one  mark  of  a  fertile  soil.  Rota- 
tion of  crops  seems  to  have  been  prac- 
tised to  some  extent. 

The  instruments  of  agriculture  are 
particularly  described  under  their  re- 
spective titles.  Oriental  ploughing  does 
not  turn  a  sod,  but  merely  scratches  the 
earth  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  inches 
at  most,  which  is  all  the  primitive  and 
light  plough  and  the  small  cattle  of  the 
East  can  do.  Often — always  in  the  case 
of  new  ground  —  a  second  ploughing 
crosswise  was  practised;  and  this  is  re- 
ferred to  by  the  word  "  break  "  in  Isa. 
28  :  24.  Steep  hill-sides  were  prepared 
for  planting  with  the  mattock  or  hoe,  an 
iron-pointed  instrument  of  wood  resem- 
bling in  shape  the  modern  "pick."  Isa. 
7:25.   Good  farmers  ploughed  before  the 


rains,  that  the  moisture  might  be  more 
abundantly  absorbed.  The  seed,  being 
scattered  broadcast  upon  the  soil,  was 
ordinarily  ploughed  in,  as  is  still  the 
custom.  Light  harrowing,  often  with 
thorn-bushes,  completed  the  process. 
In  wet  ground  the  seed  was  trampled  in 
by  cattle.  Isa.  32  :  20.  After  its  plant- 
ing there  was  commonly  little  further 
labor  bestowed  upon  the  crop  till  it  was 
ready  for  the  harvest.  Weeds  were  re- 
moved by  hand  when  it  was  safe  to  do 
so.  Matt.  13  :  28,  29.  Irrigation  was 
sometimes  necessary.  As  the  ingather- 
ing drew  near,  the  fields  must  be  pro- 
tected by  the  watchman  in  his  lodge 
from  the  wild  boar  and  other  beasts,  and 
from  human  marauders.  The  newly- 
scattered  seed  and  the  ripening  crop  also 
required  to  be  defended  against  great 
flocks  of  birds.     Matt.  13  :  4. 

Grain  when  ripe  was,  in  more  ancient 
times,  plucked  up  by  the  roots.  Later, 
it  was  reaped  by  a  sickle  resembling  our 
own,  either  the  ears  alone  being  cut  off 
or  the  whole  stalk.  The  sheaves  were 
never  made  into  shocks  ;  but  this  word 
in  Scripture  use  denotes  merely  a  loose 


An  Egyptian  Tlireshin 

heap  of  them.  Laborers,  animals,  or 
carts  bore  the  harvest  to  the  threshing- 
floor,  where,  as  elsewhere  described,  the 
grain  was  separated  from  the  ears  and 
winnowed.  More  delicate  seeds  were 
beaten  out  with  a  stick.  Isa.  28  :  27. 
Peculiarities. — Agriculture  was  recog- 
30 


-Floor.     {Fiovi  Eieh7n.) 

nized  and  regulated  by  the  Mosaic  law 
as  the  chief  national  occupation.  Inalien- 
able ownership — under  God — of  the  soil 
was  a  fundamental  provision,  and  rent- 
ing the  ground  till  the  year  of  jubilee  was 
alone  possible.  "  The  land  shall  not  be 
sold  for  ever :  for  the  land  is  mine ;  for 


AGR 


AHA 


ye  are  strangers  and  sojourners  with 
me."  Lev.  25  :  8-10,  23-35.  The  en- 
couragement such  a  provision  gave  to 
agricultural  improvements  cannot  be 
exaggerated. 

That  the  land  must  rest  one  year  in 
seven  was  another  remarkable  and  most 
beneficent  requirement.  Lev.  25  :  1-7. 
The  Jews  were  forbidden  to  sow  a  field 
with  divers  seeds.  Dcut.  22  :  U.  For 
example,  wheat  and  lentiles  must  not 
be  mixed,  nor  areas  of  them  meet.  The 
rabbis  describe  with  minuteness  how  to 
vary  the  position  of  crops,  yet  avoid  ac- 
tual contact  between  them,  and  prescribe 
at  least  three  furrows'  margin  between 
such  divers  kinds.  The  yoking  together 
of  an  ox  and  ass  was  prohibited,  but  is 
common  enough  among  the  present  in- 
habitants. Horses  were  never  used  for 
farm- work. 

Vineyards  are  enclosed  in  walls,  and 
gardens  are  usually  protected  in  the 
same  way,  or  by  banks  of  mud  taken 
from  ditches.  Otherwise,  in  agricultu- 
ral districts  the  absence  of  all  fences  or 
enclosures  is,  and  always  was,  in  striking 
contrast  to  our  own  practice.  A  brook 
or  a  cliff  may  serve  as  a  boundary,  but 
ordinarily  large  stones  almost  covered 
by  the  soil  are  the  landmarks.  Deut. 
19  :  14.  Exceedingly  beautiful  to  the 
eye  are  the  vast  fertile  areas  of  Pales- 
tine, checkered  only  by  cultivation.  As 
cattle  find  pasture  through  most  of  the 
year,  there  are  no  proper  barns  to  be 
seen.  Grass  is  cut  in  watered  places 
with  a  sickle  for  "  soiling,"  and  stock  is 
fed  with  this  or  with  grain  when  the 
fields  are  dried  up.  More  commonly, 
during  periods  of  scarcity,  the  flocks 
and  herds  are  driven  to  other  feeding- 
grounds.  Booths  are  sometimes  pro- 
vided for  inclement  weather,  and  at 
night  cattle  are  driven  into  caves  or 
folds. 

The  permission  to  pluck  and  eat  a 
neighbor's  grapes  or  grain,  but  not  to 
put  the  former  in  a  vessel  nor  use  a 
sickle  on  the  latter,  is  not  to  be  forgot- 
ten. Deut.  23  :  24,  25.  There  was  also 
merciful  provision  that  the  poor  might 
glean  in  the  vineyard  and  harvest-field, 
and  that  something  should  be  left  for 
them.     Lev.  19  :  9,  10  ;  Deut.  24:  19. 

Altogether,  the  agricultural  laws  of  the 
Pentateuch  have  been  unapproached  in 
their  wisdom  and   beneficence   by  any 


similar  legislation  on  record.  See  (tAr- 
DKN,  Mowing,  Plough,  Seasons,  Thresh, 
ViNKS.  etc. 

AGRIP'PA.     See  Herod  (3,  4). 

A'CwllR.  {<nt.  asueiiihlcr,  i.  e.  <>/  wise 
me)i),  a  sage  mentioned  in  Prov.  30:1. 
Nothing  is  known  of  him.  The  rabbins 
identified  him,  but  groundlessly,  with 
Solomon. 

A'lIAB  (  father's  brother).  1 .  Sev- 
enth king  of"  Israel,  u.  c.  919-896.  1 
Kgs.  16  :  29.  Son  and  successor  of  Omri. 
He  reigned  twenty-two  years.  His 
capital  was  Samaria.  He  married  Jeze- 
bel, daughter  of  Ethbaal,  king  of  Tyre, 
who  had  been  priest  of  Astarte,  but  had 
seized  the  throne  of  his  brother.  Being 
a  weak  man,  he  was  ruled  by  his  am- 
bitious and  daring  wife.  Idolatry  was 
set  up  in  Israel.  Ahab  built  a  temple 
to  Baal  in  Samaria,  and  Jezebel  main- 
tained at  her  own  cost  400  prophets 
of  Astarte.  These  were  allowed  to  be- 
come the  relentless  persecutors  of  the 
servants  of  Jehovah,  so  that  true  relig- 
ion was  almost  extinct.  In  punishment 
God  sent  three  years  of  drought.  Eli- 
jah had  prophesied  this  event,  and  at 
its  termination  appeared  before  the  king, 
challenged  the  false  prophets  to  a  trial 
of  power,  demonstrated  their  feebleness, 
ami  caused  them  to  be  slain.  Ahab  was 
deeply  impressed,  and  might  have  yield- 
ed, were  it  not  for  Jezebel,  who  threat- 
ened the  life  of  Elijah,  and  by  her  en- 
ergy prevented  a  reaction  in  favor  of 
Jehovah.  See  Elijah.  Ahab  had  a  taste 
for  splendid  architecture  :  this  he  showed 
by  building  an  ivory  palace  and  several 
cities.  But  it  was  on  the  city  of  Jezreel  he 
seems  to  have  spent  the  most  attention. 
The  desire  to  beautify  it  led  to  the  af- 
fair of  Naboth's  vineyard.  This  he 
coveted,  that  he  might  add  it  to  his 
pleasure-grounds  in  Jezreel.  But  Na- 
both  refused  to  part  with  the  land  for 
money  or  in  exchange,  for  he  was  for- 
bidden by  the  Levitical  law.  Lev.  25  : 
23.  Ahab  took  the  refusal  to  heart. 
But  the  scheming  Jezebel  secured  Na- 
both's murder  under  orders  marked  with 
Ahab's  seal.  And  thus  the  land- passed 
into  his  hands.  See  Naboth.  The 
Lord  by  Elijah  denounced  Ahab  and 
Jezebel,  and  foretold  the  extinction  of 
their  house.  But  Ahab's  remorse  and 
repentance  secured  the  postponement 
of  the  sentence.     1  Kgs.  21. 

31 


AHA 


AHA 


Ahab  fought  three  wars  or  campaigns 
with  Ben-hadad  II..  king  of  Syria,  in 
the  first  two  of  which,  only  a  year  apart, 
both  defensive,  he  was  victorious.  The 
second  victory  put  Ben-hadad  into  his 
hands,  and  he  was  able  to  exact  very 
favorable  terms  of  peace — viz.  that 
all  the  Israelitish  cities  lost  should  be 
restored,  and  in  Damascus  Jewish  of- 
ficials should  be  permanently  settled  in 
their  own  houses,  in  order  that  they 
might  look  after  the  interests  of  Ahab 
and  his  subjects.  This  is  what  is  meant 
by  making  "  streets "  in  Damascus. 
1  Kgs.  20  :  34.  For  letting  Ben-hadad 
go  he  was  strikingly  rebuked  by  a 
prophet,  and  the  failure  of  his  hopes 
prophesied.  It  was  indeed  foolish,  since 
no  pledge  had  been  given  by  Ben-hadad  ; 
and  ungrateful,  because  God,  who  had 
given  the  victory,  was  not  consulted. 
For  the  next  three  years  the  kingdom 
had  peace.  But  then  Ahab  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Jehoshaphat,  kingof  Judah,his 
son-in-law,  fought  Ben-hadad  the  third 
time,  in  order  to  recover  Kamoth-gilead, 
which  Ahab  claimed  belonged  to  him. 
Lying  prophets  encouraged  him  in  his 
enterprise,  but  at  Jehoshaphat's  request 
Micaiah,  the  prophet  of  Jehovah,  was 
called,  who  foretold  his  death.  Ahab 
in  anger  imprisoned  Micaiah,  but  still 
was  so  impressed  that  he  took  the  pre- 
caution to  disguise  himself;  but  a  cer- 
tain man  drew  a  bow  at  a  venture  and 
smote  him,  so  that  at  eventide  he  died. 
His  body  was  carried  to  Samaria  ;  the 
dogs  licked  up  his  blood  as  a  servant 
washed  it  from  the  chariot.  Thus  the 
prophecy  of  Elijah  was  partially  fulfilled, 
but  more  exactly  in  the  case  of  his  son. 
Ahab  left  three  children  by  Jezebel,  all 
of  whom  died  violent  deaths  ;  also,  by 
other  wives,  seventy  sons,  who  were 
slain  by  Jehu. 

2.  Ahab,  a  false  prophet,  who  de- 
ceived the  captive  Israelites  in  Bab- 
ylon, and  was  burnt  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, B.  c.  594.     Jer.  29:22. 

AHAR'AH  (after  the  brother),  the 
third  son  of  Benjamin.     1  Chr.  8:1. 

AHAR'HEL  {behind  the  breast- 
work), a  descendant  of  Judah.  1  Chr. 
4:8. 

AHAS'AI  (probably  a  contraction  of 
Ahaziah,  lohom  Jehovah  hoUh),  a  priest, 
Neh.  11:13;  called  Jahzerah  in  1  Chr. 
9:12. 

32 


AHAS'BAI  (/  toill  confide  in  Je- 
hovah),  the  father  of  one  of  David's 
warriors.     2  Sam.  23  :  34. 

AHASHVE  ROSH.  Ezr.  4  :  6, 
margin  ;  Hebrew  form  of  Ahasuerus. 

AHASUE'RUS  (probably  lion- 
kiiuj),  the  Hebrew  form  of  Xerxes, 
the  name,  or  perhaps  only  the  title,  of 
one  Median  and  two  Persian  kings  men- 
tioned in  the  Old  Testament. 

1.  The  father  of  Darius  the  Median, 
and  the  same  with  Astyages.  Dan.  9 : 
1. 

2.  Supposed  to  be  the  son  and  succes- 
sor of  Cj'rus,  probably  Cambyses,  who 
reigned  seven  years  and  five  months 
from  B.  c.  529.     Ezr.  4  :  6. 

3.  The  husband  of  Esther,  undoubted- 
ly the  Xerxes  of  profane  history.  Esth. 
1:1.  The  story  of  his  acts  of  caprice 
and  cruelty  recorded  in  the  book  of  Es- 
ther agrees  exactly  with  what  we  other- 
wise know  of  his  character,  for  once  he* 
scourged  the  sea  and  beheaded  the  engi- 
neers because  a  storm  carried  away  their 
bridge,  and  was  guilty  of  many  other 
crimes.  In  the  third  year  of  his  reign 
he  called  a  council  of  his  nobles,  very 
likely  for  the  purpose  of  arranging  the 
invasion  of  Greece.  The  meeting  lasted 
six  months,  and  was  followed  by  a  munif- 
icent feast,  on  the  seventh  day  of  which 
he  commanded  his  queen,  Vashti,  to 
show  herself  unto  his  drunken  nobles. 
This  she  properly  refused  to  do,  where- 
upon he  deposed  her.  Four  years  after, 
he  married  Esther.  The  interval  is  ac- 
counted for  by  supposing  the  war  with 
Greece  intervened.     See  Esther. 

AHA'VA  (water),  a  place  or  river 
where  Ezra  collected  the  returning  ex- 
iles and  proclaimed  a  fast.  Ezr.  8:  15, 
21,  31.  Rawlinson  suggests  that  Aha- 
va  was  identical  with  Ava  and  Ivah, 
the  modern  Hit,  on  the  Euphrates,  east 
of  Damascus. 

A'HAZ  (possessor).  1.  Eleventh  king 
of  Judah,  son  of  Jotham,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded. 2  Kgs.  16:2:  2  Chr.  28:1.  He 
reigned  sixteen  years,  b.  c.  742-726.  He 
was  a  gross  idolater,  and  even  sacrificed 
his  children  to  the  gods.  He  remodelled 
the  temple  to  fit  it  for  idolatrous  rites. 
He  kept  chariot-horses  dedicated  to  the 
sun.  This  course  brought  upon  him 
and  his  kingdom  severe  judgments. 
God  made  them  to  flee  before  their  ene- 
mies.     Their  allies   often  proved   un- 


AHA 


Attt 


faithful,  and  involved  them  in  great  dis- 
tress. 

Early  in  his  reign,  ])robably  the  sec- 
ond year,  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  and 
Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  who,  just  at  the 
close  of  Jotham's  reign,  had  cunfeder- 
ated  for  the  destruction  of  Judah,  in- 
vaded the  kingdom  with  a  powerful 
army  and  laid  siege  to  Jerusalem. 

Isaiah  foretold  their  overthrow  and 
inspired  the  king.  Isa.  7.  But  the 
allies,  though  defeated  at  Jerusalem, 
captured  Elath,  wasted  Judah,  and  car- 
ried 200,000  into  captivity  ;  the  proph- 
et Oded  caused  these  to  be  restored. 
Ahaz  in  his  extremity  made  a  league 
with  Tilgath-pilneser,  king  of  Assyria, 
who  freed  him  from  his  enemies,  but  at 
the  cost  of  the  Judaic  kingdom,  which 
became  tributary,  and  Ahaz  sent  him 
all  the  treasures  of  the  temple  and  his 
palace,  and  appeared  before  him  in 
Damascus  as  a  vassal.  Neglecting  the 
warnings  of  Isaiah,  Hosea,  and  Micah, 
he  ran  to  even  greater  excesses  in  idol- 
atry, and  indeed  so  lowered  himself  in 
the  popular  esteem  that  when  he  died 
he  was  refused  a  burial  with  his  royal 
ancestors.  2  Chr.  28 :  27.  His  only 
permanent  service  to  his  people  was  the 
introduction  of  the  sun-dial,  which  was 
probably  connected  with  the  Assyrian 
astrology  and  necromancy. 

2.  A  son  of  Micah,  the  grandson  of 
Jonathan.     1  Chr.  8  :  35,  36  ;  9  :  42. 

AHAZI'AH  {who7)i  Jehovah  s^is- 
tains).  1.  The  son  and  successor  of 
Ahab,  and  eighth  king  of  Israel,  b.  c. 
896-895.  1  Kgs.  22:40.  He  was  an 
idolater,  and  for  this  reason,  when  he 
attempted  to  unite  with  Jehoshaphat 
in  the  gold-trade  with  Ophir,  God 
caused  the  ships  to  be  broken  in  port 
at  Ezion-geber,  not  allowing  this  union 
between  his  friends  and  foes.  See  Je- 
hoshaphat. Under  him  Moab  rebelled. 
A  fall  through  a  lattice,  probably  from 
the  window  of  his  chamber  in  his  pal- 
ace in  Samaria,  occasioned  his  death. 
Characteristically,  he  sent  to  inquire  at 
Ekron  of  Baal-zebub  whether  his  injury 
would  be  fatal.  Elijah  met  the  messen- 
gers and  told  them  that  he  would  die. 
The  king  sent  to  take  Elijah,  and  thus 
two  companies  of  soldiers  were  destroy- 
ed. But  with  the  third,  Elijah  went 
and  told  the  king  in  person  of  his 
speedy  death.  2  Kgs.  1. 
3 


2.  Called  also  Azariah,  2  Chr.  22:6, 
and  Jehoahaz,  2  Olir.  21 :  17,  was  a  son 
of  Jehoram  and  Athaliali,  and  fifth  king 
of  Judah,  and  at  the  ago  of  twenty-two 
succeeded  his  fiitlu-r  as  king  of  Judah. 
2  Kgs.  8  :  25.  lie  continued  the  idol- 
atry of  the  house  of  Ahab,  and  was 
governed  by  the  advice  of  his  infamous 
mother.  His  reign  lasted  only  one 
year,  b.  c.  884.  He  allied  himself  with 
his  uncle,  Jehoram,  king  of  Israel,  and 
attacked  Hazael,  king  of  Syria,  who  de- 
feated them  at  Ramoth-gilead.  Je- 
horam was  severely  wounded  and  car- 
ried to  his  palace  in  Jezreel.  There 
Ahaziah  visited  him.  Israel  meanwhile 
rebelled  under  Jehu.  The  two  kings 
went  out  to  meet  him,  and  Jehu  killed 
Jehoram.  Ahaziah  fled,  and  was  pur- 
sued to  the  pass  of  Gur,  where  he  was 
mortally  wounded,  but  escaped,  and  died 
at  Megiddo.  In  this  way  the  slightly 
differing  accounts,  2  Kgs.  9  :  27  and  2 
Chr.  22  :  9,  can  be  reconciled. 

AH'BAN  {brother  of  the  wise),  a  de- 
scendant of  Judah.     1  "Chr.  2  :  29. 

A'HER  {after,  followiny),  a  Benja- 
mite.     1  Chr.  7  :  12. 

A'HI  {brother).  1.  A  Gadite.  1  Chr. 
5:15. 

2.  An  Asherite.     1  Chr.  7  :  34. 

AHI'AH  {friend  of  Jehovah).  1. 
Supposed  by  some  to  be  the  same  with 
Ahimelech,  1  Sam.  21 : 1,  was  the  son  of 
Ahitub,  and  his  successor  in  the  priest's 
office.  1  Sam.  14  :  3,  18.  See  Ahim- 
elech and  Ahitcjb. 

2.  The  son  of  Shisha,  one  of  Solomon's 
scribes  or  secretaries.     1  Kgs.  4 :  3. 

3.  A  descendant  of  Benjamin.  1  Chr. 
8:7. 

AHI'AM  {father's  brother),  one  of 
David's  warriors.  2  Sam.  23  :  33 ;  1 
Chr.  11 :  35. 

AHI'AN  {brotherly),  a  son  of  Shemi- 
dah.     1  Chr.  7:19. 

AHIE'ZER  {brother  of  help).  1. 
A  prince  of  Dan.  Num.  1:12;  2:25; 
7:66;  10:25. 

2.  A  Benjamite  chief  who  joined  Da- 
vid.    1  Chr.  12  :  3. 

AHI'HUD  {brother,  i.  e.  friend,  of 
Judah,  i.  e.  renown),  the  prince  of  the 
tribe  of  Asher.     Num.  34:27. 

AHI'HUD  (different  name  in  He- 
brew from  the  above,  brother  of  union),  a 
descendant  of  Benjamin.     1  Chr.  8:7. 

AHI'JAH  {brother,  i.e. friend,  ofJe- 

33 


AHI 


AHI 


horah).  1.  A  prominent  prophet,  called 
the  Shilonite  from  his  place  of  residence, 
who  foretold  to  Jeroboam  the  disruption 
of  the  kins^dora  and  the  assignment  of 
the  ten  tribes  to  him.  1  Kgs.  11 :  29-39. 
The  prophecy  is  referred  to  1  Kgs.  12 : 
1.') ;  2  Chr.  10  :  1 5.  To  the  wife  of  Jero- 
boam the  same  prophet  subsequently 
announced  not  only  the  fate  of  the  sick 
child,  but  that  of  the  nation.  1  Kgs. 
14:1-18.  A  part  of  this  latter  proph- 
ecy Baasha  realized.  1  Kgs.  15  :  29.  He 
left  annals  of  Solomon's  reign.  2  Chr. 
9 :  29. 

2.  The  father  of  Baasha,  the  king.  1 
Kgs.  15  :  27,  33  ;  21 :  22  ;  2  Kgs.  9^:  9. 

3.  A  descendant  of  Judah.  1  Chr. 
2:25. 

4.  One  of  David's  "  valiant  men."  1 
Chr.  11:  36. 

5.  The  Levite"over  the  treasui-es  of 
the  house  of  God  and  .  .  .  the  dedicated 
things."     1  Chr.  26  :  20. 

6.  One  who  sealed  the  covenant.  Neh. 
10 :  2fi. 

AHI'KAM  {brother  of  the  enemy), 
a  son  of  Shaphan,  and  the  father  of 
Gedaliah,  was  an  oflBcerat  the  court  of 
Josiah  and  Jehoiakim,  and  one  of  those 
whom  Josiah  sent  to  Huldah  the  proph- 
etess to  inquire  of  her  concerning  the 
book  of  the  law  which  had  been  found 
in  the  temple.  2  Kgs.  22  :  12.  He  after- 
ward protected  the  prophet  Jeremiah. 
Jer.  26 :  24.     See  Jeremiah. 

AHI'LUD  {brother  of  one  born,  sc. 
before  him),  the  father  of  Jehoshaphat, 
the  official  recorder  of  the  reigns  of 
David  and  Solomon.  2  Sam.  8  : 1 6  ;  20  : 
24;  1  Kgs.  4:3;  1  Chr.  18:15.  The 
father  likewise,  in  all  probability,  of 
Baana,  one  of  Solomon's  twelve  com- 
missariat officers.     1  Kgs.  4  :  12. 

AHIM'AAZ  {brother  of  wrath).  1. 
The  father  of  Saul's  wife  Ahinoam.  1 
Sam.  14  :  50. 

2.  Son  and  successor  of  Zadok  the 
priest. 

During  the  revolt  of  Absalom,  Za- 
dok and  Abiathar,  the  high  priests,  stay- 
ed in  Jerusalem  with  Hushai,  David's 
friend ;  while  Ahimaaz  and  Jonathan, 
the  son  of  Abiathar,  stationed  them- 
selves at  En-rogel,  a  short  distance  from 
the  city,  and  the  plot  was  that  all  that 
Hushai  should  hear  respecting  Absa- 
lom's plans  he  should  communicate  to 
Zadok  and  Abiathar,  and  they  to  their 
34 


sons  Ahimaaz  and  Jonathan,  by  whom 
the  intelligence  should  be  communicated 
to  David.  2  Sam.  15  :  30.  As  soon  as 
Absalom  had  rejected  the  counsel  of 
Ahithophel,  and  adopted  that  of  Hushai, 
Zadok  and  Abiathar  were  promptly  in- 
foiined  of  it,  and  directed  their  sons  to 
go  with  all  possible  haste  to  David  and 
tell  him  to  cross  Jordan  at  once.  A 
woman  bore  the  message.  Seeing  her 
speak  to  the  men,  and  noticing  that 
they  ran  off  with  haste,  a  lad  informed 
Absalom  of  the  suspicious  event,  and 
accordingly  he  ordered  a  pursuit.  When 
they  came  to  Bahurim,  they  concealed 
themselves  in  a  well.  The  woman  of  the 
house  covered  the  mouth  of  the  well 
with  a  blanket,  on  which  she  spread  corn 
to  dry  ;  and  when  Absalom's  messengers 
came  up  in  the  pursuit,  and  inquired 
where  they  were,  she  told  them  that 
the  young  men  had  passed  on.  Thus 
they  escaped,  and  while  their  pursuers 
returned  to  Jerusalem  they  hastened 
to  David  with  their  message.  2  Sam. 
17:15-22. 

At  his  own  urgent  request,  Ahimaaz 
was  employed  to  carry  the  intelligence 
of  Absalom's  death  to  David,  his  father. 
He  outran  Cushi,  who  had  been  previ- 
ously despatched  on  the  same  errand. 
Before  he  had  delivered  his  message, 
however,  Cushi  came  up,  and  made 
known  the  sad  event.  2  Sam.  18  :  19-33. 
See  David. 

3.  A  son-in-law  of  Solomon,  and  one 
of  his  commissariat  officers.     1  Kgs.  4 
15. 

AHI'MAN  {brother  of  a  f/ift).  1 
One  of  three  Hebronitic  Anakim,  Num 
13  :  22,  defeated  and  killed  by  Caleb 
with  the  help  of  Judah.  Josh.  15:14; 
Jud.  1:10. 

2.  A  Levite  porter.     1  Chr.  9  :  17. 

AHIM'ELECH  {brother  or  friend 
of  the  kinrj).  1.  The  son  of  Ahitub,  and 
his  successor  in  the  priesthood  at 
Nob.  1  Sam  21  :  1.  He  gave  David 
some  of  the  shew-bread  and  the  sword 
of  Goliath  when  he  fled  from  Saul. 
For  this  offence  he  and  all  the  priests  at 
Nob  were  slain  at  the  instigation  of 
Doeg  the  Edomite.  1  Sam.  22  :  11. 
See  Abiathar. 

2.  A  Hittite  who  was  one  of  David's 
friends  during  his  flight  from  Saul. 
1  Sam.  26:6. 

AHI'MOTH  {brother  of  death),  a 


AHT 


AHU 


Kohathite,  1  Chr.  6  :  25 ;  called  in  v.  35, 
Ma.hath. 

AHIN'ADAB  {brother  of  the  noble, 
i.  e.  noble  brother),  one  of  Solomon's 
commissariat  olticors.  1  Kgs.  4  :  14. 
See   Abiathak. 

AHIN'OAM  {brother  of  j^leasnut- 
nens,  \.  e.  plettsoiit).  1.  Tlie  daughter  of 
Ahimaaz,  and  the  wife  of  Saul.  1  Sam. 
14:50. 

2.  A  woman  of  Jezreel,  and  one  of 
David's  wives.  1  Sam.  25  :  43.  She 
was  taken  captive  by  the  Amalekites 
in  the  siege  of  Ziklag,  and  afterward 
rescued  from  captivity  by  David.  1 
Sam.  30  :  5, 18.  She  'lived  with  him 
while  he  was  king  of  Judah  in  Hebron, 
and  was  the  mother  of  Amnon,  his  eld- 
est son.   2  Sam.  2:2;  3:2;   1  Chr.  3:1. 

AHI'O  {brotherl,/).  1.  A  son  of 
Abinadab,  who,  with  his  brother  Uz- 
zah,  was  intrusted  by  David  with  the 
transportation  of  the  ark  from  Kii-jath- 
jearim  to  Jerusalem.  2  Sam.  6:3;  1 
Chr.  13  :  7.     See  Uzzah. 

2.  A  Benjamite.    1  Chr.  8  :  14. 

3.  Another  Benjamite.  1  Chr.  8:31; 
9:37. 

AHI'RA  {brother  of  evil),  the  prince 
of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali.  Num.  1:15; 
2:29;  7  :  78,  83  ;  10  :  27. 

AHI'RAM  {brother  of  the  high),  a 
son  of  Benjamin,  Num.  26  :  38  ;  called 
Ehi  in  Gen.  46 :  21,  and  was  possibly 
the  same  as  Aher.  1  Chr.  7:12.  His 
descendants  were  called  Ahiramites. 
Num.  26:38. 

AHIS'AMACH  {brother  of  sup- 
port), a  Danite,  the  father  of  Aholiab, 
one  of  the  architects  of  the  tabernacle. 
Ex.  31:  (5;  35:34;  38:23. 

AHISH'AHAR  {brother  of  the 
damn),  a  great-grandson  of  Benjamin. 
1  Chr.  7:  10. 

AHI'SHAR  {brother  of  the  singer), 
the  controller  of  Solomon's  household. 
1  Kgs.  4  :  6. 

AHITH'OPHEL  {brother  of  fool- 
ishness), a  native  of  Giloh,  and  the 
familiar  friend,  companion,  and  coun- 
sellor of  David.  Ps.  55  :  12-14;  2  Sam. 
16  :  12  ;  1  Chr.  27  :  33.  He  was  the 
grandfather  of  Bath-sheba.  Cf.  2  Sam. 
11 :  3  with  23  :  34.  His  wisdom  seemed 
superhuman.  2  Sam.  16  :  23.  Absalom 
persuaded  him  to  join  in  the  conspiracy 
against  his  father,  David  ;  but  the  cun- 
ning measures  which  Ahithophel  pro- 


posed for  the  accomplishment  of  Absa- 
lom's ambitious  ])lans  were  all  defeated 
by  the  counsel  of  llushai.  Ahithophel, 
seeing  that  the  probable  issue  would  be 
the  utter  ruin  of  Absalom  and  his  cause, 
which  would  almost  necessarily  involve 
his  own  destruction,  returned  at  once 
to  (riloh  and  hanged  himself.  2  Sam. 
17  :  23. 

AHI'TITB  (brother  of  goodness).  1. 
The  son  of  Phinehas,  and  grandson 
of  Eli.  1  Sam.  14  :  3.  Some  suppose 
that  he  succeeded  Eli  in  the  priesthood. 
See  Ahimklech. 

2.  The  son  of  Amariah,  and  the  father 
of  Zadok.     1  Chr.  6  :  8. 

AH'LiAB  (fitness,  fertility),  a 
town  in  Asher  held  by  the  Canaanites, 
Jud.  1:31;  probably  the  place  known 
later  as  Gnsh  Hidab  or  Chaleb,  and 
which  Robinson  locates  at  el-Jish,  ne.ar 
Safed,  north-west  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

AH'IiAI  {would  God  .'),  daughter  of 
Sheshan ;  married  to  his  slave  Jarha  ;  an- 
cestress of  one  of  David's  mighty  men. 
1  Chr.  2:31,  34,  35;  11:41. 

AHO'AH  (friendship)  of  Jehovah?), 
a  grandson  of  Benjamin.     1  Chr.  8:4. 

AHO'HITE,  "from  Ahoah,  a  pa- 
tronymic of  some  of  David's  warriors. 

AHO^LAH  {her  tent),  AND 
AHOL'IBAH  {my  tabernacle  in 
her),  the  names  of  imaginary  harlots; 
symbolically  used  for  Judah  and  Sa- 
maria.    Eze.  23  :  4,  5,  36,  44. 

AHO'LIAB  {tent  of  his  father), 
son  of  Ahisamach,  of  the  tribe  of  Dan, 
who,  with  Bezaleel,  was  divinely  ap- 
pointed to  construct  the  tabernacle  and 
its  furniture.     Ex.  35  :  34. 

AHO  LIB 'AMAH  {tent  of  the 
height).  1.  A  wife  of  Esau,  and  daugh- 
ter of  Anah,  Gen.  36  :  2,  etc.  She  was 
the  same  with  Judith,  daughter  of 
Beeri.  26  :  34.  Judith  was  perhaps 
her  original  name. 

2.  The  name  appears  in  the  genea- 
logical list,  Gen.  36  :  41  ;  1  Chr.  1:52, 
but  it  is  the  name  of  a  district,  and  not 
of  a  person. 

AHU'MAI  {brother  of  water,  i.  e. 
pusillanimons),  a  descendant  of  Judah. 
1  Chr.  4  :  2. 

AHU'ZAM  {their  possession),  the 
son  of  Ashur.     1  Chr.  4:6. 

AHUZ'ZATH  {possession),  a  par- 
ticular friend  of  Abimelech,  king  of 
Gerar,  who  attended  him  when  he  met 

36 


AI 


ALA 


Isaac,  and  made  a  treaty  with  him  at 
Beer-sheba.     Gen.  26  :  26. 

A'l  {heap  of  ruins).  1.  A  city  of  the 
Canaanites,  Gen.  13  :  3 ;  taken  by  Joshua, 
Josh.  7  :  2-5  ;  8  : 1-29  ;  also  called  Aiath, 
Isa.  10  :  28,  and  Aija.  Neh.  11  :  31. 
Abraham  pitched  his  tent  between  Ilai 
and  Bethel.  Gen.  12  :  8.  The  two  cities 
were  so  far  apart  that  Joshua  could 
place  an  ambush  west  of  Ai  unseen  by 
the  men  of  Bethel,  while  he  was  in  the 
valley  north  of  Ai.  The  city  of  Ai  was 
east  of  Bethel,  and  about  9  miles  north 
of  Jerusalem.  It  is  named  38  times  in 
the  Bible.     It  is  now  Haiyan. 

2.  A  city  of  the  Ammonites  not  far 
from  Heshbon.     Jer.  49  :  3. 

AI'AH  [hawk).  1.  The  father  of 
Rizpah,  Saul's  concubine.  2  Sam.  3  : 
7;  21:8,10,11. 

2.  The  son  of  Zibeon,  1  Chr.  1 :  40 ; 
called  Ajah  in  Gen.  36  :24. 

AI'ATH.  Isa.  10  :  28.  Feminine 
form  of  Ai,  and  probably  the  same  as 
Ai. 

AI'JA.     Neh.  11 :  31.     See  Ai. 

AIJ'ALON.     See  AjaloxX. 

AIJ'ELETH  SHA'HAR  {hind 
of  the  dawn).  These  words  occur  in  the 
title  to  Ps.  22,  and  probably  "indicate, 
not  the  subject-matter  of  the  poem,  but 
rather  a  time  for  the  guidance  of  the 
precentor."  "There  was  some  poem  or 
lyrical  composition  extant  which  bore 
the  name  of  Aijeleth  Shahar — similar 
names  have  frequently  been  given  to 
poems  in  the  East — and  according  to  the 
well-known  measure  of  that  the  chief 
musician  was  to  sing  or  chant  the 
psalm." —  AvRE :  Treasury  of  Bible 
JCnoicledge. 

A'lN  (eye,  spring).  1.  A  place,  or 
probably  a  fountain,  and  one  of  the 
landmarks  on  the  eastern  boundary  of 
Canaan.  Num.  34:11.  It  is  now  known 
as  Ain  el-Azy,  a  remarkable  spring,  one 
of  the  sources  of  the  Orontes,  and  about 
10  miles  west  of  Riblah. 

2.  A  city  of  southern  Palestine,  first 
given  to  Judah,  Josh.  15  :  32,  afterward 
assigned  to  Simeon,  Josh.  19  :  7,  and 
then  to  the  Levites,  Josh.  21:lfi;  1 
Chr.  4  :  32.  The  same  place  as  Ashan,  1 
Chr.  6  :  59,  and  possibly  as  En-rimmon. 
Neh.  11 :  29. 

A' J  AH.     See  Aiah. 

AJ'ALON  (place  of  gazeUen).  1.  A 
Levitical  city  of  Dan,  Josh.  19  :  42 ;  given 
36 


to  the  Kohathites,  Josh.  21  :  24;  held  by 
the  Amorites,  Jud.  1  :  35  ;  noticed  in  the 
wars  with  the  Philistines,  1  Sam.  14: 
31;  2  Chr.  28:18;  fortified  by  Reho- 
boam,  2  Chr.  11 :  10 ;  then  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Benjamin,  as  the  Danites  had 
extended  their  territory  farther  north. 
See  Jud.  18  :  1.  Being  on  the  border  of 
the  two  kingdoms,  it  is  sometimes  men 
tioned  as  in  Ephraim,  1  Chr.  6  :  **)().  69. 
and  sometimes  as  in  Judah  and  Benja- 
min. 2  Chr.  11  :  10  ;  28  :  18.  Its  modern 
name  is  Yalo,  a  small  village  about  14 
miles  west  of  Jerusalem,  and  north  of 
the  Jaffa  road. 

2.  A  valley,  Josh.  10 :  12,  near  the 
above  city,  now  called  Merj  Ihn  Omeir, 
which  is  broad  and  very  beautiful.  There 
Joshua  fought  a  great  battle.  See  Gibeon. 

3.  A  town  in  Zebulun.  possibly  named 
after  Elon  the  judge,  who  was  buried 
there.  Jud.  12 :  12.  Its  site  may  be 
the  modern  Jalnn. 

A'KAN  {sharp-sighted  f),  a  descend- 
ant of  Esau,  Gen.  36  :  27  ;  called  Jakan 
in  1  Chr.  1 :  42. 

AK'KUB  {insidious).  1.  A  descend- 
ant of  David.    1  Chr.  3  :  24. 

2.  One  of  the  porters  at  the  east  gate 
of  the  temple.  1  Chr.  9  :  17:  Ezr.  2  : 
42;  Neh.  7:45;  11:19;  12:25. 

3.  One  of  the  Nethinim  whose  fam- 
ily returned  with  Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  2  : 
45. 

4.  A  Levite  who  assisted  Ezra  in 
explaining  the  law.     Neh.  8  :  7. 

AKRAB'BIM  {scorpions),  a  range 
of  hills  on  the  southern  boundary  of 
Judah,  Num.  34  :  4  ;  Josh.  15  :  3,  and  on 
the  border  of  the  territory  of  the  Amor- 
ites. Jud.  1:36.  The  "ascent  of" 
and  the  "going  up  to"  Akrabbim  is 
the  famous  "Scorpion  Pass,"  where  the 
route  from  Petra  to  Hebron  passes  out 
of  the  Ghnr,  or  Wady,  el-Fikreh.  At 
the  upper  end  of  this  winding  valley, 
10  miles  from  Maderah,  is  a  wild  ascent 
now  called  Nahh  Kareb,  which  is  regard- 
ed as  the  ancient  Akrabbim  or  "  Scorpion 
Pass."  Scorpions  still  abound  in  the 
region.  It  was  also  called  Maaleh- 
acrabbim.     Josh.  15  :  3. 

AI/AB  ASTER.  Matt.  26  :  7.  A 
white  mineral,  easily  carved  and  sus- 
ceptible of  a  fine  polish.  It  was  of  two 
distinct  kinds.  One  was  a  pure  variety 
of  gypsum  or  sulphate  of  lime,  the  rock 
i  which  is  often   ground  into  plaster  of 


ALA 


ALE 


Paris ;  the  other  kind  was  carbon- 
ate of  lime,  a  mineral  of  the  same 
chemical  composition  as  most  of  the 
marbles.  It  was  hij^hly  valued  for  its 
translucency  and  for  its  variety  of  red- 
dish or  grayish  streaiiings.  The  name 
"alabaster"  is  from  Aldhastrou,  in 
Egypt,  where  this  material  was  found, 
and  where  vessels  were  manufactured 
from  it  for  holding  perfumes.  Vases 
of  the  same  mineral  for  containing 
ointments  or  cosmetics  were  found  at 
Nineveh  by  Mr.  Layard.  The  well- 
known  sculptured  slabs  from  that  city 
are  of  alabaster  of  the  gypsum  kind. 
The  druggists  in  Egypt  at  the  present 


place  in  Asher.  Josh.  19  :  26.  The 
name  seems  to  be  preserved  in  the 
Wady  Mtlik,  which  joins  the  Kishon 
not  far  from  the  sea  and  near  Mt. 
Carmel. 

ALE'METH  [covcnng),  a  Benjam- 
ite.     1  Chr.  8  :  .'JG  ;  9  :  42. 

AL'EMETH,  and  AL'LE- 
METH,  the  same  as  Alameth  {cover- 
iiKj),  a  Levitical  city  of  Benjamin,  1  Chr. 
6  :  60  ;  called  also  Almon,  Josh.  21 :  18  ; 
probably  the  modern  Almit,  4  miles 
north-east  of  Jerusalem,  and  about  1 
mile  north-east  of  Anata,  the  ancient 
Anathoth. 

ALEXAN'DER  {man-defender).  1. 
The  son  of  Simon  the  Cyrenian. 
Mark  15:  21. 

2.  A  distinguished  Jew  who, 
with  others,  took  part  against 
Peter  and  John.     Acts  4:  6. 

3.  A  Jew  of  Ephesus  who  took 
a  conspicuous  part  in  the  contro- 
versy between  Paul  and  the  popu- 
lace of  that  city,  and  attempted, 
without  success,  to  quell  the  com- 
motion.    Acts  19 :  33. 

4.  A  coppersmith  and  apostate 
from  Christianity,  whom  Paul 
mentions  in  terms  of  severe  re- 
proach. 1  Tim.  1  :  19,  20  and  2 
Tim.  4  :  14. 

ALEXANDER  THE 
GREAT,  the  famous  king  of 
Macedonia  and  conqueror,  died 
B.C.  323.  He  brought  Europe  and 
Asia  into  contact,  made  the  Greek 
Alabaster  Vases.     {From  the  British  Museum.)  the  ruling  language  of  civiliza- 

The  inscription  on  the  centre  vessel  denotes  the  quantity  it  holds,    tion,  and  thuS  UUCOnscioUSly  pre- 


day  use  vessels  of  this  substance  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  medicines  and  per- 
fumes. Theocritus,  an  ancient  profane 
historian,  speaks  of  gilded  alabasters 
of  Syrian  ointment.  The  phrase  "  she 
brake  the  box,"  used  Mark  14 : 3,  is 
sup])Osed  to  mean  that  she  broke  the 
slender  neck  of  the  sealed  bottle  or 
pitcher.  Thus  the  offering  was  very 
ca^U.y  ^^^  appropriate.  Box  was  for- 
m<(r1y  used  in  a  more  general  sense  than 
now.  The  word  is  said  to  come  from 
the  tvood  of  the  same  name,  and  at  first 
was  used  for  any  vessel  formed  from 
that  material. 

AL'AMETH  {covering),  another 
form  of  Alemeth,  which  see.  1  Chr. 
7:8. 

ALAM'MELECH  {Umfa  oak),  a 


pared  the  way  for  the  spiritual  conquest 
of  the  gospel.  He  is  not  mentioned  by 
name  in  the  canonical  books,  but  in  the 
Apocrypha,  1  Mace.  1  :  1-9  j  6  :  2,  and 


Head  of  Alexander  the  Great.     {On  a  coin  of 
Lysimachus,  king  of  Thrace.) 

is  meant  in  the  prophecies  of  Daniel, 
where  he  is  represented  first  as  the 
belly    of    brass    in     Nebuchadnezzar's 

37 


ALE 


ALE 


dream  of  the  colossal  statue,  2  :  39,  and 
then  in  the  vision  of  Daniel,  under  the 
figures  of  a  leopard  with  four  wings, 
and  a  one-horned  he-goat,  to  indicate 
his  great  strength  and  the  swiftness  of 
his  conquests,  7:6;  8  :  5-7  ;  11 :  3,  4. 
He  succeeded  his  father,  Philip,  b.  c. 
336,  conquered  Syria,  Palestine,  Egypt, 
destroyed  the  Persian  empire  and  sub- 
stituted the  Grecian,  but  died  at  the  age 
of  32,  from  the  effects  of  intemperance, 
in  Babylon,  and  was  buried  in  Alexan- 
dria, which  he  had  founded,  B.  c,  332. 
His  conquests  were  divided  among  his 
four  generals.  Josephus  relates  that 
after  the  siege  of  Tyre  he  visited  Jeru- 
salem ;  and  being  shown  the  prophecy 
of  Daniel  concerning  himself,  he  grant- 
ed the  Jews  everywhere  the  most  im- 
portant privileges.  But  the  heathen 
historians  ignore  this  event. 

ALEXAN'DRIA,the  Grecian  cap- 
ital of  Egypt,  founded  by  and  named 
after  Alexander  the  Great,  b.  c.  332. 

Sitaatioti. — It  was  a  noted  seaport  of 
Lower  Egypt,  and  was  situated  on  a 
low,  narrow  tract  of  land  which  divides 
Lake  Mareotis  from  the  Mediterranean, 
and  near  the  western  mouth  of  the  Nile, 
about  120  miles  from  the  present  city 
of  Cairo. 

History. — Soon  after  its  foundation  by 
Alexander  it  became  the  capital  of  the 
Ptolemies  and  the  Grecian  kings  reign- 
ing in  Egypt,  and  one  of  the  most  pop- 
ulous and  prosperous  cities  of  the  East. 
Its  harbor  could  accommodate  vast  na- 
vies, fitting  it  to  become  the  commercial 
metropolis  of  the  entire  Eastern  world. 
In  front  of  the  city,  on  the  island  of 
Pharos,  stood  a  famous  light-house, 
named  after  the  island  and  noted  as  one 
of  the  Seven  AVonders  of  the  world. 
Alexandria  numbered,  in  the  days  of 
its  ancient  prosperity,  600,000  inhabit- 
ants (half  of  them  slaves),  and  ranked 
next  to  Athens  in  literature.  It  had  the 
greatest  library  of  ancient  times,  which 
contained  upward  of  700,000  rolls  or 
volumes.  The  portion  in  the  museum, 
consisting  of  400,000  volumes,  was 
burnt  in  B.  c.  47.  The  additional  or 
"  new  library  "  in  the  Serapeum,  after- 
ward increased  to  about  500,000  vol- 
umes, including  the  original  300,000 
volumes,  was  destroyed  by  the  fanatical 
vandalism  of  the  Saracens  in  a.  d.  640. 
At  Alexandria  the  0.  T.  was  translated 
38 


into  the  Greek  by  seventy  learned  Jews 
(hence  called  the  "  Septuagint),  in  the 
third  century  before  the  Christian  era. 
The  Alexandrian  Greek  dialect,  known 
as  Hellenistic  Greek,  was  the  language 
used  by  the  early  Christian  fathers,  and 
is  still  the  study  of  the  biblical  scholar 
in  the  pages  of  the  N.  T.  Alexandria  was 
the  birthplace  of  Apollos,  Acts  18  :  24, 
and  in  the  apostle  Paul's  time,  it  carried 
on  an  extensive  commerce  with  the  coun- 
tries on  the  Mediterranean.  Acts  6:9; 
27  :  6  ;  28  :  11.  The  city  was  the  home 
of  Philo,  who  there  blended  the  Mosaic 
religion  with  the  philosophy  of  Plato. 
Mark  founded  there  a  Christian  church, 
which  in  later  years  became  a  patri- 
archal see,  outranking  Jerusalem  and 
Antioch,  being  itself  afterward  out- 
ranked by  Constantinople  and  Rome.  In 
its  catechetical  school — the  theological 
seminary  of  those  days — Clement  and 
Origen  taught  the  Christian  religion,  in 
opposition  to  the  false  philosophy  of 
the  Gnostic  sects.  In  Alexandria 
originated  the  Arian  heresy  denying 
that  Jesus  Christ  was  divine,  and  there 
Athanasius,  the  "  father  of  orthodoxy," 
firmly  opposed  the  false  and  defended 
the  true  doctrine  of  the  deity  of  our 
Lord.  From  A.  D.  300  to  600*  the  city 
was  second  only  to  Rome  in  size  and 
importance,  and  was  the  chief  seat  of 
Christian  theology.  It  was  conquered 
by  the  Saracens  under  Caliph  Omar 
about  A.  D.  640,  when  it  began  to  decline. 
The  rising  importance  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  the  discovery  of  an  ocean 
passage  to  India  by  way  of  Cape  Good 
Hope,  contributed  to  its  further  ruin, 
until  it  was  reduced  from  a  prosperous 
city  of  half  a  million  to  a  poor  village 
of  only  5000  to  6000  inhabitants.  The 
plan  of  Alexandria  on  the  next  page  is 
taken  from  Fairbairn's  Impeyial  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Bible. 

Preaent  Condition. — It  is  now  an  im- 
portant city  of  200,000  inhabitants  (in- 
cluding 50,000  Franks),  and  is  connected 
with  Cairo  by  a  railway,  and  also  with 
Suez,  on  the  Red  Sea.  The  city  has  a 
new  artificial  harbor  with  a  breakwater 
two  miles  long.  Among  the  ancient 
monuments  to  be  seen  are  the  Cata- 
combs, the  Column  of  Diocletian,  94 
feet  high  and  named  *'  Pompey's  Pil- 
lar " — not  from  the  famous  Pompey,  but 
from  a  Roman  prefect  who  erected  the 


ALE 


ALL 


column  in  honor  of  the  emperor  Diocle- 
tian— and  one  of  the  two  obelisks  or 
''Needles  of  Cleopatra,"  which,  however, 
belong  to  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs  and 
were  brought  from  Heliopolis.  One  was 
transferred  to  London  in  1878,  and  now 
adorns  the  embankment  of  the  Thames  : 
the  other  is  to  be  removed  to  the  city  of 
New  York  (1880). 

ALEXANDRIANS.  Acts  6  :  9. 
Jews  from  Alexandria  at  Jerusalem, 
where  they  had  a  synagogue  by  them- 
selves, or  perhaps  the  Libertines  and 
Cyrenians  worshipped  with  them. 

AL'GUM.     See  Almug. 

ALI'AH  (ivicl-cditoifi).     See  Alvah. 

ALI'AN  {tall).  1  Chr.  1  :  40.  See 
Alvan. 

A'LIEN.     See  Stranger. 

AL'LEGORY.  Gal.  4:24.  A  fig- 
ure of  speech,  nearly  resembling  the 
parable  or  fable,  common  in  the  Scrip- 
tures and  among  all  Oriental  nations. 
It  properly  means  a  figurative  speech 
which,  under  the  literal  sense  of  the 
words,  conveys  a  deeper  spiritual  mean- 
ing. But  the  literal  or  historic  sense 
is  not  necessarily  denied.  Paul  gives 
two  examples  of  allegorical  interpreta- 


tion— the  rock  in  the  wilderness  of 
which  the  Israelites  did  drink,  and  which 
spiritually  or  mystically  means  Christ, 
1  Cor.  10  :  4 ;  and  the  story  of  Hagar 
and  Sarah.  Gal.  4  :  24,  25.  In  v.  25  the 
best  critical  authorities  leave  out  "Agar," 
and  thus  rid  the  verse  of  much  of  its  dif- 
ficulty, for  it  is  not  asserted  that  Agar 
is.  but  that  Sinai  is,  a  mountain  in  Ara- 
bia.    See  Parable. 

ALLELII'IA,  Rev.l9 : 1,0R  HAL- 
LELU'JAH,  a  Hebrew  word  signify- 
ing Praific  ye  the  Lord.  It  was  a  com- 
mon exclamation  of  joy  and  praise  in 
the  Jewish  worshi]i,  and  begins  and  con- 
cludes several  of  the  Psalms,  as  106,  111, 
112, 113, 117,  and  135.  The  Psalms  113 
to  118  constituted,  according  to  Jewish 
enumeration,  the  Ilallel,  which  was 
sung  on  the  first  of  the  month  and  at 
the  Feasts  of  Dedication,  Tabernacles, 
Weeks,  and  of  the  Passover. 

ALLI'ANCE.  The  Jews  were  in 
intention  a  peculiar  people,  designed  to 
live  apart  from  all  other  nations.  But 
they  frustrated  this  design,  and  leagued 
themselves  in  off'ensive  and  defensive 
treaties  with  the  surrounding  govern- 
ments.   We  know  so  little  of  the  details 

39 


ALL 


ALM 


of  these  affairs  that  we  cannot  always 
be  sure  just  when  they  took  phice.  But 
it  is  noticeable  that  the  decay  of  the 
Jewish  state  in  purity  is  synchronous 
with  a  desire  to  receive  outside  help. 
They  left  God  for  man.  Before  the  state 
arose,  alliances  were  indeed  formed  by 
the  patriarchs,  Gen.  21 :  27-32;  26  :  28, 
29  ;  31 :  44-54,  but  the}'  were  of  very  lim- 
ited extent.  When  the  Israelites  invad- 
ed Palestine  they  were  forbidden  to  ally 
themselves  with  the  inhabitants,  but  the 
Gibeonites  fraudulently  made  a  treaty 
with  them,  to  which  Israel  abode  faith- 
ful. Josh.  9.  David  and  Solomon  made 
an  alliance   with   Tyre,    2  Sam.  5  :  11; 

1  Kgs.  5  :  1-12,  but  it  was  for  pacific 
ends.  When,  however,  the  disruption 
took  place,  both  Judah  and  Israel  look- 
ed to  neighboring  states  for  assistance 
in  their  "  intestine  internecine  wars." 
By  means  of  these  foreigners  idolatry 
was  introduced,  the  national  purity 
eventually  destroyed,  and  the  anger  of 
God  thus  excited. 

Alliances  were  made  by  an  oath  be- 
tween the  parties,  who  in  solemn  fashion 
passed  between  the  parts  of  an  equally- 
divided  victim.  Gen.  15:10;  Jer.  34: 
18-20.     A  feast  followed.    Gen.  26  :  30  : 

2  Sam.  3  :  20.  Salt,  symbol  of  fidelity 
to  this  day  in  the  East,  was  used  ;  hence 
the  phrase  "covenant  of  salt."  Num. 
18  :  19  ;  2  Chr.  13  :  5.  Once  made,  these 
alliances  must  not  be  broken.  Josh.  9 : 
18 ;  the  punishment  for  so  doing  was 
severe.     2  Sam.  21 :  1 ;  Eze.  17  :  16. 

AL'LON  {an  oak),  a  place  on  the 
boundary  of  Naphtali,  Josh.  19  :  33  ; 
probably  should  be  rendered  the  "oak- 
forest."     See  Zaanannim. 

AL'LON  (ou  oak),  the  son  of  Je- 
daiah.     1  Chr.  4:37. 

AL'LON-BACH'UTH  (oak  of 
iveepiiif/),  an  oak  tree  near  Bethel,  under 
which  Deborah,  Rebekah's  nurse,  was 
buried.     Gen.  35  :  8. 

ALMO'DAD  (immeasurable),  the 
Joktanite.     Gen.  10  :  26;  1  Chr.  1:  20. 

AL'MOX.     Josh.  21 :  18.    See  Ale- 

METH. 

Ali'MOND  (Amygdalus  communis), 
a  tree  resembling  the  peach  in  size,  leaf, 
flower,  and  fruit.  The  fruit  is  green, 
almost  pulpless,  and  shrivels  off  in  Sep- 
tember, leaving  the  nuts,  for  which  the 
tree  is  chiefly  valued,  and  which  the  sons 
of  Jacob  carried  down  to  the  governor 
40 


of  Egypt,  a  country  where  almonds  seem 
to  have  been  rare.  Gen.  43: 11.  "Hazel," 
in  Gen.  30  :  37,  probably'  denotes  this 
tree.  The  bowls  of  the  sacred  candle- 
stick were  made  like  unto  almonds,  Ex. 
25:33,  by  which  name  of  "almonds" 
English  workmen  to  this  day  call  the 
pieces  of  glass  used  to  ornament  branch- 
candlesticks.  Aaron's  rod  that  budded 
yielded  this  fruit.     Num.  17  :  8. 

In  January,  before  flowers  appear  on 
other  trees,  they  adorn  the  naked  twigs 
of  the  almond.  Hence  the  allusion  of 
the  poet: 

"  The  hope,  in  dreams  of  a  happier  hour. 
That  alights  on  Misery's  brow, 
Springs  out  of  the  silvery  almond-flower. 
That  blooms  on  a  leafless  bough." 

The  Hebrew  name  for  this  tree,  doubt- 
less suggested  by  its  early  blooming, 
means  hasten,  which  explains  Jer.  1:11, 
12 :  "  The  word  of  the  Lord  came  unto 
me,  saying,  Jeremiah,  what  seest  thou  ? 
And  I  said,  I  see  a  rod  of  an  almond 
[hasteii]  tree.  Then  said  the  Lord  unto 
me,  Thou  hast  well  seen :  for  I  will 
hasten  my  word  to  perform  it."  The 
allusion  in  Eccl.  12  :  5  is  by  some 
thought  to  refer  to  the  beautiful  resem- 
blance of  the  almond  ti'ee  when  in  blos- 
som to    a   hoary  head.      But   as   these 


Almond.     {From  Wm.  Smith.) 

flowers,  though  white  in  contrast  with 
peach-bloom,  are  still  pinkish,  the  opin- 
ion now  prevails  that  "  as  the  almond 
ushers  in  the  spring,  so  do  the  signs  re- 
ferred to  in  the  context  indicate  the 
hastening  of  old  age  and  death." 


ALM 


ALT 


AL'MON-DIB'LATHA^IM 

(hidhuj  of  the  two  Ji(/-c((k('>i),  one  of  the 
halting-places    of   the    Israelites   near 
the  river  Arnon  ;  probably  the  same  as 
Beth-diblathaim.      Num.   33  :  46,  47 ; 
Jer.  48  :  22. 

ALMS,   ALMS    DEEDS.     The 
word    is  not  found  in  the  Authorized 
Version  of  the  Old  Testament,  but  is 
frequent  in  the  New  Testament.     The 
duty  was.  however,  enjoined  very  strict- 
ly upon  the  Jews,  who  by  law  were  re- 
quired always  to  leave  gleanings  in  the 
fields  that  the  poor  might  be  fed.     Lev. 
19  :  9,  10  ;  23  :  22  :  Deut.  15  :  11  ;  24  : 
19;  26:2-13;  Ruth  2  :  2.     Every  third 
year  the  tithe  of  the  produce  of  the 
farmers    was   to    be    shared    with    the 
Levite,  the  fatherless,  the  stranger,  and 
the  widow.    Deut.  14  :  28.    Alms-giving 
is  a  subject  of  praise  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment; e.g.   Job  31:17;    Ps.  41:1   and 
112  :  9.     In  the  temple  there  was  one  box 
for  the  reception  of  alms  to  be  dedicated 
to  the  education  of  the  poor  children  of 
good  family.    Alms-giving  was  a  part  of 
Pharisaic  practice.     Our  Lord  did  not 
rebuke  them  for  it,  but  for  their  self- 
satisfaction  in  the  performance.     Matt. 
6:2.     In  Acts  10  :  31 ;  Rom.  15  :  25-27  ; 
1  Cor.  16  :  1-4  the  Christian  mode  of  re- 
lieving the  wants  of  others  is  set  forth. 

AL'MUG  TREES,  1  Kgs.  10:11, 
AL'GUM  TREES,  2Chr.  2:8;  9: 
10,  11.  Two  forms  of  the  same  word. 
A  precious  wood  used  for  musical  in- 
struments or  cabinet-work.  Being  or- 
dered by  Solomon,  it  was  brought  from 
Ophir  to  Tyre,  and  thence  with  cedar  of 
Lebanon  to  Jerusalem.  As  to  what 
almug-wood  was  there  are  many  theo- 
ries, but  some  of  the  best  authorities 
believe  it  to  have  been  the  red  sandal- 
wood of  India. 

AL'OES.  Ps.  45  :  8  ;  Song  Sol.  4  : 
14.  We  may  infer  that  aloes  was  some 
fragrant  and  costly  wood  or  gum  entire- 
ly different  from  the  medicine  which  we 
know  by  that  name.  It  is  believed  to 
have  been  brought  from  India,  and  was 
used  in  embalming  the  dead.  John  19  : 
39. 

Lign-aloes — that  is,  wood-aloes,  Num. 
24  :  6 — is  a  translation  of  the  same  He- 
brew word,  but  probably  means  a  differ- 
ent plant.  Balaam  appears  to  refer  to 
a  well-known  tree  whose  qualities  might 
illustrate  the  condition  of  the  Israelites 


— possibly,  to  some  kind  of  odoriferous 
cedar. 


Aloes  (Aquilaria  agallocha.     After  Dr.  Blrdwood.) 

A'LOTH,  a  district  in  charge  of 
Baanah,  one  of  Solomon's  officers ;  per- 
haps it  should  be  Bealoth.  1  Kgs.  4  : 
16;  possibly,  Alia,  near  Malia. 

AL'PHA.     See  A  and  0. 

ALPHE'US  {exchamie  ?).  1.  The 
father  of  the  apostle  James  the  Less, 
Matt.  10 : 3,  and  husband  or  father  of 
Mary.  John  19  :  25.  Others  make  him 
the  uncle  of  Jesus  by  identifying  him 
with  Cleophas  and  calling  his  wife  a  sister 
of  the  mother  of  Jesus ;  but  it  is  more 
likely  that  "  the  sister  of  the  mother  of 
Jesus,"  mentioned  John  19  :  25,  was 
Salome,  the  mother  of  John,  who  was  at 
the  cross,  according  to  the  synoptical 
Gospels.     Matt.  27  :  36  ;  Mark'l5  :  40. 

2.    The  father  of  Levi  or  Matthew. 
Mark  2:14. 

AL'TAR.  Gen.  8:20.  A  structure 
appropriated  exclusively  to  the  offering 
of  sacrifices,  under  the  Jewish  law. 
See  Sacrifices.  Though  sacrifices  were 
offered  before  the  Flood,  the  word  altar 
does  not  occur  until  the  time  of  Noah's 
departure  from  the  ark. 

Altars  were  of  various  forms,  and  at 
first  rude  in  their  construction,  being 
nothing  more,  probably,  than  a  square 
heap  of  stones  or  mound  of  earth. 
The  altar  on  which  Jacob  made  an  of- 
fering at  Bethel  was  the  single  stone 
which  had  served  him  for  a  pillow  dur- 
ing the  night.  Gen.  28  :  18.  Primarily 
for  sacrifice,  they  seem  at  times  to  have 
been  built  for  a  witness  merely,  to  mark 
the  spot  of  God's  appearance  or  other 

41 


ALT 


ALT 


memorable  event.  Gen.  12  :  7  ;  Ex.  17  : 
15,  16;  Josh.  22:10-29.  The  altar 
which  Moses  was  commanded  to  build, 
Ex.  20  :  24,  was  to  be  made  of  earth. 
If  made  of  stone,  it  was  expressly  re- 
quired to  be  rough,  the  use  of  a  tool 
being  regarded  as  polluting,  Ex.  20 : 
25,  but  this  refers  only  to  the  body  of 
the  altar  and  that  part  on  which  the 
victim  was  laid,  as  is  evident  from  the 
directions  given  for  making  a  casing  of 
shittim-wood  and  overlaying  it  with 
brass  for  the  altar  of  burnt-oflfering. 
It  was  also  to  be  without  steps.  Ex. 
20  :  26.  See  also  Deut.  27  :  2-6  and 
Josh.  8  :  31.  The  law  of  Moses  forbade 
the  erection  of  altars  except  in  the 
tabernacle ;  yet  even  pious  Israelites 
disobeyed  the  letter  of  this  law,  for 
Gideon,  Samuel,  David,  and  Solomon 
are  mentioned  as  setting  up  altars.  The 
,  temple  altar  was  an  asylum  ;  e.  g.  1  Kgs. 
1 :  50.  Altars  were  used  in  idol-worship  ; 
and  because  they  were  often  erected  on 
high  places  they  acquired  the  name  of 
"high  places." 

The  structures  are  different,  as  well  as 
the  apparent  ornaments  and  uses.  On 
representations  of  them  are  projections 
upward  at  each  corner,  which  represent 
the  true  figure  of  the  horns.  Ex.  27  :  2  ; 
1  Kgs.  2:28;  Rev.  9:13.  They  were 
probably  used  to  confine  the  victim. 
Ps.  118:27. 

The  altars  required  in  the  Jewish 
worship  were  : 

1.  "The  altar  of  burnt -offering," 
or  the  "  brazen  altar,"  in  the  taber- 
nacle in  the  wilderness.  This  altar 
stood  directly  in  front  of  the  principal 
entrance.  It  was  made  of  shittim-wood 
(acacia),  seven  feet  and  six  inches 
square,  and  four  feet  and  six  inches 
high.  It  was  hollow  and  overlaid  with 
plates  of  brass.  The  horns — of  which 
there  was  one  on  each  corner — were  of 
wood,  and  overlaid  in  the  same  way. 
A  grate  or  net-work  of  brass  was  also 
attached  to  it,  either  to  hold  the  fire  or 
to  support  a  hearth  of  earth.  The  fur- 
niture of  the  altar  was  all  of  brass,  and 
consisted  of,  1.  a  shovel  to  remove  the 
ashes  from  the  altar ;  2.  a  2)an  to  re- 
ceive them  ;  3.  basins  for  receiving  the 
blood  of  the  victims  and  removing  it; 
4.  hooks  for  turning  the  sacrifice ;  5. 
fire-pans,  or  perhaps  censers,  for  carry- 
ing coals  from  the  fire  or  for  burning 
42 


incense.  At  each  corner  was  a  brass 
ring,  and  there  were  also  two  staves  or 
rods  ovei'laid  with  brass,  which  passed 
through  these  rings,  and  served  for  car- 


Altar  of  Bunit-Offeiiiig  in  the  Tabernacle. 

rying  the  altar  from  place  to  place. 
The  altar  is  described  in  Ex.  27.  The 
''  compass  "  referred  to,  v.  5,  was  a  ledge 
running  all  around  the  altar  about  mid- 
way from  the  ground — affording  a  con- 
venient place  for  the  priest  to  stand 
while  offering  sacrifice — supported  bj'  a 
brass  net-like  grating.  The  fire  used 
on  this  altar  was  kindled  miraculously 
and  was  perpetually  maintained.  It 
was  also  a  place  of  constant  sacrifice. 

In  the  first  temple,  which  in  its  gen- 
eral plan  was  constructed  after  the  pat- 
tern of  the  tabernacle  in  the  wilderness, 
the  altar  of  burnt-offering  stood  in  the 
same  relative  position  as  in  the  taber- 
nacle. It  was  much  larger,  however, 
being  thirty  feet  square  and  fifteen  feet 
high,  its  particular  plan  being  appoint- 


Altar  of  Buint-Offei'iiit;  in  the  Templo. 
{From  Surenhusius's  Mishna.) 

ed  expressly  by  divine  authority.  It 
was  made  entirely  of  bronze  plates, 
which  covered  a  structure  of  earth  or 
stone.  2  Chr.  4:1.  In  the  second  tem- 
ple it  occupied  the  same  position,  though 
it  was  still  larger  and  more  beautiful  than 
in  the  first.  An  inclined  plane  led  in 
each  case  up  to  the  altar,  since  express 
command  forbade  the  Jews  using  steps. 
Ex.  20 :  26. 

2.  The    "  altar   of    incense,"    or    the 
"golden  altar,"  stood  within   the   holy 


ALT 


AMA 


place  and  near  to  the  inmost  veil.  Ex. 
30 :  1-6.  It-  was  made  of  the  same 
wood  with  the  brazen  altar,  and  was 
eighteen  inches  square  and  three  feet 
high.  The  top,  as  well  as  the  sides  and 
horns,  was  overlaid  with  pure  gold,  and 
it  was  finished  around  the  upper  surface 


Altar  of  Incense. 

with  a  crown  or  border  of  gold.  Just 
beloTY  this  border  four  golden  rings  were 
attached  to  each  side  of  the  altar,  one 
near  each  corner.  The  staves  or  rods 
for  bearing  the  altar  passed  through 
these  rings,  and  were  made  of  the  same 
wood  with  the  altar  itself,  and  richly 
overlaid  with  the  same  precious  metal. 
Upon  this  altar  incense  was  burned 
every  morning  and  every  evening  (see 
Incexse),  so  that  it  was  literally  per- 
petual. Ex.  30:8.  The  "altar  of  in- 
cense "  in  Solomon's  temple  was  made 
of  cedar  overlaid  with  gold.  Neither 
burnt-sacrifice,  nor  meat-offering,  nor 
drink-off'ering,  was  permitted  upon  this 
altar,  nor  was  it  ever  stained  with  blood, 
except  once  annually,  when  the  priest 
made  atonement.     Lev.  16:  18,  19. 

ALTAR  TO  THE  [AN]  UN- 
KNOWN GOD,  referred  to  by  Paul. 
Acts  17 :  23.  There  were  in  Athens  several 
altars  with  this  inscription,  which  were 
erected  during  a  plague,  the  Athenians 
believing  they  had  unconsciously  offend- 
ed some  divinity,  but  not  knowing  whom. 

AL-TAS'CHITH  {destroy  not). 
These  words  are  in  the  titles  to  Ps.  57, 
58,  59  and  75,  and  are  probably  "the 
beginning  of  some  song  or  poem  to  the 
tune  of  which  those  psalms  were  to  be 
chanted." 

A'LiUSH  (a  crowd  of  men,  or  p^ace 
of  wild  beasts),  an  encampment  of  the 


Israelites  on  their  way  to  Sinai,  and  the 
last  before  Rephidim.  Num.  33  :  13, 14. 
See  Rki'Hidim. 

AL'VAH  (wickedness),  a  chief  of 
Edom.  Gen.  36  :  40.  Called  Aliah  in 
IChr.  1:51. 

AL'VAN  (tall),  a  descendant  of 
Sier  the  Horite.  Gen.  36  :  23.  Called 
Alian  in  1  Chr.  1:40. 

A'MAD  {people  of  duration),  a  town 
ofAsher.  Josh.  19  :  26.  Robinson  sug- 
gested that  it  might  be  located  at  Shefi 
Amar,  on  a  ridge  of  Haifa.  Drake  pro- 
poses to  identify  it  with  el-Amud. 

A'MAL  {labor),  an  Asherite.  1  Chr. 
7:35. 

AM'ALEK  (diceller  in  a  valley), 
the  son  of  Eliphaz,  and  grandson  of 
Esau,  chieftain  or  "duke"  of  Edom. 
Gen.  36  :  16.  The  Amalekites  were  not 
named  from  him,  for  they  existed  long 
before.  Gen.  14  :  7.  Arabian  tradition 
makes  him  the  son  of  Ham. 

AM'ALEKITES.  1  Sam.  15  :  6. 
A  powerful  people  of  uncertain  origin, 
first  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
invasion  of  Chedorlaomer.  Gen.  14  :  7. 
They  are  called.  Num.  24:  20,  the  first 
of  all  the  nations.  They  were  signally 
defeated  in  a  contest  with  the  children 
of  Israel  at  Rephidim,  and  for  oppos- 
ing the  progress  of  Israel  they  became 
objects  of  God's  judgments.  They  were 
afterward  defeated  and  repulsed  by  Gid- 
eon, Jud.  7 :  22,  and  by  Saul,  1  Sam.  15, 
and  by  David,  1  Sam.  30,  till  at  last 
the  word  of  the  Lord  Avas  fulfilled  to 
the  very  letter,  and  their  name  was 
blotted  from  the  earth.  1  Sam.  30  :  17 
and  1  Chr.  4  :  43. 

AMALEKITES,  COUNTRY 
OF  THE,  a  region  lying  between 
Canaan  and  Egypt,  chiefly  south  of  the 
mountains  of  Judah,  and  from  Mount 
Sinai  eastward  to  Mount  Seir  and  the 
Salt  Sea.  Gen.  14  :  7  ;  Ex.  17 :  8  :  Num. 
13  :  29  ;  14 :  25.  For  the  physical  fea- 
tures and  character  of  the  region  see 
Sinai. 

AM  ALEKITES,  MOUNT  OF 
THE.  Jud.  12:15.  A  mountain  or 
hilly  district  in  Ephraim,  probably  so 
named  from  an  early  settlement  of  the 
Amalekites  or  a  later  invasion  by 
them. 

A'MAM  {gathering-place),  a  city  in 
the  south  of  Judah.  Josh.  15  :  26. 
Wilton  and  others  would  join  this  word 

43 


AMA 


AMA 


2.  A 

range, 


with  Hazor  in  the  preceding  verse,  and 
read  "  Hazor-Aman,"  but  ancient  au- 
thorities do  not  support  this  view.  Its 
precise  location  is  unknown. 

AM'ANA,  OR  AMA'NA  {peren- 
nial). 1.  Margin,  same  as  Abana.  2 
Kgs.  5  :  12.     See  Abana. 

ridge  or  peak  of  the  Lebanon 
in    which    the    river  Amana   or 
Abana  has  its  source.     Song.  Sol.  4:8. 

AMARI'AH  {mid,  i.  e.  jjrumixed). 
1.  Son  of  Meraioth,  a  descendant  of 
Aaron  in  the  line  of  Eleazar,  and 
father  of  Ahitub,  whose  son,  Zadok,  was 
made  high  priest,  bringing  back  the  of- 
fice to  his  family.     1  Chr.  6  :  7,  52. 

2.  A  high  priest  later  on.  1  Chr.  6:11. 

3.  A  Kohathite  Levite.  1  Chr.  23  :  19  ; 
24 :  23. 

4.  The  head  of  one  of  the  twenty-four 
courses  of  priests.  2  Chr.  31 :  15  ;  Neh. 
10:3. 

5.  One  in  Ezra's  time.     Ezr.  10  :  42. 

6.  An  ancestor  of  Zephaniah  the 
prophet.     Zeph.  1 : 1. 

7.  One  of  the  family  of  Perez.  Neh. 
11:4. 

AM'ASA  {a  burden).  1.  A  son  of 
Jether  (or  Ithra)  and  Abigail,  and 
nephew  of  David.  He  joined  in  Ab- 
salom's rebellion,  and  was  appointed  his 
commander-in-chief.  2  Sam.  17  :  25. 
Being  defeated  by  Joab,  and  Absalom 
being  killed,  he  submitted  to  David,  and 
was  made  captain  of  the  host  in  room 
of  Joab,  his  cousin,  whose  part  in  the 
death  of  Absalom  and  general  lack  of 
respect  brought  him  into  disfavor. 
When  Sheba  revolted  David  sent  Amasa 
to  assemble  the  people  within  three 
days,  but  his  tardiness,  owing,  perhaps, 
to  his  unpopularity,  obliged  David  to 
despatch  his  household  troops  under 
Abishai  in  pursuit  of  the  rebel.  Joab 
joined  his  brother,  and  meeting  Amasa 
on  the  latter's  return,  under  pretence  of 
saluting  him  killed  him  and  put  him- 
self again  in  supreme  command.  2  Sam. 
20  :  10.     See  Joab. 

2.  A  prince  of  Ephraim,  son  of  Had- 
lai,  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz.    2  Chr.  28 :  12. 

AMAS'AI  {htn-densome).  1.  A  Le- 
vite, one  of  the  sons  of  Elkanah.  1  Chr. 
6:25. 

2.  The  chief  of  a  party  that  came  to 
David  at  Ziklag.     1  Chr.  12  :  18. 

3.  One  of  the  priests  who  blew  the 
trumpets  before  the  ark.    1  Chr.  15  :  24. 

44 


4.  A  Kohathite  in  the  reign  of  Heze- 
kiah.     2  Chr.  29:12. 

AIHASH'AI  {burdensome),  a  priest 
of  the  time  of  Nehemiah,  Neh.  11 :  13. 
Some  suppose  him  to  be  the  same  as 
Maasiai.     1  Chr.  9  :  12. 

AMASI'AH  {ivhom  Jehovah  bears), 
the  son  of  Zichri,  captain  of  200,000 
men  under  Jehoshaphat.     2  Chr.  17  :  16. 

A  M  A  Z  1 '  A  H  ( whom  Jehovah 
strengthens).  1.  The  eighth  king  of  Ju- 
dah,  the  son  and  successor  of  Joash, 
commenced  his  reign  in  his  twenty-fifth 
year,  and  reigned  twenty-nine  years, 
B.  c.  839-809.  2  Kgs.  14  :  1-20.  He 
served  the  Lord,  but  not  perfectly.  He 
first  slew  his  father's  murderers,  but 
not  their  children,  thus  observing  the 
Mosaic  law.     2  Chr.  25  :  4. 

At  the  commencement  of  his  reign, 
he  showed  an  outward  regard  to  the 
law  of  the  Lord,  but  by  power  and 
ambition  he  fell  into  a  snare,  and  was 
destroyed  by  violence.  Amaziah  re- 
solved to  make  war  upon  the  Edomites, 
who  had  revolted  from  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  several  years  before.  2  Kgs.  8  : 
20.  He  raised  an  army  of  300,000  men 
from  among  his  own  subjects,  and 
hired  100,000  men  of  Israel,  for  whose 
services  he  paid  100,000  talents  of  sil- 
ver— the  first  example  in  Jewish  his- 
tory of  a  mercenary  army.  Before  he 
commenced  the  expedition,  however, 
he  was  directed  by  divine  authority 
to  dismiss  his  hired  soldiers,  or  if  he 
did  not  he  should  certainly  fall  before 
his  enemies.  After  some  hesitation  he 
sent  them  home.  Amaziah  met  the 
Edomites  in  a  place  called  the  Valley 
of  Salt,  and  gained  a  signal  victory 
over  them,  slaying  10,000  and  taking 
10,000  prisoners.  Elated  by  his  suc- 
cess, and  forgetful  of  God  who  had 
given  him  the  victory,  he  set  up  the 
idols  of  his  vanquished  enemy  as  his 
own  gods.  The  anger  of  the  Almighty 
was  kindled  against  him,  and  in  a  mes- 
sage God  exposed  and  rebuked  his  sin. 
2  Chr.  25:15.  The  king  was  already 
hardened  enough  to  question  the  au- 
thority of  God's  messenger,  and  even 
to  threaten  him  with  death.  Thus 
given  up  to  follow  his  own  devices,  he 
sought  occasion  of  war  with  Jehoash, 
king  of  Israel.  The  answer  of  the 
king  to  the  challenge  was  given  in 
the  form  of  a  fable  expressive  of  the 


AMB 


AMI 


utmost  contempt,  and  contained  at 
tha  same  time  a  severe  rebuke  to  the 
king  of  Judah  for  his  pride  and  vain- 
glory. Undeterred,  ho  met  the  army 
of  Israel  at  Beth-shemesh,  in  Judaja, 
but  his  army  was  completely  routed, 
and  he  was  taken  prisoner,  Jehoash 
then  proceeded  to  break  down  a  sec- 
tion of  the  city  wall  six  hundred  feet 
in  length,  and  marched  through  the 
breach,  plundered  the  temple  of  its 
gold  and  silver  vessels,  seized  the 
king's  treasures,  and  taking  such  host- 
ages as  he  pleased  returned  in  triumph 
to  Samaria.  2  Kgs.  14.  About  fifteen 
years  after  this  disgraceful  defeat,  Ama- 
ziah  fled  from  Jerusalem  to  Lachish  to 
escape  a  conspiracy ;  but  he  was  fol- 
lowed to  the  place  to  which  he  fled 
and  put  to  death,  and  Tiis  body  taken 
back  to  Jerusalem  and  buried  with 
his  fathers.  His  name  is  omitted  in 
the  genealogy  of  Christ. 

2.  A  Simeonite.     1  Chr.  4 :  34. 

3.  A  Levite.     1  Chr.  6  :  45. 

4.  A  priest  of  the  golden  calf  at  Beth- 
el who  complained  against  the  prophet 
Amos  to  Jeroboam,  king  of  Israel,  and 
tried  to  eff'ect  his  banishment.  Amos 
7  :  10-17.     See  Amos. 

AMBAS'SADOR,  a  person  of  the 
highest  rank,  ap])ointed  to  represent  his 
government  in  the  transaction  of  busi- 
ness with  a  foreign  power.  The  earliest 
mention  in  the  Bible  is  in  the  case  of  the 
Edomites,  Num.  20  :  14,  to  whom  Moses 
sent  "  messengers,"  also  in  the  case  of 
Moab,  the  Amorites,  the  Gibeonites,  and 
other  tribes.  See  Num.  21  :  21  ;  Josh. 
9:4;  Jud.  11:17-19.  In  the  days  of 
the  kingdoms  they  are  more  frequently 
mentioned.  An  injury  upon  them  was 
an  insult  to  their  king.  2  Sam.  10  :  5. 
Their  mission  was  often  pacific  or  con- 
gratulatory, as  in  the  latter  incident. 
Paul  calls  gospel-preachers  the  ambas- 
sadors of  Christ.     2  Cor.  5  :  20. 

AM'BASSAGE.  Luke  14:. 32.  A 
public  message.  The  term  may  include 
the  messenger  or  ambassador  as  well  as 
his  message. 

AM'BER.  Eze.  1:4,  27;  8:2  (bet- 
ter electrum,  or  bright  gold  gum).  Fos- 
sil gum,  a  beautiful  bituminous  sub- 
stance, susceptible  of  a  fine  polish, 
varying  in  color,  but  chiefly  yellow  and 
orange.  It  is  mined  in  Prussia,  and 
also  washed  ashore  by  the  waves  of  the 


Baltic  Sea.  The  word  here  used  prob- 
ably denotes  elcctnun,  a  metal  coni])osed 
of  gold  and  silver  and  held  in  high  es- 
timation among  the  ancients.  In  the 
passages  cited  the  allusion  is  simply  to 
the  color  of  amber,  and  docs  not  neces- 
sarily imj)ly  that  it  is  indestructible  by 
fire. 

AMEN'  (literally,  true,  Jirm  ;  iiu'' 
aphorically,  faithful),  used  to  denote 
assent  or  entire  acquiescence,  impress- 
ing the  staraj)  of  absolute  tiiithfulness 
upon  the  statement.  Deut.  27  :  la.  It 
was  used  as  the  solemn  atfirmative  re- 
sponse to  an  oath.  The  word  was  often 
repeated.  It  is  a  matter  of  tradition 
that  in  the  temple  the  ''Amen"  was 
not  uttered  by  the  people,  but  that  in- 
stead, at  the  conclusion  of  the  priest's 
prayers,  they  responded,  "  Blessed  be 
the  name  of  the  glory  of  His  kingdom 
for  ever  and  ever."  Of  this  a  trace  is 
supposed  to  remain  in  the  concluding 
sentence  of  the  Lord's  Prayer.  Comp. 
Rom.  11 :  36.  But  in  the  synagogue  and 
private  houses  it  was  customary  for  the 
people  or  members  of  the  family  who 
were  present  to  say  "  Amen "  to  the 
prayers  which  were  off'ered  by  the  min- 
ister or  master  of  the  house,  and  the 
custom  remained  in  the  early  Christian 
Church.  Matt.  6  :  13 ;  1  Cor.  14  :  16. 
Doxologies  and  private  prayers  were 
appropriately  closed  with  "  Amen."  It 
is  sometimes  translated  verili/,  and  was 
frequently  used  by  our  Saviour  when 
he  was  about  to  utter  some  distinct,  im- 
portant, and  solemn  truth.  Its  repeti- 
tion, "  Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you  " 
(in  John)  strengthens  the  assertion. 

The  promises  of  God  are  amen,  be- 
cause they  are  made  sure  and  certain  in 
Christ.  2  Cor.  1 :  20.  Amen  is  one  of 
the  titles  of  our  blessed  Saviour,  Rev.  3  : 
14,  as  he  is  the  faithful  and  true  witness. 

AM'ETHYST.  Ex.  39:  12;  Rev. 
21  :  20.  A  precious  stone  consisting  of 
crystallized  quartz,  of  a  purple  or  blu- 
ish-violet color.  Oriental  amethyst,  a 
variety  of  sapphire,  is  probably  included 
under  this  latter  name. 

A'MI  {a  builder),  one  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  2  :  57.  He  is 
termed  Amon  in  Neh.  7  :  59. 

AMIN'AUAB  FOR  AMMIN'A- 
DAB.     Matt.  1:4;  Luke  3  : 3;i. 

AMIT'TAI  (true),  the  father  of  Jo- 
nah.    2  Kgs.  14:26;  Jon.  1:1. 

45 


AMM 


AMM 


AM'MAH  {head,  or  water/all),  a 
hill  in  front  of  Giah,  near  Gibeon,  to 
which  Joab  pursued  Abner.  2  Sam.  2  : 
24.     See  also  Metheg-ammaii. 

AM'MI,  explained  in  the  margin 
correctly,  "  mv  people."     Hos.  2:1. 

AHI'MIEL  {people  of  God).  1.  The 
spy  from  Dan.     Num.  13  :  12. 

2.  The  father  of  Machir,  of  Lo-debar. 
2  Sam.  9  :  4,  5  ;  17  :  27. 

3.  The  father  of  Bath-sheba,  1  Chr.  3  : 
5;  called  Eliam  in  2  Sam.  11 :  3. 

4.  The  sixth  son  of  Obed-edom,  and  a 
temple-porter.     1  Chr.  26  :  5. 

AMMI'HUD  {people  ofJudah).  1. 
An  ancestor  of  Joshua  through  Elish- 
ama,  the  chief  of  Ephraim  in  the  Wan- 
dering. Num.  1:10;  2:18;  7  :  48,  53  ; 
10  :  22  ;  1  Chr.  7  :  26. 

2.  A  Simeonite.     Num.  34:20. 

3.  A  Naphtalite.     Num.  34 :  28. 

4.  Father  of  Talmai,  king  of  Geshur. 
2  Sam.  13  :  37. 

5.  A  descendant  of  Pharez,  son  of  Ju- 
dah.     1  Chr.  9  :  4. 

AMMIN'ADAB  {one  of  tie  people 
of  the  prince).  1.  The  son  of  Ram  or 
Aram,  who  was  the  great-grandson  of 
Judah,  and  father  of  Elisheba,  the  wife 
of  Aaron.  He  was  in  the  line  of  Christ's 
ancestors.  Ex.  6  :  23  ;  Num.  1:7;  2  : 
3:  7:12,17;  10  :  14;  Ruth  4  :  19,  20  ; 
1  Chr.  2:10. 

2.  A  Kohathite,  and  chief  of  the  112 
sons  of  Uzziel.     1  Chr.  15  :  10-12. 

3.  Put  for  Izhar,  probably  by  copyist's 
error,  in  1  Chr.  6  :  22. 

AMMISHAD'DAI  {one  of  the  peo- 
ple of  the  AlinifjJtti/),  the  father  of  Ahi- 
ezer,  prince  of  Dan.  Num.  1:12;  2 : 
25:  7:66,  71:  10:25. 

AMMIZ'ABAD  {j)eople  of  the 
direr,  \.  e.  Jehorah ),  an  officer  in  Da- 
vid's army.     1  Chr.  27  :  6. 

AM'MON,  AND  AMMONITES, 
LAND  OF,  etc.,  a  mountainous  coun- 
try on  the  east  side  of  the  Salt  Sea, 
reaching  from  the  river  Arnon  to  the 
Jabbok.  Num.  21 :  24  ;  Deut.  2:19,  20. 
It  lay  to  the  north  of  the  land  of  Moab ; 
and  "the  land,"  "borders,"  or  "cities" 
of  the  children  of  Amnion  are  noticed 
over  15  times  in  Old  Testament  history, 
and  frequently  with  Moab.  The  precise 
extent  of  their  country  cannot  be  deter- 
mined, as  they  appear  to  have  led  a  wan- 
dering, predatory  life  similar  to  that  of 
the  wild  Arab  tribes  now  in  that  region. 
46 


Gilead  was  the  best  portion  of  their 
land.  Among  the  cities  held  by  them, 
sometimes,  apparently,  in  common  with 
Moab,  were  Heshbon,  Rabbah,  and  Min- 
nith.  The  land  which  the  king  of  Am- 
mon  claimed  in  the  time  of  the  Judges, 
Jud.  11:  13,  once  belonged  to  a  "king 
of   Moab."     Num.  21:26. 

AMMONITES,  on  CHIL- 
DREN OF  AM'MON,  Gen.  19  :  38, 
were  the  descendants  of  Ben-ammi,  a 
son  of  Lot.  He  was  born  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Zoar,  but  his  posterity  spread 
northwardly  and  occupied  the  mountain- 
regions  of  Gilead,  between  the  rivers 
Arnon  and  Jabbok.  Originally  their 
possessions  were  bounded  north  bj'  the 
river  Jabbok,  west  by  Jordan,  south  by 
Arnon,  and  stretched  eastwardly  into 
Arabia.  The  Amorites,  under  Sihon, 
their  king,  expelled  them  from  the  rich- 
est part  of  their  possessions,  which  lay 
between  the  two  rivers ;  but  Moses  re- 
covered it  from  the  Amorites  and  di- 
vided it  between  Reuben  and  Gad. 
The  western  boundary  of  the  Ammon- 
ites then  became  a  branch  of  the  river 
Jabbok  (on  which  their  capital  city, 
Rabbah  or  Rabbath-Ammon,  stood), 
and  the  mountains  of  Gilead  bounded 
them  on  the  east,  while  the  main  stream 
of  the  Jabbok  continued  to  be  their 
northern  boundary,  and  the  land  of 
Moab  the  southern.  This  last  is  in- 
tended by  the  kingdom  of  Ammon  as 
used  in  the  sacred  history. 

The  children  of  Ammon  were  gross 
idolaters.  .Jud.  10:  6.  Their  chief  idol 
was  Molech,  the  same  with  Milcom,  and 
their  history  is  full  of  the  judgments 
which  their  sins  brought  upon  them, 
though  they  were  spared,  by  God's  ex- 
press command,  Avhen  Israel  passed  by 
them  from  Egypt,  because  Lot  was  their 
progenitor.  Deut.  2:19;  2  Chr.  20  :  10. 
Three  hundred  years  afterward  the  king 
of  the  Ammonites  made  war  upon  the 
Israelites,  under  the  pretence  that  they 
had  taken  their  land,  Jud.  11 :  13,  and 
after  a  severe  battle  the  Ammonites 
were  routed  with  great  slaughter.  In 
the  beginning  of  Saul's  reign,  1  Sam. 
11  :  1,  the  Ammonites,  under  Nahash, 
their  king,  attacked  Jabesh-gilead,  but 
proposed  to  spare  the  inhabitants  pro- 
vided they  would  all  consent  to  lose  the 
right  eye.  During  the  time  allowed  for 
their  answer  they  collected  a  sufficient 


AMM 


AMO 


force  to  meet  the  Ammonites,  and  so 
completely  routed  them  that  two  of 
them  were  not  left  together.  Fifty  or 
sixty  years  after  this  one  of  the  kings 
of  the  Ammonites  died,  and  David,  who 
seems  to  have  been  under  some  obliga- 
tion to  him,  sent  a  message  of  condo- 
lence to  his  son  and  successor.  This 
friendly  act  was  not  received  kindly, 
and  the  messengers  of  David  were 
grossly  abused  and  insulted.  See  ILv- 
NFX.  Expecting  that  David  would  at- 
tempt to  revenge  the  insult,  they  ob- 
tained large  supplies  of  men  from  the 
Syrians ;  and  when  David  heard  of 
their  preparation  for  war,  he  sent  Joab, 
with  a  chosen  troop  from  the  army  of 
Israel,  to  meet  them.  The  result  was 
fatal  to  the  Ammonites.  They  and  their 
allies  were  subdued,  and  fled.  Rabbah, 
their  capital,  and  all  the  rest  of  their 
cities  were  afterward  destroyed  by  the 
Israelites,  the  king's  crown  was  taken 
from  his  head  and  put  on  David's  head, 
and  the  people  were  reduced  to  a  state 
of  abject  servitude.  2  Sam.  12:26-31. 
In  this  condition  they  remained  till  the 
reign  of  Jehoshaphat,  when  they  united 
with  the  Moabites  and  others  and  made 
war  upon  Judah,  and  were  miraculous- 
ly cut  off.  2  Chr.  20.  Jotham  fought 
and  prevailed  against  them,  and  made 
them  tributary  for  several  years.  Many 
Jews  sought  refuge  among  them  in  the 
time  of  the  Captivity,  but  they  do  not 
seem  to  have  decreased  their  hostile  feel- 
ing. The  most  dreadful  judgments  were 
threatened  against  them  and  their  chief 
city  because  they  seized  and  occupied  a 
part  of  the  territory  of  Israel,  Jer.  49  : 
1-6,  and  again  because  they  insolently 
triumphed  over  the  Israelites  in  the  days 
of  their  captivity,  Eze.  25  :  2-7,  10  ;  and 
every  threat  was  executed  to  the  very 
uttermost  in  due  time,  as  profane  his- 
tory abundantly  attests.  "  During  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees  various  battles 
were  fought  between  the  Ammonites 
and  the  Jews ;  and  during  the  changes 
that  ensued,  first  under  the  Grecian,  then 
under  the  Roman  supremacy,  the  Am- 
monites lost  their  independent  posi- 
tion, and  gradually  became  amalgama- 
ted with  the  general  Arab  population." 
They  were  a  cruel,  remorseless,  nomadic 
people.  To  their  god  Molech  they  offered 
human  sacrifices.  See  Molech.  Where 
their  capital  once  stood  is  now  the  vil- 


lage of  Amman,  20  miles  south-east  of 
the  modern  town  of  cn-Sa/t. 

AM'MOIV-NO.     See  No. 

AIVl'NON  [faithfnl).  1.  The  eldest 
son  of  David,  who  was  guilty  of  vio- 
lating the  chastity  of  his  half-sister, 
Tamar.  2  Sam.  13  ;  1  Chr.  3  :  1.  See 
Absalom. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Judah.  1  Chr. 
4:20. 

A'MOK  {dcej^),  a  priest  who  re- 
turned with  Zerubbabel.  Neh.  12  :  7, 
20. 

A'MON,  OR  A'MEN  {the  hidden),  an 
Egyptian  god,  one  of  the  eight  of  the 
first  order,  and  the  chief  of  the  Theban 
triad.    Nah.  3 :  8,  margin.    He  is  repre- 


Amon.     {After  Wilkinson.) 


sented  as  a  man  clad  in  a  linen  tunic, 
gathered  about  the  waist  by  a  belt.  In 
one  hand  he  holds  the  symbol  of  life,  in 
the  other  the  staff"  of  authority,  and  on 
his  head  is  a  cap  with  two  high  ])lumes. 

A'MOIV  {builder).  1.  Governor  of 
Samaria  under  Ahab.  1  Kgs.  22:26; 
2  Chr.  18:25. 

2.  The  fourteenth  king  of  Judah,  son 
and   successor   of   Manasseh.     IIo  was 

47 


AMO 


AMR 


twenty-two  years  old  when  he  began 
to  reign,  and  he  reigned  two  years 
in  Jerusalem.  2  Kgs.  21:19.  Zepha- 
niah  gives  a  vivid  picture  of  the  degra- 
dation of  the  kingdom  under  this  wicked 
king.  He  was  murdered  hy  his  servants 
and  succeeded  by  his  son  Josiah. 

AM'ORITE  {moHUtahieer),  LAND 
OF  THE.  The  mountainous  districts 
between  the  Jordan  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean were  the  portion  of  the  Amorites 
before  Canaan  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  Israelites :  the  land  of  the  Ca- 
naanites  being  the  low  plain-country. 
The  Amorites  also  extended  their  terri- 
tory, so  that  it  at  one  time  reached  to  the 
foot  of  Hermon  and  embraced  all  Gilead 
and  Bashan.  Deut.  4  :  47-49  ;  3:8,  10. 
For  the  physical  features  of  this  land  see 
Canaan,  Bashan,  and  Gilead. 

AMORITES,  correctly  EM'OR- 
ITES  (mountaiueers),  a  Syrian  tribe 
descended  from  Canaan,  and  among 
the  most  formidable  of  the  tribes  with 
whom  the  Israelites  contended.  Gen. 
10  :  16.  They  were  of  gigantic  stature 
and  great  courage.  Am.  2 : 9.  They 
first  inhabited  the  hill-country  south 
of  Jerusalem,  the  barren  and  rocky 
land  in  which  David  took  refuge  ,•  but 
from  there  they  went  into  better  posses- 
sions, and  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest 
they  inhabited  one  of  the  most  fertile 
districts  of  the  country,  being  bounded 
on  three  sides  by  the  rivers  Arnon,  Jab- 
bok,  and  Jordan.  See  Ammonites.  The 
Israelites  asked  permission  of  their  king 
to  travel  through  their  territory,  prom- 
ising to  injure  nothing,  not  even  to 
draw  water  from  their  wells ;  but  it  was 
refused.  The  Amorites  collected  and  at- 
tempted to  oppose  their  progress,  but 
were  defeated,  and  their  territory  taken 
and  divided  between  the  tribes  of  Reu- 
ben and  Gad.  Josh.  13  :  15,  21,  24,  27. 
Nothing  more  is  heard  of  them  in  the 
Bible,  except  occasionally  as  moving  in 
small  bands. 

A'MOS  {burden),  one  of  the  lesser 
prophets,  herdsman  of  Tekoa,  a  small 
town  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  about  12 
miles  south  of  Jerusalem.  Am.  1 :  1.  He 
lived  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah,  king  of 
Judah,  and  of  Jeroboam  II.,  king  of 
Israel,  about  eight  hundred  years  be- 
fore Christ.  He  was  a  contemporary 
of  Hosea.  While  employed  as  a  herds- 
man he  was  divinely  appointed  to 
48 


prophesy  against  Israel.  This  kingdom 
then  was  in  its  heyday  of  prosperity, 
but  by  reason  of  its  idolatry  rife  with 
the  seeds  of  ruin.  It  was  Amos's  duty 
to  speak  plain  words  upon  the  evils  of 
the  state.  Being  driven  from  Bethel 
upon  the  false  representation  made  to 
the  king  by  the  idolatrous  ])riest  Ama- 
ziah.  Am.  7:10-17,  he  returned  to  'i'e- 
koa.  The  time  and  manner  of  his  death 
are  uncertain. 

Amos,  Prophecy  of,  is  the  thirtieth  in 
the  order  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  is  full  of  interest  and  instruc- 
tion. It  may  be  considered  as  a  sort  of 
continuation  of  Joel's.  It  is  a  uuit.  It 
begins  with  the  declaration  of  God's 
judgments  against  Israel's  neighbors. 
But  in  this  storm  of  fury  Judah  does 
not  escape  while  Israel  stands  the  brunt 
of  it.  1-2  :  6.  The  sins  of  Israel  are 
rebuked.  2  :  6-6:  14.  The  rebukes  are 
followed  by  a  series  of  symbols,  which 
are  interpreted.  7  : 1-9  :  7.  But  the 
book  closes  with  the  promise  of  good. 
The  "  tabernacle  of  David  "  is  to  be  re- 
stored. Thus  the  beauty  and  perpetuity 
of  the  Christian  Church  are  foretold. 
It  has  been  remarked  as  a  peculiar  fea- 
ture of  this  prophecy  that  it  abounds 
with  illustrations  drawn  from  husband- 
ry and  the  scenes  of  rustic  life ;  it  cer- 
tainly contains  some  of  the  most  per- 
fect specimens  of  sublime  thought  and 
beautiful  expression  that  are  to  be  found 
in  any  language. 

A'MOZ  {ntrong),  the  father  of  Isaiah. 
2  Kgs.  19  :  2  ;  Isa.  1:1.  Jewish  tradi- 
tion makes  him  the  brother  of  Amaziah, 
king  of  .Tudah. 

AMPHIP^OLIS  {nround  the  cif>/), 
a  chief  city  of  the  southern  portion  of 
Macedonia  under  the  Romans.  The 
river  Strymon  flowed  on  both  sides  of 
the  city,  hence  its  name.  It  was  33 
miles  south-west  of  Philippi,  and  3 
miles  from  the  sea.  Paul  and  Silas 
passed  through  it.  Acts  17  : 1.  Nen- 
Khorio,  or  A^ewfomn,  a  village  of  about 
100  houses,  now  occupies  a  portion  of 
the   site  of  Amphipolis. 

AM'PLIAS,  a  Christian  at  Rome 
whom  Paul  salutes.     Rom.  16  :  8. 

AM'RAM  {red?),  a  descendant  of 
Seir.     1  Chr.  1 :  41. 

AM'RAM  {jyeople  of  the  exalted). 
1.  A  Levite,  father  of  Moses.  Ex.  6: 
18-20. 


AMR 


ANA 


2.  One  who  married  a  foreign  wife. 
Ezr.  10 :  34. 

AM'RAPHEL.  Gen.  14:1.  The 
Hamite  king  of  Sliinar,  or  Baby- 
lonia, who  confederated  with  other 
kings  and  made  war  on  Sodom  and 
the  other  cities  of  the  plain,  plunder- 
ing them  and  making  prisoners  of 
their  inhabitants.  Among  the  cap- 
tives was  Lot,  Abraham's  nephew. 
Gen.  14:9-16.     See  Lot. 

AM'ULET.  The  superstitious  cha- 
racter of  the  Oriental  nations  has  in  all 
periods  led  them  to  fear  the  attacks  of 
imaginary  foes,  and  so,  in  order  to  pro- 
tect themselves,  they  wear  charms  of 
one  sort  and  another.  These  amulets 
are  indirectly  and  directly  referred  to 
in  the  Bible ;  e.  g.  when  in  the  form  of 


Egyptian  Amulets.     (In  the  British  Muaeum.) 
1.  CJold.    2.  Ring  with  tlie  word  "  health  "  inserted. 
3.  Scarabjeus.     4.  Cornelian  serpent's  head.    5.  Porce- 
lain eyes.    6.  Gold  pendant,  inlaid. 

ear-rings.  Gen.  35:4;  Jud.  8:24; 
Hos.  2:13.  But  more  commonly  they 
were  worn  suspended  from  a  necklace 
as  a  gem  with  an  inscription  or  figure 
of  a  god  upon  it.  Charms  consisted 
likewise  of  words  written  upon  papy- 
rus or  parchment  rolled  uj)  tightly 
4 


and  sewed  in  linen ;  perhaps  these 
are  meant  by  the  "  tablets  "  of  Isa.  3  : 
20.  Phylacteries,  some  suppose,  de- 
rived their  sanction  from  the  danger 
of  idolatrous  j)ractices  to  which  this 
custom  gave  rise. 

AM'ZI  {stromj).  1.  A  Levite. 
1  Chr.  6  :  4(). 

2.  A    priest.      Neh.  11 :  12. 

A'NAB  {place  of  (jrnpes),  a  place  or 
town  of  the  Anakim,  Josh.  11:  21  ;  15: 
50  ;  now  Anab,  10  miles  south-south-west 
of  Hebron,  though  Lieutenant  Conder 
places  it  much   farther  west. 

A'NAH  (aiiswen'iig),  the  father  of 
Aholibamah,  one  of  Esau's  wives.  Gen. 
36  :  2,  14,  24.  The  discovery  of  some 
icarm  springs  (although  in  the  A.  V.  the 
word  is  translated  mules)  is  attributed 
to  him. 

ANAHA'RATH  {gorge,  or  ;)rt8s),  a 
city  of  Issachar,  Josh.  19  :  19,  probably 
in  the  northern  part  of  that  territory. 
Meskarah,  and  also  en-Naurah,  just  east 
of  Little  Hermon,  have  been  suggested 
as  the  site  of  Anaharath. 

ANAI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  answers). 
1.  A  priest.     Neh.  8:  4. 

2.  One  of  the  "heads"  of  the  peo- 
ple who  sealed  the  covenant.  Neh. 
10  :  22. 

AN'AKIM  (Anak,  sing.,  neck- 
chain  ;  Anakim,  plur.,  fong-necked  per- 
sons), a  race  of  giants,  the  descend- 
ants of  Arba,  who  gave  the  name  of 
Kirjath-arba,  city  of  Arba,  to  the  city 
which  the  Jews  called  Hebron.  The 
name  Anak  belongs  to  the  race,  not  to 
an  individual.  The  race  was  divided 
into  three  tribes,  called  in  common 
the  Anakim,  and  remarkable  for  their 
fierceness  and  stature.  In  the  time 
of  the  Conquest  they  occupied  the 
territory  between  Hebron  and  Jeru- 
salem. Josh.  11 :  21,  22.  Their  gigan- 
tic size  had  terrified  the  spies  Moses 
sent  out.  Num.  13:28,  but  they  were 
defeated  by  the  Israelites,  who  entered 
into  their  possessions,  Hebron  becom- 
ing the  portion  of  Caleb.  Josh.  14 : 
15.     See  (iiANTS. 

ANAM'MELECH.      See   Adram- 

MELF.CH. 

A'NAN"  (a  cloud),  one  who  sealed 
the  covenant.     Neh.  10  :  26. 

ANA'NI  {whom  Jehovah  covers),  a 
descondiint  of  David.     1  Chr.  3:24. 

ANANI'AII  {whom  Jehovah  covers), 

49 


ANA 


AND 


an  ancestor  of  one  who  helped  to  build 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem.     Neh.  3  :  23. 

ANANI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  covers), 
one  of  the  towns  in  which  the  Benja- 
mites  dwelt  after  the  Captivity.  Neh. 
11  :  32.  The  modern  village  Beit  Ha- 
niiia,  about  3  miles  north  of  Jerusalem, 
corresponds  well  in  name  and  situation 
to  this  ancient  town. 

AN  ANI'AS  (the  Greek  form  of  Han- 
aniah,  whom.  Jehovah  has  graciously 
given).  1.  One  of  the  professed  con- 
verts to  the  Christian  faith  under  the 
preaching  of  the  apostles.  Acts  5  :  1- 
10.  When  the  disciples  had  thrown 
their  property  into  a  common  stock, 
Ananias  sold  his  estate  and  brought 
a  part  of  the  purchase-money,  pre- 
tending it  was  the  whole  proceeds  of 
the  sale.  Being  charged  by  Peter 
with  his  sin,  he  fell  down  dead  upon 
the  spot.  His  wife  Sapphira,  who  was 
privy  to  the  fraud  of  her  husband,  but 
ignorant  of  his  dreadful  end,  being 
asked  for  how  much  their  estate  had 
been  sold,  confirmed  the  falsehood 
which  Ananias  had  told,  and  instant- 
ly met  the  same  doom. 

2.  A  primitive  devout  disciple  who 
lived  at  Damascus,  and  was  commis- 
sioned to  visit  Paul  soon  after  his  con- 
version and  restore  him  to  sight.  Acts 
9:10-18;  23:12-16.  Tradition  makes 
him  subsequently  the  bishop  of  Damas- 
cus, and  a  martyr. 

3.  The  son  of  Nebedaeus,  appointed 
high  priest  by  Herod,  king  of  Chalcis, 
A.  D.  -48.  Acts  23  :  2.  In  A.  d.  62  he 
was  sent  to  Rome  to  answer  a  charge 
of  oppression  preferred  against  him 
by  the  Samaritans.  He  was,  how- 
ever, acquitted,  returned,  and  resumed 
his  office.  Paul  was  tried  before  him, 
A.  D.  55.  He  was  likewise  one  of  the 
apostle's  accusers  before  Felix  and  be- 
fore Festus.  Acts  24  : 1  ;  25  :  2.  See 
Paul.  He  was  shortly  after  deposed, 
but  retained  much  power  until  at  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Jewish  war,  when 
the  Sicarii  set  fire  to  his  house  and 
compelled  him  to  flee,  but  followed  and 
killed  him,  a.  d.  67    (Josephus,    Jewish 

Wars,  ii.  17,  9). 

A'NATH  {answer),  father  of  Sham- 
gar,  one  of  the  Judges.  Jud.  3:31:5:  6. 

ANATH'EMA  {set  apart,  devoted). 
In  its  usual  acceptation  it  means  the  de- 
voting of  an  animal,  person,  or  place  to 
50 


destruction.  Lev.  27 :  28 ;  Josh.  6 :  17-21. 
Paul  uses  it  in  the  sense  "  cut  off",  ac- 
cursed." Rom.  9:3;  Gal.  1 :  8,  9.  Hence 
in  ecclesiastic  language  it  means  "  ex- 
communicated, cut  ofi"  from  the  church." 

Anathema  Maranatha  is  a  Syriac 
exclamation  signifying.  Let  him  be  ac- 
cursed, The  Lord  is  at  hand,  a  reminder 
that  at  the  coming  of  the  Lord  rewards 
and  punishments  would  be  meted  out. 
1  Cor.  16  :  22. 

AN'ATHOTH  {ansioers).  1.  A 
son  of  Becher  the  Benjamite.  1  Chr. 
7:8. 

2.  One  who  sealed  the  covenant. 
Neh.  10:  19. 

AN'ATHOTH  {answers,  or  echoes), 
a  Levitical  city  in  Benjamin,  Josh.  21: 
18  ;  1  Chr.  6  :  60  ;  the  birthplace  of  Jer- 
emiah, Jer.  1:1;  11:21,  23;  32:7-9,- 
on  the  route  of  the  Assyrians,  Isa.  10  : 
30 ;  some  of  its  people  returned  with 
Zerubbabel,  Ezr.  2  :  23  ;  Neh.  7  :  27 ; 
now  a  village  of  about  20  houses,  4  miles 
north-east  of  Jerusalem,  and  called  Aiia- 
tn.  Tradition  incorrectly  locates  Ana- 
thoth  at  Kuriet-el-Enab,  near  Abu  Gush, 
and  between  Ramleh  and  Jerusalem. 

ANCH'OR.  Acts  27  :  29.  The  an- 
chor was  formerly  cast  from  the  stern 
of  the  ship.  In  the  passage  cited  refer- 
ence may  be  had  to  an  anchor  with  four 
flukes  or  arms,  such  as  are  sometimes 
used  by  boats  in  shallow  water;  or  it 
may  mean  four  distinct  separate  anchors. 


The  above  represents  a  common  anchor 
with  two  flukes  or  arms.  There  is  a 
strong  shank  c,  at  one  end  of  which  are 
two  arms  b  b,  terminating  in  flukes  a  a. 
At  the  other  end  of  the  shank  is  the 
stock  d,  supplied  with  a  ring  to  which  a 
cable  can  be  attached.  The  stock  is  de- 
signed to  give  such  a  direction  to  the 
falling  anchor  that  one  of  the  flukes  shall 
enter  itself  firmly  at  the  bottom.  See 
Ship. 

AN'DREW     {manly),    one    of    the 
twelve  apostles,  John  1 :  40,  the  son  of 


AND 


ANG 


Jonas  and  brother  of  Simon  Peter,  was  a 
native  of  Bethsaida,  in  Galilee,  by  trade 
a  fisherman,  and  originally  a  disciple 
of  John  the  Baptist,  whom  he  left  to 
follow  our  Saviour.  When  he  had  found 
the  Messiah,  he  forthwith  sought  his 
brother  Simon  and  brought  him  to 
Jesus,  and  soon  after  they  both  attached 
themselves  to  the  little  band  of  his  dis- 
ciples and  followed  him  till  the  close  of 
his  ministry.  The  events  with  which 
Andrew  was  particularly  connected  are 
recorded  in  Matt.  4:  18-20  ;  Mark  13  :  3  j 
and  John  1  :  35-40  ;  6  :  3-13  ;  12  :  22. 
Tradition  says  he  preached  the  gospel  in 
Scythia,  Greece,  and  Asia  Minor,  and  was 
crucified  on  a  cross  of  a  peculiar  shape 
(hence  St.  Andrew's  cross)  in  Achaia. 

ANDRONI'CUS  {victorious  man), 
a  Roman  Christian  whom  Paul  salutes 
in  Rom.  16  :  7. 

A''NEM  {two  fonntmns),  a  Levitical 
city  of  Issachar,  1  Chr.  6  :  73  ;  probably 
the  same  as  En-gannim  of  Josh.  19 : 
21 ;  21 :  29.  It  has  been  identified  with 
the  modern  Jenin,  on  the  border  of  the 
plain  of  Jezreel.     See  En-Gannim  (2). 

A'NJER  {hoy),  one  of  the  three  Amor- 
ite  chiefs  who  joined  Abraham  in  the 
pursuit  of  the  four  invading  kings.  Gen. 
14:13. 

A'NER  {hoy),  a  Levitical  city  in 
Manasseh,  west  of  the  Jordan,  1  Chr. 
6 :  70  :  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  same 
as  Taanach,  Jud.  1  :  27,  and  Tanach. 
Josh.  21:25. 

AN'GEL.  Gen.  24  :  7.  This  word, 
both  in  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  lan- 
guages, signifies  a  vicsseuger,  and  in 
this  sense  is  often  applied  to  men.  2 
Sam.  2:5:  Luke  7  :  24  and  9  :  52.  When 
the  term  is  used,  as  it  generally  is,  to 
ilcsignate  spiritual  beings,  it  denotes 
the  oflSce  they  sustain  as  the  agents  by 
whom  God  makes  known  his  will  and 
executes  his  government. 

Our  knowledge  of  such  beings  is  de- 
rived wholly  from  revelation,  and  that 
rather  incidentally.  We  know,  from  their 
residence  and  employment,  that  they 
must  possess  knowledge  and  purity  far 
bej^ond  our  present  conceptions,  and 
the  titles  applied  to  them  denote  the 
exalted  place  they  hold  among  created 
intelligences.  Christ  did  not  come  to 
the  rescue  of  angels,  but  of  men. 
Comp.  Heb.  2 :  16.  The  angels  are  rep- 
resented   as    ministering    spirits    sent 


forth  to  do  service  to  the  heirs  of  sal- 
vation. Heb.  1:14.  They  appear  at 
every  important  stage  in  the  history 
of  revelation,  especially  at  the  birth  of 
Christ,  Luke  2:9-13,  in  his  agony  in 
Gethsemane,  Luke  22  ;  43,  at  his  resur- 
rection. Matt.  28  :  2  ,•   Mark  16  :  5  ;  Luke 

24  :  4,  and  at  the  final  judgment. 
Matt.  13  :  41. 

Of  their  appearance  and  employment 
we  may  form  some  idea  from  the  follow- 
ing passages — viz.  Gen.  16  :  7-11.  Com- 
pare Gen.  18  :  2  5  19  :  1  with  Ileb.  13  :  2  ; 
Jud.  13  :  G  ;  Eze.  10  ;  Dan.  3  :  28  and 
6  :  22  ;  Matt.  4:11;  18  :  10  and  28  :  2-7  ; 
Luke  1  :  19  ;  16  :  22  and  22  :  43  ;  Acts 
6  :  15  ;  12 :  7  :  Heb.  1 :  14  ;  2  :16  ;  2  Thess. 
1:7;  Rev.  10:1,  2,  6. 

Of  their  number  some  idea  may  be 
inferred  from  1  Kgs.  22  :  19  ;  Ps.  68  : 
17  ;  Dan.  7:10;  Matt.  26  :  53  ;  Luke  2  : 
9-14;   1  Cor.  4:9;  Heb.  12:22. 

Of  their  strength  we  may  judge  from 
Ps.  103  :  20  :  2  Pet.  2:11;  Rev.  5:2; 
18:21;  19:17. 

And  we  learn  their  inconceivable 
activity  from  Jud.  13  :  20  ;  Isa.  6  :  2-6  ; 
Matt.  13  :  49  ;  26  :  53  ;  Acts  27  :  23 ; 
Rev.  8:13. 

There  is  also  an  order  of  evil  spirits 
ministering  to  the  will  of  the  prince 
of  darkness,  and  both  active  and  pow- 
erful in  their  opposition  to  God.     Matt. 

25  :  41. 

It  would  seem  the  proper  inference 
from  Matt.  18:10  that  every  believer 
had  a  guardian  angel.  The  same  idea 
is  suggested  in  other  passages,  as  Ps. 
91 :  11,  12  ;  Luke  15  :  10  ;  Acts  12 :  15. 

They  are  the  companions  of  the  saved. 
Heb.  12 :  22,  23  ;  Rev.  5:11,12.  They  are 
to  sustain  an  important  office  in  the 
future  and  final  administration  of  God's 
government  on  earth.  Matt.  13  :  39  ; 
25  :  31-33  ;  1  Thess.  4  :  16.  But  they 
are  not  proper  objects  of  adoration. 
Col.  2  :  18  ;  Rev.  19  :  10. 

Angel  of  his  Presence,  Isa.  63  :  9, 
by  some  is  supposed  to  denote  the  high- 
est angel  in  heaven,  as  Gabriel,  who 
stands  "in  the  presence  of  God,"  Luke 
1:19;  but  others  believe  it  refers  to  the 
incarnate  Word. 

Angel  of  the  Lorp,  Gen.  16 :  7,  is 
considered,  by  some,  one  of  the  com- 
mon titles  of  Christ  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Ex.  23  :  20.  Compare  Acts  7 : 
30-32  and  37,  38. 

61 


ANG 


ANK 


Angel  of  the  Church.     Rev.  2  :  1. 

The  only  true  interpretation  of  this 
phrase  is  the  one  which  makes  the  an- 
gels the  rulers  and  teachers  of  the  con- 
gregation, so  called  because  they  were 
the  ambassadors  of  God  to  the  churches, 
and  on  them  devolved  the  pastoral  care 
and  government. 

Angel  op  Light.     See  Devil. 

AN'GER,  a  strong  emotion,  which 
is  sinful  or  otherwise  according  to  its 
object  and  motive.  When  ascribed  to 
holy  beings  it  is  used  figuratively  to 
denote  high  displeasure  at  sin.  In 
this  sense  good  men  may  be  angry  and 
sin  not,  Eph.  4 :  26  ;  Neh.  5:6;  cf.  2  Pet. 
2 :  7,  8  ;  and  even  God  is  said  to  be 
"  angry  xoith  the  wicked  every  day." 
Ps.  7:11.  Unjustified  anger  is  reck- 
oned among  chief  sins,  and  as  such  is 
severely  rebuked.  Eph.  4:31;  Col.  3  :  8, 
and  numerous  passages  in  Proverbs. 

A'NIAItt  (sii/hiiiff  of  the  people),  a 
Manassite.     1  Chr.  7  :  19. 

A'NIM  {fountainn),  a  town  in  the 
mountains  of  Judah.  Josh.  15  :  50. 
Khirbet  el-Jif  has  been  suggested  as 
the  site  of  Anim,  but  it  is  more  proba- 
bly at  the  modern  village  of  el-Ghuwein, 
about  10  miles  south-west  of  Hebron. 

AN'IMAL.  The  Hebrews  distin- 
guished between  clean  and  unclean 
animals,  allowing  the  use  of  some  in 
sacrifice  for  food,  and  forbidding  it 
in  the  case  of  others.  For  the  list 
see  Lev.  11. 

AN'ISE.  Matt.  23:23.  Properly 
dill  {Anethum  graveolens),  an  annual 
herb  bearing  small  aromatic  seeds  used 
in  medicine  and  cookery.  Ancient 
writers  mention  it  as  cultivated  in 
Egypt;  it  grows  in  the  Greek  islands, 
and  occurs  at  the  present  day  in  Pales- 
tine, both  in  gardens  and  wild,  or  at 
least  uncultivated  in  fields. —  Tristram. 
Another  plant  {Pimpinella  auisuin)  of 
the  same  family  has  been  considered, 
with  less  probability,  to  be  the  anise  of 
the  Bible. 

The  tithe  of  this  herb  was  scrupu- 
lously paid  by  the  Pharisees.  A  Jewish 
writer  says  that  the  seed,  the  leaves,  and 
the  stem  of  dill  are  subject  to  tithes. 
See  Mint. 

ANK'LET.  Though  this  word  does 
not  occur  in  the  A.  V.,  anklets  are  re- 
ferred to    in    Isa.  3:16,  18,  20.     They 
were  worn  upon  each  leg  and  were  as 
62 


ft  w    ft>^-- 


Anise.     (After  Tristram.) 

common   as   bracelets    upon   the  arms, 
and  were  made  of  much  the  same  raa- 


Aiiklets. 


1,  2,  3,  4.  Egyptian  Anklets.  5.  Modern  worn  by 
dancins-ijirls.  6.  7.  Assyrian,  of  iron  and  Ijronze. 
{From  Nuievfh.     Now  in  British  Museum.) 


ANN 


ANO 


terials.  The  musical  tinkling  and  jing- 
ling which  they  made  as  the  wearers 
walked  were  no  doubt  the  reasons  for 
their  use.  The  ornamental  step-chains 
worn  by  females,  according  to  Gesenius, 
caused  the  short  and  mincing  walk  al- 
luded to  by  the  prophet  in  verse  16. 
Lane  speaks  of  these  ornaments  as 
now  worn  in  the  East. 

AN''NA  {(/race),  a  prophetess, 
daughter  of  Phanuel,  of  the  tribe  of 
Asher.  Luke  2  :  30.  Her  husband  hav- 
ing died  after  she  had  been  married 
seven  years,  she  devoted  herself  to  the 
Lord,  and  was  very  constant  in  her  at- 
tendance on  the  services  of  the  temple. 
She  did  not,  however,  live  in  the  temple 
itself.  At  eighty-four  jears  of  age  she 
listened  to  the  prophetic  blessing  which 
Simeon  uttered  when  he  held  the  infant 
Redeemer  in  his  arms,  and  joined  in  it 
with  great  fervor. 

AN'NAS,  the  son  of  Seth,  and  a 
high  priest  of  the  Jews.  He  was  ap- 
pointed by  Quirinus,  governor  of  Syria, 
A.  D.  7,  and  was  removed  by  Valerius 
Gratius,  procurator  of  Judasa,  A.  D.  23. 
The  office  was  originally  held  for  life, 
but  in  Judaea's  degenerate  and  depend- 
ent position  it  was  one  of  the  spoils  of 
office,  to  be  given  to  the  ruler's  favorite, 
and  to  be  taken  away  upon  the  loss  of 
favor.  After  his  deposition  Annas  con- 
tinued to  hold  the  title;  and  although 
Caiaphas,  his  son-in-law,  was  the  actual 
high  priest,  he  was  the  ruling  power. 
This  explains  the  reference  in  Luke  3  : 
2.  This  power  he  retained  for  nearly 
fifty  years,  having  had  five  sons  in  suc- 
cession in  the  high  priest's  office.  Our 
Lord  was  brought  first  before  Annas  on 
the  night  of  his  seizure.  John  18 :  13- 
24.  The  guilt  of  Christ's  crucifixion 
rests  most  upon  Annas,  since  Pilate 
tried  to  shield  him,  and  Caiaphas  was 
but  his  tool.  Annas  is  mentioned  as 
the  president  of  the  Sanhedrin,  before 
whom  Peter  and  John  were  brought. 
Acts  4 :  6. 

ANOINTS  Gen.  31:13.  The  first 
biblical  instance  is  in  the  passage 
cited,  and  it  signifies  in  that  connec- 
tion the  pouring  of  oil  upon  the  stone 
which  Jacob  had  set  up  for  a  pillar. 
Gen.  28:18. 

The  anointing  of  persons,  places, 
and  things  with  oil  or  ointment  of  a 
particular    composition    was    a    mode 


of  consecration  prescribed  by  divine 
authority,  and  extensively  i)ractised 
among  the  Hebrews.  Ex.  28  :  41.  The 
ingredients  of  the  ointment,  embra- 
cing the  most  exquisite  perfumes  and 
balsams,  are  minutely  given,  Ex.  30  : 
23-33,  and  the  common  use  of  it  was 
expressly  forbidden.     Ex.  30:33. 

It  was  customary  at  festivals,  and  on 
other  great  and  joyful  occasions,  to 
anoint  the  head  with  fragrant  oils  ;  hence 
it  became  a  sign  of  joy  or  happiness; 
the  omission  of  anointing  was  therefore 
a  sign  of  grief.  For  instances  see 
Ruth  3  :  3  ;  2  Sam.  14  :  2  ;  Ps.  23  :  5  ;  92  : 
10;  Eccl.  9:8;  Matt.  6  :  17.  Proph- 
ets, 1  Kgs.  19:16;  1  Chr.  16:22, 
priests,  and  kings  were  solemnly  anoint- 
ed, and  thus  set  apart  to  their  respect- 
ive offices.  Of  the  anointing  of  the  lat- 
ter we  have  frequent  accounts.  2  Sam. 
19  :  10  ;  1  Kgs.  1  :  39  ;  19  :  15,  16.  The 
perfumed  oil  or  ointment  was  usually 
poured  upon  the  head  of  the  person.  It 
was  sometimes  done  privately  by  a  proph- 
et, 1  Sam.  10  : 1 ;  16  :  1-13 ;  1  Kgs.  19  : 
16  ;  2  Kgs.  9  : 1-6,  and  was  a  symbolical 
intimation  that  the  person  so  anointed 
would  at  some  future  day  ascend  the 
throne.  After  the  monarchy  Avas  es- 
tablished the  anointing  was  done  by 
the  priest,  1  Kgs.  1  :  39,  probably  in 
some  public  place,  1  Kgs.  1  :  32-34, 
and,  at  least  on  one  occasion,  in  the 
temple,  surrounded  by  the  royal  guards. 
2  Kgs.  11:  12,  13.  David  was  anointed 
three  times — privately  by  Samuel  be- 
fore Saul's  death,  to  give  him  a  claim 
to  the  throne,  1  Sam.  16: 1-13 ;  again 
publicly  as  king  over  Judah  in  He- 
bron, 2  Sam.  2:4;  and  finally,  over  the 
whole  nation.  2  Sam.  5:3.  In  re- 
gard to  the  priest's  anointing,  at  first 
it  was  part  of  the  induction  into  office 
of  any  priest,  Ex.  40  :  15  ;  Num.  3  :  3, 
but  afterward  it  was  a  rite  practised 
only  in  the  case  of  the  high  priest. 
Lev.  8:12;  Ps.  133:2. 

It  was  common  to  anoint  the  person, 
or  some  part  of  it,  as  the  head,  feet, 
hair,  etc.,  for  the  sake  of  health  or 
cleanliness,  or  as  a  token  of  respect, 
and  also  in  connection  with  religious 
observances.  Mark  6:13;  Luke  7  : 
46 ;  John  12  :  3.  When  practised  to 
show  respect,  the  most  expensive  ma- 
terials were  used,  and  the  ceremony 
was  performed  in   such   a  manner   as 

63 


ANT 


ANT 


to    denote  the   most   humble   and   sub- 
missive reverence. 

The  anointing  of  the  sick  with  oil  was 
also  common.  The  healing  properties 
of  oil  are  well  known  ;  and  though  the 
cures  wrought  by  the  disciples  of  our 
Lord  were  obviously  miraculous,  they 
still  employed  the  ordinary  means  of 
cure.  Mark  6  :  13.  The  apostolic  di- 
rection, Jas.  5  :  14,  respecting  the  anoint- 
ing of  the  sick  shows  us  that,  together 
with  prayer,  the  appropriate  means  of 
healing  should  be  employed  in  depend- 
ence upon  or  in  the  name  of  the  Lord. 
The  ceremony  was  not  in  its  nature  ob- 
ligatory, and  surely  no  suflBcient  warrant 
for  the  rite  of  "extreme  unction." 

The  bodies  of  the  dead  were  often 
wrapped  in  spices  and  ointments  to 
preserve  them  from  corruption.  Mark 
14  :  8  ;  16  : 1,  and  Luke  23  :  56. 

The  terms  "  anoint,"  "  anointed,"  and 
"  anointing "  are  employed  also  sjiirit- 
ually  to  illustrate  the  sanctifying  influ- 
ences of  divine  grace  upon  the  soul.  2 
Cor.  1:21;  1  John  2:20,27. 

To  anoint  the  eyes  with  eye-salve,  Rev. 
3  :  18,  is  a  figurative  expression  for  the 
gift  of  spiritual  illumination. 

The  Anointed,  or  Messiah,  who  is 
constituted  our  High  Priest  and  Interces- 
sor, was  anointed  with  the  Holy  Ghost, 
of  which  anointing  that  of  the  priests 
under  the  Jewish  dispensation  is  sup- 
posed to  be  typical.  Ps.  45  :  7 ;  Isa. 
61 : 1 ;  Dan.  9  :  24 ;  Luke  4  :  18,  21 ;  Acts 
4:27  and  10:38.     See  Messiah. 

ANT.  Prov.  6  :  6  and  30  :  25.  A  small 
insect  remarkable  for  industry,  econ- 
omy, and  architectural  skill.  These 
creatures  are  called  by  an  inspii-ed 
Writer  "  exceeding  wise,"  Prov.  30  :  24, 
and  Cicero  was  so  filled  with  wonder  at 
their  wisdom  that  he  declared  they  must 
have  mind,  reason,  and  memory. 

The  ants  were  described  by  the  an- 
cients "  as  ascending  the  stalks  of  ce- 
reals and  gnawing  off"  the  grains,  while 
others  below  detached  the  seed  from  the 
chaff"  and  carried  it  home  ,•  as  gnawing 
off"  the  radicle  to  prevent  germination, 
and  spreading  their  stores  in  the  sun 
to  dry  after  wet  weather."  The  pro- 
verb ''As  provident  as  an  ant"  was  no 
less  common  among  the  people  of  the 
Mediterranean  shores  than  "As  busy  as 
a  bee"  is  with  us.  Hesiod  spoke  of  the 
time — 

64 


"  When  the  provident  one  [the  ant]  harvests  the 
grain." 

Naturalists  and  commentators  for  a  long 
time  have  been  accustomed  to  deny  the 
truth  of  such  ideas.  It  is,  however,  now 
acknowledged  that  in  such  warm  cli- 
mates as  Palestine  these  insects  are  dor- 
mant but  a  short  time  during  the  cooler 
season,  and  that  they  do  store  up  large 
quantities  of  grain  and  seed,  and  dry 
them  after  rain.  The  writer  has  often 
seen  in  Judaja  a  quart  or  two  of  chaff 
and  seeds  upon  ant-hills.  This  the  ants 
were  bringing  out  to  dry  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  carrying  into  their  nests  as  it 
grew  damp  toward  night. 

J.  T.  Moggridge,  F.  L.  S.,  advances 
proof  to  confirm  the  ancient  view,  in  the 
case  of  two  species  common  around  the 
Mediterranean.  He  has  discovered  the 
granaries,  sometimes  excavated  in  solid 
rock,  in  which  the  seeds  are  stored.  He 
has  seen  the  ants  in  the  act  of  collecting 
seeds,  and  traced  seeds  to  the  granaries ; 
he  has  seen  them  bring  out  the  grains  to 
dry  after  a  rain,  and  nibble  off"  the  rad- 
icle from  those  which  were  germinating, 
and  feed  on  the  seed  so  collected.  Fi'om 
these  granaries  Mr.M.  collected  the  seeds 
of  fifty-four  species  of  plants.  In  one 
instance  the  masses  of  seeds  of  clover 
and  other  small  plants  taken  from  a  sin- 
gle nest  weighed,  by  careful  estimate, 
over  a  pound.  That  the  amount  of 
grain  gathered  by  ants  was  not  un- 
worthy of  notice  appears  from  the  fact 
that  the  Mishna,  or  traditionary  law 
of  the  Jews,  adjudicates  upon  the  own- 
ership of  such  stores  when  found  by 
the  people. 

Of  the  104  species  of  European  ants, 
only  two  are  known  to  store  seeds.  But 
these  two,  called  "  harvesting-ants,"  are 
abundant  in  the  Levant  ,•  hence  the  fa- 
miliarity of  the  ancients  with  them. 
The  prudence  of  this  insect,  as  well  as 
its  industry,  may  therefore  properly  in- 
struct us.  That  the  ant  is  in  every  re- 
spect ''  exceeding  wise"  is  evident  from 
its  history  and  habits,  which  have  been 
investigated  by  modern  naturalists. 
Their  habitations  are  constructed  with 
regular  stories,  sometimes  to  the  num- 
ber of  thirty  or  forty,  and  have  large 
chambers,  numerous  vaulted  ceilings 
covered  with  a  single  roof,  long  galler- 
ies and  corridors,  with  pillars  or  columns 
of  very  perfect  proportions. 


ANT 


ANT 


The  materials  of  their  buildings,  such 
as  earth,  leaves,  and  the  fragments  of 
wood,  are  tempered  with  rain,  and  then 
dried  in  the  sun.  ]'y  this  process  the 
fabric  becomes  so  firm  and  compact  that 
a  piece  may  be  broken  out  without  any 
injury  to  tlie  surrounding  parts;  aiid  it 
is  so  nearly  impervious  that  the  longest 
and  most  violent  rains  never  penetrate 
more  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch. 

They  are  well  sheltered  in  their  cham- 
bers, the  largest  of  which  is  placed  nearly 
in  the  centre  of  the  building.  It  is  much 
higher  than  the  rest,  and  all  the  galleries 
terminate  in  it.  In  this  apartment  they 
spend  the  night  and  the  cold  months, 
during  which  they  are  torpid,  or  nearly 
so,  and  require  not  the  food  which  they 
lay  up. 

To  illustrate  their  industry  and  im- 
mense labor,  it  is  said  that  their  edifices 
are  more  than  five  hundred  times  the 
height  of  the  builders,  and  that  if  the 
same  proportion  were  preserved  between 
human  dwellings  and  those  who  build 
them,  our  houses  would  be  four  or  five 
times  higher  than  the  pyramids  of 
Egypt,  the  largest  of  which  is  four  hun- 
dred and  eighty  feet  in  height,  and  re- 
quires a  base  of  seven  hundred  feet 
square  to  support  it.  The  largest  of 
one  species  of  ant  (the  South  American) 
does  not  stand  more  than  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  high,  while  their  nests  or  houses  are 
from  twelve  to  twenty  feet  high,  and 
large  enough  to  hold  a  dozen  men. 

AN'TICHRIST.  This  word  oc- 
curs only  in  the  Epistles  of  John.  Ety- 
mologically,  it  may  mean  either  one  who 
is  opposed  to  Christ  or  one  who  sets 
himself  up  in  the  place  of  Christ.  Comp. 
"anti-pope,"  "rival-king."  A  compar- 
ison of  the  four  passages  in  which  the 
word  is  found,  1  John  2  :  18,  22 ;  4:3: 
2  John  7,  shows  that  John  meant  to 
designate  various  persons  holding  heret- 
ical opinions  in  regard  to  the  incarnation 
of  Christ.  "  Every  spirit  that  confesseth 
not  that  Jesus  Christ  is  come  in  the  flesh 
is  not  of  God :  and  this  is  that  spirit  of 
antichrist."  1  John  4  :  3.  He  directs 
his  warnings  against  this  spirit  as  an 
existent  evil :  "  Even  now  are  there  many 
antichrists,"  1  John  2:18;  "  Even  now 
already  is  it  in  the  world."  1  John  4  :  3. 
We  know  that  in  John's  day  there  were 
in  the  Church  false  teachers  who  denied 
the  union  of  the  divine  and  human  in 


Christ  and  resolved  the  history  of  Christ 
into  a  mere  phantom  or  myth.  Such 
were  Cerinthus  and  the  early  Gnostics 
(who  have  their  followers  in  the  modern 
assailants  of  the  gospel  history). 

But  this  use  of  the  word  by  the  apos- 
tle does  not  exhaust  its  meaning.  It 
can  be  also  apjjlied  to  all  enemies  of 
Christ,  and  to  all  those  doctrines  and  in- 
fluences which  tend  to  set  up  against  the 
simplicity  of  gosp,el  truth  the  traditions 
or  speculations  of  men,  thus  weakening 
or  destroying  the  force  of  the  former. 

We  should  not  confound  the  antichrist 
of  John's  Epistles  with  the  beasts  from 
the  abyss,  or  the  antagonistic  world- 
powers  described  in  Daniel  and  in  Rev- 
elation. More  nearly  related  to  anti- 
christ, and  yet  distinct,  is  "the  man  of 
sin."     2  Thess.  2  :  3. 

AN'TIOCH  (from  Antiochus),  the 
name  of  two  cities  in  New  Testament 
times. 

1.  Antioch  in  Syria,  founded  by  Se- 
leucus  Nicator,  about  300  b.  c,  and 
enlarged  and  newly  walled  by  Anti- 
ochus Epiphanes. 


Coin  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 

Situation.  —  This  city  was  about 
300  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  river  Orontes,  16^  miles 
from  the  Mediterranean,  in  a  deep 
pass  between  the  Lebanon  and  the 
Taurus  ranges  of  mountains.  It  was 
sometimes  called  "the  gate  of  the 
East,"  being  on  the  highway  from 
the  countries  on  the  Mediterranean  to 
Mesopotamia  and  Arabia. 

Biblical  Histnrrj. —  Kext  to  Jeru- 
salem, no  city  is  of  greater  interest  or 
importance  in  apostolic  history  than 
Antioch  in  Syria.  At  this  place  the 
disciples  were  first  called  Christians, 
Acts  11 :  2G  ;  it  was  an  important  cen- 
tre for  the  spread  of  the  gospel,  Acts 
13:  from  it  Paul  started  on  his  mis- 
sionary journeys,  Acts  15  :  36  :  18  :  23  ; 
important  principles  of  Christian  faith 
and   practice    were  raised   and   settled 

00 


ANT 


ANT 


through  the  church  at  Antioch,  Acts 
14  :  26,  27  ;  15  :  2-30  ;  Gal.  2  :  11-14. 
It  was  made  a  "free"  city  by  Pom- 
pey,  was  beautified  by  the  emperors 
with  aqueducts,  baths,  and  public 
buildings:  and  in  Paul's  time  it 
ranked     third    in    population,    wealth. 


and  commercial  activity  among  the 
cities  of  the  Roman  empire.  Chris- 
tianity gained  such  strength  there, 
that  in  the  time  of  Chrysostom,  who 
was  born  at  Antioch,  one-half  of 
the  200, nOO  inhabitants  of  the  city 
were  Christians. 


Antioch  in  Syria.     (After  Cassas.     From  Lewin's  "Life  of  St.  FauL") 


Present  Condition. — Antioch  has  been 
besieged  and  plundered  15  times,  and 
7  times  destroyed  by  earthquakes,  yet 
the  remains  of  its  ancient  walls  as- 
tonish the  traveller.  They  were  50 
feet  high  and  15  feet  thick.  The 
old  town,  which  was  5  miles  long,  is 
now  represented  by  a  mean,  shrunk- 
en-looking place  of  about  6000  popu- 
lation, called  Antakieh.  An  earth- 
quake in  1872  overthrew  nearly  one- 
half  of  the  houses ;  since  then  almost 
a  new  town  has  sprung  up,  and  near 
by  is  a  silk-factor.y,  and  on  the  river 
water-wheels  for  irrigating  the  gar- 
dens. Through  the  Lake  of  Antioch 
flows  the  Nahr  el-Aswad,  or  "  black 
brook,"  the  Melanes  of  classic  history, 
which  empties  into  the  Orontes  3  or  4 
miles  above  Antioch.  Though  the 
modern  city  is  on  a  beautiful  and 
exceedingly  fertile  plain  between  the 
mountains,  and  watered  by  the  Oron- 
tes, the  interior  of  the  town  appears 
56 


to  consist  "  of  dreary  heaps  of  ruins, 
and  unsightly,  patched,  and  dilapida- 
ted houses,  interspersed  with  rubbish 
and  garbage."  (See  Baedeker's  Pales- 
tine and  Syria,  p.  578.) 

2.  Antioch  in  or  near  Pisidia  was 
also  founded  or  rebuilt  by  Seleucus 
Nicator.  It  was  situated  on  a  ridge — 
Strabo  calls  it  a  "  height " — near  the 
foot  of  the  mountain-range,  and  by 
the  northern  shore  of  Lake  Ej/erdir. 
Paul  preached  there,  Acts  13  :  14 ;  14  :  21, 
and  was  persecuted  by  the  people, 
2  Tim.  3:11.  It  was  formerly  erro- 
neously located  at  Ak-shcr,  but  has 
lately  been  identified  with  Yalnbatch, 
directly  east  of  Ephesus  and  north- 
west of  ancient  Tarsus.  Ruins  of 
walls,  theatres,  and  churches  still  ex- 
ist there. 

AN'TIPAS  (prob.  contr.  Antipa- 
ter,  for,  or  like,  the  father),  a  martyr 
of  the  church  in  Pergamos.  Rev,  2 : 
13.    Tradition  makes  him  its  bishop. 


ANT 


APO 


ANTIP'ATRIS  {for  his  father), 
a  city  built  by  Herod  the  Great  in 
honor  of  his  father,  Antijiater.  It 
was  on  the  road  from  Jerusalem  to 
Cacsarea,  Acts  23:  ill,  about  2(5  miles 
south-east  of  the  latter  and  10  miles 
north-east  of  Joppa,  according  to 
ancient  authority.  Some  have  located 
it  at  Kefr  Salxt,  on  the  plain,  40  miles 
north-west  of  Jerusalem  ;  Wilson  and 
Conder  place  it  at  Kala'at  lias  el  'Ain, 
ruins  between  Lydda  and  Cajsarea,  30 
miles  south-east  of  the  latter  and  11 
miles  north-east  of  Joppa.  The  old 
Roman  road  from  Jerusalem  runs  to 
this  place,  and  thence  to  Csesarea. 
"  One  of  the  finest  springs  in  the 
country  is  near."  It  did  not  seem 
probable  to  Wilson  and  Conder  that 
any  large  town  like  Antipatris  had 
been  at  Kefr  Saba. 

ANTO'iVIA,  a  castle  or  fortress 
built  by  Herod,  north-west  of  the  tem- 
ple in  Jerusalem,  and  named  by  him 
after  his  friend  Antony.  It  may  be 
the  "  castle "  referred  to  in  Acts  21 : 
34. 

ANTOTHI'JAH  {answers  of  Je- 
hovah), a  Benjamite.     1  Chr.  8  :  24. 

AN'TOTHITE,  THE,  a  native 
of  Anathoth.     1  Chr.  11 :  28  ;  12  :  3. 

A'NUB  {confederate),  a  descend- 
ant of  Judah.     1  Chr.  4:8. 

APEL'LES,  greeted  and  com- 
mended by  Paul.  Rom.  16  :  10.  Tra- 
dition makes  him  afterward  bishop  of 
Smvrna  or  Ileraclea. 

APES.  1  Kgs.  10:22.  Probably  a 
generic  term  for  a  variety  of  animals 
of  the  monkey -tribe.  The  rude  re- 
semblance of  these  creatures  to  the 
human  race,  both  in  figure  and  physi- 
cal capacity,  is  well  known.  Apes  are 
not  natives  of  Palestine  or  adjacent 
regions,  but  were  among  the  articles 
of  merchandise  imported  from  Ophir 
in  Solomon's  ships. 

The  ape  was  an  object  of  worship 
among  the  Egyptians,  and  is  still  such 
in  many  parts  of  India.  We  have  an 
account  of  a  temple  in  India,  dedi- 
cated to  the  worship  of  the  ape,  sup- 
ported by  seven  hundred  columns  not 
inferior  to  those  of  the  Roman  Pan- 
theon. An  ape's  tooth  was  found  by 
the  Portuguese  when  they  pillaged  the 
island  of  Ceylon  many  years  since, 
and   so   desirous  were  they  to   redeem 


it  as  an  object  of  devout  worship  that 
the  kings  of  the  country  offered  near- 
ly seventy-five  thousand  dollars  for  it. 

A  P  H  A  R '  S  A  T  II  C  II I  T  E  S  , 
APHAirSITES,  APHAR'SA- 
CIIITES,  colonists  from  Assyria  to 
Samaria.     Ezra,  4:  9  ;  5  :  0  ;  6:6. 

A'PHEK  {strength),  the  name  of 
several  towns. 

1.  A  royal  city  of  the  Canaanites 
whose  king  was  slain  by  Joshua. 
Josh.  12  :  18.  It  was  near  Hebron, 
and  probably  the  same  as  Aphekah. 
Josh.  15  :  53. 

2.  A  city  of  Asher,  Josh.  19  :  30,  in 
the  north  of  Palestine,  near  Sidon,  Josh. 
13  :  4 ;  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Aphik, 
Jud.  1  :  31,  and  the  classical  Aphaca, 
noted  in  later  history  for  its  temple  of 
Venus ;  now  Afkn,  near  Lebanon. 

3.  A  place  where  the  Philistines  en- 
camped before  the  ark  was  taken,  1  Sam. 
4:1;  north-west  of  Jerusalem  and  near 
Shocho,  now  Belled  el-Foka. 

4.  A  place  near  Jezreel,  in  Issachar, 
where  the  Philistines  were,  before  de- 
feating Saul,  1  Sam.  29  :  1,  and  cannot 
be  identified  with  No.  3,  as  some  have 
suggested. 

5.  A  walled  city  in  the  plains  of  Syria, 
on  the  road  to  Damascus.  1  Kgs.  20  : 
26,  30 :  2  Kgs.  13  :  17.  It  was  about  6 
miles  east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee;  now 
called  F!k. 

APHE'KAH  {strong  place),  fem- 
inine form  of  Aphek.  Josh.  15  :  53.  See 
Aphek  (1). 

APHI'AH  {refreshed),  one  of  Saul's 
progenitors.     1  Sam.  9  : 1. 

A'PHIK.  Jud.  1:31.  See  Aphek 
(2). 

APH'RAH  {fawn,  or  dust),  a  place 
in  the  low-country  of  Judah.  Mic.  1: 
10.  It  has  been  identified  by  some  with 
Ophrah,  but  there  is  evidence  that  it  was 
west  or  south-west  of,  and  not  far  from, 
Jerusalem. 

APH'SES  {the  dispersion),  the  head 
of  the  eighteenth  of  the  twenty-four 
courses  of  priests.     1  Chr.  24:15. 

APOCALYPSE,  the  Greek  word 
for  revelation,  used  of  the  Revelation 
of  John.     See  Revrlatio.v. 

APOCRYPHA  {hidden),  the 
name  ap])lied  most  commonly  to  the 
uneanonical  books  that  have  been 
added  to  the  Old  Testament. 

1.  Old  TestamentApocrypha. — They  are 

57 


APO 


APO 


fourteen  in  number.  I.  1  Esdras :  II.  2 
Esdras;  III.  Tobit;  IV.  Judith;  V.  The 
rest  of  the  chapters  of  the  book  of  Esther, 
which  are  found  neither  in  the  Hebrew 
nor  in  the  Chaldee ;  VI.  The  Wisdom 
of  Solomon ;  VII.  Ecclesiasticus,  or  the 
"Wisdom  of  Jesus  the  Son  of  Sirach; 
VIII.  Baruch;  IX.  The  Song  of  the 
Three  Holy  Children;  X.  The  History 
of  Susanna;  XI.  The  History  of  the 
Destruction  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon; 
XII.  The  Prayer  of  Manasses,  King 
of  Judah;  XIII.  1  Maccabees;  XIV. 
2  Maccabees.  They  do  not  exist  in  He- 
brew, but  were  written  in  Greek,  mostly 
in  Alexandria.  Though  often  quoted  by 
the  fathers,  they  were  not  esteemed  as 
highly  as  the  Scriptures.  They  are  of 
great  value  as  conveying  historical 
information  and  containing  many  in- 
structive sayings  and  examples.  They  fill 
up  the  gap  between  the  Old  and  jS^ew 
Testaments.  But  they  are  without  di- 
vine authority,  and  cannot  be  used  in 
support  of  any  doctrine  or  practice. 
They  are  found  in  the  Septuagint,  the 
Vulgate,  and  all  Roman  Catholic  Bibles, 
since  all  but  the  two  books  of  Esdras 
and  the  Prayer  of  Manasses  were  pro- 
nounced by  the  Council  of  Trent  a  part 
of  the  canonical  Scriptures.  They  were 
likewise  printed  in  Protestant  Bibles 
and  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  until  1826,  when,  after  a  long 
controversy,  it  resolved  to  omit  them 
from  all  future  editions.  The  American 
Bible  Society  followed  its  example. 

2.  New  Testament  Apocrypha. — These 
are  various  spurious  gospels,  histories, 
biographies,  and  epistles.  They  are  never 
printed  in  Bibles.  They  are  immensely 
inferior  to  the  genuine  books.  Many  of 
them  are  pious  frauds,  perpetrated  with 
the  design  of  enhancing  the  glory  of 
Christ  and  his  apostles,  but  by  their 
nonsensical  stories  they  not  only  ut- 
terly fail  of  their  object,  but  rather 
bring  their  heroes  into  contempt.  They 
confirm,  however,  the  canonical  Gosjjels, 
as  counterfeits  presuppose  the  genuine 
coins.     See  Canon. 

APOLLO'NIA  {helonriing       to 

Apollo),  the  name  of  several  places  in 
Europe  and  Asia,  of  which  Apollonia 
in  Illyria  was  the  most  celebrated. 
But  the  Apollonia  through  which  Paul 
passed,  Acts  17  :  1,  was  a  city  of  Mace- 
donia, about  36  miles  east  of  Thessa- 
68 


lonica,  and  30  miles  south-west  of 
Amphipolis.  Lewin  locates  it  at  the 
modern   Polina. 

APOL'LOS  {helomjimi  to  Apollo), 
born  at  Alexandria,  in  Egj'pt,  of  Jew- 
ish parents,  and  described  as  an  elo- 
quent man  and  mighty  in  the  Scrip- 
tures. Acts  18  :  24.  As  one  of  John's 
disciples  he  had  been  instructed  in  the 
elements  of  the  Christian  faith,  but 
coming  to  Ephesus,  a.  d.  54,  during  the 
temporar}'  absence  of  Paul,  was  more 
fully  taught  the  doctrines  of  the  gospel 
by  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  who  had  them- 
selves been  favored  with  the  company 
and  instruction  of  Paul  at  Corinth  and 
on  a  voyage  from  that  city  to  Ephesus. 
He  afterward  preached  with  abundant 
success  in  Achaia  and  at  Corinth.  Paul 
had  already  been  instrumental  in  estab- 
lishing a  church  there,  to  the  care  of 
which  Apollos  succeeded.  1  Cor.  3  :  6. 
The  members  of  it  were  divided  into 
parties,  some  being  particularly  partial 
to  Paul,  others  to  Apollos,  and  others 
still  to  Cephas  or  Peter.  The  rebuke 
of  the  apostle,  1  Cor.  1 :  12,  is  directed 
against  these  partialities,  in  all  which 
the  power  and  grace  of  God  seemed  to 
be  overlooked  or  disregarded.  When 
Paul  wrote  his  Epistle  it  is  likely 
Apollos  was  either  with  him  or  near 
him,  probably  at  Ephesus,  A.  n.  57. 
From  1  Cor.  16  :  12  we  learn  that  in 
consequence  of  these  dissensions  Apol- 
los absolutely  declined  to  go  to  Corinth. 
It  has  been  remarked  as  an  exemplary 
trait  of  character  of  these  two  eminent 
apostles  that  the  contentions  of  their 
respective  friends  and  admirers  had  no 
effect  on  their  love  and  respect  for  each 
other.  They  both  refrained  from  visit- 
ing the  church  while  it  was  distracted 
with  such  prejudices  and  partialities, 
though  a  worldly  ambition  might  have 
selected  it  as  the  field  and  the  season 
of  self-aggrandizement.  Apollos  is  last 
mentioned  Tit.  3:13,  and  verj'  aff'eetion- 
ately.  He  was  probably  a  more  brilliant 
man  than  Paul.  Some  scholars  consider 
him  to  have  been  the  author  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  But  this  is 
a  mere  conjecture;  no  exact  jiroof  can 
be  given. 

APOL'LYON.     See  Abaddon. 

APOS'TLE  {one  sent  forth).  1. 
This  term  was  given  originally  to  the 
twelve    chief    disciples    of    our    Lord. 


APO 


APP 


Matt.  10  :  2.  Their  names  were  Simox 
Peteh,  Andrew,  James,  and  John  (sons 
of  Zebedee)  ;  Philip,  Bartholomew, 
Thomas,  Matthew,  James,  and  Lebheus, 
who  is  also  called  Judas  or  Jude  (sons 
of  Alpheus);  Simon  the  Canaantean  (or 
Zealot)  and  Judas  Isoariot.  Christ's 
charge  to  them  is  recorded  in  Matt.  10  : 
5-42.  All  the  known  circumstances  of 
their  history  will  be  found  under  their 
respective  names. 

Speaking  generally,  the  apostles  were 
of  the  lower,  but  not  the  lowest,  class  of 
the  people.  They  were  all  laymen. 
Their  learning  was  rather  of  life  than 
of  books,  and  yet  it  is  probable  they 
possessed  the  rudiments  of  an  educa- 
tion. Religious  perceptions  and  piety 
they  doubtless  possessed.  Yet  they 
needed  much  instruction  and  a  miracu- 
lous endowment  before  they  were  able 
to  do  the  work  of  the  gospel.  The  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  tells  us  of  their  first  in- 
dejjendent  labors.  Paul  was  called  as 
an  apostle,  7  years  after  the  resurrec- 
tion of  Christ,  on  the  way  to  Damascus. 
He  was  not  of  the  Twelve,  but  was  of 
equal  authority.  Gal.  1  :  1,  12,  16,-  2  :  9.. 

The  ofiice  and  commission  of  apostles 
"were  remarkable  in  the  following  par- 
ticulars:  (1.)  They  were  all  required  to 
have  been  eye-  and  ear-witnesses  of  what 
they  testified,  especially  of  the  resurrec- 
tion of  Christ.  John  15  :  27  ;  Acts  1 :  21, 
22  and  22  :  14,  15  ;  1  Cor.  9  : 1  and  16  : 
8;  1  John  1  :  3.  (2.)  They  were  all 
called  or  chosen  by  our  Saviour  himself. 
Luke  6  :  13  ;  Gal.  1 : 1.  Even  Matthias 
is  not  an  exception  to  this  remark,  as 
the  determination  of  the  lot  was  of  God. 
Acts  1 :  24-26.  (3.)  They  were  inspired. 
John  16  :  13.  (4.)  They  had  the  power 
of  miracles.  Mark  16  :  20  :  Acts  2  :  43  ; 
Heb.  2:4;  Rom.  15  :  18, 19 ;  2  Cor.  12 :  12. 

The  word  "apostle"  is  also  used  in  a 
wider  sense  of  Christian  heralds  of  the 
gospel.  2  Cor.  8  :  23  ;  Phil.  2  :  25.  (A.  V. 
in  both  cases  translates  "messenger.") 

2.  The  term  apostle  is  also  applied  to 
our  Saviour,  Heb.  3  :  1,  and  with  singu- 
lar propriety,  as  in  the  character  of 
Messiah  he  is  emphatically  the  Sent 
of  God. 

APOTH'ECARY.    See  Perfume. 

AP'PAIM  (the  noHtrih),  a  descend- 
ant of  Judah.     1  Chr.  2  :  30.  31. 

APPAR'EL.     See  Clothes. 

APPEAL'.      The  right  of  appeal 


was  acknowledged  in  the  Jewish  law. 
Deut  17 :  8,  9.  For  matters  of  contro- 
versy might  be  referred  for  final  adjudi- 
cation to  "  the  priests,  the  Levites,  and 
unto  the  judge  that  shall  be  in  those 
days,"  in  the  place  chosen  of  God.  But 
this  is  not,  properly  speaking,  such  an 
appeal  as  our  law  recognizes.  Yet  we 
find  traces  of  the  principle  in  the  days 
of  the  Judges,  Jud.  4  :  5,  and  of  the 
kings.  2  Sam.  15:3.  Jehoshaphat  es- 
tablished a  permanent  court  before  which 
all  cases  might  come.  2  Chr.  19  :  8. 
This  court  was  re-established  by  Ezra. 
Ezr.  7  :  25.  The  Sanhedrin  in  later 
times  was  the  court  of  final  appeal. 
By  the  Roman  law  every  accused  citi- 
zen had  a  right  to  carry  his  cause  be- 
fore the  emperor  at  Rome,  by  appeal 
from  the  judgment  of  the  magistrate. 
Acts  25  : 1 1 . 

AP'PHIA,  a  Christian  woman  ad- 
dressed by  Paul  in  Phile.  2.  From  the 
connection  in  which  she  stands,  preced- 
ing a  masculine  name  and  linked  so 
closely  to  Philemon,  it  has  been  reason- 
ably conjectured  that  she  was  Philemon's 
wife. 

AP'PII  FO'RUM  {market-place 
of  Ajjphis),  a  place  on  the  famous  Ap- 
pian  Way,  43  miles  south-east  of  Rome, 
where  the  disciples  met  Paul.  Acts  28 : 
15.  It  was  at  the  end  of  a  canal,  and 
hence  filled  with  taverns  and  boatmen. 
Its  ruins  are  still  seen  near  Trepoiiti. 

APPLES,  APPLE  -  TREE 
(Hebrew,  breatliincj  forth).  Song  Sol. 
2:3-5;  7:8;  8:5;  Joel  1 :  12.  Spoken 
of  in  the  Scriptures  as  excellent  "among 
the  trees  of  the  wood,"  of  pleasant 
shadow,  with  sweet,  beautiful,  and  fra- 
grant fruit.  The  Hebrew  word,  by  its 
meaning,  is  thought  to  emphasize  the 
latter  property.  The  apple  proper  is 
rare  in  Syria,  and  its  fruit  is  inferior. 
Writers  have  urged  the  citron,  orange, 
quince,  and  apricot  as  the  trees  meant. 
The  fruit  of  the  latter  two  alone  is  s])e- 
cially  aromatic,  and  of  these  the  quince 
is  not  sweet  in  taste. 

The  apricot  is  everywhere  abundant 
in  the  Holy  Land,  and  of  it  Tristram 
says:  "Many  times  have  we  jiitched 
our  tents  in  its  shade  and  spread  our 
carpets  secure  from  the  rays  of  the  sun." 
"There  can  scarcely  be  a  more  deli- 
ciously-perfumed  fruit  than  the  apricot; 
and  what  fruit  can  better  fit  the  epithet 

59 


AQU 


AEA 


of  Solomon,  'apples  of  gold  in  pictures 
of  silver,'  than  this  golden  fruit  as  its 
branches  bend  under  the  weight  in  their 
setting  of  bright,  yet  pale,  foliage?" 
The  expression  of  Solomon  just  referred 
to,  Prov.  25  :  11,  is  also  supposed  to 
compare /V»/V  i)i  silver  baskets,  or  salvers 
curiouily  wrought  like  basket-work,  and 
perhaps  representing  aniuials  or  land- 
scapes, to  seasonable  advice  wisely  and 
courteously  administered. 

Apple  of  the  Eye  (Hebrew,  little 
man,  or  pupil  of  the  eye).  Prov.  7:2; 
Zech.  2  :  8.  Apple  here  represents  an 
entirely  different  word  from  the  word  of 
the  preceding  topic,  meaning  the  front 
and  most  sensitive  part  of  the  organ  of 
vision.  The  same  figure  is  used,  Deut. 
32 :  10  and  Ps,  17  :  8,  to  denote  the  most 
complete  protection  and  security.  And 
in  Lam.  2  :  IS  the  phrase  ''  apple  of  thine 
eye  "  is  figuratively  used  for  tears. 

AQ'UILA.  Acts  18  :  2.  A  Jew 
born  at  Pontus,  in  Asia  Minor.  Being 
driven  from  Rome  by  a  decree  of  the 
government  requiring  all  Jews  to  leave 
that  city,  he  and  his  wife,  Priscilla, 
came  to  Corinth,  and  were  dwelling 
there  at  the  time  of  Paul's  first  visit  to 
that  city.  Acts  18  :  1.  They  were  of 
like  occupation  (tent-makers),  and  Paul 
was  received  and  hospitably  entertained 
at  Aquila's  house  ;  and  they  also  accom- 
panied him  from  Corinth  to  Ephesus. 
On  some  occasion  they  rendered  Paul 
very  important  service,  and  a  very  warm 
friendship  existed  between  them.  Rom. 
16:3-5.     See  Apollos. 

AR,  AND  AR  OF  MO'AB.  Num. 
21 :  28.  The  chief  city  of  Moab,  on  the 
east  of  the  Salt  Sea;  called  also  Aroer, 
Deut.  2  :  36 ;  sometimes  used  for  the 
whole  land  of  Moab,  Deut.  2:29;  burn- 
ed by  Sihon.  Num.  21:26-30.  It  has 
been  placed  at  Rabbah  or  Rabbath,  but 
good  authorities  regard  it  as  a  different 
city,  and  fix  Ar  on  the  Arnon,  10  or  12 
miles  north  of  Rabbah,  at  the  Wady 
Lejum.     See  Rabbah. 

A'RA  {lion),  head  of  a  branch  of  the 
house  of  Asher.     1  Chr.  7  :  38. 

A'RAB  (ambush),  a  town  in  the 
mountains  of  Judah,  Josh.  15  :  52  ;  per- 
haps the  home  of  the  Arbite.  2  Sam. 
23  :  35.  East  of  Hebron,  at  er-Iiabiyeh, 
is  an  ancient  site  marked  by  walls,  cis- 
terns, and  ruins,  which  Conder  regards 
as  the  Arab  of  biblical  history. 
60 


AR'ABAH  (burnt  up),  a  word  of 
frequent  use  in  the  Hebrew,  though 
found  only  once  in  the  English,  version. 
Josh.  18 :  18.  It  is  the  name  applied  to 
the  deep  sunken  valley  which  extends 
from  Mount  Hermon  to  the  Elanitic 
Gulf  of  the  Red  Sea.  This  remarkable 
depression  is  about  250  miles  long,  and 
includes  the  Sea  of  Galilee  and  the 
Salt,  or  Dead,  Sea,  In  some  passages 
in  Deuteronomy,  the  plain  or  "the 
Arabah"  refers  to  the  southern  portion 
of  the  valley,  between  the  Salt  Sea  and 
the  Red  Sea,  Deut.  1:1;  2:8;  in  other 
passages  the  word  doubtless  refers  to 
the  northern  portion  of  that  valley  along 
the  Jordan,  which  the  Arabs  now  call 
el-Ghor.  See  Jordan.  Arabah  is  now 
applied  only  to  that  portion  of  the  val- 
ley which  stretches  from  the  chalk-cliffs 
below  the  Dead  Sea  southward  to  the 
Gulf  of  Akabah— Elanitic  Gulf.  It  is 
about  100  miles  long  and  from  4  to  16 
miles  wide.  The  limestone  walls  on  the 
west  of  the  valley  are  from  1500  to  1800 
feet  in  height ;  the  mountain-wall  on 
the  east  side  of  the  valley  rises  from 
2000  to  2300  in  height,  and  in  Mount 
Hor  to  5000  feet,  and  is  chiefly  composed 
of  granitic  and  basaltic  rock.  The  sur- 
face of  the  valley  is  covered  with  loose 
gravel,  blocks  of  porphyry,  and  is  fur- 
rowed with  torrents,  with  scarcely  a 
trace  of  vegetation.  It  is  oppressively 
hot,  is  swept  with  burning  winds,  the 
Sirocco  blowing  at  some  seasons  without 
intermission,  a  region  dreary  and  deso- 
late. The  theorj'  that  the  Jordan  once 
ran  through  this  valley  into  the  Red 
Sea  is  now  held  to  be  untenable.  Ara- 
bah in  Josh.  18  :  18  has  also  been  mis- 
taken for  the  name  of  a  city,  and  con- 
founded with  Beth-arabah  of  Josh.  15  : 
61;  18:22;  but  in  v.  18  the  word  has 
the  article  before  it  in  the  Hebrew,  and 
hence  refers  to  the  plain,  as  elsewhere. 
See  also  Zin,  Wilderness  of,  and  Salt 
Sea. 

ARA'BIA  (arid,  sterile),  a  largo 
peninsula  in  the  south-western  part  of 
Asia,  between  the  Red  Sea,  the  Indian 
Ocean,  and  the  Persian  Gulf.  Its  ex- 
treme length  from  north  to  south  is 
about  1300  miles,  its  greatest  breadth 
about  1500  miles,  though  from  the  north- 
ern point  of  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Persian 
Gulf  is  only  about  900  miles.  It  has  the 
sea  on  all  sides  except  the  north.     Its 


ARA 


ARA 


area  is  estimated  at  1,030,000  square 
miles;  and  of  the  three  ancient  divis- 
ions of  the  country,  that  known  as  Ara- 
bia Felix  was  by  far  the  largest  and  most 
important,  though  it  is  less  frequently 
mentioned  by  the  sacred  writers  than 
either  of  the  smaller  and  northern  divis- 
ions. 


Sketch-Map  of  Arabia. 

Physical  Features — Its  main  features 
are  a  coast-range  of  low  mountains  or 
table-land,  seldom  rising  over  2000  feet, 
broken  on  the  eastern  coast  by  sandy 
plains:  this  plateau  is  backed  up  by  a 
second  loftier  range  of  mountains  in  the 
east  and  south.  The  mountains  are 
generally  barren  on  their  sea  side  ;  their 
outlines  are  rugged  and  precipitous ; 
behind  the  mountains  encircling  the 
sea-coast  lies  a  ring  of  sterile  desert, 
broadest  in  the  east  and  south,  where  it 
is  a  waste  of  burning  sand,  narrower  in 
the  west  and  north,  where  it  is  rocky. 
Within  this  belt  of  desert  rise  table- 
lands broken  by  fertile  valleys.  This 
central  plateau  includes  about  one-third 
of  the  Arabian  peninsula,  the  desert  an- 
other third,  and  the  coast-ranges  the  re- 
maining portion.  The  Sinaitic  penin- 
sula is  a  small  triangular  region  in  the 
north-western  part,  or  corner,  of  Arabia. 
See  Sinai. 

Divisions  of  Arahi(t. — The  ancients 
divided  it  into  Petroea,  Deserta,  and 
Felix  ;  or  the  Stony,  the  Desert,  and  the 
Happy  or  Fertile.  Modern  geographers 
divide  Arabia  into  a  number  of  large 
districts,  the  chief  of  these  being  Yemen, 


which  is  the  most  fertile,  and  Hadra 
maut  in  the  south,  Oman  in  the  east, 
Shomer  and  Sinai,  or  Negcb,  in  the 
north,  Iledjaz,  containing  the  holy 
cities  of  Mecca  and  Medina,  in  the  west, 
andNej'd  in  the  central  district.  These 
districts  are  subdivided  into  upward  of 
35  smaller  provinces.  Some  arc  thickly 
peopled  with  an  agricultural  jjopuhition 
or  those  living  in  villages,  while  others 
are  held  by  tribes  of  wandering  Bed- 
ouins, each  governed  by  the  sheik. 

Prodnctions. — The  principal  animals 
are  the  horse,  famed  for  its  form, 
beauty,  and  endurance,  camels,  sheep, 
asses,  dogs,  the  gazelle,  tiger,  lynx,  and 
monkey,  quails,  peacocks,  parrots,  os- 
triches, vipers,  scorpions,  and  locusts. 
Of  fruits  and  grains,  dates,  wheat,  millet, 
rice,  beans,  and  pulse  are  common.  It  is 
also  rich  in  minerals,  especially  in  lead. 

Biblical  History. — Arabia  in  early 
Israelitish  history  meant  a  small  tract 
of  country  south  and  east  of  Palestine, 
probably  the  same  as  that  called  Kednn, 
or  "  the  east."  Gen.  10 :  30  ;  26  :  6  ;  29  : 
1.  Arabia  in  New  Testament  times  ap- 
pears to  have  been  scarcely  more  exten- 
sive. Gal.  1:17;  4  :  25.  The  chief  in- 
habitants were  known  as  Ishmaelites, 
Arabians,  Idumeans,  Horites,  and 
Edomites.  The  allusions  in  the  Scrip- 
ture to  the  country  and  its  people  are 
very  numerous.  Job  is  supposed  to 
have  dwelt  in  Arabia.  The  forty  years 
of  wandering  by  the  Israelites  under 
Moses  was  in  this  land.  See  Sinai. 
Solomon  received  gold  from  it,  1  Kgs. 
10  :  15;  2  Chr.  9  :  U;  Jehoshaphat, 
flocks,  2  Chr.  17  :  11 ;  some  of  its  people 
were  at  Jerusalem  at  the  Pentecost, 
Acts  2  :  11 ;  Paul  visited  it.  Gal.  1:17; 
the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah 
frequently  refer  to  it.  Isa.  21:11-13; 
42  :  11  :  60  :  7  ;  Jer.  25  :  24 ;  49  :  28,  29. 
See  Kedar. 

Secular  History. — Arabia  in  earliest 
history  was  divided  into  several  king- 
doms, of  which  Yemen  was  the  chief. 
In  the  fifth  century  the  northern  Arabs 
overran  Yemen  ;  later,  in  A.  D.  529,  came 
the  great  Abyssinian  invasion  ;  then  the 
era  of  Mohammed,  ()22-632,  followed  by 
the  conquests  of  his  followers,  who  swept 
over  Arabia,  Palestine,  Syria,  and  the 
whole  of  Western  Asia,  Northern  Africa, 
and  into  Europe.  In  the  next  century 
their  power  in  Arabia  was  broken  and 

61 


AEA 


ABA 


lost  by  dissensions,  Arabia  was  disor- 
ganized, but  rearranged  in  929;  fur- 
nished rulers  for  Egypt  until  1171,  in 
the  time  of  Saladin  ;  in  1517  the  Turkish 
sultan,  Selim  I.,  was  invested  with  the 
Mohammedan  caliphate,  and  Arabia  be- 
ciuue  subject  to,  and  has  since  continued 
under,  the  Ottoman  rule. 

A'RAD  {wild  ass),  a  Benjamite. 
I  Chr.  8:15. 

A'RAD.  Jud.  1 :  16.  A  city  in  the 
southern  border  of  Judfea,  whose  king 
opposed  the  passage  of  the  children  of 
Israel,  and  even  took  some  of  them 
prisoners,  for  which  the  inhabitants 
were  accursed  and  their  city  destroyed. 

A'RAD  [jylace  of  fu(f)tives),  a  Ca- 
naanitish  city.  Josh.  12  :  14,  on  a  small 
hill  now  called  Tell  Arad,  about  20 
miles  south  of  Hebron.  In  Num.  21 : 1  ; 
33  :  40  the  translation  should  be  "  the 
Canaanite  king  of  Arad." 

A'RAH  {loundering).  1.  A  chief  of 
Asher.     1  Chr.  7  :  39. 

2.  The  man  whose  descendants  re- 
turned from  Babylon,  and  whose  grand- 
daughter married  Tobiah  the  Ammon- 
ite.    Ezr.  2:5;  Neh.  6:18;  7:10. 

A'RAM  {hirjh  region).  1.  A  son  of 
Shem.     Uen.  10  :  22,  2.3  ;  1  Chr.  1 :  17. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Nahor,  Abraham's 
brother.     Gen.  22:21. 

3.  An  Asherite.     1  Chr.  7  :  34. 

4.  The  son  of  Esrom,  elsewhere  called 
Earn.  Matt.  1 :  3,  4  ;  Luke  3  :  33. 

A'RAM  (highlands),  the  elevated 
region  north-east  of  Palestine,  toward 
the  Euphrates  river.  Num.  23  :  7  ; 
1  Chr.  1  :  17  ;  2  :  23.  It  was  nearly 
identical  with  Syria.  Aram-nahara- 
im  of  Gen.  24:10  is  translated  Meso- 
potamia in  the  English  version,  and  re- 
fers to  the  region  between  the  Euphra- 
tes and  Tigris  rivers.  There  were  prob- 
ably several  petty  kingdoms  included 
under  Aram,  as  Aram-zobah,  Aram 
Beth-rehob,  Aram  Damascus,  Padan- 
aram ;  all  these  were  gradually  ab- 
sorbed by  that  of  Damascus,  which  be- 
came the  capital  of  all  "Aram,"  or  Syria. 
See  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Damas- 
cus. 

A'Yi\.m'^XYi.XRA.'\m  [highlands 
of  the  two  rivers).  Ps.  60,  title.  See 
Aram, 

A'RAM-ZO'BAH.  Ps.  60,  title. 
See  Aram. 

A'RAN  (ivild  goat),  a  descendant  of 
62 


Seir  the  Horite.  Gen.  36  :  28  ;  1  Chr. 
1:42. 

AR'ARAT  (holij  land,  or  high  land), 
a  mountainous  region  of  Asia  which  bor- 
ders on  the  plain  of  the  Araxes,  and  is 
mentioned  (1)  as  the  resting-place  of 
Noah's  ark,  Gen.  8  :  4 ;  (2)  as  the  ref- 
uge of  the  sons  of  Sennacherib,  2  Kgs. 
19  :  37,  margin;  Isa.  37  :  38,  margin; 
(3)  as  a  kingdom  near  to  Minni  and 
Ashchenaz,  Jer.  61 :  27. 

Ararat  was  a  name  unknown  to  Greek 
and  Roman  geographers,  as  it  is  now  to 
the  Armenian,  but  it  was  known  to 
others  in  b.  c.  1750  as  the  ancient  name 
for  a  portion  of  Armenia.  In  Scripture 
it  refers  to  the  lofty  plateau  or  moun- 
tain-highlands which  overlook  the  plain 
of  the  Araxes.  Various  views  have 
prevailed  as  to  the  Ararat  on  which  the 
ark  rested.  Tradition  identifies  it  with 
the  mountain  known  as  Ararat  to  Eu- 
ropeans, called  "  Steep  Mountain  "  by 
the  Turks,  and  Kuh-i-Nuh,  or  "  Noah's 
Mountain,"  by  the  Persians.  It  has 
two  peaks,  about  7  miles  apart;  the 
highest  is  17,750  feet,  the  other  about 
4000  feet  lower.  The  highest  peak  is 
covered  with  perpetual  snow,  and  is  a 
volcano,  having  had  at  least  two  violent 
eruptions  within  a  century.  The  vil- 
lage of  Argnri,  built  on  its  slopes,  is 
said  to  be  on  the  spot  where  tradition 
claims  that  Noah  planted  his  vineyard. 
The  mountains  of  Ararat,  Gen.  8 : 4,  more 
properly  refer  to  the  entire  range  of  ele- 
vated table-land  in  that  portion  of  Ar- 
menia, and  upon  some  lower  part  of  this 
range,  rather  than  upon  the  high  peaks 
before  mentioned,  the  ark  more  probably 
rested.  For  (1)  this  plateau  or  range 
is  about  6000  to  7000  feet  high  ;  (2)  it 
is  about  equally  distant  from  the  Eux- 
ine  and  the  Caspian  Seas,  and  between 
the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Mediterranean, 
and  hence  a  central  point  for  the  dis- 
persion of  the  race ;  (3)  the  region  is 
volcanic  in  its  origin ;  it  does  not  rise 
into  sharp  crests,  but  has  broad  plains 
separated  by  subordinate  ranges  of 
mountains ;  (4)  the  climate  is  temper- 
ate, grass  and  grain  are  abundant,  the 
harvests  quick  to  mature.  All  these 
facts  illustrate  the  biblical  narrative. 
Geoi-ge  Smith,  however,  places  Ararat 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  mountains 
east  of  Assyria  {Chaldean  Account  of 
Genesis,  p.  289). 


AEA 


ABC 


View  of  Ararat.    (^After 

ARAU'NAH  {nrh  ;  a  Inrrfe  ash  or 
pine),  OR  OR'NAiV,  was  a  Jebusite  who 
lived  at  Jerusalem  and  owned  a  thresh- 
ing-place or  floor,  where  the  temple  was 
afterward  built.  2  Sam.  24  : 1 6.  Da- 
vid bought  it  of  him  because  the  destroy- 
ing angel  sent  to  desolate  the  nation,  in 
consequence  of  David's  sin  of  number- 
ing the  people,  stayed  his  hand  at  the 
command  of  God  just  as  he  had  reached 
the  floor.  Araunah  refused  at  first  to 
receive  anything  for  it,  but  ofi'ered  it  to 
him.  together  with  oxen  for  sacrifices, 
and  the  timber  of  the  threshing-instru- 
ments for  fuel.  David  refused  to  receive 
them  as  a  gift,  as  he  would  not  offer  to  the 
Lord  that  which  had  cost  him  nothing. 
He  therefore  bought  the  oxen  for  fifty 
shekels  of  silver,  2  Sam.  24 :  24,  and 
the  whole  place  for  six  hundred  shekels 
of  gold,  1  Chr.  21 :  25,  and  ofi'ered  his 
sacrifices,  which  were  accepted  and  the 
plague  stayed.  2  Sam.  24 :  23  may  be 
better  translated  :  "The  whole,  0  king, 
does  Araunah  give  unto  the  King."  But 
taking  the  Authorized  Version  transla- 
tion as  it  stands,  it  favors  the  view  of 
some  that  the  expression  "  Araunah  the 
king  "  implies  that  he  was  one  of  the 
kings  of  the  Jebusites. 

AR'BA.     See  Hkbrox. 

AR'BAH.  Gen.  35  :  27.  See  Kir- 
JATH-ARBAH  and  Hkp.rov. 

AR'BATHITE,  THE,  i.  e.  na 


Parrot.    From  I'iehm.) 
tive  of  the  Arabah 
Chr.  11  :  32. 
AR'BEL.    Hos.  10:14 


2  Sam.  23:31;  1 
See  Beth- 


ARBEL. 

AR'BITE,  THE,  t.  e.  native  of 
Arab.  Paarai  was  so  called.  2  Sam. 
23  ■  35. 

ARCHAN'GEL,  the  prince  or 
chief  of  angels.  The  word  only  occurs 
twice  in  the  Bible,  1  Thess.  4:16; 
Jude  9,  and  it  is  generally  believed  that 
a  created,  though  highly-exalted,  being 
is  denoted  bv  the  term. 

ARCHEJLA'US  (prince  of  the 
peojile),  a  son  of  Herod  the  Great 
by  a  Samaritan  woman.  He  with  his 
brother,  Antipas,  was  brought  up  in 
Rome.  On  the  decease  of  his  father, 
B.  c.  4,  the  same  year  that  Christ  was 
born,  he  succeeded  to  the  government 
of  Idumea,  Samaria,  and  Judaea,  with 
the  title  of  ethnarch.  His  character 
was  cruel  and  revengeful.  Joseph  and 
Mary  on  their  return  from  Egypt  nat- 
urally, therefore,  feared  to  live  under 
his  government.  Matt.  2  :  22.  In  the 
tenth  year  of  his  reign  he  was  deposed 
by  the  emperor  for  cruelty,  on  charges 
preferred  against  him  by  his  brothers 
and  subjects,  and  banished  to  Yienne, 
in  Gaul,  where  he  died. 

AR'CHI.  Josh.  16  :  2.  A  place 
near  Bethel,  ])erhaps  settled  by  a  colony 
from  Babylon,  and  named  after  Erech 

63 


ARC 


ARC 


in  Babylonia.  Conder  identifies  it  with 
the  village  of  'Ain  'Arek,  which  is  in  the 
required  position. 

ARCHIP'PUS  (master  of  the 
horse),  a  Christian  teacher  addressed 
by  Paul,  Phile.  2.  Some  think  he  was 
Philemon's  son. 

AR'CHITE,  THE,  the  designa- 
tion always  coupled,  in  the  Bible,  with 
the  name  of  Hushai,  David's  faithful 
friend,  2  Sam.  15  :  32  ;  16  :  16  ;  17  :  5-14; 
1  Chr.  27  :  33.  It  is  not  certain  to  what 
it  refers—perhaps  to  "  the  districts  of 
Erech  which  lay  on  the  frontier  of 
Ephraim,  but  this  is  mere  conjecture." 

AR'CHITECTURE  arises  out  of 
the  necessities  of  human  life,  and  before 
it  becomes  an  art  it  administers  to  the 
primary  demands  of  civilization.  Cain 
built  a  small  city,  Gen.  4  :  17,  and  after 
the  Flood  other  cities  were  built.  Gen. 
10  :  10-12  ;  11 :  1-9.  Damascus  and  He- 
bron existed  in  the  days  of  Abraham. 


Remains  of  Arch  of  Bridge  between  Zion  and 
Moriah,  and  near  the  Jews'  Wailing-phice. 
(From  Photograph.) 

The  patriarchs,  being  nomads,  lived  in 
tents.  During  their  sojourn  in  Egypt 
the  Hebrews  became  acquainted  with 
architecture  as  an  art,  and  they  were 
compelled  by  force  to  take  part  in  the 
construction  of  huge  monuments.  Ex. 
1:11.  Hence  it  was  natural  that  their 
imagination  should  be  deeply  impressed 
by  Egyptian  architecture,  and  that  they 
acquired  some  knowledge  of  the  science 
on  which  it  was  based.  But  during 
their  wanderings  in  the  wilderness  they 
had  no  opportunity  to  display  it,  except 
in  the  construction  of  the  tabernacle  ; 
64 


I  and   at  the   conquest  of   Canaan  they 
I  found  forts  and  cities  prepared  by  other 
j  hands.     Jud.  1:16-26. 
j       It  was  not  till   the  reigns  of  David 
i  and  Solomon  that  Hebrew  architecture 
I  suddenly  started   into    existence.     The 
j  influence  from  Egypt  at  once  made  it- 
I  self   felt.     David    enlarged    Jerusalem, 
\  improved  its  fortifications,  and  built  a 
i  palace  on  Mount  Zion,  perhaps  also  the 
;  original  walls  of   the  great  mosque  at 
1  Hebron.     Solomon  built  another  palace, 
"  the  house  of  the  forest  of  Lebanon," 
a  palace  for  his  wife,  the  daughter  of 
Pharaoh,  gigantic  water-works  south  of 
Bethlehem,  still  known  under  the  name 
i  of  "Solomon's  Pools,"  and  finally  the 
I  greatest,  and  we  may  say  the  only  great, 
1  monument  of  Hebrew  architecture,  the 
temple.       These    buildings    were,    to    a 
large    extent,    erected     by    Phoenician 
workmen,  2  Sam.  5:6-11,  and  we  may 
easily  believe  that  Phoenician  taste  has 
made  itself  felt  in  many  details.     But 
so  far  as  it  is  possible  to  reconstruct  the 
temple  after  the  descriptions  given  of 
it  in  the  Bible,  it  must  as  a  whole  have 
reminded    the    spectator   of    Egyptian 
architecture.     The  remains  of  an  arch 
of  the  bridge  between  Zion  and  Moriah, 
and  the  remnants  of  the  old  wall,  called 
the  "  Wailing-place  of  the  Jews,"  show 
the  massiveness  of  the  old  Hebrew  struc- 
tures ;    and  from  the  descriptions  it  is 
apparent  that  everywhere  in  these  build- 
ings, the  temple  as  well  as  the  palaces, 
the  straight    line  and   the   right  angle 
were  predominant.    But  massiveness  of 
construction  and    straightness  of  form 
are  two  of  the  most  prominent  features 
of  Egyptian  architecture. 

The  successors  of  David  and  Solomon 
continued  to  build,  and  several  kings 
of  both  Israel  and  Judah  are  mentioned 
as  having  encouraged  architecture.  Nor 
did  the  nation  as  a  whole  forget  the  art. 
After  the  return  from  Babylon  the  Jews 
were  able  to  fortify  Jerusalem  and  re- 
build their  temple  themselves.  Ezr.  3: 
8-10:  6:14;  Neh.  3  ;  6:15.  Herod 
the  Great  was  a  great  builder,  and  in- 
troduced the  Greek  and  Roman  styles 
of  architecture.  The  temple  recon- 
structed by  him  before  and  during  the 
life  of  our  Lord  was  totally  destroyed 
in  A.  n.  70.  For  further  details  see  Tem- 
ple ;  for  details  concerning  the  Jewish 
architecture,  see  Dwelling. 


ARC 


AEG 


ARCTU'RUS,   Job 

38  :  32  ;  a  star  in  the  con- 
stellation Bootes,  but  in 
Job  it  refers  to  the  Ursa 
Major  or  Great  Bear. 

ARD  {fugitive  f).  1. 
A  Benjamite;  called  in 
Gen.  46  :  21  son,  and  in 
Num.  26  :  40  grandson, 
of  Benjamin;  name 
written  Addar  in  1  Chr. 
8  :  3.  His  descendants 
are  the  Ardites. 

AR'DON  (fugitive), 
a  son  of  Caleb,  the  son 
of  Hezron,  by  his  wife 
Azubah.     1  Chr.  2  :  18. 

ARE'LI  (heroic),  a 
son  of  Gad ;  founder  of 
the  Arelites.  Gen.  46  :  16  ; 
Num.  26  :  17. 

AREOP'AGITE,a 
member  of  the  council  of 
the  Areopagus.  Acts  17  : 
34. 

AREOP'AGUS 
{hill  of  Mars),  a  rocky 
hill  near  the  centre  of 
the  ancient  city  of  Ath- 
ens, and  west  of  the 
Acropolis,  from  which  it  is  divided  by 
a  valley.  It  had  its  name  from  the  tra- 
dition that  Mars  (Ares),  the  god  of  war, 
was  tried  here  by  the  other  gods  on  the 
charge  of  murder.  It  was  celebrated 
as  the  place  where  the  great  court  of 
justice,  the  most  ancient  and  venerable 
of  the  Athenian  courts,  was  held,  and 
where  Paul  made  his  address  to  the 
Athenians.  Acts  17:19-34.  Near  by 
were  the  temple  of  Mars,  the  Parthe- 
non, the  colossal  statue  of  Minerva,  and 
beneath  the  hill  were  the  caves  of  the 
Furies.  There  are  16  stone  steps  now  to 
be  seen,  cut  into  the  rock  and  leading  to 
its  summit,  and  above  the  steps  there  is 
a  bench  of  stones  excavated  in  the  rock, 
forming  three  sides  of  a  quadrangle  and 
facing  the  south.  Here  the  Areopagites 
sat  as  judges,  in  the  open  air,  and  from 
here  Paul  made  known  to  the  Athenians 
the  "  unknown  God  "  and  converted  one 
of  the  judges,  Dionysius,  who  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  bishop  of  Athens 
and  the  writer  of  books  on  mystical 
Platonic  theology  and  philosophy. 

AR'ETAS.      2  Cor.  11  :  32.       The 
king    of    Arabia    Petraia    at   the   time 
5 


View  of  "Mars'  Hill,"  or  Aivopamis.     {From  Lewin's  "Life  of  St, 
Faui.") 

the  governor  of  Damascus  attempted 
to  apprehend  Paul.  Acts  9  :  24,  25. 
His  daughter  married  Herod  Antipas, 
but  was  afterward  divorced  to  make 
room  for  Herodias.  In  consequence 
of  this  insult,  Aretas  made  war  upon 
Antipas  and  routed  him.  The  emperor 
Tiberius  then  despatched  the  governor  of 
Syria  to  the  assistance  of  Antipas,  with 
orders  to  bring  the  Arabian  to  Rome 
alive,  or  if  dead  to  send  his  head. 
While  on  the  march  against  him  Vi- 
tellius  learned  that  Tiberius  was  dead, 
A.  D.  37.  He  then  dismissed  his  troops. 
Antipas  was  soon  after  banished  and 
his-  kingdom  given  to  Agrippa.  It  is 
likely  that  Aretas  was  restored  to  the 
good  graces  of  the  Romans,  and  that 
Caligula  granted  him  Damascus,  which 
had  already  formed  part  of  his  pred- 
ecessor's kingdom.  In  this  way  we 
can  account  for  the  fact  in  Paul's  life 
stated  above. 

AR'GOB  (stony),  a  small  dis- 
trict of  Bashan,  east  of  the  Jordan ; 
named  only  four  times  in  the  Bible. 
It  is  about  30  miles  long  by  20  miles 
wide,    chiefly  a   field   of   basalt   (black 

65 


ARI 


ARK 


rock),  elevated  about  30  feet  above 
the  surrounding  plain,  and  border- 
ed by  a  rocky  rampart  of  broken 
cliffs.  It  once  contained  60  strong  and 
fortified  cities,  the  ruins  of  many  of 
them  being  still  to  be  seen.  It  is  now 
called  the  Lejah. 

Histori/.  —  Jair  took  60  of  its  cities. 
Deut.  3  : 4,  5,  14.  Absalom  fled  thither. 
2  Sam.  13  :  38.  Solomon  ])laced  an  of- 
ficer over  its  60  great  cities  with  bra- 
zen walls.  1  Kgs.  4  :  13.  Porter  de- 
scribes this  region  as  "  literally  crowded 
with  towns  and  large  villages ;  and 
though  a  vast  majority  of  them  are 
deserted,  they  are  not  ruined.  I  have 
more  than  once  entered  a  deserted 
city  in  the  evening,  taken  possession 
of  a  comfortable  house,  and  spent  the 
night  in  peace.  Many  of  the  houses 
in  the  ancient  cities  of  Bashan  are 
pei'fect  as  if  only  finished  yesterday. 
The  walls  are  sound,  the  roofs  unbro- 
ken, and  even  the  window-shutters  in 
their  places.  These  ancient  cities  of 
Bashan  probably  contain  the  very  old- 
est specimens  of  domestic  architec- 
ture in  the  world."  (See  Giant  Cities 
of  Bashan.)  But  these  ruins  are  now 
ascertained  to  belong  to  the  Roman  pe- 
riod, and  after  the  Christian  era.  The 
American  Palestine  Exploration  Society 
has  explored  that  East  Jordan  region, 
and  taken  photographs  of  ruins  of  the- 
atres, palaces,  and  temples. 

ARID'AI  {the  stroll ff),  the  ninth 
son  of  Haman.     Esth.  9:9. 

ARID'ATHA  (see  above),  the 
sixth  son  of  Haman.     Esth.  9  :  8. 

ARI'EH  {lion),  a  friend  of  Peka- 
hiah  :  killed  with  him  by  Pekah.  2  Kgs. 
15  :  2o. 

A'RIEL  {lion  of  God),  one  of 
Ezra's  chief  men  who  directed  the 
caravan  which  Ezra  led  from  Babylon 
to  Jerusalem.  Ezr.  8  :  16.  Jerusalem 
being  the  chief  city  of  Judah,  whose 
emblem  was  a  lion,  Gen.  49 :  9,  the 
word  Ariel  is  applied  to  that  city. 
Isa.  29:1. 

ARIMATHE'A  {heights),  a  town 
in  Judaea,  and  the  home  of  Joseph,  who 
begged  the  body  of  Jesus.  Matt.  27  : 
57  ;  Mark  15  :  43  ;  Luke  23  :  51 ;  John 
19  :  38.  An  old  tradition  places  it  at  the 
modern  Ramleh,  but  this  is  generally 
discredited.  Some  identify  it  with 
Ramah ;  others,  with  less  probability, 
66 


with  Renthieh,  10  miles  east  of  Joppa. 
See  Ramah. 

A'RIOCH  {lion-like).  1.  The  king 
of  Ellasar,  confederate  with  Chedor- 
laomer.     Gen.  14  :  1-9. 

2.  The  captain  of  Nebuchadnezzar's 
guard.     Dan.  2  :  14,  15,  24,  25. 

ARIS'AI  {Uon-Ul-e),  the  eighth  son 
of  Haman.     Esth.  9  :  9. 

ARISTAR'CHUS  {best  mler), 
a  Macedonian  of  Thessalonica  whc 
accompanied  Paul  upon  his  third  mis- 
sionary journey.  Acts  20:4;  27:2. 
He  was  nearly  killed  in  the  tumult  which 
Demetrius  excited  in  Ephesus,  Acts  19  : 
29,  and  it  is  said  that  he  was  finally  be- 
headed in  Rome.  Paul  alludes  to  him 
both  as  his  fellow-laborer  and  fellow- 
prisoner.     Col.  4:10;  Phile.  24. 

ARK.  The  word  indicates  three 
structures.  1.  Noah's  ark,  the  vessel 
constructed  at  God's  command  for  the 
preservation  of  himself  and  family  and 
a  stock  of  the  various  animals,  etc., 
during  the  Flood.  Gen.  6  :  14.  2.  Moses' 
ark  of  bulrushes.  Ex.  2 :  3.  3.  And 
usually,  the  ark  of  the  covenant. 

1,  Noah's  Ark. — It  was  four  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  long,  seventy-five  feet  in 
breadth,  and  forty-five  in  height,  and 
was  designed,  not  to  sail,  but  only  to 
float  when  borne  up  by  the  waters. 
It  had  lower,  second,  and  third  stories, 
besides  what  in  common  vessels  is  call- 
ed the  hold.  A  door  was  placed  in  the 
side,  and  on  the  roof  a  series  of  win- 
dows or  a  window-course  in  which  some 
translucent  substance  may  have  been 
used. 

The  ark  was  constructed  of  gopher- 
wood,  and  covered  with  bitumen  or 
pitch  to  exclude  water. 

It  is  doubtful  where  the  ark  was 
built  and  as  to  how  long  time  it  took. 
The  weight  of  opinion  is  that  it  was 
from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty  years.  Compare  Gen.  5  :  32  and 
7:6;  Gen.  6  :  3  with  1  Pet.  3  :  20. 

The  ark  is  supposed  to  have  been 
a  long,  square-cornered  boat  with  a  flat 
bottom  and  a  sloping  roof;  and  the  con- 
struction of  it  has  been  the  subject  of 
much  curious,  not  to  say  useless,  specu- 
lation. The  propoi'tions  of  the  ark,  as 
those  recommended  by  the  experience 
of  centuries  of  ship-building,  are  of 
themselves  a  proof  of  Noah's  inspira- 
tion.    In  regard  to  the  capacity  c£  the 


ARK 


ARK 


ark,  it  was  large  enough  to  accommodate 
the  eight  persons  of  Noah's  family,  and 
all  the  animals  to  be  saved  in  it.  Some 
scholars  confine  the  number  of  animals 
to  the  species  living  in  tlie  parts  of  the 
world  then  inhabited  by  men,  excepting, 
of  course,  such  as  live  in  the  water 
or  lie  dormant.  Traditions  of  the  ark 
and  of  the  Deluge  are  found  among  most 
ancient  nations.    See  Flood. 

2.  Moses's  Ark  was  made  of  the  bul- 
rush or  papyrus,  which  grows  in  marshy 
places  in  Egypt.  It  was  daubed  with 
slime,  which  was  probably  the  mud  of 
which  their  bricks  were  made,  and  with 
pitch  or  bitumen.     Ex.  2  :  3. 

3.  Ark  op  the  Covexant,  Ex.  25 : 
10,  a  chest  constructed  by  the  express 
command  of  Jehovah,  three  feet  nine 
inches  in  length,  and  two  feet  three 
inches  in  width  and  height,  made  of 
shittim-wood  and  covered  with  plates 
of  gold  within  and  without.  A  border 
or  crown  of  gold  encircled  it  near  the 
top,    and    it   was    surmounted    by    the 


Supposed  form  of  Ark  of  the  Covenant. 

mercy-seat,  which  was  of  solid  gold, 
and  answered  the  purpose  of  a  cover 
or  lid  to  the  ark.  On  each  end  of  the 
mercy-seat  was  placed  a  golden  image 
representing  a  cherub  facing  inward 
and  bending  down  over  the  ark.  Two 
rings  of  gold  were  attached  to  the  body 
of  the  ark  on  each  side,  through  which 
passed  the  staves  or  poles,  made  of  the 
same  wood  and  overlaid  with  gold,  that 
were  used  in  carrying  it  from  place  to 
place,  and  these  were  never  taken  out. 
This   ark  contained  originally  and  in 


design,  1.  A  golden  pot  in  which  the 
three  quarts  of  manna  were  preserved. 
Ex.  16  :  33.  2.  Aaron's  rod,  which  at 
different  places  miraculously  budded 
and  blossomed  and  yielded  fruit  all  at 
once,  Num.  17:8;  and,  3.  The  tables 
of  the  testimony,  or  the  tables  of  the 
ten  commandments,  written  with  the 
finger  of  God  and  constituting  the  tes- 
timony or  evidence  of  the  covenant  be- 
tween God  and  the  people.  Deut.  31 :  26  ; 
Heb.  9  :  3,  4.  Hence  it  is  sometimes  call- 
ed the  <xrk  of  the  testimony,  and  some- 
times the  ark  of  the  covenant.  Ex.  25  : 
16  and  40  :  21  ;  It  is  probable  that  the 
first  two  were  hopelessly  lost  before  the 
reign  of  Solomon.  1  Kgs.  8:9.  On 
the  mercy-seat  which  surmounted  the 
ark  rested  the  awful  and  mysterious 
symbol  of  the  divine  presence.  Lev. 
16  :  2 ;  Num.  7  :  89.  When  the  Israelites 
were  journeying  through  the  wilderness, 
the  ark  was  borne  in  advance  of  the 
people,  and  their  route  was  providen- 
tially indicated  by  "the  cloud  of  the 
Lord."  When  the  ark  set  forward, 
Moses  said,  "  Rise  up.  Lord,  and  let 
thine  enemies  be  scattered ;  and  let 
them  that  hate  thee  flee  before  thee." 
Num.  10 :  33-36. 

After  the  children  of  Israel  had  pass- 
ed the  Jordan,  whose  waters  divided  at 
the  approach  of  the  ark.  Josh.  3  :  14- 
17,  the  tabernacle  was  set  up  at  Gilgal, 
and  this  sacred  vessel  remained  in  it  for 
a  season.  It  was  then  removed  to  Shi- 
loh,  where  it  was  stationary  between 
thi-ee  and  four  hundred  years,  Jer.  7  : 
12-15 ;  and  being  then  taken  out  and 
borne  before  the  army,  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Philistines  at  the  defeat 
of  the  Israelites  near  Aphek.  1  Sam. 
4.  The  Philistines  took  it  to  Ashdod 
and  placed  it  by  the  side  of  their  idol- 
god  Dagon,  1  Sam.  5  :  but  by  severe  judg- 
ments God  avenged  his  insulted  majesty, 
and  they  were  compelled  to  return  the 
ark  to  the  people  of  Israel,  by  whom  it 
was  lodged  at  Kirjath-jearim.  1  Sara. 
6  and  7.  When  David  had  fixed  his 
residence  at  Jerusalem,  the  ark  was  re- 
moved thither  with  sacred  ceremonies, 
and  kept  until  the  temple  was  prepared 
to  receive  it.  2  Sam.  6  ;  1  Chr.  15  :  2y-28, 
on  which  occasion  it  is  supposed  the  one 
hundred  and  thirty-second  Psalm  was 
written.  Solomon  put  it  in  the  temple. 
2   Chr.  5  :  2-10.       Manasseh   placed   a 

67 


AEK 


AEM 


carved  image  in  the  house  of  God, 
probably  removing  the  ark  to  make 
way  for  it.  Josiah,  however,  restored 
it.      See  2  Chr.  33  :  7  and  35  :  3. 

The  second  temple  did  not  contain 
the  ark :  whether  it  was  seized  among 
the  spoils  when  the  city  was  sacked,  or 
whether  it  was  secreted  and  afterward 
destroyed,  does  not  appear.  The  Jews 
think  it  will  be  restored  when  their  Mes- 
siah appears.  Wherever  the  Jews  dwelt 
or  wandered,  they  always  worshipped 
toward  the  place  where  the  ark  of  the 
covenant  rested.     Dan.  6  :  10. 

ARK'ITE,  THE,  a  Canaanitish 
family  settled  in  Arka,  "  a  Phoenician 
town  at  the  north-western  base  of  Leb- 
anon, where  the  worship  of  Astarte  was 
practised."  Gen.  10  :  17  ;  1  Chr.  1 :  15. 

AKMAGED'jyON  (mount  of  Me- 
giddo),  a  name  used  figuratively  in  Rev. 
16: 16,  and  suggested  by  the  great  bat- 
tle-field noted  in  the  Old  Testament  and 
now  known  as  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon. 

ARME'NIA  (wo»jifai"ns  of  Minnif), 
a  name  in  the  English  version  for  a 
country  called  Ararat  in  the  Hebrew. 
2  Kgs.  19  :  37  ;  Isa.  37  :  38.  Armenia 
is  in  western  Asia,  between  the  Caspian 
and  the  Black  Seas,  and  the  Caucasus 
and  Taurus  ranges  of  mountains. 

PJn/sical  Features. — It  is  chiefly  an 
elevated  plateau,  about  7000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  the  highest  peak 
being  Ararat,  the  lower  portions  of  the 
plateau  being  broken  by  valleys  and 
glens,  including  the  fertile  valleys  of 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  rivers.  It  is 
watered  by  four  large  streams,  the  Aras, 
the  Kur,  the  Euphrates,  and  the  Tigris, 
and  also  by  numerous  lakes,  one  of  the 
largest,  the  salt  Lake  Van,  being  over 
5400  feet  above  the  sea.  Its  three  moun- 
tain-ranges abound  in  volcanic  rocks,  in 
lead,  copper,  iron,  silver,  rock-salt,  and 
mineral  springs.  The  climate  is  cold 
in  the  highlands,  while  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer is  intense  in  the  valleys. 

Hixtori/.  —  Three  districts  probably 
included  in  Armenia  are  mentioned  in 
the  Bible,  Ararat,  Minni  and  Ashchenaz. 
and  Togarmah.  (1)  Ararat  was  a  central 
region  near  the  range  of  mountains  of  the 
same  name.  (2 )  Minni  and  Aschenaz,  Jer. 
51  :  27,  districts  in  the  upper  valley  of  a 
branch  of  the  Euphrates.  (3)  Togarmah, 
Eze.  27  :  14  ;  38  :  6,  was  apparently  the 
name  by  which  the  most,  or  perhaps  the 
68 


whole,  of  the  land  was  known  to  the 
Hebrews.  Armenian  tradition  claims 
that  Armenia  was  settled  by  Hnik,  a 
grandson  of  Japhet,  about  B.C. 2200,  The 
land  soon  became  tributary  to  Assyria, 
and  so  continued  until  the  eighth  cen- 
tury B.  c. ;  was  again  independent  until 
B.  c.  325  ;  subject  to  Macedonia  for  130 
years  ;  again  free  until  B.  c.  34  ;  since 
then  alternately  overrun  by  Romans, 
Persians,  Greeks,  Kurds,  and  Turks,  and 
divided  between  Russia,  Turkey,  and 
Persia.  The  people  have  long  been  nom- 
inally Christian.  Religious  persecution 
and  war  have  driven  great  numbers  of 
Armenians  from  their  native  land  into 
Asia  Minor  and  Europe.  The  present 
number  of  Armenians  is  estimated  to 
be  from  2,500,000  to  3,000,000,  of  whom 
about  1,000,000  live  in  Armenia.  Its 
chief  modern  towns  are  Erzeroum,  Eri- 
van,  and  Van.     See  Assyria. 

AR'MOR.  See  also  War.  Weap- 
ons or  instruments  of  defence.  These 
were  in  general  the  shield  or  buckler, 
the  target,  the  coat  of  mail,  the  greaves, 
and  the  helmet. 


Egyptian  Shields.    {After  Eosellini.) 

1.  The  shield  or  6»c7i-/erwas  probably 
one  of  the  earliest  pieces  of  armor,  for  al- 
lusion is  often  made  to  it  by  the  earliest 
writers.  Gen.  15  : 1  ;  Ps.  5  :  12  :  18  :  2  : 
47  : 9.  It  was  of  various  sizes,  and  usually 
made  of  light  wood  and  covered  with 
several  folds  or  thicknesses  of  stout 
hide,  which  were  preserved  and  polished 
by  frequent  applications  of  oil,  Isa.  21 : 
5,  and  often  painted  with  circles  of 
various  colors  or  figures.  Nah.  2  :  3. 
Sometimes  osiers,  or  reeds  woven  like 
basket-work,  were  used  to  stretch  the 
hide  upon,  and  sometimes  the  shield 
was  made  either  entirely  of  brass  or 
gold,  or  covered  with  thick   plates   of 


ARM 


ARM 


those  metals.  1  Kgs.  14 :  26,  21.  It  was 
of  various  forms,  but  generally  circular 
or  oblong.     The  shield  was  held  by  the 


1,  2.  Assyrian  Mail.  (Nineveh  Marbles.)  3. 
Part  of  Chain  Mail.  (From  Kouyunjik.)  4.  Greek 
Cuirass.  (From  Temple  Collections.)  5.  Persian 
Mail. 

left  arm.  The  hand  passed  through 
under  two  straps  or  thongs  placed 
thus,  X.  and  grasped  with  the  fingers 
another  small  strap  near  the  edge  of  the 
shield,  so  that  it  was  held  with  great 
firmness.  A  single  handle  of  wood  or 
leather  in  the  centre  was  used  in 
later  times.  The  outer  surface  was 
made  more  or  less  rounding  from 
the  centre  to  the  edge,  and  being 
polished  smooth  made  the  arrows  or 
darts  glance  off"  or  rebound  with  in- 
creased force  ;  and  the  edges  were  armed 
with  plates  of  iron,  not  only  to  strength- 
en them,  but  to  preserve  the  perishable 
part  from  the  dampness  while  lying 
upon  the  ground.  In  times  of  peace 
the  shield  was  kept  in  a  covering.  In 
times  of  engagement  the  shields  were 
either  held  above  the  head  or  they  were 
placed  together  edge  to  edge,  and  thus 
formed  a  continuous  barrier. 

2.  The  target  was  a  long  shield, 
protecting  the  whole  bodj',  larger  than 
the  bucklers  above  described.  1  Kgs. 
10:16,  17.  It  is  usually  mentioned  in 
connection  with  heavy  arms,  while  the 
shield  is  spoken  of  with  the  sword,  dart, 
and  other  light  arms.     It  probably  re- 


sembled the  great  shield  of  the  Romans, 
which  in  some  cases  was  four  feet  high 
and  two  and  a  half  feet  broad,  and  so 
curved  as  to  fit  the  body  of  the  soldier. 

3.  The  coat  of  mail  of  Goliath,  1  Sam. 
17  : 5,  covered  the  body  upon  and  below 
the  breast  and  back,  and  was  probably 
like  a  shirt  covered  with  rows  of  brass 
pieces  overlapping  one  another;  and 
this  may  have  been  the  usual  form. 
The  habergeon  of  Neh.  4  :  16  is  a  diff'er- 
ent  translation  of  the  same  word.  The 
article  so  called  formed  part  of  the  high 
priest's  dress,  and  "is  supposed  to  have 
been  of  linen,  thickly  woven  or  quilted, 
with  a  binding  on  the  neck,  and  plated 
on  the  breast  with  mail." 

4.  Greaves  or  boots,  L  Sam.  17  :  6,  were 
for  the  protection  of  the  legs,  being  made 
of  brass  and  fastened  by  leather  thongs 
over  the  shins.  They  are  mentioned  only 
as  a  part  of  the  armor  of  Goliath,  and 
probably  were  not  in  common  use  among 
the  Hebrews,  though  they  were  almost 
universal  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

5.  Helmet.  This  was  a  cap,  the  diverse 
shapes  of  which  are  seen  in  the  figures  of 
the  archers,  slinger,  bearers  of  shields. 
In  early  times  skins  of  the  heads  of 
animals  were  used,  but  afterward  it  was 
made  of  thick,  tough  hide,  and  some- 
times of  plated  brass,  1  Sam.  17  :  38, 
and  usually  crowned  with  a  crest  or 
plume  as  an  ornament. 

Armor-bearer.  Jud.  9  :  54.  An  of- 
ficer selected  by  kings  and  generals  from 
the  bravest  of  their  favorites,  whose  ser- 


Egyptian  Battle-axes.    (From  Rosellini  and  Chatti' 
pollion.) 

vice  it  was,  not  only  to  bear  their  armor, 
but  to  stand  by  them  in  danger  and  carry 
their  orders,  somewhat  after  the  manner 


ARM 


ARM 


of  adjutants  in  modern  service. 
16:21  and  31:  4. 

1 


1  Sam. 


1.  Egyptian  Maces  and  Clubs. 
Maces. 


Assyrian 


ARMS  were  weapons  or  instruments 
of  offence.  They  were  the  sword,  the 
spear  or  javelin,  dart  or  lance,  the  boio 


Assyrian  Swords  or  Dacrgers.     (From  Nineveh 
Marbles.) 

and  arrow,  the  slt'ng,  the  quiver,  and  the 
battle-axe. 
70 


1.  The  sivord.  Gen.  27:40.  This  was 
a  short  two-edged  instrument  resembling 
what  we  call  a  dagger.  It  was  carried  in 
a  sheath  or  scabbard,  Jer.  47  :  6 ;  Eze. 
21 :  9,  30,  and  suspended  to  the  girdle  or 
belt.     Jud.  3:16;  2  Sam.  20  :  8. 


Assyrian  Spears  and  Shields. 
Marbles.) 


{From  Nineveh 


2.  Of  the  spear  there  were  at  least  three 
distinct  varieties,  which  differed  chiefly 
in  length  and  size.     (1.)  The  sp>ear,  par 


Assyrian  Archers  behind  a  large  Shield. 
Nineveh  Marbles.) 


(From 


excellence,  was  a  long  wooden  staff  with 
a  stout  metal  point  at  one  end.  The 
Greek  spears  were  sometimes  twenty-five 
feet  long,  and  the  Arabs  now  use  them 
fifteen  feet  long.  They  were  required  to 
be  long  enough  to  reach  beyond  the  front 


ARM 


ARM 


rank  when  used  by  those  who  were  in  the 
second  rank.  Goliath's  spear  was  said 
to  have  a  staff  "  like  a  weaver's  beam." 
1  Sam.  17  :  7.  This  largest  sort  of  spear 
was  used  by  Saul  habitually.  It  must 
have  had  a  metallic  point  at  its  butt 
end,  because  it  was  stuck  into  the 
ground,  1  Sam.  26 : 1,  and  Asahel  was 
killed  "  with  the  hinder  end  "  of  Abner's 
spear.  2  Sam.  2  :  23.  It  was  this  kind 
of  spear,  and  not  a  "javelin,"  which  Saul 
threw  at  David  and  Jonathan.  1  Sam. 
18:11;  20:33.  There  was  a  somewhat 
lighter  spear,  which  was  carried  on  the 
back  when  not  in  use.  1  Sam.  17:6. 
(Authorized  Version  translates  target.) 
(2.)  Th.Q  javelin  was  a  short  spear,  cast, 
as  is  supposed,  with  the  hand.  Num. 
25:7.  (3.)  The  dart  was  still  smaller 
than  the  javelin,  and  used  in  like  man- 
ner.    2Chron.  32:5. 

3.  The  arrow  was  a  slender  missile 
shot  from  a  bow,  as  in  modern  days.  1 
Sam.  20  :  36.  It  was  used  in  hunting. 
Gen.  27  :  3,  as  well  as  in  combat.  Gen. 
48  :  22.  Those  who  used  the  bow  were 
called  "archers."  Gen.  21 :  20.  Arrows 
were  originally  made  of  reeds,  and  after- 
ward of  any  light  wood.  The  bows  were 
made  of  flexible  wood  or  steel,  Ps.  18 : 
34,  and  the  bowstring  of  leather,  horse- 
hair, or  the  tendons  of  animals.  Bows 
were  the  chief  dependence  in  both  an 
attack  and  a  defence.  The  point  of  the 
arrow  was  barbed  like  a  fish-hook.     Ps. 


Egyptian  Archer.    (Eosellini.) 


38  : 2.  Job  refers  to  the  use  of  poisoned 
arrows.  Job  6  :  4,  and  fire  was  often  con- 
veyed by  the  use  of  juniper-wood,  which 


kindled  upon  the  combustible  baggage 
or  armament  of  the  enemy.  Ps.  91 :  5  ; 
120  :  4.     It  is  said  that  the  coals  of  the 


Assyrian  and  Egyptian  Quivers  and  Bows. 

juniper-wood  retain  their  heat  for  a 
long  time.  The  Phoenicians  and,  in 
later  times,  the  Spaniards  have  used 
arrows  for  the  like  purpose.  Arrows 
were  used  in  divination.     Eze.  21  :  21. 

Arrows  were  kept  in  a  case  or  box 
called  a  quiver,  which  was  slung  over 
the  shoulder  in  such  a  position  that  the 
soldier  could  draw  out  the  arrows  when 
wanted.  The  position  of  the  quiver  and 
bow  is  seen  in  a  preceding  cut.  The 
drawing  of  the  bow  was  a  test  of 
strength,  and  is  still  so  among  the 
Arabians.  Hence  the  allusion  in  Ps. 
18  :  34. 

4.  The  s/iHiy,  1  Sam.  17  :  40,  was  an 
early  weapon  of  war,  by  which  stones 
were  thrown  with  great  force  and  sur- 
prising accuracy  of  aim.  This  skill 
was  shown  in  a  remarkable  degree  by 
the  Benjamites,  who  could  employ 
the  left  hand  in  its  use  with  great 
adroitness.     Jud.  20:16.     The  slingers 

71 


AKM 


AEO 


ranked  next  to  the  archers  in  efficiency, 
and  formed  a  regular  arm  of  the  service. 


Assyrian  Slinger. 

5.  The  hattle-oxe,  Jer.  51 :  20,  was  ob- 
viously a  powerful  weapon  of  war,  but 
of  its  ancient  form  and  manner  of  use 
we  have  now  no  knowledge. 

The  term  *'  armor,"  and  the  various 
offensive  and  defensive  articles  com- 
prised in  it,  are  frequently  used  fig- 
uratively in  the  Bible,  in  Eph.  6  :  11-17, 
where  the  graces  of  the  Christian  cha- 
racter are  represented  as  the  armor  of 
God,  in  which  he  clothes  the  believer, 
and  by  which  he  is  enabled  to  fight  the 
good  fight  of  faith  with  a  victorious 
arm. 

AR'MY*  The  armies  of  the  Israel- 
ites embraced  the  whole  male  population 
of  the  country  of  twenty  years  and  over, 
Num.  1 :  2,  3  :  26  :  2,  and  when  occasion 
required,  the  entire  body  was  readily 
mustered.  Jud.  20  :  1-11  ;  1  Sam.  11  : 
7,  8.  This  accounts  for  the  prodigious 
numbers  which  were  often  assembled. 
2  Chron.  13:3:  14:9.  See  AVar.  The 
system  was  minute.  Each  tribe  consti- 
tuted a  division  with  a  separate  banner 
and  separate  ])osition  on  the  march  to 
the  Holy  Land,  and  as  near  as  possible 
in  battle.  The  army  gathered  from  the 
tribes  was  divided  into  thousands  and 
hundreds  under  their  respective  cap- 
tains. Num.  31  :  14.  The  kings  had 
body-guards.  1  Sam.  13  :  2 ;  25  :  13. 
In  later  times  a  standing  army  was 
maintained,  and  in  war  troops  were 
sometimes  hired.  2  Chr.  25  :  6.  But 
72 


ordinarily  the  soldiers  received  no 
wages,  but  were  armed  and  supported. 
1  Kgs.  4  :  27:  10  :  26.  Hence  their 
campaigns  were  short,  and  generally 
terminated  by  a  single  battle.  Horses 
were  not  used,  it  is  supposed,  until 
Solomon's  time.  The  manner  of  de- 
claring war,  and  the  character  and 
occupation  of  exempts,  are  minutely 
stated.     Dent.  20  :  1-14  ;    24  :  5. 

AR'NON  {noisy),  a  stream  running 
into  the  Dead  Sea  from  the  east,  and 
which  divided  Moab  from  the  Ambrites. 
Num.  21 :  13  ;  Jud.  11 :  18.  The  Arnon 
is  about  50  miles  long  ;  90  feet  wide,  and 
from  4  to  10  feet  deep  at  its  mouth  ;  full 
in  winter,  but  nearly  dry  in  summer; 
had  several  fords,  Isa.  16  :  2,  and  "  high 
places,"  Num.  21 :  28  ;  Isa.  15  :  2  ;  is  re- 
ferred to  24  times  in  the  Bible.  Its 
modern  name  is  el-Mofib.  It  runs 
through  a  deep  ravine  with  precipitous 
limestone  cliffs  on  either  side,  in  some 
places  over  2000  feet  high.  Ruins  of 
forts,  bridges,  and  buildings  abound  on 
its  banks,  and  fish  in  its  waters ;  ole- 
anders and  almond  trees  bloom  in  its 
valley,  and  grifi"ons  and  buzzards  may 
be  seen  hovering  over  its  cliff's. 

A'ROD  (a  xcild  ass),  a  son  of  Gad, 
founder  of  the  Arodites.  Num.  26  :  17. 
He  is  called  Arodi  in  Gen.  46: 16. 

AR'OER  {ruins),  the  name  of  sev- 
eral places. 

1.  A  city  on  the  north  side  of  the 
river  Arnon,  given  to  Reuben.  Josh. 
13:9,  16.  It  belonged  to  Sihon  of  the 
Amorites,  Deut.  2:36;  3:12;  4:48; 
Josh.  12  :  2  ;  Jud.  11  :  26  ;  taken  by 
Syria,  2  Kgs.  10  :  33 ;  possessed  by 
JVioab,  Jer.  48  :  19.  It  is  identified  with 
ruins  on  the  edge  of  a  steep  cliflf,  13 
miles  west  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  called 
Ara'ir. 

2.  A  city  before  Kabbah,  built  by 
Gad,  Num.  32  :  34;  Josh.  13  :  25  ;  it 
was  probably  not  far  west  of  the  mod- 
ern town  of  Amman. 

3.  Aroer,  in  Isa.  17 : 2,  if  a  proper 
name,  must  refer  to  a  region  near 
Damascus. 

4.  A  town  in  the  south  of  Judah, 
1  Sam.  30  :  28  ;  now  Ar'arah,  on  the 
road  from  Gaza  to  Petra,  and  11  miles 
south-west  of  Beer-sheba.  Four  wells 
are  found  there. 

AR'OERITE,  THE.  Hothan, 
the  father  of  two  of  David's  "  mighty 


ARP 


ASA 


men/'  was  a  native  of  Aroer,  but  it  is 
uncertain  of  which  one.     1  Chr.  11 :  44. 

AR'PAD,  OR  AR'PHAD  {strong 
city),  a  town  or  region  in  S3'ria.  near 
Hamath,  2  Kgs.  18  :  34  ,•  Isa.  10  :  9  ; 
dependent  on  Damascus.  Jer.  49  :  23. 
See  Arvad. 

ARPHAX'AD  (stromjhold  of  the 
Chaldees),  a  son  of  Shem,  ancestor  of 
Eber,  and  also,  according  to  Josephus, 
of  the  Chaldseans.  Gen.  10  :  22,  24  ;  11 : 
10-18  ;  1  Chr.  1 :  17,  18,  24. 

ARTAXERX'ES  {the  great  war- 
rior), the  name  of  two  kings  of  Persia 
mentioned  in  the  Bible.  1.  Ezr.  4  :  7-24, 
the  king  who  stopped  the  rebuilding  of 
the  temple  because  he  listened  to  the 
malicious  i-eport  of  the  enemies  of  the 
Jews.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
Smerdis  the  Magian,  the  pretended 
brother  of  Cambyses,  who  seized  the 
throne  b.  c.  522,  and  was  murdered  af- 
ter, 8  months. 

2*.  Ezr.  7  :  7  and  Neh.  2  :  1  both  speak 
of  a  second  Artaxerxes,  who  is  generally 
regarded  as  the  same  with  Ai'taxerxes 
Longimanus  {i.e.  the  Long-handed),  son 
of  Xerxes,  who  reigned  b.  c.  464—425.  In 
the  seventh  year  of  his  reign  he  per- 
mitted Ezra  to  return  into  Juda5a,  with 
such  of  his  countrymen  as  chose  to  fol- 
low him  ;  and  fourteen  years  afterward 
he  allowed  Nehemiah  to  return  and 
build  up  Jerusalem. 

AR'TEMAS  (contraction  of  Arte- 
madorus,  the  gift  of  Artemis,  i.  e.  Diana), 
a  companion  of  Paul.     Tit.  3  :  12. 

ARTIL'LERY.  1  Sam.  20  :  40. 
Any  missile  weapons,  as  arrows,  lances, 
etc.     See  Arms. 

ARTS,  Acts  19  :  19.  Pretended 
skill  in  the  practice  of  magic,  astrology, 
etc.     See  Astrology. 

AR'IJBOTH  {wivdnws,  or  court),  a 
district  including  Sochoh.  1  Kgs.  4  : 
10.     See  SocHOH. 

ARU'MAH  {height),  a  place  near 
Shechem,  where  Abimelech  lived.  Jud. 
9  :  41 .  Perhaps  el-Armah,  5  miles  south- 
east of  NnhJous. 

AR'VAD  [tcandering),  a  small  island 
2  or  3  miles  off  the  coast  of  Phoenicia, 
related  closely  to  Tyre.  Eze.  27  :  8,  11. 
See  also  Gen.  10  :  18  ;  1  Chr.  1  :  16. 
Ruins  of  a  huge  wall  are  still  found, 
and  Greek  inscriptions  graven  on  black 
basaltic  columns.  The  stones  are  so 
immense  as  to  puzzle  the  best  engineers 


how  to  move  them.  The  place  is  now 
called  liuud,  and  has  about  3000  popu- 
lation. It  appears  to  have  been  a  city 
since  the  time  of  Arvad,  son  of  Canaan, 
and  is  probably  the  same  as  Arpad  and 
Arphad. 

AR'ZA,  the  steward  of  King  Elah's 
house.     1  Kgs.  16  :  9. 

A'SA  ( phi/Hic{a)i)  was  son  and  succes- 
sor of  A  bij  am  on  the  throne  of  Judah,  b.  c. 
955-914.  1  Kgs.  15  :  8.  He  reigned  for- 
ty-one years.  Though  educated  in  the 
principles  of  a  false  religion,  he  showed 
from  the  first  his  decided  opposition  to 
idolatry,  and  even  deposed  his  grand- 
mother, Maachah,  because  she  had  made 
an  idol  in  a  grove.  The  first  part  of  his 
reign  was  peaceful,  and  he  improved  the 
opportunity  to  purify  his  kingdom  from 
idolatry  and  to  build  and  fortify  sev- 
eral cities ;  and  when  Zerah,  an  Ethi- 
opian king,  invaded  his  territories  with 
an  army  of  a  million  of  men  and  three 
hundred  chariots,  Asa  met  him  at 
Mareshah  with  580,000  men,  and  de- 
feated him.  This  battle  was  one  of 
the  most  important  in  Jewish  history. 
2  Chr.  14. 

At  the  suggestion  of  the  prophet 
Azariah,  Asa  set  about  the  reformation 
of  every  abuse  in  his  kingdom,  and 
appointed  a  solemn  festival  of  thanks- 
giving to  God,  at  which  all  the  peo- 
ple were  assembled,  and  entered  into 
a  formal  covenant  with  God.  Baasha, 
king  of  Israel,  finding  his  subjects  too 
much  disposed  to  go  into  Judah  and 
dwell  there,  commenced  fortifying  Ra- 
mah,  a  place  near  the  frontiers  of  both 
kingdoms,  with  a  view  to  cut  off  the 
passage  of  emigrants  to  Jerusalem 
and  other  parts  of  Judah,  Asa, 
though  he  had  so  long  enjoyed  the 
favor  and  protection  of  God,  was  now 
tempted  to  forsake  him.  Instead  of 
trusting  him  for  deliverance,  as  he 
had  done  in  years  past,  he  sent  to 
Ben-hadad,  the  king  of  Syria,  and  pre- 
vailed on  him,  even  in  violation  of  a 
treaty  which  existed  between  Ben-ha- 
dad and  Baasha,  to  come  to  the  help 
of  Judah  against  Israel.  The  Syrian 
king,  won  by  the  presents  which  Asa 
had  sent  him,  immediately  attacked 
and  destroyed  several  important  cities 
of  Israel.  Baasha,  finding  his  king- 
dom thus  invaded,  abandoned  the  for- 
tification   of    Ramah    that    he     might 

73 


ASA 


ASH 


protect  the  provinces  of  the  interior 
from  desolation.  Asa  seized  the  op- 
portunity to  demolish  Ramah  and  take 
away  the  stone  and  timber  which  were 
collected  there  and  use  them  in  the 
building  of  his  own  cities.  In  the 
mean  time,  Hanani  the  prophet  was 
sent  to  rebuke  him  for  forsaking  Je- 
hovah, and  to  announce  his  punish- 
ment. But  Asa  was  enraged  by  the 
faithful  message,  and  caused  the  bearer 
of  it  to  be  imprisoned.  2  Chr.  16:10. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Asa  had 
a  disease  of  the  feet,  perhaps  the 
gout,  but  ''  he  sought  not  to  the  Lord, 
but  to  the  physicians."  AVe  may,  how- 
ever, accejit  his  sufferings  as  an  ex- 
tenuating circumstance  for  his  occa- 
sional acts  of  tyranny.  He  died  b.  c.  914, 
in  the  forty-first  year  of  his  reign,  and 
was  buried  with  great  pomp.  2  Chr. 
16 :  14. 

2.  A  Levite  who  dwelt  in  one  of  the 
villages  of  the  Netophathites  after 
the  Captivity.     1  Chr.  9:16. 

AS'AHEL  {whom  God  made).  1. 
David's  nephew,  Joab's  brother,  noted 
for  swiftness  of  foot ;  one  of  David's 
thirty  heroes ;  killed  by  Abner  at  the 
battle  of  Gideon.  2  Sam.  2  :  18ff. ;  1 
Chr.  11  :  26  ;  27  :  7. 

2.  A  Levite.     2  Chr.  17  :  8. 

3.  Another  Levite.     2  Chr.  31 :  13. 

4.  The  father  of  one  in  Ezra's  em- 
ploy.    Ezr.  10:15. 

ASAHI'AH  {lohom  Jehovah  made), 
a  servant  of  King  Josiah.  2  Kgs.  22: 
12,  14.  Called  Asaiah,  the  same  name, 
in  2  Chr.  34:20. 

ASAI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  made).  1. 
A  Simeonite  chief  in  Hezekiah's  time. 
1  Chr.  4:36,  41. 

2.  A  Levite  of  David's  time,  chief  of 
the  Merari,  who  assisted  in  bringing  up 
the  ark  to  Jerusalem.  1  Chr.  6  :  30,  31 ; 
15:6,11. 

3.  According  to  1  Chr.  9  :  5,  the  first- 
born of  the  Shilonite;  called,  in  Neh.  11 : 
5,  Maaseiah. 

4.  2  Chr.  34:20.     See  Asahiah. 
A'SAPH     {collector).     1.  A  Levite 

who  was  a  chief  leader  of  the  tem- 
ple choir  and  a  poet.  1  Chr.  6  :  39. 
Twelve  of  the  Psalms  are  attributed  to 
him — namely,  Ps.  60  and  from  Ps.  73 
to  83.  He  is  also  spoken  of  as  a 
*'seer"  in  connection  with  David.  2 
Chr.  29  :  30 ;  Neh.  12  :  46.  "  The  sons 
74 


of   Asaph  "  were  probably  a  school  of 
musicians. 

2.  The  father  of  Joah,  recorder  to 
Hezekiah.  2  Kgs.  18  :  18,  37  ;  Isa.  36  : 
3,22. 

3.  The  keeper  of  the  king's  forest 
to  Artaxerxes.     Neh.  2  :  8. 

4.  A  Levite,  an  ancestor  of  Mattaniah. 
Neh.  11  :  17.     Perhaps  the  same  as  1. 

ASAR'EEL  {lohom  God  has  bound; 
i.e.  by  an  oath),  a  descendant  of  Ju- 
dah.     1  Chr.  4:16. 

ASARE'LAH  {tqyright  toward 
God),  a  musician,  1  Chr.  25 : 2 ;  called 
Jesharelah  in  v.  14. 

ASCEN'SION.     See  Christ. 

AS'ENATH  {favorite  of  Neith  or 
Isis-Neith)  (Neith  is  the  Minerva  of 
Egypt),  Joseph's  wife,  the  daughter  of 
Poti-pherah,  priest  of  On  or  Heliopolis, 
the  religious  and  literary  capital  of  an- 
cient Egypt,  a  few  miles  north  of  Cairo. 
Gen.  41:45;  46:20. 

A'SER.  Luke  2  :  36  ;  Rev.  7  :  6. 
Greek  form  of  Asher. 

A  S  H.  Isa.  44  :  14.  Mentioned 
only  once.  The  true  ash  is  not  a 
native  of  Palestine.  This  tree,  the 
wood  of  which  was  wrought  into  the 
images  of  idolatry,  is  believed  to  be 
a  pine. 

A'SHAN  {smoke),  a  city  in  the 
plain  of  Judah.  Josh.  15  :  42  j  1  Chr. 
6  :  59.  The  Ashan  assigned  to  Simeon 
may  be  another  place.  Josh.  19:7; 
1  Chr.  4  :  32.  Conder  proposes  to  place 
one  at  'Aseileh,  near  en-Rimmon,  the 
other  at  Hesheth. 

ASH''BEA  (/  adjure),  a  name  in  the 
genealogical  list  in  1  Chr.  4 :  21.  Prob- 
ably the  name  of  a  person ;  but  if  a  place, 
it  should  be  Beth-ashbea. 

ASH'BEL  {rejiroof  of  God),  a  son 
of  Beniamin,  ancestor  of  the  Ashbelites. 
Gen.  46  :  21  :  Num.  26  :  38  :  1  Chr.  8  : 1. 

ASH'CHENAZ.  1  Chr.  1:6:  Jer. 
51:27.     See  AsHKENAZ. 

ASH'DOD  {stroiKjhold,  castle),  one 
of  the  five  confederate  cities  of  the  Phil- 
istines, allotted  to  Judah,  Josh.  15  :  46, 
47  ;  the  chief  seat  of  Dagon-worship.  1 
Sam.  5.  It  was  3  miles  from  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  midway  between  Gaza 
and  Joppa.  The  place  is  called  Azotus 
in  the  New  Testament.  Acts  8  ;  40.  It 
is  now  a  mean  village  called  Esdud ; 
near  it  are  extensive  ruins. 

History. — Built  by  the  Anakim ;  not 


ASH 


ASH 


taken  by  Joshua,  Josh.  11 :  22  ;  allotted 
to  Judah,  15 :  47 ;  taken  by  Uzziah,  2 
Chr.  26  :  6  ;  by  Tartan  or  Sargon,  Isa. 
20  :  1 ;  besieged  by  Psammetichus  and 
destroyed  by  the  Maccabees ;  given  to 
Salome  after  Herod's  death ;  Philip 
preached  there,  Acts  8  :  40  ;  bishops  of 
Azotus  or  Ashdod  are  noticed  in  later 
history ;  the  city  is  now  occupied  by 
Mohammedans. 

ASH'DOTH-PIS'GAH  {springs 
of  Pisijah),  a  valley  or  place  near  Mount 
Pisgah.  Deut.  3:  17;  4:49;  Josh.  12: 
3.     See  Pisgah,  Springs  of. 

ASH'ER  {hcqipy).  1.  The  eighth  son 
of  Jacob.  2.  One  of  the  twelve  tribes  (see 
Tribes).  3.  A  territory  extending  from 
Carmel  to  Lebanon,  about  60  miles  long 
and  10  to  12  wide,  having  22  cities  with 
their  villages.  The  Phoenicians  held  the 
plain  by  the  sea,  and  Asher  the  moun- 
tains.    Josh.  19  :  24-31 ;  Jud.  1 :  31,  32. 

4.  A  place  on  the  boundary  between 
Ephraim  and  Manasseh.  Josh.  17  :  7. 
Some  locate  it  at  Yasir,  12  miles  north- 
east of  Shechem.  Drake  suggests  Asi- 
reh  as  the  more  probable  location. 

ASH'ERAH  {straight).    See  AsH- 

TAROTH. 

ASH^ES.  Gen.  18  :  27.  To  cover 
the  head  with  ashes,  or  to  sit  in  ashes, 
betokens  self-abhorrence,  humiliation, 
extreme  grief,  or  penitence.  2  Sam,  13  : 
19;  Esth.4:3;  Job  2  :  8  ;  Jer.  6  :  26  ; 
Lam.  3  :  16  ;  Jon.  3:6;  Matt.  11 :  21.  The 
ashes  of  the  altar  of  burnt-offering  on 
the  days  of  the  great  festivals  were  suf- 
fered to  accumulate,  and  then  taken  away 
the  next  day  by  a  priest  chosen  by  lot  to 
this  work.  There  was  a  sort  of  lye  made 
of  the  ashes  of  the  heifer  sacrificed  on 
the  great  day  of  expiation,  which  was 
used  for  ceremonial  jjurification.  Num. 
19:17,18.     See  Heifer. 

ASH^MA.  2Kgs.  17:30.  The 
name  of  the  god  the  Hamatliite  colonists 
introduced  into  Samaria;  identified  with 
the  Pan  of  the  Greeks. 

ASH'KELON,  AND  AS'KELON 
{migration),  one  of  the  five  cities  of  the 
Philistines;  a  seaport-town  10  miles 
north  of  Gaza ;  taken  by  Judah,  Jud.  1 : 
18  ;  visited  by  Samson,  Jud.  14  :  19  ;  and 
its  destruction  predicted  in  Jer.  47  :  6,  7  ; 
J^m.  1:8;   Zech.  9:5;  Zeph.  2  :  7. 

History. — Ashkelon  was  the  seat  of 
worship  of  the  Philistine  goddess  As- 
tarte,  whose  temple  was  plundered  by 


the  Scythians,  b.  c.  625 ;  was  the  birth- 
place of  Herod  the  Great;  was  taken  by 
the  Franks,  A.  i).  1099;  partially  de- 
stroyed by  the  Moslems ;  rebuilt  by 
Richard  Cceur  de  Lion ;  destroyed  again 
in  A.  D.  1270.  lluins  of  walls,  columns, 
marble  pillars,  and  inscriptions  on  stone 
abound  there  now,  though  many  of  the 
good  building-stones  have  been  dug  up 
and  used  in  Jafia  and  Gaza.  Sycamores, 
vines,  olives,  and  fruit  trees  are  found 
there,  and  also  37  wells  of  sweet  water. 
Near  the  ruins  of  the  old  city  is  Jiirah,  a 
village  of  about  300  population. 

ASH'KENAZ  {strong,  fortified),  a 
district  pi-obably  in  Armenia,  the  home 
of  a  tribe  of  the  same  name.  In  1  Chr. 
1:6;  Jer.  51 :  27  it  is  called  Ashchenaz. 
See  Armenia. 

ASH'KENAZ.  Gen.  10  :  3.  Son 
of  Gomer,  of  the  family  of  Japhet,  and 
the  probable  ancestor  of  those  who  in- 
habited the  country  of  the  same  name, 
Jer.  51 :  27,  lying  along  the  eastern  and 
south-eastern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea. 
The  precise  district  is  unknown.  See 
Minni. 

ASH''NAH,  the  name  of  two  cities 
of  Judah.  1.  One  about  16  miles  north- 
west of  Jerusalem,  Josh.  15  :  33 ;  2,  the 
other  16  miles  south-west  of  it.  Josh. 
15  :  43.  Conder  locates  it  at  Idhnah,  but 
Ganneau  places  it  nt  Asalim,  near  Sara. 

ASH'PENAZ  {horse-nose  ?),  the 
master  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  eunuchs, 
who  showed  much  kindness  and  for- 
bearance toward  Daniel  and  his  three 
companions,  though  at  considerable  per- 
sonal risk.     Dan.  1 :  3. 

ASH'RIEL  {voio  of  God).    See  As- 

RIEL. 

ASH  TAUOTH,  AS'TA- 
ROTH.  1.  A  city  of  Bashan,  east  of 
the  Jordan,  Deut.  1:4;  Josh,  9  :  10  ;  13  : 
31 ;  the  same  as  Beesh-terah,  Josh,  21 : 
27;  probably  Tell-Ashterah,  in  Jaulan, 

2.  {Ashtoreth,  sing,;  Ashtaroth,  plur. 
and  more  usual.)  An  idol,  represented 
in  the  subjoined  cut,  .Jud.  2  :  13 ;  called 
the  goddess  of  the  Sidoni^ns.  It  was 
much  worshipped  in  Syria  and  Phoeni- 
cia. Solomon  introduced  the  worship 
of  it.  1  Kgs.  11:33.  The  Greeks  and 
Romans  called  it  Astarte.  The  four 
hundred  priests  of  .Jezebel,  mentioned  1 
Kgs,  18:  19,  are  supposed  to  have  been 
employed  in  the  service  of  this  idol; 
and  we  are  told  that  under  this  name 

75 


ASH 


ASP 


Figui'e  of  Astaite.     (Rawlinson's  "Herodotus.") 


three  hundred  priests  were  constantly 
em2:)loyed  in  its  service  at  Hierapolis,  in 
Syria,  many  centuries  after  Jezebel's 
time.  -  The  worship  of  Ashtoreth  was 
suppressed  by  Josiah.  It  was  simply 
licentiousness  under  the  guise  of  relig- 
ion. The  goddess  was  called  the 
"queen  of  heaven,"  and  the  worship 
was  said  to  be  paid  to  the ''host  of 
heaven."  It  is  usually  mentioned  in 
connection  with  Baal.  Baal  and  Ash- 
toreth are  taken  by  many  scholars  as 
standing  for  the  sun  and  the  moon  re- 
spectively ;  by  others  as  representing 
the  male  and  female  powers  of  repro- 
duction. Asherah,  which  is  translated 
in  the  Authorized  Version  "  grove,"  was 
an  idol-symbol  of  the  goddess,  probably 
a  wooden  pillar. 

ASH'TERATHITE,  an  inhabit- 
ant of  Ashtaroth  beyond  Jordan.  1 
Chr.  11 :  44. 

ASH  TEROTH  KAR'NAIM 
{Ashteroth  of  the  two  hornn),  a  city  of 
the  giant  Rephaim  in  Bashan,  Gen. 
14  :  5 ;  perhaps  modern  Sanaiiiein,  30 
miles  south  of  Damascus,  though  Porter 
thinks  it  possibly  identical  with  Kenath 
and  modern  Knnaicat.  Others  with 
greater  probability,  suggest  TeJl-Aeh- 
tdrd,  20  miles  east  of  the  Sea  of  Garlilee. 

ASH'TORETH,  See  Ashtaroth. 
76 


ASH'TJR  {hlack),  the  father  of 
Tekoa ;  i.  e.  the  founder  of  the  place. 
1  Chr.  2  :  24  ;  4  :  5. 

ASH^VATH  {meaning  uncertain), 
an  Asherite.     1  Chr.  7  :  33. 

A'' SI  A,  used  only  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. It  refers,  not  to  the  continent  of 
Asia,  nor  to  "Asia  Minor"  entire,  but 
to  a  small  Roman  province  on  the  coast, 
in  the  west  of  Asia  Minor,  and  included 
the  lesser  provinces  of  Mysia,  Lydia, 
and  Caria ;  its  capital  was  Ephesus. 
Acts  6  :  9  ;  19  :  10  :  27  :  2  ;  1  Cor.  16  :  19  ; 
1  Pet.  1:1;  Rev.  1 :  4.  All  the  "  seven 
churches"  were  in  Asia.     See  Map. 

A'SIEL  {created  of  God),  a  Simeon- 
ite.     1  Chr.  4 :  35. 

AS'KELON.  Jud.l:18.   SeeAsH- 

KELON. 

AS'NAH  {thorn-hush),  one  whose 
descendants  returned  with  Zerubbabel. 
Ezr.  2  :  50. 

ASNAP'PER  {swift?),  one  men- 
tioned in  Ezr.  4:10  as  "great  and 
noble."  Who  he  was  is  unknown.  It 
is  perhaps  best  to  regard  him  as  the  of- 
ficial employed  by  Esar-haddon  to  settle 
the  Cuthseans  in  Samaria. 

ASP.  Deut.  32:33;  Rom.  3:13. 
A   small    but  very   poisonous   serpent, 


Egyptian  Cobra.  (Naja  huge.     Ajter  Houghton.) 

probably  the  Egyptian  cobra,  which 
dwells  in  holes.  The  venom  of  this 
reptile  is  cruel,  because  it  is  so  subtle 
and  deadly,  and  requires  an  immediate 
excision  of  the  wounded  part.  For  an 
infant  child  to  play  up.  ir»  the  hole  of 


ASP 


ASS 


such  a  venomous  reptile  would  seem  to 
be  most  presumptuous,  and  hence  the 
force  of  the  figure  used  by  the  prophet, 
Isa.  11  :  8,  to  represent  the  security  and 
peace  of  the  Messiah's  reign.  See 
Adder  (2). 

AS'PATHA  {meaniiKj  tmcertaln), 
the  third  son  of  Haman.     Esth.  9  :  7. 

AS'RIEL  {vow  of  God),  the  son  of 
Gilead,  founder  of  the  Asrielites. 
Num.  26  :  31  ;  Josh.  17  :  2  ;  1  Chr.  7  :  14. 

ASS.  Gen.  22:3.  This  animal  is 
among  the  most  common  mentioned  in 
Scripture,  and  constituted  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  wealth  of  ancient  times. 
Gen.  12  :  16  and  30  :  43  ;  Job  1:3;  42  : 
12.  Asses  were  sometimes  so  numerous 
as  to  require  a 
special  keeper. 
Gen.  36  :  24;  1 
Chr.  27  :  30.  The 
ass  and  the  ox  were 
the  principal  ani- 
mals of  burden  and 
draught.  Ex.  23  : 
12.  The  domestic 
ass  is  indeed  a 
most  serviceable 
animal,  and  in 
some  respects 
preferable  to  the 
horse.  He  subsists 
on  very  coarse  food 
and  submits  to  the 
meanest  drudgery. 
His  skin  is  remark- 
ably thick,  and  is 
used  at  this  day  for 
parchment,  drum- 
heads, memoran- 
dum-books, etc. 
The  usual  color  of 


The  ass  was  used  in  agricultural  labor, 
especially  in  earing  (ploughing)  the 
ground  and  treading  it  to  prepare  it 
for  the  seed.  Isa.  30:24  and  32:20. 
The  prohibition,  Deut.  22:10,  might 
have  been  founded  in  part  on  the  in- 
equality of  strength  between  the  ox 
and  the  ass,  and  the  cruelty  of  putting 
upon  them  the  same  burden,  but  was 
intended  chiefly  to  mark  the  separation 
of  the  Jews  from  surrounding  nations, 
among  whom  such  a  union  of  ditl'erent 
beasts  was  not  uncommon.  So  service- 
able, and  indeed  essential,  to  man  was 
this  animal  in  ancient  times  that  to 
drive  away  the  ass  of  the  fatherless  is 
reckoned  among  the  most  atrocious  acts 


The  Eastern  Ass 


asses  is  red  or  dark  brown,  but  some- 
times they  are  of  a  silver  white,  and 
these  last  were  usually  appropriated  to 
persons  of  dignity.  Jud.  5 :  10.  So  in 
Gen.  49  :  11  the  allusion  to  the  ass  and 
the  vine  imports  dignity  and  fruitful- 
ness,  and  the  continuance  and  increase 
of  both  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  There 
was  a  breed  of  asses  far  superior  to 
those  that  were  used  in  labor,  and  which 
are  supposed  to  be  referred  to  in  most 
of  the  passages  above  cited. 

The  female,  or  she-ass,  was  particu- 
larly valuable  for  the  saddle  and  for  her 
milk,  which  was  extensively  used  for 
food  and  for  medicinal  purposes. 


{After   Wood.     "  Annual  Kingdom.") 

of  oppression  and  cruelty.  Job  24  :  3,  as 
depriving  an  orphan  family  of  their  only 
cow  would  be  regarded  at  the  present 
day.  The  attachment  of  this  animal  to 
its  owner  is  among  its  remarkable  cha- 
racteristics. In  this  respect  it  closely 
resembles  the  dog.  Hence  the  severity 
of  the  prophet's  rebuke.     Isa.  1 :  3. 

The  fact  stated  in  2  Kgs.  6  :  25  shows 
that  such  was  the  extremity  of  the  fam- 
ine that  the  people  were  willing  to  give 
an  exorbitant  price  for  the  head  of  an 
"  unclean  "  animal. 

The  ass,  when  dead,  was  thrown  into 
an  open  field,  and  that  part  of  his  flesh 
which  was  not  consumed  by  beasts  and 

77 


ASS 


ASS 


birds  was  suffered  to  putrefy  and  decay. 
Nothing  could  be  more  disgraceful  than 
to  expose  a  human  body  in  the  like 
Banner.     Jer.  22  :  19  ;  36  :  30. 

Our  Saviour's  entrance  into  Jerusalem 
riding  upon  an  ass's  colt  fulfilled  the 
prophecy  in  Zech.  9:9.  It  is  not  con- 
sidered in  the  East  less  honorable  to 
ride  this  animal  than  a  horse.  But  the 
latter  is  chiefly  used  for  warlike  pur- 
poses, as  the  ass  is  not.  This  peaceful 
animal  was  approjiriated  to  the  Prince 
of  peace,  who  came  not  as  other  con- 
querors. 

The  Arabian  ass  has  a  light,  quick 
step.  In  Persia,  Syria,  and  Egypt 
ladles  are  accustomed  to  ride  on  asses, 
and  they  are  particularly  valuable  in 
mountainous  countries,  being  more  sure- 
footed than  horses.  Their  ordinary 
gait  is  four  miles  an  hour. 

The  ass  in  its  wild  or  natural  state  is 
a  beautiful  animal.  It  is  often  alluded 
to  in  the  sacred  writings.  Job  11 :  12  ; 
24  :  5  and  39  :  5-8.  Asses  usually  roam- 
ed in  herds  through  barren  and  desolate 
districts.  Isa.  32  :  14  ;  IIos.  8  :  9.  One 
was  recently  taken  in  a  pitfall  in  Astra- 
chan,  and  added  to  the  Surrey  zoologi- 
cal collection  in  England.  It  is  de- 
scribed as  having  a  deer-like  appear- 
ance, standing  high  on  the  legs,  very 
active,  of  a  silvery  color,  with  a  dark- 
brown  streak  along  the  back. 

AS'SHUR.  Gen.  10:  22.  The  sec- 
ond son  of  Shem.     See  Assyria. 

AS'SHUR,  a  Hebrew  form  for  As- 
syria, and  in  the  prophecies  and  his- 
torical books  refers  to  that  empire. 
See  Assyria. 

ASSHU'RIM  (sfejys),  descendants 
of  Dedan,  the  grandson  of  Abraham. 
Gen.  25  :  3. 

AS 'SIR  [cajithe).  1:  A  Levite,  the 
son  of  Korah.  Ex.  6  :  24;  1  Chr.  6  : 
22. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Korah,  and  an- 
cestor of  Samuel.     1  Chr.  6  :  23,  37. 

3.  A  descendant  of  David.  1  Chr. 
3  :17. 

AS'SOS,  a  Greek  city  of  Mysia  in 
"Asia,"  19  miles  south-east  of  Troas, 
and  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Ex- 
tensive ruins  of  buildings,  citadel, 
tombs,  and  a  gateway  still  exist  there. 
Paul  visited  it.     Acts  20  :  13. 

AS'SUR.      Ezr.  4*:  2;    Ps.    83:8. 
See  Assyria. 
78 


ASSUR'ANCE.  1.  Of  the  Un- 
derstanding, Col.  2  :  2,  is  a  full  know- 
ledge of  divine  things  founded  on  the 
declaration  of  the  Sci-iptures. 

2.  An  Assurance  op  Faith,  Heb.  10: 
22,  is  a  firm  belief  in  Christ,  as  God  has 
revealed  him  to  us  in  the  Scriptures, 
and  an  exclusive  dependence  on  him 
for  salvation. 

3.  Assurance  op  Hope,  Heb.  6  :  11,  is 
a  firm  expectation  that  God  will  grant 
us  the  complete  enjoyment  of  what  he 
has  promised. 

ASSYR'IA,  a  great  empire  of  West- 
ern Asia,  founded  by  Asshur,  Gen.  10  : 
10,  11,  who  built  Nineveh,  Rehoboth  (?), 
Calah,  and  Resen.  Assyria  proper  ap- 
pears to  have  included  about  the  same 
territory  as  modern  Kurdistan.  The 
empire  covered  at  times  a  far  larger 
extent  of  territory,  and  in  its  prosper- 
ity nearly  all  of  western  Asia  and  por- 
tions of  Africa  were  subject  to  its  jjower. 

Physical  Features. — The  chief  rivers 
of  Assyria  were  the  Euphrates  and 
Tigris.  The  country  was  well  watered. 
On  the  east  and  north  were  ranges  of 
mountains,  the  highest  covered  with 
snow.  The  central  portions  were  along 
the  fertile  valleys  of  the  two  great  rivers. 
There  are  immense  level  tracts  of  the 
country,  now  almost  a  wilderness,  which 
bear  marks  of  having  been  cultivated 
and  thickly  populated  in  early  times. 
Among  its  products,  besides  the  com- 
mon cereals,  were  dates,  olives,  cotton, 
mulberries,  gum  -  arable,  madder,  and 
castor-oil.  Of  animals,  the  bear,  deer, 
wolf,  lynx,  hyena,  antelope,  lion,  tiger, 
beaver,  and  camel  were  common.  The 
fei'tility  of  the  country  is  frequently 
noted  hj  ancient  writers. 

Biblical  History. — Assyria  is  among 
the  earliest  countries  mentioned  in  the 
Bible,  Gen.  2  :  14,  and  is  referred  to 
about  one  hundred  and  twenty  times 
in  the  Old  Testament,  though  only  four 
or  five  of  its  kings  are  noticed  by  name. 
Scripture,  tradition,  and  the  monuments 
of  the  country  unite  in  testifying  that 
Assyria  was  peopled  from  Babylon. 
Gen.  10  :  10,  11.  From  the  time  of 
Nimrod  until  two  centuries  after  the 
division  of  the  Israelitish  kingdom  the 
Scriptures  make  no  mention  of  Assyria. 
During  the  rule  of  Menahem,  Pul,  the 
king  of  Assyria,  invaded  Israel  and 
levied  a  heavy  tribute  upon  it,  2  Kgs. 


ASS 


ASS 


15  :  19  ;  a  few  years  later,  when  Pekah 
was  king  of  Israel,  and  Aha/,  kinji^  of 
Judah,  Tiglath-pileser,  another  king  of 
Assyria,  aided  Judah  in  a  war  against 
Israel  and  Syria.  2  Kgs.  16  :  7-9  ;  15  : 
29  ;  2  Chr.  28  :  16.  In  the  reign  of 
Hoshea  the  Assyrians  under  Shahnaneser 
again  invaded  Israel,  and  after  besieg- 
ing its  capital,  Samaria,  for  three  years, 
captured  it,  destroyed  the  kingdom,  and 
carried  the  peoj)le  into  captivity,  B.C. 
721,  and  repeopled  the  land  by  colonies 
from  Babylon,  Cuthah,  and  Ilamath.  2 
Kgs.  17 :  1-6,  24i  Sargon,  a  usurper  and 
great  warrior,  succeeded  Shahnaneser 
as  king  of  Assyria,  and  perhaps  com- 
pleted the  conquest  of  Samaria  and  of 
Israel  undertaken  by  his  predecessor. 
Sargon  deposed  Merodach  Baladan,  king 
of  Babylon,  made  an  expedition  against 
Egypt,  when  he  captured  Ashdod,  Isa. 
20  : 1-1,  conquered  Syria,  and  subdued 
a  large  portion  of  western  Asia.  Un- 
der Sargon,  Nineveh,  the  capital  of  the 
empire,  was  repaired  and  adorned  with 
a  royal  palace  and  many  magnificent 
buildings.  See  illustration  on  p.  80.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Sennacherib, 
about  B.  c.  704,  who  became  the  most 
celebrated  of  all  the  Assyrian  kings. 
During  his  reign  of  22  years  he  crushed 
the  revolt  of  Berodach  Baladan,  and 
drove  him  from  the  country ;  car- 
ried his  conquests  into  Egypt,  Phi- 
listia,  Armenia,  Media,  and  Edom.  He 
invaded  the  kingdom  of  Judah  in  the 
reign  of  Hezekiah,  and  his  army  was 
miraculously  destroyed,  and  he  returned 
home  in  shame,  and  was  slain  by  his 
two  sons.  2  Chr.  32  :  1-21 ;  2  Kgs. 
19  :  35-37.  He  was  succeeded  by  Esarhad- 
don,  who  reigned  13  years,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Assur-banipal  (Sardanapa- 
lus),  a  noted  warrior  and  builder,  who 
extended  the  limits  of  the  empire  and 
erected  a  grand  palace  at  Konyunjik. 
After  his  reign  the  empire  began  gradu- 
ally to  decline,  until  in  B.  c.  625  (some 
say  606)  it  was  subdued  by  the  Medes 
and  Babylonians,  and  the  latter  became 
the  dominant  power  during  the  great 
Captivity.  2  Kgs.  24  :  1  ;  25  :  1-8  ; 
Dan.  1:1;  3:1;  5:1;  Eze.  29  :  18. 
See  Nineveh  and  Babylon. 

Art,  Lanffitar/e,  and  ReUffion. — The 
artistic  skill,  genius,  and  magnificence 
displayed  by  the  Assyrians  in  archi- 
tecture and  in  the  arts,   as   shown  bv 


the  exhumed  remains  of  their  great 
cities,  are  the  admiration  of  scholars. 
The  massive  walls  and  towers  which 
surrounded  their  towns ;  the  vastness 
and  beauty  of  their  ruined  j)alaces  at 
Khorsnhad  and  Koni/aujik ;  the  elab- 
orate finish  and  adornments  of  their 
temples  and  other  edifices  at  Niniroud 
and  Kileh  Shenjhnt ;  the  sculi)tures  in 
marble,  stone,  bronze,  and  clay ;  the 
remarkable  specimens  of  transparent 
glass  vases  ;  the  tables,  chairs,  and  ar- 
ticles of  luxury  for  the  home ;  their 
chariots  and  implements  of  war, — are 
the  wonder  of  explorers  of  our  day. 
Canon  Rawlinson  declares  the  much- 
lauded  Egyptians  to  be  very  decidedly 
the  inferiors  of  the  Assyrians,  except- 
ing in  the  one  point  of  the  grandeur 
and  durability  of  their  architecture. 
The  language  of  Assyria  was  Semitic, 
and  in  style  derived,  according  to  Raw- 
linson, from  the  Chaldaean,  but  of  a  less 
archaic  type.  It  was  written  without 
pictorial  representations  of  objects,  and 
in  the  arrow-headed  or  wedge-shaped 
characters,  of  which  over  300  different 
signs  or  characters  are  now  known  to 
have  been  used  in  the  Assyrian  alpha- 
bet. "  Their  language  and  alphabet  are 
confessedly  in  advance  of  the  Egyp- 
tian."— Rawlinson's  Five  Ancient  Mon- 
archies, 1870,  i.  p.  247.  Of  their  religion 
the  same  author  says  it  is  "  more  earn- 
est and  less  degrading  than  that  of 
Egypt.  Idols  and  idol-worship  pre- 
vailed. Of  eleven  chief  gods  and  an 
equal  number  of  goddesses,  the  greatest 
was  Asshur,  one  of  whose  symbols  was 
a  winged  sphere  with  the  figure  of  a 
man  armed  with  a  bow  issuing  from  the 
centre.  Among  the  other  gods  were 
Bel,  Sin  the  moon-god,  Shamas  the 
sun-god,  Ishtar,  and  Nebo.  Their  idols 
were  of  stone  and  clay,  and  were  wor- 
shipped with  sacrifices,  libations,  and 
offerings,  and  by  fastings  of  man  and 
beast.  The  tablets  testify  to  the  atten- 
tion given  to  religion  by  the  learned, 
and  the  records  and  sculptures  indicate 
the  general  si)irit  of  worship  prevailing 
among  the  people,  while  it  also  shows 
their  gross  idolatry." 

Modern  Discoveries  and  General  His- 
tory.— Concerning  the  history  of  the 
Assyrian  kingdom  and  empire,  compar- 
atively little  was  known  previous  to 
recent   discoveries.     The  researches  of 


ASS 


ASS 


Botta,  1842-1850;  Layard,  1851-1853; 
Sir  H,  Rawlinson,  1850-1867:  Oppert, 
1857-1870  ;  Lenormant,  1868-1873  ; 
George  Smith,  1872-1877  ;  and  those  of 
Rassam,  1878, — have  rescued  the  an- 
nals of  that  counti-y  from  obscurity,  and 
furnished  the  materials  for  a  trust- 
worthy history.  These  records,  to- 
gether with  the  vast  buildings,  monu- 
ments, and  grand  palaces,  were  buried 
many  feet  beneath  mounds  of  earth, 
and  their  existence  for  hundreds  of 
years  was  wholly  unknown  to  the  world. 
By  patient  excavation  the  monuments. 


temples,  palaces,  and  other  evidences  of 
Assyrian  greatness  have  been  brought 
to  light  within  the  past  forty  years  ; 
even  large  portions  of  the  vast  libraries 
of  her  kings  have  been  discovered,  the 
unknown  characters  in  which  they  were 
written  have  been  deciphered,  and  the 
inscriptions  and  records  translated  into 
modern  languages,  not  only  giving  a 
history  of  the  exploits  of  this  remark- 
able nation,  but  also  throwing  much 
light  on  its  customs,  religious  life,  and 
language,  and  upon  the  many  Scripture 
references  to  Assyria. 

A  vast  mass  of  documents  has  been 
6 


dug  up  from  the  mounds,  written  in 
cuneiform  or  wedge-shaped  characters 
and  in  the  Assyrian  tongue.  The  in- 
scriptions were  upon  slabs  of  stone, 
which  formed  the  panels  of  the  palace- 
walls,  on  obelisks  of  stone,  on  clay  tab- 
lets, and  on  cylinders  or  hexagonal 
prisms  of  terra  cotta  two  or  three  feet 
long.  These  tablets  and  cylinders  were 
undoubtedly  a  part  of  the  royal  library 
in  the  days  of  Tiglath-pileser  and  of 
other  noted  kings. 

"  The  Assyrian  power  was  a  single 
monarchy  from  the  beginning,  and 
gradually  grew 
by  conquering 
the  smaller  states 
around  it ;  and 
there  is  conse- 
quently a  uni- 
formity in  its 
records  and  tra- 
ditions which 
makes  them 
easier  to  follow 
than  those  of  the 
sister  kingdom." 
— George  Smith, 
Assyi'ian  Discov- 
eries, 1875,  p.  447. 
A  list  of  50  As- 
syrian kings  who 
reigned  from  B.  c. 
1850  to  B.  c.  607 
has  been  com- 
piled from  the 
royal  tablets  by 
George  Smith. 
Of  these  kings, 
twenty -eight 
reigned  previous 
to  Tiglath-pileser 
L,  B.  c.  1120;  fif- 
teen reigned  from  Tiglath-pileser  I. 
to  Tiglath-pileser  II.,  B.  c.  745  ;  and 
after  his  time  reigned  the  following 
seven,  four  of  whom  are  certainly  men- 
tioned in  Scripture  history  :  Shalman- 
eser  IV.,  Sargon,  Sennacherib,  Esar- 
haddon,  Assur-banipal,  Bel-zakir-iskun, 
and  Assur-ebil-ili.  The  first  capital  of 
Assyria  was  Asshur,  on  the  Tigris, 
about  60  miles  south  of  Nineveh ;  its 
second  capital,  founded  or  more  prob- 
ably rebuilt  and  enlarged  by  Shalman- 
eser  I.,  was  Calah  or  Halah.  As  Assyr- 
ian conquests  extended  north  and  east, 
the  capital  was   removed  to   Nineveh, 

81 


AST 


ATH 


which  became  a  vast  city,  and  accord- 
ing to  Layard  covered  the  present  site 
of  Kouyunjik,  Nimrud,  Khoraabad,  and 
Karamles.  This  space  would  correspond 
to  the  measurements  of  the  city  given 
by  Diodorus. — Layard  :  Nineveh,  1849, 
vol.  ii.  pp.  243-247.  In  his  view,  Nim- 
rud was  the  original  site  of  Nineveh, 
whose  founder  built  a  new  city  at  Kileh 
SJieryhat.  In  later  periods  palaces  were 
built  at  Kliorsahad,  Karamles,  and  the 
largest  of  all  these  structures  at  Kou- 
yunjik. About  630  B.  c.  the  Medes 
from  the  north  and  the  Susianians  from 
the  south  invaded  Assyria;  after  a  brief 
contest  they  conquered  it,  and  the  empire 
was  divided  between  the  conquerors. 
The  kingdom  of  Assyria  extended  over 
a  period  of  1200  years,  though  the  em- 
pire can  only  at  the  utmost  be  consid- 
ered to  have  lasted  six  and  a  half  cen- 
turies, and  its  ascendency  in  western 
Asia  not  more  than  500  years,  b.  c.  1125- 
625.  Of  the  importance  of  the  recent 
discoveries  it  is  said,  "  Every  spadeful 
of  earth  which  was  removed  from  those 
vast  remains  tended  to  confirm  the 
truth  of  prophecy  and  to  illustrate 
Scripture.  But  who  could  have  be- 
lieved that  records  themselves  should 
have  been  found  which,  as  to  their  mi- 
nuteness of  details  and  the  wonderful 
accuracy  of  their  statements,  should 
confirm,  almost  word  for  word,  the  very 
text  of  Scripture  ?  And  remember  that 
these  were  no  fabrications  of  a  later 
date,  on  monuments  centuries  after  the 
deeds  which  they  professed  to  relate  had 
taken  place,  but  records  engraved  by 
those  who  had  actually  taken  part  in 
the  events." — Layard  :  Address  in  Lon- 
don on  being  presented  the  freedom  of  the 
city,  1854.     See  Nineveh  and  Babylon. 

AS'TAROTH.     See  Ashtaroth. 

ASTROL  OGERS.  Dan.  2  :  27. 
A  class  of  men  who  pretended  to  foretell 
future  events  by  observing  the  motions 
of  the  heavenly  bodies,  which,  until  a 
comparatively  late  period,  were  sup- 
posed actually  to  influence  human  life. 
Star-worship  prevailed  among  Eastern 
nations,  and  its  priests  were  astrologers, 

ASTRON'OMY  {the  laics  or  science 
of  the  stars).  The  Bilile  gives  evidence 
that  its  writers  were  students  of  the 
starry  heavens,  but  the  Hebrew  religion 
sternly  forbids  their  worship.  Some 
of  the  constellations  are  mentioned — 
82 


e.  g.  the  Pleiades,  Orion,  the  "  Great 
Bear"(Arcturus).  Job  9  :  9  ;  38:31.  The 
Jews  do  not  seem  to  have  divided  the 
stars  into  planets,  fixed  stars,  and  com- 
ets. During  the  Babylonish  captivity 
they  encountered  the  astronomy  as  well 
as  the  astrology  of  the  far-famed  Chal- 
daaans.  Indeed,  in  Chaldaja  was  the 
birthjjlace  of  the  science.  In  the  case 
of  the  magi,  Matt.  2,  God  used  their  as- 
ti'ology  as  a  means  of  grace  to  lead  them 
to  Christ.     See  Star  of  Bethlehem. 

ASUP^PIM,  HOUSE  OF  {house 
of  gatherings).  1  Chr.  26  :  15,  17.  It 
refers  either  to  the  chambers  of  the 
temple,  perhaps  where  the  elders  sat,  or 
to  some  one  of  the  aj^artments  of  the 
temple  where  the  stores  were  kept. 
The  word  is  rendered  "  thresholds  "  in 
Neh.  12 :  25. 

ASYN'CRITUS  [incomimrable),  a 
Christian  in  Kome  whom  Paul  saluted. 
Rom.  16  :  14. 

A'TAD,  THRESHING  - 
FLOOR  OF.  Gen.  50:10,  11.  Its 
name  was  changed  to  Abel-mizraim, 
which  see. 

AT^ARAH  (a  crown),  one  of  the 
wives  of  Jerahmeel.     1  Chr.  2  :  26. 

AT'AROTH  (croions).  1.  A  town 
of  Gad,  east  of  the  Jordan,  Num.  32: 
3,  34,  about  7  miles  north-west  of  Dibon ; 
now  the  ruin  Attarus. 

2.  A  town  of  Ephraim,  Josh.  16:2; 
perhaps  the  same  as  Ataroth-adar  and 
Ataroth-addar.  Josh.  18  :  13.  It  may 
be  the  modern  Atdra,%  miles  north-west 
of  Bethel,  though  Conder  suggests  that 
it  is  identical  with  ruins  discovered  at 
ed-Ddrieh. 

3.  In  1  Chr.  2  :  54,  Ataroth,  the  house 
of  Joab,  if  a  place,  may  refer  to  one  in 
Judah,  which  Schwartz  would  identify 
with  Latrum,  between  Jaffa  and  Jeru- 
s  i\\  G  m 

AT'AROTH-AD'DAR  {crowns 
of  fame).     See  Ataroth,  2. 

A'TER  {shut  up).  1.  One  whose 
children  kept  the  temple-gate.  Ezr.  2  : 
42  ;  Neh.  7  :  45. 

2.  The  ancestor  of  some  who  came 
back  with  Zerubbabel,  and  who  signed 
the  covenant.  Ezr.  2:16;  Neh.  7  :  21 ; 
10:17. 

A'THACH  {lodging-place),  a  town 
in  the  south  of  Judah  ;  perhaps  the  same 
as  Ether.     Josh.  19  :  7  ;  1  Sam.  30  :  30. 

ATHAI'AH    (probably    same     as 


ATH 


ATH 


Asaiah,    u-liom    Jehovah,    made),    a    de- 
scendant of  Jiidah.     Neh.  11  :  4. 

ATHALI'AH  (ajflirtcd  h>/Jehovnh), 
granddauc^hter  of  Omri,  dauj^hter  of 
Ahab  and  Jezebel,  wife  of  Jehoram, 
king  of  Jiidah,  and  mother  of  Aha- 
ziah.  2  Kg8.  11 : 1  flF.  She  introduced 
Baal-worship  into  Jiidah.  Her  charac- 
ter was  extremely  bad.  She  advised 
her  own  son  in  his  wickedness,  and 
after  Jehu  had  slain  him  (see  Aha- 
ziah)  she  resolved  to  destroy  the  chil- 
dren of  her  husband  by  his  former 
wives,  and  then  take  the  throne  of 
Judah,  But  Jehosheba,  a  half-sister 
of  Ahaziah,  secured  Joash,  one  of  the 
children  and  heii*,  and  secreted  him 
and  his  nurse  for  six  years.  In  the 
seventh  year,  everything  being  pre- 
pared for  the  purpose,  Joash,  the 
young  prince,  was  brought  out  and 
placed  on  the  throne.  Attracted  by 
the  crowd  of  people  who  had  assem- 
bled to  witness  the  ceremony,  and  un- 
suspicious of  the  cause,  Athaliah   has- 


tened to  the  temple.  When  the  pop- 
ulace had  assembled,  and  when  she 
saw  the  young  king  on  the  throne, 
and  heard  the  shouts  of  the  people, 
and  found  that  all  her  ambitious  de- 
signs were  likely  to  be  defeated,  she 
rent  her  clothes  and  cried  out,  "  Trea- 
son !  Treason !"  ho})ing  probably  to 
rally  a  party  in  favor  of  her  interests. 
But  she  was  too  late.  The  priest  com- 
manded her  to  be  removed  from  the 
temple,  and  she  was  taken  without  the 
walls  of  the  city  and  put  to  death. 
2  Kgs.  11 :  IG.    See  Jehoiada  and  Joash. 

2.  A  Benjamite.     1  Chr.  8  :  2(). 

3.  One  whose  son,  Jcshaiah,  returned 
with  Ezra  in  the  second  caravan  from 
Babylon.     Ezr.  8  :  7. 

ATH'ENS,  the  name  of  several 
places,  but  chiefly  of  the  capital  of 
Greece,  the  metropolis  of  ancient  phi- 
losophy and  art;  named  from  the  god- 
dess Minerva  or  Athene.  For  sketch- 
map  see  Corinth. 

Situation. — It   was   situated   about   5 


Erechtheum. 


Parthenon. 


Turkish  Tower. 


Modern  City. 


Temple  of  Theseus.  South-wesieru  ijuit  of  Modern  City. 

Athens.     (After  a  sketch.) 


miles  north-east  of  the  Saronic  Gulf, 
in  the  ])lain  of  Attica,  the  south-east- 
ern portion  of  the  Grecian  peninsula, 
between  the  little  rivers  Cephissus  and 
Ilissus.  The  port,  Piraeus,  is  five  miles 
off,  and  now  connected  with  the  city  by 
a  railroad.  About  the  plain,  on  the  north- 


west, the  north-east,  the  south-east,  and 
south-west,  were  four  noted  mounts. 
Within  the  city  were  four  more  noted 
hills — the  Acropolis,  Areopagus  or  Mars' 
Hill,  the  Pnyx,  and  the  Museum. 
The  Acropolis  is  about  150  feet  high, 
with  a  flat  top  about  1100  feet  long  by 

83 


ATH 


ATO 


450  feet  wide,  having  a  steep  ascent  on 
all  sides.  West  of  the  Acropolis  is 
Mars'  Hill,  of  irregular  form,  and  on 
which  public  assemblies  and  the  chief 
courts  were  held.  Upon  this  hill  Paul 
preached.  Acts  17  :  19,  22.  Beneath  it 
are  the  Caves  of  the  Furies. 

History. — Athens  was  first  settled  by 
some  chieftain,  perhaps  Cecrops,  b.  c. 
1556,  who  is  said  to  have  been  succeeded 
by  sixteen  legendary  kings  and  twelve 
archons.  Draco  made  laws  for  it,  b.  c. 
624.  Solon,  its  noted  ''  lawgiver," 
founded  a  democracy,  b.  c.  594.  The 
city  was  taken  by  Xerxes,  b.  c.  480  ; 
but  soon  after  his  defeat  it  reached  its 
highest  prosperity,  with  a  population 
of  from  120,000  to  180,000.  Under  the 
brilliant  rule  of  Pericles,  b.  c.  444  to  429, 
some  of  the  greatest  masters  in  philos- 
ophy, poetry,  and  oratory  flourished, 
and  noted  buildings  and  temples,  as 
that  of  Zeus,  the  Odeum,  the  Parthe- 
non, the  Propylaja,  were  projected  or 
completed.  His  rule  was  followed  by 
the  Spartan,  the  Theban,  and  the 
Macedonian  supremacy,  the  age  of 
Demosthenes,  Philip,  and  Alexander  the 
Great.  In  b.  c.  140,  Athens  with  Achaia 
became  a  Roman  province,  and  so  con- 
tinued through  apostolic  times.  Since 
then  it  has  been  subject  to  the  Byzan- 
tines, Franks,  Venetians,  and  Turks,  as 
well  as  at  times  independent.  Under 
the  misrule  of  the  Turks  it  sunk  down 
to  a  miserable  village,  and  in  1832  there 
was  scarcely  a  house  standing.  But  it 
arose  with  the  new  kingdom  of  Greece, 
and  is  now  again  a  beautiful  capital, 
adorned  by  new  streets  and  buildings, 
prominent  among  which  are  the  royal 
palace,  the  Greek  cathedral,  the  Rus- 
sian chapel,  the  University,  the  Library, 
and  the  Museum. 

At  the  time  of  Paul's  visit  Athens 
was  a  "  free  city,"  under  the  Roman  rule. 
It  was  given  to  idolatry,  having  30,000 
idols.  Petronius  said,  "  It  was  easier 
to  find  a  god  in  Athens  than  to  find  a 
man."  Paul  calls  them  "very  religious," 
Acts  17  :  22,  not  "too  superstitious,"  as 
our  version  inaccurately  reads.  But 
Athens  never  took  a  jirominent  place  in 
church  history. 

ATH'LiAI  {whom  Jehovah  afflicts), 
one  who  had  married  a  foreign  wife. 
Ezr.  10  :  28. 

ATONE'MENT.  Literally,  a<-one- 
84 


ment,  or  reconciliation ;  theologically,  the 
satisfaction  or  propitiation  brought  about 
by  the  death  of  Christ  as  the  ground  of 
the  accord  or  reconciliation  between  God 
and  man.  The  word  occurs  often  in 
the  Old  Testament,  but  onh^  once  in  the 
New  (Rom.  5  :  11,  where  the  Greek  means 
"  reconciliation,"  which  is  the  result  of 
the  atoning  death  of  Christ).  The  sub- 
ject itself  is  presented  in  every  variety 
of  form  both  in  the  Gospels  and  in  the 
Epistles.  Rom.  3-8  and  Heb.  7-10,  in- 
clusive. 

The  great  atonement  made  for  sin  by 
the  sacrifice  of  Christ  constitutes  the 
grand  substantial  foundation  of  the 
Christian  faith.  The  efliicacy  of  it  is 
such  that  the  sinner,  though  by  nature 
the  child  of  wrath,  by  faith  in  Christ  is 
brought  into  favor  with  God,  is  deliv- 
ered from  condemnation,  and  made  an 
heir  of  eternal  life  and  glory.  The  He- 
brew word  rendered  "  atonement"  signi- 
fies "  covering,"  Ps.  32 : 1,  and  the  Greek 
version  of  this  Hebrew  word  is  trans- 
lated "propitiation"  in  our  Bible,  and 
may  denote  either  that  our  offences  are 
covered  or  that  we  are  protected  from 
the  curse,  Christ  being  made  a  curse 
for  us.  Gal.  3 :  13.  Generally,  wher- 
ever the  term  occurs,  a  state  of  contro- 
versy or  estrangement  is  implied ;  and 
in  relation  to  the  party  offended,  it  im- 
ports something  done  to  propitiate. 
Gen.  32  :  20  ;  Eze.  16  :  63.  The  idea 
of  making  an  atonement  is  expressed 
by  a  word  which  signifies  "  to  make  pro- 
pitiation ;"  and  the  apostles,  in  referring 
to  the  death  of  Christ,  use  those  very 
terms  which  in  the  Sejituagint  version 
of  the  Old  Testament  are  applied  to 
legal  sacrifices  and  their  effect,  thus  rep- 
resenting the  death  of  Christ  not  only 
as  a  real  and  proper  sacrifice,  but  as  the 
truth  and  substance  of  all  the  Levitical 
types  and  shadows — the  true,  efficacious, 
and  only  atonement  for  sin,  1  John  2  : 
2  and  4  :  10  ;  showing  that  Christ  is  not 
only  the  agent  by  whom  the  propitia- 
tion is  made,  but  was  himself  the  pro- 
pitiatory sacrifice. 

ATONE  MENT,  DAY  OF.  Lev. 
16  ;  23  :  27-32.  The  only  Jewish  fast- 
day  ;  the  annual  day  of  humiliation.  It 
was  kept  five  days  before  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles,  or  on  the  tenth  day  of  Tisri; 
i.  €.  in  the  early  part  of  October.  The 
fast  lasted  fi-om    sunset   to   sunset.     It 


ATR 


AUG 


was  kept  as  a  solemn  Sabbath.  Once 
a  year  upon  this  day  did  the  high  priest 
alone  enter  the  holy  of  holies.  This 
was  the  preparation.  It  was  ordained 
that  he  should  bathe  himself,  and  then 
dress  in  holy  white  linen.  He  was  then 
to  bring  forward  his  sacrifices,  which 
must  be  his  purchases — a  young  bul- 
lock for  a  sin-offering  and  a  ram  for  a 
burnt-offering.  These  he  offered  for 
himself  and  family.  Besides  these,  he 
brought  forward  two  goats  for  a  sin-of- 
fering and  a  ram  for  a  burnt-offering. 
These,  being  for  the  benefit  of  the  peo- 
ple, were  paid  for  out  of  the  public 
treasury.  The  two  goats  were  then  led 
up  to  the  entrance  of  the  tabernacle  and 
lots  cast  upon  them,  one  lot  marked  ^'For 
Jehovah."  the  other  marked  '■'ForAzazel" 
The  latter  is  a  phrase  of  unusual  difficulty. 
But  the  best  modern  scholars  agree  that 
it  does  not  designate  the  goat,  but  the 
personal  being  to  whom  the  goat  was 
sent.  See  Goat,  Scape.  The  high  priest 
offered  the  bullock,  carried  live  coals  in 
a  censer  from  the  altar,  with  a  handful  of 
incense,  into  the  holy  of  holies.  There  he 
sprinkled  the  blood  with  his  finger  upon 
the  mercy-seat,  eastward,  and  before  it 
seven  times.  He  then  killed  the  goat 
"  for  Jehovah  "  and  sprinkled  its  blood 
in  the  same  manner.  Over  the  goat 
*'for  Azazel "  the  sins  of  the  people 
were  confessed  by  the  high  priest,  and 
then  it  was  sent  away  by  "  the  hand  of 
a  fit  man  into  the  wilderness."  The 
ceremony  was  now  over.  Accordingly, 
the  high  priest  again  bathed,  put  on  his 
usual  garments,  and  offered  the  two 
rams. 

AT'ROTH  {crowns),  or  ''Atroth- 
Shophan,"  as  it  should  probably  be  read 
without  the  comma,  "Shophan"  being 
added  to  distinguish  it  from  the  "Ata- 
roth  "  or  "Atroth  "  in  the  former  verse. 
It  was  a  city  of  Gad,  near  Dibon.  Num. 
32  :  35. 

AT'TAI  {opportune).  1.  A  descend- 
ant of  Judah.     1  Chr.  2  :  35,  36. 

2.  A  Gadite  chief.     1  Chr.  12  :  11. 

3.  A  son  of  Rehoboam.  2  Chr.  11 : 
20. 

ATTALI'A,  a  seaport-town  of 
Pamphylia,  Acts  14  :  25,  named  from  its 
founder,  Attalus ;  later  it  was  called 
Satalin,  and  now  Adalia. 

AIJGVS'TUS  {venerable),  Caius  Ju- 
lius Caesar  Octavianus,  b.  c.  62-a.  d.  14. 


The  grand-nephew  of  Julius  Caesar,  and 
first  emperor  of  Home.     It  was  he  who 
gave  the  order  for  the  enrolment  which 
was  the  human  occasion  of  the  Bethle- 
hemic  birth  of 
Christ.     Luke 
2  :  1.     He  was 
one    of    the 
second    so- 
called     trium- 
virate,    with 
Mark    Antony 
and     Lepidus. 
After    the    re- 
moval   of    the 
latter        he 
fought   a  bat- 
tle with  Antony   at   Actium,   b.  c.    31, 
defeating  him.     The  senate  saluted  him 
as  emperor,  and  in  b.  c.  27  conferred  on 
him  the  title  of  '*  Augustus."     He  comes 
into  the  New  Testament  in  connection 
i  with  Herod,  whom  he  had  reinstated  in 
I  his  kingdom   and   greatly  honored,  al- 
j  though   Herod  had  espoused  the  cause 
of  Antony.     At  Herod's  death  Augus- 
tus divided  his  kinordom  in  accordance 


Coin  of  Augustus, iu  Berlin. 


Marble  Statue    of  Augustus,  found  in  1863  at 
Prima  Porta,  near  Kome. 

with  his  will,  and  even  educated  two 
of  his  sons,  since  their  relations  had 
been  very  intimate.  He  reigned  for- 
ty-one   years,   and   was   succeeded    by 

85 


AVA 


AZA 


Tiberius  Caesar.     Luke  3  : 1.     See  C^- 

SAR. 

A'VA  (ruin).  Rawlinson  would  iden- 
tify it  with  Hit,  on  the  Euphrates ; 
probably  it  is  the  same  as  Ahava  and 
Ivah.     2  Kgs.  17  :  24. 

A'VEN  {nothi)igiies8).  1.  A  plain, 
probably  of  Lebanon.   Am.  1 :  6. 

2.  Same  as  Beth-aven.  Hos.  10  : 
5,  8.     See  Baalbec. 

3.  The  city  of  On  or  Heliopolis,  in 
Egypt.     Eze.  30  :  17. 

AVENGE',  AVEN'GER.  Luke 
18  :  8  ;  1  Thess.  4  :  6.  Vengeance  is  an 
act  of  justice;  revenge  is  an  act  of  pas- 
sion. Hence  injuries  are  revenged, 
crimes  are  avenged.  God  is  avenged 
of  his  enemies  when  he  vindicates  his 
own  law  and  government  and  character 
and  punishes  their  transgressions.  An 
avenger  is  the  agent  or  instrument  by 
whom  the  avengement  is  visited  on  the 
offending  party. 

Avenger  of  Blood  was  a  title  given 
to  one  who  pursued  a  murderer  or  man- 
slayer,  by  virtue  of  the  ancient  Jewish 
law,  to  avenge  the  blood  of  one  who  had 
been  slain.  He  must  be  a  near  relative 
of  the  murdered  man.  Deut.  19  :  6. 

A'VIM  (ruim),  a  city  of  Benjamin, 
Josh.  18  :  2H  ;  probably  near  Bethel. 

A'VITH  iniius),  "a  city  of  Edom, 
Gen.  36  :  35  ;  1  Chr.  1  :  46  ;  probably  in 
the  north-eastern  part  of  Mount  Seir. 

A'ZAL.  Zech.  14:  5.  As  the  pas- 
sage reads  in  the  margin,  Azal  is  not  a 
proper  name  ;  but  if  a  place  at  all,  it  was 
on  or  near  Mount  Olivet. 

AZALI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  re- 
served), the  father  of  Shaphan  the 
scribe.     2  Kgs.  22  :  3  ;  2  Chr.  34  :  8. 

AZANI'AH  [whom  Jehovah  hears), 
the  father  of  Jeshua  the  Levite,  Neh. 
10:9. 

AZAR'AEL  {whom  God  helps),  a 
Levite  musician.     Neh.  12  :  36. 

AZAR'EEL  {whom  God  helps).  1. 
A  Korhite  who  "  came  to  David  to  Zik- 
lag."     1  Chr.  12  :  6. 

2.  A  Levite  musician  of  David's  time, 
1  Chr.  25  :  18  ;  called  Uzziel  in  v.  4. 

3.  A  prince  of  Dan.     1  Chr.  27  :  22. 

4.  One  who  had  married  a  foreign 
wife.     Ezr.  10:41. 

5.  A  priest  who  lived  in  Jerusalem 
aftei'  the  Return.     Neh.  11 :  13. 

AZARI'AH  {ivhom  Jehovah   helps). 
1.  The  grandson  of  Zadok,  and  the  high 
86 


priest  during  the  reign  of  Solomon.     1 
Kgs.  4 :  2  ;  1  Chr.  6  :  9. 

2.  A  chief  officer  under  Solomon.  1 
Kgs.  4 : 5. 

3.  A  king  of  Judah,  2  Kgs.  14 :  21 ; 
more  generally  called  Uzziah,  which  see. 

4.  A  son  of  Ethan.     1  Chr.  2 :  8. 

5.  The  son  of  Jehu,  son  of  Obed.  1 
Chr.  2  :  38,  39. 

6.  The  son  of  Johanan,  and  high 
priest  under  Abijah  and  Asa.  1  Chr. 
6:10,  11. 

7.  In  1  Chr.  6 :  13  the  name  is  prob- 
ably wrongly  inserted. 

8.  A  Kohathite,  and  ancestor  of  Sam- 
uel.     1  Chr.  6  :  36. 

9.  A  prophet  who  stirred  up  Asa  to 
abolish  idolatry.     2  Chr.  15  : 1. 

10.  11.  Sons  of  Jehoshaphat  the  king. 
2  Chr.  21 :  2. 

12.  In  2  Chr.  22  :  6  by  copyist's  error 
for  Ahaziah. 

13.  A  captain  of  Judah  who  helped 
Jehoiada.     2  Chr.  23  : 1. 

14.  The  high  priest  in  the  reign  of 
Uzziah  who  resisted  with  eighty  priests 
the  king's  attempt  to  perform  priestly 
functions.  2  Kgs.  14  :  21;  2  Chr.  26  : 
17-20. 

15.  An  Ephraimite  chief  in  the  reign 
of  Ahaz.     2  Chr.  28  :  12. 

16.  17.  Two  Levites  in  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah.     2  Chr.  29  :  12. 

18.  The  high  priest  in  the  days  of 
Hezekiah.     2  Chr.  31 :  10,  13. 

19.  One  who  helped  to  repair  the  wall 
of  Jerusalem.     Neh.  3  :  23,  24. 

20.  A  leader  in  the  company  of  Ze- 
rubbabel.     Neh.  7  :  7. 

21.  A  Levite  who  helped  Ezra  in  the 
reading  of  the  Law.     Neh.  8  :  7. 

22.  A  priest  who  sealed  the  covenant, 
Neh.  10  :  2,  and  "probably  the  same 
with  the  Azariah  who  assisted  in  the 
dedication  of  the  city  wall."  Neh.  12 : 
33. 

23.  In  Jer.  43  :  2  instead  of  Jezaniah. 

24.  The  Hebrew  original  name  of 
Abed-nego.     Dan.  1 :  6,  etc. 

A'Z  AZ  {strong),  a  Reubenite.  1  Chr. 
5:8. 

AZAZI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  strength- 
ens). 1.  A  Levite  musician  in  the  reign 
of  David.     1  Chr.  15  :  21. 

2.  An  Ephraimite  chief.    1  Chr.  27  :  20. 

3.  A  Levite  who  had  the  oversight 
over  the  tithes  and  offerings  in  the  reign 
of  Hezekiah.     2  Chr.  31 :  13. 


AZB 


AZZ 


AZ'BTJK  (stroufj  devastation),  father 
of  Neheiniah  (not  the  governor).  Neh. 
3 :  16. 

AZE'KAH.     Josh.  10  :  10,  11 ;  15  : 

35.  A  city  of  Judah  near  Shocoh. 
Schwarz  proposed  Tell  Zak(in\i/a,  in  the 
valley  of  Elah  ;  Conder  suggested  Dcir- 
el-Soshek,  8  miles  north  of  Shoeoh,  also 
in  the  valley  of  Elah,  as  the  site  of  Aze- 
kah. 

A'ZEL  (noble),  a  descendant  of  Saul. 
1  Chr.  8  :  37,  38  ;  9  :  43,  44. 

A'ZEM  {bone),  a  city  in  the  south  of 
Judah,  Josh.  16  :  29  ;  afterward  allotted 
to  Simeon,  19  :  3 ;  the  same  as  Ezem  in 
1  Chr.  4:29. 

AZ'GAD  (strong  in  fortune).  1.  One 
whose  descendants  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel.     Ezr.  2:12;  8  :  12  ;  Neh.  7  :  17. 

2.  One  who  sealed  the  covenant.  Neh. 
10:15. 

A'ZIEIi  (whom  God  consoles),  a  Le- 
vite  porter;  shortened  form  of  Jaaziel. 
1  Chr.  15  :  20. 

AZI'ZA  (strong),  one  who  had  taken 
a  foreign  wife.     Ezr.  10  :  27. 

AZ'MAVETH,  probably  a  place 
in  Benjamin,  Ezr.  2  :  24 ;  Neh.  12  :  29; 
called  also  Beth-azmaveth,  Neh.  7  :  28 ; 
probably  modern  Hizmeh,  north  of  Ana- 
thoth. 

AZ'MAVETH  (strong  nnto  death). 
1.  One  of  David's  warriors,  2  Sam.  23  : 
31 ;  1  Chr.  11  :  33. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Mephibosheth. 
1  Chr.  8  :  36  ;  9  :  42. 

3.  A  Benjamite.     1  Chr.  12  :  3. 

4.  David's  treasurer.     1  Chr.  27  :  25. 
AZ'MON    (strong),    a    place   in   the 

south-western  part  of  Palestine.  Josh. 
15  :  4;  Robinson  and  Trumbull  describe 
"  Kasaimeh  "  or  ^'  Qasaymeh,"  which  is 
probably  the  site  of  Azmon. 


A7/'NOTll-TA'BOK  (ear,  or  sum. 
m its,  of  Tabor),  ii  place  in  Naphtali ; 
probably  the  eastern  slope  of  Mount 
Tabor.     Josh.  19  :  34. 

A'ZOR  (a  helper),  one  of  our  Lord's 
ancestors.     Matt.  1  :  13,  14. 

AZO'TUS.  Acts  8  :  40.  Greek 
form  of  Ashdod.     See  AsnnoD. 

AZ'RIEL  (whom  God  helps).  1.  A 
man  of  renown,  head  of  a  house  of 
Manasseh  beyond  Jordan.  1  Chr.  5  : 
24. 

2.  The  father  of  a  chief  of  Naphtali. 

1  Chr.  27:19. 

3.  The  father  of  Seraiah.  Jer.  36  :  26. 
AZ'RIKAM  (help  against  the  enemy). 

1.  One  of  David's  posterity.     1  Chr.  3  : 
23. 

2.  One  of  Saul's  posterity.  1  Chr.  8  : 
38  ;  9  :  44. 

3.  A  Levite.  1  Chr.  9  :  14;  Neh.  11 : 
15. 

4.  The  prefect  of  the  palace  to  King 
Ahaz,  who  was  killed  by  Zichri.  2  Chr. 
28  ■  7. 

AZU'BAH  (forsahen).  1.  The 
mother  of  Jehoshaphat.    1  Kgs.  22  :  42  ; 

2  Chr.  20  :  31. 

2.  A  wife  of  Caleb,  son  of  Hezron.  1 
Chr.  2:  18,  19. 

A^ZUR  (helper).  1.  The  father  of 
Hananiah,  the  false  prophet  of  Gibeon. 
Jer.  28:1. 

2.  The  father  of  one  of  the  princes 
against  whom  Ezekiel  prophesied.  Eze. 
11 :  1. 

AZ'ZAH  (the  stronq),  same  as  Ga::' .. 
Deut.  2  :  23 ;  1  Kgs.  4  :  24 ;  Jer.  25  :  20. 
See  Gaza. 

AZ''ZAN'  (very  strong),  a  chief  of 
Issachar.     Num.  34  :  26. 

AZ'ZUR  (helper),  one  who  sealed 
the  covenant.     Neh.  10:17. 

87 


BAA 


BAA 


B. 


BA'AL,  OR   BEL,  or    BE'LUS 

(lord,  or  master),  different  forms  of  the 
name  of  the  supreme  male  divinity  of  the 
Phcenicians  and  Canaanites,as  Ashtoreth 
was  that  of  their  supreme/e//K<Ze  divinity. 
1  Kgs.  18  :  21 ;  Isa.  46  :  1  ;  1  Sam.  12  :  10  ; 
1  Kgs.  11  ;  33.  That  the  divinities  were 
derived  from  astrological  fancies  there 
is  little  doubt,  but  it  is  a  question  with 
what  pair  of  the  heavenly  bodies  we  are 
to  identify  them.  The  common  opinion 
is  that  they  represent  the  sun  and  moon 
respectively,  while  other  scholars  say 
they  are  .Jupiter  and  Venus.  The  li- 
cense sanctioned — indeed,  demanded — 
by  their  worship  may  have  given  it  at- 
tractiveness. At  all  events,  it  spread 
among  the  Jews,  being  introduced  into 
Israel  by  Jezebel  and  by  her  daughter 
into  Judjea.  Many  and  severe  were  the 
judgments  required  to  eradicate  it. 


Baal  side  of  an  Altar  from  a  temple  in  Kuna- 
wat  (Canatha),  east  of  tlie  Jordan. 

The  frequent  use  of  the  word  Baal  in 
the  plural  form,  Baalim,  e.  (/.  .Jud.  2:11; 
10  :  1  0  ;  1  Kgs.  18  :  18  ;  Jer.  9:14;  Hos. 
2:13,  17,  proves  probably  that  he  was 
worshipped  under  his  different  modifi- 
cations.   Hence  several  compounds  exist. 

1.  Ba'al-br'uith  {covenant  ford),  the 
form  of  Baal  worshipped  by  the  Shechem- 
ites  after  Gideon's  death.  Jud.  8  :  33  ; 
9:4. 

2.  Ba'al-PE'or  (lord  of  the  opening, 
an  allusion  to  the  character  of  the 
rites  of  worship),  the  form  of  Baal-wor- 
ghip  in  Moab  and  Midian  shared  in  bj 


the  Israelites.  Num.  25  :  3,  5,  18  ;  Deut. 
4:3;  Josh.  22  :  17  ;  Ps.  106  :  28 ;  Hos. 
9:10. 

3.  Ba'al-ze'bub  (lord  of  the  fly),  the 
form  of  Baal  worshipped  at  Ekron.  2 
Kgs.  1 :  2,  3,  6,  16. 

Human  victims  were  offered  to  Baal. 
Jer.  19  :  5.  Elevated  places  were  se- 
lected for  his  worship,  and  his  priests 
and  prophets  were  very  numerous. 
Sometimes  the  tops  of  the  houses  were 
devoted  to  this  purpose.  2  Kgs.  23  : 
12  ;  Jer.  32  :  29.    See  High  Places. 

The  worship  of  Baal  by  the  ancient 
Druids  was  probably  general  throughout 
the  British  Islands.  One  of  the  Druidic 
yearly  festivals  and  deemed  of  special 
importance  took  place  in  the  beginning 
of  May,  which  was  the  first  month-  of 
their  year,  and  called  Be'el-tin,  or  "  fire 
of  God."  A  large  fire  was  kindled  on 
some  elevated  spot  in  honor  of  the  sun, 
whose  returning  beneficence  they  thus 
welcomed  after  the  gloom  of  winter.  Of 
this  custom  a  trace  remains  in  '*  Beltin 
Day"  (or  Whitsunday)  in  many  of  the 
Gaelic-speaking  parts  of  Scotland.  In 
the  Lowlands  the  same  name  was  re- 
tained till  a  comparatively  recent  date. 

House  op  Ba'al.  1  Kgs.  16  :  32.  Is 
the  same  with  the  temple  (or  place  of 
worship)  of  Baal.      See   particularly  2 


1.    A   Reubenite. 


Kgs.  10  :  21-28. 
BA'AL    {lord). 

1  Chr.  5:5. 

2.  A  Benjamite,  a  relative  of  Saul. 
1  Chr.  8  :  30  •  9  :  36. 

BA'AL  {lord,  or  master),  a  city  of 
Simeon,  1  Chr.  4  :  33  ;  called  also  Bea- 
loth,  Baalath-Beer.  Knobel  and  Wilton 
locate  it  at  Kttrnab  ;  Conder  at  Umni 
Ba(/hleh.  "  Baal  "  is  also  used  as  a  prefix 
to  the  names  of  several  places,  given 
below. 

BA'ALAH    (mistress). 
name    for    Kiriath-jearim, 
10,  and  for  Baale  of  Judah, 
and  for  Kirjath-Baal  in  Judah.    Josh. 
15  :  60  ;  18  ;  14.     See  Kirjath-jearim. 

2.  A  place  in  Judah,  Josh.  15  :  29,  the 
same  as  Balah,  19  :  3,  and  Bilhah,  1  Chr. 
4  :  29  j  now  JJ^ir-d-Bdah,  near  Gaza, 


1.  Another 
Josh.  15  :  9, 
2  Sam.  6  :  2, 


BAA 


BAA 


3.  Ba'alah,  Mount.  Josh.  16  :  11. 
Either  the  same  as  No.  1,  or  possibly 
a  mountain  in  the  north-western  part 
of  Judah. 

BA'ALiATH,  a  town  in  Dan,  Josh. 
19  : 4-1;  probably  the  same  that  was  for- 
tified by  Solomon.  1  Kgs.  9:18;  2  Chr. 
8 :  6.  Conder  proposes  to  identify  it 
with  the  ruin  BeVain,  in  Wady  Deir 
Ballot ;  Canon  Cook  suggests  it  may  be 
near  Mount  Baalah,  or  modern   Yebna. 

BA'ALATH-BE'ER  [lord  of  the 
well).     Josh.  19  :  8.     See  Bealoth. 

BAALBECS  OR  BAALBEK 
{h'dl'bek),  a  magnificent  city  of  Coele- 
Syria,  and  called  by  the  Greeks  Heli- 
opolis,  or  "  city  of  the  Sun."  It  is 
situated  in  a  plain  near  the  foot  of 
the  Anti-Libanus  range,  about  42  miles 
north-west  of  Damascus  and  3800  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Its  origin 
and  early  history  are  unknown.  It  is 
now  famous  for  its  colossal  ruins,  con- 


sisting chiefly  of  two  magnificent  tem- 
ples. The  lesser  of  the  two  was  225  feet 
in  length  by  120  feet  in  breadth ;  it 
was  surrounded  by  rows  of  immense 
columns,  45  feet  high,  standing  about  9 
feet  from  the  temple  walls,  the  dis- 
tance between  the  columns  being  from 
8  to  12  feet.  Robinson  counted  19  of 
these  columns  still  in  place  in  1852. 
The  larger  temple,  that  of  the  Sun, 
was  an  immense  structure,  324  feet  long, 
and  was  surrounded  by  a  peristyle  of 
54  vast  Corintliian  columns,  about  7  feet 
in  diameter,  and,  including  capital  and 
pedestal,  89  feet  high.  Over  these  Cor- 
inthian capitals  the  temple  was  border- 
ed with  a  frieze.  The  temples  were 
constructed  of  limestone  or  marble  and 
granite.  Some  of  the  stones  used  in  them 
are  64  feet  long  and  12  feet  thick.  The 
temjjle  of  the  Sun  was  built  by  Antoni- 
nus  Pius,   about  A.  D.  150. 

Baalbec  has  been  identified  by  some 


Columns  of  Great  Temple. 

Ruins  of  Baalbec. 

with  Baal-gad,  Josh.  11  :  17  ;  12  :  7  ;  13  : 
5  ;  by  others  with  Bnalath  or  Baal-ha- 
mon,  but  these  identifications  are  uncer- 
tain, and  the  last  is  very  improbable. 

BA'ALE  OF  JUDAH,  a  name 
of  Kirjath-ienrim.    See  Baalah.  1. 

BA'AIi-GAD  {troop  of  Baal),  the 
northern   limit  of  Joshua's   conquests, 


Temple  of  the  Sun. 
(From  Photographs.) 
Josh.  11 :  17  :  12  :  7  ;  13  :  5  :  probably  the 
modern  7?a«i'a.9  (Csesarea-Philippi,  Matt. 
16  :  13),  though  some  suppose  it  to  be  the 
famous  Baalbec. 

BA'AL-HA'MON  {imdtitnde  of 
Baal).  Cant.  8:11.  The  place  can  only 
be  conjectured  ;  some  identify  it  with 
Baalbec,  others  with   Balamon,  in   the 

89 


BAA 


BAB 


mountains  of  Ephraim,  north  of  Sa- 
maria. 

BA'AL-HA'ZOR  {Baal's  villaue), 

where  Absalom  killed  Amnon.  2  Sam. 
13  •  23 

BA'AL-HER'MON,  Jud.  3:3;  1 
Chr.  5  :  23  ;  one  of  the  three  peaks  of 
Mt.  Hermon,  or  perhaps  Suheibeh. 

BA'ALI  {my  lord)  occurs  in  Hos. 
2:16,  The  verse  retranslated  reads : 
"Thou  shalt  call  me  My  husband,  and 
shalt  no  more  call  me  My  Baal."  Baali 
is  used  in  a  twofold  sense :  first,  My  Baal, 
the  name  of  the  principal  god  of  the  Ca- 
naanites  ;  and  second,  My  lord,  a  usual 
name  for  husband.  The  idea  of  the 
verse  is  that  so  wholly  devoted  to  Je- 
hovah shall  Israel  be  that  she  will  not 
apply  to  him  even  a  word  which  sug- 
gests the  former  idolatry. 

BA'ALIM,  the  plural  form  of  Baal, 
which  see. 

BA'AJjIS  {son  of  exaltation),  a 
king  of  the  Ammonites.     Jer.  40 :  14. 

BA'AL-ME'OBT,  a  town  built  by 
the  Reubenites,  Num.  32  :  38  ;  1  Chr. 
5:8;  "a  glory"  of  the  Moabites,  Eze. 
25  :  9  ;  called  also  Beth-baal-meon, 
Josh.  13  :  17,  Beth-meon,  Jer.  48  :  23, 
and  perhaps  Beon,  Num.  32:3;  now 
called  Ma'in,  9  miles  south-west  of  Has- 
han,  where  extensive  ruins  are  still 
found. 

BA'AL-PER'AZIM  {lord  of  de- 
feats), a  place  in  the  valley  of  Rephaim, 
2  Sam.  5:20;  1  Chr.  14:11;  same  as 
Mount  Perazim,  near  the  valley  of  Gib- 
eon.     Isa,  28:21. 

BA'AL-SHAL'ISHA.  2  Kgs.  4: 
42.  The  English  Survey  proposed  to 
identify  it  with  Sirisia,  13  miles  north 
of  Lydda.     Conder  favors  Kefr  Thilth. 

BA'AL-TA'MAR  {lord  of  palm 
trees),  a  place  near  Gibeah,  Jud.  20 : 
33 ;  possibly  the  same  as  the  palm  tree 
of  Deborah,  Jud.  4  :  5,  and  known  later 
as  Beth-tamar. 

BA'AL-ZE'PHON.  Ex.  14:2; 
Num.  33  :  7.  A  place  near  the  head,  or 
on  the  western  shore,  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez 
where  the  Israelites  crossed  the  Red 
Sea.  Dr.  Ebers  identifies  it  with  Mount 
Atakah,  near  Suez ;  Dr.  Brugsch,  with 
less  probability,  proposes  Mount  Casi- 
us,  on  the  Mediterranean,  as  the  site  of 
Baal-zephon.  It  was  south  of  Migdol 
and  west  of  Suez. 

BA'ANA,  OR  BA'ANAH  (sou  of 
90 


affliction).  1.  One  of  the  sons  of  Rim- 
mon,  and  an  officer  in  the  army  of  Ish- 
bosheth,  Saul's  son.  In  company  with 
his  brother  Rechab,  he  entered  the 
house  of  Ish-bosheth  at  noonday  and 
stabbed  him  as  he  was  lying  upon  the 
bed.  Taking  the  head  of  their  victim 
with  them,  they  fled  to  David  at  He- 
bron, supposing  that  he  would  reward 
them  liberally,  but,  so  far  from  it,  he, 
indignant  at  their  cruel  and  coward- 
ly conduct,  caused  them  to  be  slain, 
their  hands  and  feet  to  be  cut  oflF,  and 
their  bodies  to  be  publicly  suspended 
over  the  pool  at  Hebron.  2  Sam.  4  : 
2,  5,  6,  9. 

2,  The  father  of  one  of  David's  war- 
riors.    2  Sam.  23  :  29  ;  1  Chr.  11 :  30. 

3,  4.  Two  of  Solomon's  ofiicers  for 
provision.     1  Kgs.  4  :  12,  16. 

5.  One  of  Zerubbabel's  company  on 
the  Return.     Ezr.  2:2;   Neh.  7  :  7. 

6.  The  father  of  a  repairer  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem.  Neh.  3  :  4.  Proba- 
bly also  mentioned  in  10  :  27  as  sealing 
the  covenant. 

BA'ARA  {brutish),  a  wife  of  Sha- 
haraim.  a  Benjamite.    1  Chr.  8  :  8. 

BAASE'IAH  {loork  of  Jehovah), 
a  Gershouite  Levite,  and  an  ancestor 
of  the  psalmist  Asaph.     1  Chr.  6  :  40, 

BA'ASHA  {valor),  son  of  Ahijah, 
of  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  third  king  of 
Israel,  and  founder  of  a  dynasty,  was 
probably  of  common  birth,  1  Kgs.  16 : 
2,  but  rose  to  the  throne  by  his  slaugh- 
ter of  Nadab,  king  of  Israel,  and  all 
his  family  while  the  king  was  besieg- 
ing Gibbethon,  a  city  of  the  Philis- 
tines. 1  Kgs.  15  :  27.  By  this  cruel 
act  he  undesignedly  fulfilled  the  proph- 
ecy respecting  Jeroboam's  posterity. 
1  Kgs.  14  :  10.  He  followed  in  the 
wicked  ways  of  Jeroboam,  and  was 
visited  with  the  most  fearful  judgments 
of  God.  The  warning  he  received  of 
the  consequences  of  his  conduct,  1  Kgs. 
16  :  1-5,  did  not  induce  him  to  forsake 
his  evil  courses.  He  attempted  to  for- 
tify Ramah,  but  was  stopped  by  the 
attack  of  Ben-hadad  at  Asa's  prompting, 
1  Kgs.  15  :  16-21 ;  2  Chr.  16  :  1-6.  He 
reigned  twenty-four  years,  b.  c.  953- 
930.  His  reign  was  filled  with  war 
and  treachery,  and  his  family  and 
relatives  were  cut  off  according  to 
the  prediction.  1  Kgs.  16:  3-11.  SeeAsA. 

BARBEL  {confusion),  a  city  found- 


BAB 


BAB 


ed  by  Nimrod  as  the  beginning  of  his 
kingdom,  Gen.  10  :  10 ;  built  on  the 
phiin  of  Shinar.     See  Babylon. 

BABEL,  TOWER  OF,  named 
only  once  in  the  Bible,  and  then  as  in- 
complete. Gen.  11 :  4,  5.  It  was  built 
in  the  plain  of  8hinar,  of  burnt  bricks, 
with  "slime"   (probably   bitumen)   for 


Birs  Nimrfld  Reconstructed.  (After  Layard.) 
mortar.  Jewish  traditions  and  early 
profane  writers  say  that  the  tower 
was  destroyed.  The  captive  Jews  at 
Babylon  imagined  they  recognized  it, 
however,  in  the  famous  temple  of  Be- 
lus,  which  some  would  identify  with 
the  temple  of  Nebo  at  Borsippa,  the 
modern  Birs  Nimrud.  Rawlinson 
thinks  that  Birs  Nim- 
rud cannot  be  identi- 
cal with  either  the 
temple  of  Belus  or 
the  tower  of  Babel, 
but  concedes  that  it 
may  be  used  to  show 
the  probable  form  of 
the  Babel  tower.  The 
Birs  Nimrud  is  one 
of  the  most  striking 
ruins  on  the  plain, 
and  is  6  miles  south- 
west of  Hillah,  on  the 
Euphrates.  This  im- 
mense mound  is  about 
2300  feet  in  circumfer- 
ence and  235  to  250 
feet  high,  and  was 
built  of  burnt  bricks, 
each  brick  being  12 
inches  square  and  4 
inches  thick.  Several 
of  them  bear  an  in- 
scription of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. The 
tower  is  represented 
as  in  the  form  of 
a  pyramid,  built  in 
seven  receding  stories,  each  placed 
upon  the  south-western  side  of  the  one 
below,  and  each  of  the  first  three  being 


26  feet  high,  each  of  the  last  four  being 
15  feet  high.  On  the  seventh  story 
was  a  temple  or  ark,  perhaps  with  a 
statue  of  the  god  Belus. 

George  Smith,  the  Assyriologist  (and 
the  Eticyv.lojiivdia  Britannica,  vol.  iii. 
p.  155,  ninth  edition,  adopts  Smith's 
view),  says,  '*  The  Birs  Nimrud  is  most 
probably  the  tower  of  Babel  of  the 
book  of  Genesis."  Mr.  Smith  describes 
another  ruin  called  Bahil  or  MvjeKibd 
as  the  one  which  in  his  view  covers 
the  site  of  the  temple  of  Belus,  and 
the  great  tower  of  Babylon  (not  Babel). 
Birs  Ni))irud  seems  to  have  been  a  tem- 
ple dedicated  to  the  heavenly  bodies, 
and  the  inscriptions  on  cylinders  found 
there  record  that  Nebuchadnezzar  re- 
built the  edifice  after  it  had  been  left 
unfinished  by  others.  Further  excava- 
tions may  solve  these  unsettled  ques- 
tions. See  Rawlinson's  Herodotus,  and 
George  Smith's  Assyrian  Discoveries, 
1875. 

BAB'YLON  (Greek form  of  ^afteO. 
the  noted  capital  of  the  Chaldaean  and. 


Plan  of  Babylon, 

showing  the  largest  extent,  as  given  by  Herodotus,  and  the  smaller,  quoted  by 

Ctesias,  with  the  ruins  according  to  Oppcrt. 

Babylonian  empires,  situated  on  both 
sides  of  the  Euphrates  river,  about  200 
miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Tigris, 

91 


BAB 


BAB 


300  miles  from  the  Persian  Grulf,  and 

about  60  miles  south-west  from  the 
modern  city  of  Bagdad.  The  valley  is 
broad,  and  the  Euphrates  is  now  about 
600  feet  wide  and  18  feet  deep  at  this 
place. 

Extent  of  the  City. — It  was  the  lar- 
gest known  ancient  city  in  extent. 
According  to  Hei'odotus,  the  city  was  a 
vast  square  on  both  sides  of  the  Euphra- 
tes, enclosed  by  a  double  line  of  walls, 
about  56  miles  in  circuit  and  including 
about  200  square  miles.  Ctesias  and 
others  make  the  circuit  about  42  miles, 
enclosing  about  106  square  miles.  The 
walls,  according  to  Herodotus,  were 
about  335  feet  high  and  75  feet  broad. 
Ctesias,  quoted  by  Diodorus,  states  that 
they  were  200  feet  high  and  built  by 
2,000,000  men.  Later  writers,  regard- 
ing these  measurements  as  incredible, 
give  the  circuit  of  the  walls  at  about  40 
miles,  their  height  at  75  to  190  feet,  and 
their  width  at  32  feet,  or  wide  enough 
to  allow  two  chariots  to  pass  each  other 
on  the  top.  M.  Oppert  and  Rawlin- 
son  as  explorers  hold  that  the  ruins 
warrant  the  statement  of  Herodotus  as  to 
the  extent  of  Babylon.  Its  size — if  200 
square  miles — largely  exceeded  that  of 
any  modern  city.  The  area  of  London 
is  122  square  miles  ;  Paris,  30  :  Pekin, 
50;  New  York  (1873),  42;  and  Phila- 
delphia, 129  square  miles.  The  wall  of 
Babylon  was  surmounted  by  250  towers, 
and  it  had  100  gates  of  brass.  Jer.  51 : 
68  ;  Isa.  45  :  2. 

Streets  and  Buildings. — Babylon  is  de- 
scribed as  cut  into  squares — some  say 
676 — by  straight  streets  crossing  each 
other  at  right  angles,  those  at  the  river 
being  closed  by  brazen  gates,  as  the 
banks  of  the  river  were  fortified  by  high 
walls;  the  river  was  crossed  by  draw- 
bridges and  lined  with  quays;  the  two 
palaces  on  opposite  sides  of  the  river 
were  connected  by  a  bridge,  and  also  by 
a  tunnel  under  the  river.  Among  the 
wonderful  buildings  were,  (1.)  Nebn- 
2hadnezznr's  Palace,  an  immense  pile 
of  buildings,  believed  to  be  nearly  6 
miles  in  circumference.  (2.)  The  Hang- 
ing-Gardens, one  of  the  Seven  Wonders 
of  the  world,  built  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
to  please  his  queen,  Amytis,  who  longed 
for  her  native  mountains.  These  gar- 
dens were  75  feet  high  and  covered  3^ 
acres,  enclosed  in  an  ai'ea  of  larger  ex- 
92 


tent,  some  say  1000  feet  on  each  side. 
Upon  this  mountain  was  soil  of  depth  to 
support  the  largest  trees,  and  water  was 
drawn  up  from  the  river  by  means  of  a 
screw.  (3).  The  Temple  of  Bel  us,  a  vast 
pyramid  or  tower,  600  feet  square,  hav- 
ing eight  stages,  or  stories,  and  accord- 
ing to  Rawlinson  480  feet  high,  with  a 
winding  ascent  passing  around  it,  and  a 
chapel  of  a  god  at  the  top. 

Scripture  History. — Babylon  is  named 
over  250  times  in  the  Bible.  It  was 
founded  by  Nimrod,  Gen.  10 :  10  ;  its 
builders  dispersed,  Gen.  11  :  9.  Then, 
except  some  allusion  to  Shinar,  Gen. 
14  :  1,  the  Chaldaeans,  Job  1 :  17,  and  the 
Babylonish  garment,  Josh.  7:21,  it  drops 
out  of  Scripture  history  until  the  era  of 
the  Captivity.  It  was  often  subject  to 
Assyria,  2  Chr.  33  :  11,  and  was  the  res- 
idence of  at  least  one  Assyrian  king. 
After  the  fall  of  Nineveh,  b.  c.  625,  it 
became  an  independent  kingdom,  and 
under  Nebuchadnezzar  was  enlarged, 
beautified,  and  reached  the  height  of  its 
magnificence.  See  Isa.  13:19;  14:4; 
47:5;  Jer.  51  :  41,  where  it  is  called 
"  the  glory  of  kingdoms,"  "  the  golden 
city,"  "  the  praise  of  the  whole  earth," 
etc.  It  was  the  home  of  the  chief  of  the 
captive  Jews,  Dan.l :  1-4,  and  was  taken 
by  the  army  of  Cyrus  under  Darius,  Dan. 
5.  Its  desolation  was  frequently  foretold. 
Isa.  13  :  4-22  ;  Jer.  25 :  12  ;  50 ':  2,  3 ;  51 ; 
Dan.  2  :  31-38  ;  Hab.  1  :  5-10.  It  was 
taken  by  Alexander  the  Great,  who  died 
there.  It  gradually  became  a  complete 
ruin,  fulfilling  the  prophecy,  Babylon 
"  shall  never  be  inhabited,  .  .  .  wild 
beasts  of  the  deserts  shall  lie  there." 

Buiiis. — Though  for  centuries  Babylon 
has  been  the  soui-ce  of  building-material 
for  the  towns  of  all  the  adjacent  region, 
yet  the  ruins  are  very  extensive,  cover- 
ing, according  to  Oppert,  200  square 
miles.  Among  them  are,  (1.)  The  Ba- 
bil  or  Mujelliha,  600  feet  square  and  140 
feet  high,  probably  the  site  of  the  an- 
cient temple  of  Belus.  The  mound  is 
mainly  built  of  sun-dried  brick  and 
filled  with  burnt  brick,  the  latter  bear- 
ing the  name  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 
(2.)  The  Kasr,  or  Nebuchadnezzar's 
palace,  south  of  Bahil,  about  2100  feet 
long  by  1800  feet  broad,  and  70  feet 
high.  It  is  composed  of  bricks,  tiles, 
and  fragments  of  stone.  Some  of  the 
bricks  are  glazed ;  others  resemble  fire- 


BAB 


BAB 


brick,  and  bear  the  name  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. (3.)  The  Amram,  a  hirge 
mound,  possibly   the    ruins    of  the   fa- 


Sculptured  Lion  over  a  Prostrate  Man.     {Dis- 
covered in  the  niins  of  Babylon  by  Rich.) 

mous  hanging  -  gardens,  though  more 
probably  a  palace  of  the  earlier  kings. 
See  Rawlinson's  Five  Ancient  Monar- 
chies, 1870,  ii.  532.  (4.)  Birs  Nimrud,  6 
miles  south-west  of  Hillah,  at  ancient 
Borsippa,  and  by  many  regarded  as 
covering  the  tower  of  Babel.  See 
Babel. 

Many  corroborations  of  Scripture  have 


Birs  Nimrud.    {After  PLumptre's  '^Biblical  Educator 

been  furnished  by  the  Assyrian  tablets  I 
deciphered  by  Oriental  scholars.     Near  | 


the  hanging-gardens  a  sculptured  lion 
standing  over  a  man  with  outstretched 
arms  may  illustrate  the  mode  of  punish- 
ment to  which  Daniel  was  condemned. 
Dan.  6:16. 

George  Smith,  after  a  careful  explora- 
tion, quite  decidedly  dissents  from  his- 
torians and  other  explorers  in  ascribing 
so  great  an  extent  to  Babylon.  In  his 
opinion,  there  is  no  ground  in  the  in- 
scriptions or  ruins  for  making  Babylon 
over  about  8  miles  in  circuit,  or  nearly 
the  same  size  as  its  sister-city,  Nineveli. 
He  regards  its  shape  as  a  square  with 
one  corner  cut  off.  At  the  north  was 
the  temple  of  Belus,  now  the  mound  lia- 
hil ;  about  the  centre  of  the  city  were 
the  palace  and  hanging-gardens,  botli 
now  rej)resented,  in  his  view,  by  the 
mound  Kasr,  as  he  places  the  gardens 
between  the  palace  and  the  river. 
George  Smith  concludes  that  the  few 
pits  and  tunnels  made  in  the  ruins  are 
acknowledged  to  be  insufficient  to  de- 
cide any  of  the  questions  as  to  sites, 
which  can  only  be  done  by  satisfactory 
excavations,  and  hence  that  the  "recov- 
er}'  of  Babylon  is  yet  to  be  accom- 
plished." Asuyrian  Discoveries, 
1875,  pp.  55-59. — The  modern  town 
of  Hillah  now  occupies  a  portion  of 
the  space  covered  by  the  ruins  of  an- 
cient Babylon,  and  a  telegraph  con- 
nects it  with  the  city  of  Bagdad.  See 
Chald^.a,  Assyria. 

BAB'YLON,  in  Rev.  14  :  8  :  16 : 
19  ;  17  :  5  ;  18  :  2,  21,  is  a  symbolical 
name  for  heathen  Rome,  which  took 
the  place  of  ancient  Babylon  as  a 
persecuting  power.  This  is  also  the 
sense  given  to  Babylon  in  1  Pet.  5: 
13  by  the  fathers  and  many  commen- 
tators ;  but  others  refer  it  to  Babylon 
in  Asia,  since  it  is  quite  possible  that 
Peter  labored  for  a  while  in  that  city, 
where  there  was  at  that  time  a  large 
Jewish  colony  ;  still  others  maintain 
that  Babylon  in  Egypt,  now  called 
01  fl   (\iiro.  is  meant. 

BABYLON,  PROVINCE 

OR  KINGDOM  OF,  the  country 

of  which    Babylon   was   the  capital. 

Dan.  2  :  1!)  ;  3  ;  1,  12,  30  ;  4  :  29,     Its 

boundaries  and  history  are  involved 

,     in  much  obscurity.    It  was  originally 

known  as  the  "  land  of  Shinar  "  and 

the  '•  land  of  Nimrod,"   Gen.  10  : 1 0  ;  Mic. 

5:6.    It  was  chiefly  between  the  p]uphra- 

93 


BAB 


BAB 


tes  and  Tigris  Rivers.  Asshur  or  Assyria 
and  Mesopotamia  were  on  the  north, Elam 
and  Media  on  the  east,  Chaldsea  on  the 
south.  As  Chaldffia  gained  in  power 
its  name  was  applied  to  the  whole 
country,  including  Babylon.  See  Chal- 
n^A.  The  early  kingdom  of  Babylon 
is  generally  regarded  as  covering  an 
extent  of  about  27,000  square  miles, 
rich  of  soil  and  abundant  in  resources, 
the  home  of  one  of  the  earliest  civilized 
nations.  After  the  time  of  Nimrod, 
Babel  or  Babylon  appears  to  be  dis- 
placed in  Scripture  history  by  Chaldgea 
until  the  time  of  Joshua,  Josh.  7  :  21  ; 
after  this  both  again  disappear  until 
about  the  time  of  the  Captivity.  At 
the  fall  of  Nineveh,  b.  c.  626,  Babylonia 
speedily  extended  its  sway  over  most 
of  western  Asia  and  Egypt,  and  under 
Nebuchadnezzar  became  a  vast  empire, 
lasting,  however,  less  than  a  century, 
and  fell  before  the  Medians  under 
Cyrus  and  Darius,  b.  c.  538,  and  soon 
after  dropped  out  of  history  as  a  separate 
country. 

General  History. — Berosus  gives  a  list 
of  ten  mythical  kings,  including  Xisi- 
thrus,  who  ruled  Babylonia  before  the 
Flood  ;  while  the  inscriptions  so  far  dis- 
covered on  the  tablets  and  monuments 
give  three  mythical  kings  before  the 
Flood,  and  four  after  it.  From  the  in- 
scriptions, long  lists  of  kings  during  the 
historical  period  have  also  been  deci- 
phered. The  earliest  list  of  twelve 
kings  in  this  period  begins  with  Izdu- 
bar,  who  is  identified  with  Nimrod  by 
George  Smith.  To  this  list  he  adds 
from  the  inscriptions  the  names  of  six 
viceroys,  six  kings  of  Ur,  five  kings  of 
Karrak,  six  of  Erech  and  Larsa,  five  of 
Akkad,  and  four  •  Elamite  kings  ;  and 
among  the  latter  is  Chedorlaomer  of 
Gen.  14  :  1-17.  Five  native  kings  were 
contemporary  with  these  Elamite  kings, 
and  twenty  other  kings  ruled  successively 
until  the  accession  of  an  Assyrian  dy- 
nasty in  B.  c.  1271.  The  last  list  given 
by  George  Smith  from  the  inscriptions 
covers  the  period  from  b.  c.  1150  to  539, 
and  includes  Sargon,  B.  c.  710,  Mero- 
dach-baladan  III.,  restored  B.  c.  705, 
Esarhaddon,  who  rebuilt  Babylon,  b.  c. 
681,  Assurbanipal,  b.  c.  648,  Nebuchad- 
nezzar III.,  the  Nebuchadnezzar  of 
Scripture,  B.  c.  605,  Amil-maruduk,  the 
Evil-merodach  of  the  Bible,  b.  c.  562, 
94 


and  Bel-sar-uzar,  the  Belshazzar  of  the 
book  of  Daniel,  and  who  reigned  with 
his  father  until  the  fall  of  the  Babylo- 
nian empire,  B.  c.  538.  It  is  not  certain 
how  far  back  the  records  of  Babylonia 
reach,  but  George  Smith  regards  it  as 
certain  that  they  reach  to  the  twenty- 
fourth  century  before  Christ,  and  some 
scholars  would  stretch  them  nearly  two 
thousand  years  beyond  that  early  period. 
The  civilization,  literature,  and  govern- 
ment found  in  Babylonia  two  thousand 
years  before  the  Christian  era  could  not 
have  sprung  up  in  a  day,  but  further 
explorations  only  can  determine  its  age. 
Among  the  biblical  cities  named  in  the 
earliest  inscriptions — those  of  Izdubar — 
are  Babylon,  Cuthah,  and  Erech,  thus 
adding  new  light  to  the  truth  of  Scrip- 
ture history.  See  George  Smith's  Assyr- 
ian Discoveries,  1875,  chap.  23. 

The  Babylonian  Empire. — Upon  the 
fall  of  Nineveh,  b.  c.  625,  the  Chaldaeans 
and  Babylonians  controlled  all  the 
southern  and  western  portions  of  the 
former  Assyrian  empire.  This  Baby- 
lonian empire  extended,  therefore,  over 
Susiana,  Elam,  Mesopotamia,  Syria 
including  Palestine  and  Phoenicia,  Idu- 
mtea,  northern  Arabia,  and  lower  Egypt. 
Among  the  important  cities  of  the  em- 
pire were  Babylon,  Borsippa,  Sippara 
or  Sepharvaim.  Isa.  36  :  19,  Cuthah,  2 
Kgs.  17  :  24,  Orchoe  or  Erech,  in  Baby- 
lonia ;  and  in  the  provinces,  Susa,  Car- 
chemish,  Harran,  Hamath,  Damascus, 
Jerusalem,  Tyre,  Sidon,  Ashdod,  Aske- 
lon,  and  Gaza.  Of  those  in  the  prov- 
inces, Susa  was  of  the  first  importance, 
and  may  be  regarded  as  the  second  city 
of  the  empire.  It  had  a  royal  palace, 
where  the  Babylonian  kings  spent  a 
portion  of  their  time,  Dan.  8  :  2,  doubt- 
less during  the  heat  of  summer.  The 
dominant  people  in  the  Babylonian  em- 
pire were,  according  to  Rawlinson  and 
others,  a  mixed  race,  mainly  descendants 
of  the  earlier  Chaldaeans  (who  were 
chiefly  Cushites),  mixed  with  those  of 
the  later  Assyrians,  who  were  of  the 
Semitic  type.  The  Babylonians  were 
celebrated  for  their  wisdom  and  learn- 
ing, Dan.  1:4;  Jer.  50  :  35  ;  Isa.  47  :  10, 
especially  for  their  knowledge  of  astron- 
omy. They  were  also  a  commercial, 
avaricious,  and  luxurious  people,  Hab. 
2:9;  Jer.  51  :  13  ;  Isa.  47  :  8,  though 
they  were  likewise  valorous   and  war- 


BAB 


BAG 


like.  Their  princes  were  proud  and 
boastful.  "Is  not  this  great  Babylon, 
that  I  have  built  ...  by  the  might  of 
mj  power,  and  for  the  honor  of  my 
majesty?''  was  the  boastful  speech  of  its 
greatest  king,  Nebuchadnezzar.  Dan. 
4 :  30. 

In  architecture,  sculpture,  science, 
philosophy,  astronomical  and  mathe- 
nuitical  knowledge,  and  in  learning  the 
Babylonians  made  original  investiga- 
tions and  discoveries  not  surpassed  by 
any  other  ancient  people.  "  To  Baby- 
lonia," says  (jr.  Rawlinson,  "far  more 
than  to  Egypt,  we  owe  the  art  and 
learning  of  the  Greeks." — Five  Ancient 
Monarchies,  iii.  76. 

In  religion  the  Babylonians  differed 
little  from  the  early  Chaldgeans.  Their 
chief  deities  were  Bel,  Merodach,  and 
Nebo.  The  names  of  these  gods  fre- 
quently apjjear  in  the  names  of  noted 
princes,  as  Bel-shazzar,  Nabo-polassar, 
Merodach  -  baladan,  Evil  -  merodach^ 
Abed-nebo  or  -nego.  Their  gods  were 
worshipped  with  great  pomp  and  mag- 
nificence. The  temples  erected  in  honor 
of  the  gods  and  devoted  to  their  wor- 
ship were  celebrated  for  their  vastness, 
and  for  the  massiveness  and  finish  of  their 
sculptures.  Of  the  precise  mode  of  their 
worship  little  is  known.  It  was  con- 
ducted by  priests,  through  whom  the 
worshippers  made  offerings,  often  of 
great  value,  and  sacrifices  of  oxen  and 
goats.  Images  of  the  gods  were  exhib- 
ited, probably  on  frames  or  sacred  ve- 
hicles, and,  as  some  suppose,  were  some- 
times set  up  in  a  public  place,  as  on  the 
plain  of  Dura,  Dan.  3:1;  but  late  in- 
vestigations indicate  that  the  image 
there  set  up  was  a  statue  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. See  on  this  text  Canon  Cook's 
Bible  Commenfnri/,  1876.  Some  of  the 
principal  temples  of  their  gods  noted  by 
Rawlinson  were  that  of  Bel  at  Babylon, 
another  of  the  same  god  at  Niffer,  one 
of  Beltis  at  Wnrha  or  Erech,  one  of  the 
Sun-god  at  Sippara  or  Sepharvaim,  and 
one  of  Nebo  at  Borsippa. 

The  empire  began  with  the  accession 
of  Nabo-polassar,  b.  c.  625:  was  in  its 
greatest  prosperity  during  the  reign  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  lasting  forty -four 
years,  to  b.  c.  561.  See  Nebttchadnkz- 
ZAR.  Under  the  less  able  rulers  who 
followed,  the  power  of  the  empire  de- 
clined, and  it  fell  a  comparatively  easy 


prey  to  the  Medo-Persians  under  Cyrus, 
b.  c.  538.  See  CHALByEA,  Assyria,  and 
Media.  For  sketch-map  see  Assyria, 
and  also  map  at  the  end  of  this  volume. 

BABYLO'NIANS.    Sec  Babylox. 

BABYLONISH  CAPTIV- 
ITY.    See  Captivity. 

BABYLO'IVISH  GAR'MENT, 
THE  (literally,  "garment  of  Shi- 
nar  "),  which  Achan  stole  at  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jericho,  JosL,  7  :21,  is  described 
by  Josephus  as  "  a  royal  mantle  all 
woven  with  gold."  But  no  accurate 
description  is  possible.  Babylon  was 
famous  for  the  products  of  the  loom. 

BA'CA  {weeping).  The  margin  reads 
"  mulberry  trees."  Ps.  84  :  6.  It  is  gen- 
erally supposed  to  refer  to  a  valley  near 
Jerusalem,  though  some  later  writers, 
as  Robinson  and  Hackett,  are  inclined 
to  regard  it  as  not  a  proper  name,  but 
a  figurative  "  valley  of  weeping." 

BACH'RITES,  the  family  of 
Becher  the  Ephraimite.  Num.  26  : 
35. 

BADGERS' SKINS.  Ex.  25:5; 
Eze.  16:10.  The  true  badger  is  rare, 
if  known,  in  Arabia.  It  is  believed 
that  the  skins  meant  were  those  of  such 
marine  animals  as  the  dolphin,  dugong, 
and  seal.  Dr.  Robinson  writes  :  "  The 
superior"  (of  the  convent  of  Mount 
Sinai)  "procured  for  me  a  pair  of  the 
sandals  usually  worn  by  the  Bedouin  of 
the  peninsula,  made  of  the  thick  skin 
of  a  fish  which  is  caught  in  the  Red 
Sea.  .  .  .  The  skin  is  clumsy  and  coarse, 
and  might  answer  very  well  for  the  ex- 
ternal covering  of  the  tabernacle  which 
was  constructed  at  Sinai,  but  would 
seem  hardly  a  fitting  material  for  the 
ornamental  sandals  belonging  to  the 
costly  attire  of  high-born  dames  in 
Palestine  described  by  the  prophet 
Ezekiel."  Tristram  adds:  "As  the 
fachafih  (badger)  probably  included  also 
the  seal,  the  sandals  of  the  Jewish 
women  may  have  been  of  that  material, 
and  so  also  may  have  been  the  covering 
of  the  tabernacle." 

BAG,  the  English  translation  of 
several  quite  different  words.  When 
used  in  connection  with  money,  it  means 
the  long  cone-like  receptacles  in  which 
coin  was  packed.  2  Kgs.  12:  10.  These 
were  made  of  various  sizes,  each  to  con- 
tain a  precise  amount  of  money.  We 
read   that  the  workmen  on  the  temple 

95 


BAH 


BAL 


were  paid  in  bags,  which  were  probably 
delivered  to  them  sealed.  At  this  day 
in  Eastern  nations  money  passes  in 
bags  from  hand  to  hand  under  the  seal 
of  a  banker  or  other  public  officer,  and 
without  counting,  as  it  is  paid  by  one 


Egyptian  Money-bags.     (After  Wilkinson.) 

to  another.  If  the  seal  is  genuine  and 
unbroken,  the  exact  value  of  each  bag 
is  known  at  sight.  The  shepherd's 
"bag"  which  David  had  was  probably 
one  in  which  the  young  lambs  unable 
to  walk  were  carried.  The  "  bag "  of 
Judas  was  probably  a  little  box,  John 
12  :  6  ;  13  :  29. 

BAHU'RIM  {warriors),  a  place 
not  far  from  Jerusalem,  2  Sam.  3  :  16  ; 
16:5;  17:18;  1  Kgs.  2:8;  probably 
east  of  Olivet,  toward  the  Jordan. 

BA'JITH  {house).  In  Isa.  15  :  2 
the  Hebrew  reads  "  the  bajith"  or  ''the 
temple ;"  probably  the  temple  of  Che- 
mosh. 

BAKBAK'KAR  [destruction  of  the 
mount(tin),  a  Levite.     1  Chr.  9:  15. 

BAK'BUK  (a  hottle).  Among  the 
Nethinim  who  returned  with  Zerubabbel 
are  mentioned  the  children  of  Bakbuk. 
Ezr.  2:51  :   Neh.  7:53. 

BAKBUKI'AH  {destruction  from 
Jehovah),  a  Levite,  Neh.  11 :  17  ;  12 :  9,  25. 


Ar:iliiaii   L;aUe-ij\  cii.     {  After  Siebuhr.) 

BAKE*     The    business    of    baking 
in  early  times  was    principally,  if  not 
96 


exclusively,  the  work  of  women.  Lev, 
26  :  26  ;  1  Sam.  8  :  13  ;  2  Sam.  13  :  8  ; 
Jer.  7  :  18.  In  Rome,  as  Pliny  tells 
us,  there  was  no  such  thing  as  a  pub- 
lic baker  for  580  years.  It  seems 
probable  from  Jer,  37  :  21  and  Hos. 
7 : 4-7  that  public  bakers  were  known 
in  their  day,  and  inhabited  a  partic- 
ular section  of  the  city  of  Jerusalem. 
See  Bread,  Oven. 

BA'LAAM  {glutton)  was  the  son 
of  Beor  or  Bosor,  and  a  native  of  Pe- 
thor,  a  village  of  Mesopotamia.  Num. 
22 :  5.  He  had  a  great  reputation  as 
a  prophet  or  soothsayer,  and  appears 
to  have  been  a  worshipper  of  the 
one  God,  coming  from  the  country 
of  Abraham,  where  it  is  in  every  way 
probable  that  remnants  of  the  prim- 
itive monotheism  existed  to  his  day. 
His  history  is  given  in  Num.  22, 
23,  24,  and  31.  So  great  was  his 
fame  that  Balak,  king  of  Moab,  sent 
for  him  to  curse  Israel  when  they  were 
encamped  upon  the  plains  of  Moab; 
but  he  consulted  God  during  the  night, 
and  the  next  morning  refused,  declar- 
ing the  Lord  had  not  given  him  leave. 
But  Balak  sent  again,  and  Balaam  at 
length  obtained  the  desired  permission 
to  go,  and  went.  It  was  on  this  jour- 
ney that  his  ass  spake.  Num.  22  : 
28.  Arriving,  he  ordered  Balak  to 
build  seven  altars,  and  to  offer  a  bullock 
and  a  ram  on  each.  Then,  proclaiming 
his  intention  of  speaking  only  what 
God  showed  unto  him,  he  twice  went 
aside  to  watch  for  an  augury.  God 
met  him  each  time  and  told  him  what 
to  say,  and  on  his  return  he  uttered  a 
blessing  instead  of  the  expected  curse. 
The  third  time  the  sacrifices  were  of- 
fered, but  Balaam  saw  that  it  pleased 
the  Lord  to  bless  Israel;  so,  without 
seeking  an  augury,  he  uttered  these 
magnificent  prophecies,  in  which  Is- 
rael's complete  supremacy  is  announced: 

"  How  goodly  are  thy  tents,  O  Jacob, 

Thy  tabei-nacles,  O  Israel ! 

As  valleys  are  tliey  spread  forth. 

As  gardens  by  the  river  side. 

As  lign  aloes  which  the  Lord  hath  planted. 

As  cedar  trees  beside  the  waters. 

He  shall  flow  with  water  from  his  buckets, 

And  his  seed  shall  be  in  many  waters, 

And  his  king  shall  be  higher  than  Agag, 

And  his  kingdom  shall  be  exalted. 

God,  he  bringeth  him  forth  out  of  Egypt ; 

He  hath  as  it  were  the  strength  of  a  butfixlo; 

He  shall  eat  up  the  nations  his  adversaries. 

And  shall  break  their  bones  in  pieces. 


BAL 


BAL 


And  smite  them  through  with  his  arrows. 
He  couched,  he  lay  down  as  a  lion, 
And  as  a  lioness,  who  shall  stir  him  up? 
Blessed  is  he  that  blesseth  thee. 
And  cursed  is  he  that  curseth  thee." 

Num.  24  : 5-9. 

And  again 

"  There  shall  come  forth  a  Star  out  of  Jacob, 
And  a  Sceptre  shall  rise  out  of  Israel, 
And  shall  smite  through  the  corneis  of  Moab, 
And  break  down  all  the  sons  of  tumult." 

Num.  24: 17. 

The  prophecies  of  Balaam  are  justly 
regarded  as  some  of  the  most  remark- 
able in  Scripture.  But  having  won  the 
anger  of  Balak  by  his  course,  and  feel- 
ing himself  cast  out  from  the  people 
of  God  by  reason  of  his  sinfulness,  he 
became  desperate,  and  endeavored  to  do 
as  much  immediate  harm  to  Israel  as 
he  could,  since  he  could  in  no  wise  in- 
jure her  future.  He  therefore  suggest- 
ed that  the  Moabites  destroy  the  purity 
of  Israel  by  seducing  the  people  into 
fornication  while  taking  part  in  the 
worship  of  Baal.  Num.  31  :  16;  cf. 
25:1-5.  They  did  so;  and  the  conse- 
quence was,  a  plague  broke  out  among 
the  Israelites  and  killed  24,000  of 
them.  Num.  25  :  9.  In  a  battle  fought 
by  Israel  with  the  Midianites,  Ba- 
laam was  slain.  Num.  31  :  8.  The 
phrase  "the  doctrine  of  Balaam,"  used 
in  Rev.  2 :  14,  refers  to  the  above-men- 
tioned sin. 

BAL 'AD  AN  (the  name  is  part  of  a 

sentence  meaning  " sent   the  son," 

the  name  of  the  god  to  be  substituted), 
the  father  of  Merodach-baladan,  king 
of  Babvlon.     2  Kgs.  20  :  12 ;  Isa.  39  : 1. 

BA'LAH.  Josh.  19  :  3.  A  shorter 
form  of  Baal  ah. 

B A'LiAK  {spoiler),  the  king  of  Moab 
who  hired  Balaam  to  curse  Israel.  Num. 
22-24  ;  Josh.  24  :  9  ;  Jud.  11 :  25  ;  Mic. 
6:5;  Rev.  2  :  14. 

BAL'ANCES.  Lev.  19  :  36.  In 
the  early  periods  of  the  world  gold  and 
silver  were  paid  by  weight,  so  that  per- 
sons employed  in  traffic  of  any  kind  car- 
ried with  them  a  pair  of  scales  or  bal- 
ances and  diiferent  weights  (generally 
stones  of  different  sizes)  in  a  pouch  or 
bag.  Dishonest  men  would  carry  two 
sorts  of  weights,  the  lighter  to  sell  with, 
and  the  other  to  buy  with.  This  explains 
the  allusions  Mic.  6:11;  Hos.  12  :  7. 

In  pictures  on  monuments  is  repre- 
sented a  balance  in  which  the  scales  are 
simply  a  pair  of  weights.  There  are 
7 


two   bags    of  money   which    are   to    be 
equalized,  one  of  which  is  a  standard. 


Egyptian  Balancer  weighing  Rings  of  Goldi 
{After  Wilkinson.) 

The  scribe  stands  by  to  register  the  re- 
sult. 

BALD'NESS,  when  voluntary,  was 
a  token  of  mourning  and  great  distress, 
Isa.  3  :  24;  Eze.  7  :  18,  or  else  showed 
the  conclusion  of  a  Nazarite's  vow. 
Num.  6  :  9.  Natural  baldness  seems  to 
have  been  uncommon.  "Bald  head" 
was  a  cry  of  contempt,  2  Kgs.  2  :  23,  be- 
cause it  was  generally  caused  by  lep- 
rosy. Lev.  13  :  40-43.  The  people,  and 
especially  the  priests,  were  forbidden  to 
make  themselves  bald,  since  this  was  a 
heathen  custom.  Lev.  21 :  5  ;  Deut.  14 : 
1;  Eze.  44:20. 

BALM.  Gen.  37  :  25.  One  of  the 
articles  of  merchandise  which  the  Ish- 
maelites  (to  whom  .Joseph  was  sold) 
were  carrying  from  Gilead  to  Egypt. 
It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  par- 
ticulars of  this  trading  company  or  car- 
avan, their  character,  course  of  travel 
and  freight,  though  referring  to  a  peri- 
od 1700  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
correspond  Avith  wonderful  accuracy  to 
those  of  similar  commercial  expeditions 
across  the  desert  at  the  present  day. 

The  balm  is  supposed  to  be  the  pro- 
duction of  the  balm-of-Gilead  tree  {Bal- 
samodendron  Gileadense),  which  grows 
about  12  or  14  feet  high,  with  diverging 
branches.  The  resin  which  it  produces 
is  exceedingly  odoriferous,  and  greatly 
esteemed  in  the  East  for  its  healing 
properties. 

It  was  once  an  important  article  of 
merchandise  among  the  Eastern  nations. 
Eze.  27  :  17.  Nothing  can  exceed  the 
eloquence  and  tenderness  of  the  lan- 
guage employed  by  the  prophet  Jere- 
miah to  express  his  grief  and   disap- 

97 


BAM 


BAN 


pointment  that  the  chosen  people  of 
God  {the  daughter  of  Zion)  should  re- 
main spiritually  wounded  and  diseased, 
when  there  was  a  healing  Balm  of  un- 
failing virtue  and  a  Physician  of  divine 
skill  to  administer  it,  and  both  within 


Balm. 

{Balsamodendron  Gileadense. 
Dr.  Birdwood.) 


After 


their  reach.  Jer.  8  :  22 ;  46  :  11  and 
61:8. 

BA'MAH  (high  place),  the  name  ap- 
plied to  idolatrous  places  of  worship. 
Eze.  20:29. 

BA'MOTH  (heights).    See  Bamoth- 

BAAL. 

BA'MOTH-BA'AL     {heights    of 
Baal),  a  place  in  Moab  given  to  Reu- 
ben, Josh.  13  :  17.     Conder  suggests-  el 
MaslUMyeh,  5  miles  south  of  j^febo. 
98 


BAND.  A  band  of  Roman  soldiers 
consisted  of  the  tenth  part  of  a  legion, 
called  a  "cohort;"  it  varied,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  legion,  from  400 
to  600  soldiers.  Matt.  27:27;  Acts  21: 
31,  and  elsewhere. 

BA'NI  {built).  1.  A 
Gadite,  one  of  David's 
warriors.    2  Sam.  23  :  36. 

2.  A  Judite.  1  Chr.  9  : 
4. 

3.  -The  names  of  seven 
others,  mostly  Levites. 
IChr.  6:46;  Ezr.  2:10; 
10 :  29,  34,  38 ;  Neh.  3  : 
17;  8:7;  9:4;  10:14; 
11 :  22. 

BANISHMENT. 
See  Punishment. 

BANK.  See  Money- 
changer. 

BANNER,  EN'- 
SIGN,  STAND'ARD 
are  translations  of  words 
used  indiscriminately  by 
the  sacred  writers.  A 
standard  pertained  to 
each  of  the  four  grand 
divisions  of  the  host  of 
Israel,  Num.  1  :  52, 
distinguished  from  the 
others  by  colors  and  by 
an  emblematic  device. 
Thus,  according  to  the 
rabbins,  the  device  of 
Judah  was  a  lion  ;  that 
of  Reuben  Was  a  man ; 
that  of  Ephraim,  an  ox ; 
of  Dan,  an  eagle.  An- 
other standard  for  sub- 
divisions, denoted  by  an- 
other word,  was  probably 
nothing  more  than  a 
common  spear  richly 
burnished  or  orna- 
(BalsamMonO^^^^^^^^  mented.      The  Egyptian 

princes  used  a  standard 
like  this,  surmounted  with  a  ball  of  gold. 
There  was  another  standard  in  use  among 
the  Jews,  which  is  called  a  beacon.  Isa. 
30  :  17.  It  was  stationary,  erected  on 
lofty  mountains,  and  used  as  a  rallying- 
token.  Comp.  Isa.  18  :  3  ;  62  :  10  ;  Jer. 
4:6,  21  ;  6:1;  51  :  12,  27.  None  of 
these  standards  were  flags. 

Some  writers  have  supposed  that  the 
ancient  Jewish  ensign  was  a  long  pole, 
on  the  top  of  which  was  a  grate  not  un- 


Balm. 


BAN 


BAP 


like  a  chaffing-dish,  made  of  iron  bars 
and  supplied  with  fire,  the  size,  height, 
and  shape  of  which  denoted  the  party  or 
company  to  whom  it  belonged.  This 
seems  rather  to  describe  the  night- 
torches  of  Eastern  encampments.  The 
shape,  etc.,  of  the  Roman  standards  are 
seen  under  the  article  Abomination. 

BAN'QUET.     See  Feast. 

BAP'^TISM,  an  ordinance  or  re- 
ligious rite  which  was  in  use  before 
Christ's  ministry  began,  but  which  he 
recognized,  and  which  was  continued  by 
his  disciples  as  a  Christian  ordinance. 
Matt.  28  :  19,  20  ;  Mark  16  :  16.  On 
the  due  administration  of  this  rite,  the 
use  of  water  in  the  name  of  the  Holy 
Trinity  becomes  the  sign  or  emblem  of 
inward  purification  from  sin  and  un- 
cleanness,  while  the  subject  of  the  rite 
is  introduced  into  a  peculiar  relation 
to  Christ  and  his  Church.  Baptism  is 
in  the  N.  T.  what  circumcision  was  in 
the  Old — a  sign  and  seal  of  the  cove- 
nant of  grace  whereby  God  promises 
forgiveness  of  sin  and  salvation,  and 
man  vows  obedience  and  devotion  to 
his  service.  See  Acts  2  :  41 ;  Rom.  6  :  3, 
4;  Gal.  3  :  27  J  1  Pet.  3  :  21.  It  was 
first  administered  on  the  day  of  Pente- 
cost. Christ  himself  did  not  baptize, 
John  4 : 2,  and  the  apostles  received 
instead  the  baptism  of  fire  and  the 
Holy  Ghost,  Acts  2.  In  the  case  of 
Cornelius  regeneration  preceded  water- 
baptism,  Acts  10  :  44-48  ;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  in  the  case  of  Simon  Ma- 
gus, water-baptism  was  not  accompa- 
nied or  followed  by  regeneration.  Acts 
8  :  13,  21-23.  Nevertheless,  God  is 
true  though  men  should  abuse  his  gifts 
and  turn  his  blessing  into  a  curse. 
The  controversy  between  Baptists  and 
Paedobaptists  refers  to  the  subjects  and 
to  the  mode  of  baptism.  The  former 
hold  that  adult  believers  only  are  to 
be  baptized,  and  that  immersion  is  the 
only  valid  mode  of  baptism ;  the  lat- 
ter maintain  that  children  of  believing 
parents  may  and  ought  to  be  baptized, 
and  that  baptism  may  be  administered 
by  sprinkling  and  pouring  as  well  as 
by  immersion. 

Baptism  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and 
WITH  Fire.  Matt.  3:11:  Luke  3 :  16.— 
The  phrase  is  figurative,  and  refers  to 
the  outpouring  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
upon  believers,  as  on  the  day  of  Pen- 


tecost especially,  but  often  since  in 
the  history  of  the  Church. 

Baptism  of  John  the  Baptist. — 
John  was  a  preacher  of  righteousness; 
his  baptism  was  significant  of  the  in- 
ward cleansing  which  followed  repent- 
ance, and  was  introductory  to  the  high- 
er baptism  instituted  by  Christ.  John 
said  to  his  disciples,  "  I  indeed  bap- 
tize you  with  water  unto  repentance : 
but  he  that  cometh  after  me  is  mightier 
than  I,  whose  shoes  I  am  not  worthy 
to  bear :  he  shall  baptize  you  with  the 
Holy  Ghost,  and  with  fire."  Matt.  3  : 
11.  He  demanded  faith  in  the  Mes- 
siah, sorrow  for  sin,  and  trust  in  God, 
as  prerequisites  for  the  administration 
of  the  rite,  which,  however,  differed 
from  Christian  baptism  in  that  it  im- 
plied no  belief  in  the  Trinity,  nor  was 
it  followed  by  the  gift  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  Those  who  had  received  John's 
baptism  were  rebaptized.  See  Acts  19  : 
1-6  ;  cf.  Matt.  3  ;  Acts  18  :  25,  26. 

Baptism  for  the  Dead. — There  is 
only  one  allusion  to  this  practice  in  the 
N.  T.,  in  1  Cor.  15  :  29  :  "  What  shall 
they  do  which  are  baptized  for  the 
dead,  if  the  dead  rise  not  at  all? 
why  are  they  then  baptized  for  the 
dead  ?"  Paul  evidently  speaks  of  a 
well-known  cei'emony.  Various  inter- 
pretations have  been  put  upon  the 
phrase.  It  is  simplest  to  say  with 
Meyer,  Paul  refers  to  the  belief  that 
a  living  Christian  could  be  baptized 
for  a  dead  Christian  who  was  unbap- 
tized,  and  the  latter  would  in  conse- 
quence be  accounted  baptized  and  have 
part  in  the  eternal  joys.  This  custom, 
abandoned  by  the  Church — a  proof 
that  it  was  condemned  by  the  leaders — 
was  kept  up  among  heretics,  such  as 
the  Cerinthians  and  Marcionites,  and 
is  practised  at  the  present  day  by  the 
Mormons  in  Utah.  Chrysostom  tells 
us  that  when  an  unbaptized  catechu- 
men died,  a  living  man  was  put  under 
the  bed  on  which  the  dead  body  lay. 
The  priest  then  asked  the  dead  man 
if  he  desired  baptism.  The  living 
man  answered  in  the  affirmative,  and 
was  baptized  in  place  of  the  dead. 
The  practice,  of  course,  was  supersti- 
tious, and  Paul  merely  uses  it  in  ar- 
gument, but  does  not  approve  of  it. 
Indeed,  his  use  of  the  third  person 
shows   that   the    notion   of    the    para- 

99 


BAR 


BAR 


mount  importance  of  baptism  which 
led  to  the  custom  was  condemned  by 
him. 

Other  interpretations  of  the  phrase 
have  been  given.  Thus,  "  If  the  dead 
rise  not,  then  baptism  could  have  no 
authority  and  no  use,  because  then 
Christ  did  not  rise."  Again,  "  Bap- 
tized when  death  is  close  at  hand." 
"  Over  the  graves  of  the  martyrs."  ''  If 
there  be  no  resurrection,  why  art  thou 
then  baptized  for  the  dead — i.  e.  for  the 
dead  bodies  ?  For  in  this  faith  thou 
art  baptized,  believing  in  the  resur- 
rection of  the  dead." 

BARAB'BAS  («o«  of  Abba),  a 
noted  criminal  at  Jerusalem  who  was 
in  confinement  for  sedition  and  mur- 
der when  Christ  was  condemned.  Matt. 
27  :  16.  It  was  the  custom  of  the  Ro- 
mans to  release  some  one  prisoner  at 
the  time  of  the  Jewish  Passover.  The 
Jews  were  permitted  to  name  any  one 
whose  release  they  desired  ;  and  when 
the  choice  lay  between  Barabbas  and 
Christ,  they  chose  the  robber.  Matt. 
27:21;  Mark  15:  6-11;  Luke  23  :  18  ; 
John  18:40;  Acts  3 :  U.  Pilate  was 
anxious  to  save  Christ,  but  at  last 
released  Barabbas. 

The  custom  is  said  to  have  prevailed 
among  the  Venetians  as  lately  as  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  centui-y  to 
release  a  prisoner  at  the  annual  com- 
memoration of  our  Saviour's  resurrec- 
tion. 

BAR'ACHEIi  {wJwm  God  hath 
blessed),  the  father  of  Elihu.  Job 
32  :  2    6. 

BARACHI'AH  (whom  Jehovah 
hath  blessed),  in  the  N.  T.  form,  Ba- 
rachaias.  Zech.  1:7;  Matt.  23  :  35.  See 
Berechiah. 

BA'RAK  (lightning)  was  the  son 
of  Abinoam,  and  was  distinguished  for 
his  share  in  the  conquest  of  Sisera  and 
the  deliverance  of  Israel  from  long  and 
severe  oppression.  A  history  of  the 
transaction  and  a  copy  of  their  sub- 
lime triumphal  song  are  given  in  Jud. 
4  and  5.  Barak's  date  cannot  be  de- 
termined, but  probably  he  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Shamgar.     See  Deborah. 

B  ARB A'RIAN.  This  term  is  used 
to  denote  any  one  who  was  not  a  Greek. 
In  its  scriptural  use  it  does  not  import 
any  rudeness  or  savageness  of  nature  or 
manners.  Acts  28  :  2,  4  and  Rom.  1 :  14. 
100 


BARHU'MITE.  2  Sam.  23  :  31. 
See  Bahurim. 

BARI'AH  (  fugitive),  one  of  Da- 
vid's posterity,     i  Chr.  3  :  22. 

BAR-JE'SUS  was  a  magician  who 
resided  with  Sergius  Paulus  at  Paphos, 
on  the  isle  of  Cyprus,  when  Paul  and 
Barnabas  were  there.  Acts  13  :  6.  He 
is  also  known  by  his  Arabic  designa- 
tion Elymas  the  Sage.  Sergius  Pau- 
lus was  an  officer  of  high  rank  under 
the  Roman  government,  and  was  anx- 
ious to  receive  religious  instruction 
from  the  two  missionaries.  But  Bar- 
jesus,  seeing  that  his  occupation  and 
influence  would  cease  wherever  the 
light  of  the  gospel  should  come,  op- 
posed himself  to  Paul  and  Barnabas, 
and  tried  to  dissuade  Paulus  from  giv- 
ing heed  to  their  preaching.  Paul 
gave  him  a  most  severe  reproof,  im- 
mediately after  which  the  wicked  man 
was  struck  with  temporary  blindness 
as  a  rebuke  from  God.  See  Sergius 
Paulus. 

BAR- JO'NA.     Matt.  16  :  17.     See 

BAR'KOS  (jMinter),  the  father  of 
some  of  the  returning  Nethinim.  Ezr. 
2  :  53  ;  Neh.  7  :  55. 

BARXEY.  Ex.  9:31.  A  well- 
known  species  of  grain  used  for  bread, 
Jud.  7:13;  John  6:9-13,  and  also  as 
food  for  horses  and  dromedaries.  1 
Kgs.  4  :  28.  Barley-harvest,  Ruth  1 :  22, 
usually  comes  in  April — earlier  at  Jeri- 
cho, later  on  the  hills.  It  precedes 
wheat-harvest  about  three  weeks  in 
Palestine  and  a  month  in  Egypt.  As 
human  food  barley  was  held  in  low 
estimation,  which  adds  significance  to 
the  connection  between  Gideon  and 
the  barley-cake  in  the  dream  which 
the  man  told  "  his  fellow."  Jud.  7  :  13. 
"  If  the  Midianites  were  accustomed 
in  their  extemporaneous  songs  to  call 
Gideon  and  his  band  '  eaters  vf  barley 
bread,'  as  their  successors,  the  haughty 
Bedouins,  often  do  to  ridicule  their  ene- 
mies, the  application  would  be  all  the 
more  natural." —  Thomson.  The  same 
fact  adds  force  to  Eze.  13  :  19,  and  elu- 
cidates Hos.  3  •  2  and  Num.  5  :  15. 

BAR'NABAS  [son  of  consolation), 
a  Levite  of  the  island  of  Cyprus,  and 
an  early  convert  to  the  Christian  faith. 
Acts  4  :  36.  His  original  name  was 
Joses,   but   he   derived   his   usual   title 


BAR 


BAS 


from  his  remarkable  powers  of  exhort- 
ing the  people  and  ministering  conso- 
lation to  the  afflicted.  Barnabas  was 
one  of  those  who  gave  up  all  their 
worldly  substance  and  all  their  strength 
and  influence  to  the  support  and  spread 
of  the  gospel.  He  introduced  Paul  to 
the  disciples  on  the  latter's  visit  to  Je- 
rusalem, three  years  after  his  conver- 
sion. Acts  9  :  27.  Afterward  he  brought 
Paul  from  Tarsus  to  Antioch,  and  they 
labored  for  two  years  together  with 
great  success.  Acts  11 :  25,  26.  They  at- 
tended together  the  council  of  Jerusalem. 
Acts  15  :  22  ;  Gal.  2  :  1.  Afterward  they 
separated,  and  Barnabas  went  on  an  in- 
dependent missionary-tour  with  Mark. 
Acts  15.  Some  ascribe  to  him  the  Epis- 
tle to  the  Hebrews.  We  have  under  his 
name  an  epistle,  which,  however,  is  of 
doubtful  genuineness. 

BAR'SABAS  {son  of  Saba),  the 
name  of  two  men. 

1.  Joseph  Barsabas,  surnamed  Jus- 
tus, was  one  of  the  two  candidates  for 
the  vacancy  in  the  apostleship  occa- 
sioned by  the  apostasy  of  Judas.  Acts 
1  :  23.  Some  identify  him  with  Joses 
Barnabas,  the  companion  of  Paul.  See 
preceding  article. 

2.  Judas  Barsabas.  Acts  15  :  22.  He 
was  appointed  to  accompany  Paul  and 
Barnabas  from  Jerusalem  to  Antioch  on 
an  important  embassy.  He  is  called 
one  of  *'the  chief  among  the  brethren," 
but  is  otherwise  unknown.  Some  com- 
mentators infer  from  the  surname  that 
he  was  a  brother  of  Joseph  Barsabas, 

BARTHOLOMEW  [son  of  Tol- 
mai)  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  person 
who  is  elsewhere  called  Nathanael.  This 
conjecture  rests  in  part  upon  the  fact 
that  Philip  and  Nathanael  are  associ- 
ated together  by  John,  and  in  the  par- 
allel ])assages  of  the  other  evangelists 
Philip  and  Bartholomew  are  associated  ; 
and  further,  that  Bartholomew  is  not 
mentioned  in  John's  list  of  the  twelve, 
nor  is  Nathanael  in  the  list  of  the  other 
evangelists.  It  is  therefore  in  every 
way  likely  that  he  bore  two  names,  as 
so  many  others  did.  We  know  nothing 
of  his  history  save  the  fact  of  his  con- 
version, John  1 :  45-51,  and  his  presence 
on  the  Lake  of  Tiberias  when  the  risen 
Lord  appeared  to  him  and  other  disci- 
ples.    John  21 : 2. 

BABTIME'US  (sou  of  Timeus),  a 


son  of  Timeus,  who  was  instantly  cured 
of  blindness  by  our  Saviour  in  the  vi- 
cinitv  of  Jericho.     Mark  10  :  46. 

BA'RUCH  (blessed).  1.  The  sec- 
retary of  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  was  of 
a  distinguished  Jewish  family.  Jcr. 
32  :  12.  His  friendship  for  Jeremiah 
was  strong  and  constant.  At  his  dic- 
tation Baruch  wrote  his  prophecies. 
These  he  read  before  the  princes,  who 
rehearsed  them  to  Jehoiakim,  the  king, 
having  previously  deposited  the  writing 
in  one  of  the  offices  of  the  temple.  The 
king  ordered  the  writing  to  be  read  in 
his  presence,  and  he  became  so  much 
exasperated  that  he  destroyed  the  manu- 
scripts and  gave  orders  to  arrest  both 
the  prophet  and  his  secretary,  but  they 
had  concealed  themselves.  Jehovah, 
however,  repeated  the  prophecies  to 
Jeremiah,  with  some  additions,  and  a 
second  time  did  Baruch  write  them 
down.  Baruch  was  falsely  accused  of 
influencing  Jeremiah  in  favor  of  the 
Chalda:;ans,  and  they  were  both  impris- 
oned until  the  capture  of  Jerusalem, 
B.  c.  586.  They  were  afterward  forced 
to  go  down  to  Egypt.  Jer.  43  :  6,  7. 

2.  The  name  of  three  other  persons, 
otherwise  unknown.  Neh.  3:20;  10  :  6 ; 
11  :  5. 

BARUCH,  BOOK  OF.     One  of 
the  Apocrypha  of  the  0.  T.,  of  uncertain 
date    and    authorship.      See    Jeremie, 
Epistle  of. 

BARZIL'LiAI  (of  iron,  i.  e.  strong) 
was  a  wealthy  Gileadite,  and  a  fast 
friend  of  David  when  he  was  in  exile  on 
account  of  Absalom's  revolt.  2  Sam.  17  : 
27.  After  the  rebellion  had  been  sup- 
pressed, Barzillai,  on  account  of  age,  and 
probably  also  from  natural  and  proper 
pride,  declined  David's  offer  to  be  a  resi- 
dent of  the  court,  but  proposed  his  son 
Chimham  should  go  instead.  2  Sam.  19  : 
31-40.  David,  in  his  final  charge  to  Solo- 
mon, enjoined  it  upon  him  to  show  kind- 
ness to  Barzillai's  family,  and  even  to 
make  them  members  of  the  royal  house- 
hold.    IKgs.  2:7. 

2.  The  Meholathite,  father-in-law  of 
Michal,  Saul's  daughter.     2  Sam.  21:8. 

3.  The  husband  of  a  daughter  of 
Barzillai  the  Gileadite,  whose  descend- 
ants returned  from  Babylon,  but  in 
vain  sought  admittance  to  the  priest- 
hood.    Ezr.  2:61;  Neh.  7  :  63,  64. 

BA'SHAN    {liyht   soil),   a   district 

101 


BAS 


BAS 


reaching  from  Hermon  to  Gilead  at  the 
river  Arnon,  and  from  the  Jordan  val- 
ley eastward  to  Salcah.  It  is  referred 
to  about  60  times  in  the  Bible. 

Physical  Features.  —  There  are  two 
ranges  of  mountains,  one  along  the 
Jord.an  valley,  about  3000  feet  high, 
another  irregular  range  on  the  east  side 
of  Bashan  ;  between  them  are  plains 
or  undulating  table-land  watered  by 
springs.  The  rock  of  basalt  on  the 
west  is  broken  into  deep  chasms  and 
jagged  projections  ;  the  hills  are  covered 
with  oak-forests,  as  in  former  times. 
Isa.  2:13;  Eze.  27  :  6  ;  Zech.  11  :  2. 
The  plain  of  the  Jaulan  (Golan  of 
Scripture)  is  a  vast  field  of  powdered 
lava  and  basalt,  a  fertile  pasture  to  this 
day.  The  north-eastern  portion  of 
Bashan,  including  the  Argob  of  Scrip- 
ture, is  a  wild  mass  of  basaltic  rock,  22 
miles  long  by  14  wide,  resembling  a 
"  Cyclopean  wall  in  ruins."  Fissures 
and  chasms  cut  it  like  a  network  and  it 
abounds  in  caves,  yet  has  much  fertile 
land.  The  centre  of  Bashan  was  mostly 
a  fertile  plain,  and  was  regarded  as  the 
richest  in  Syria. 

History. — Its  early  people  were  the 
giants  Rephaim.  Gen.  14  :  5.  Og,  its 
king,  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Israel^ 
Num.  21  :  33  ;  32  :  33,  and  the'  country 
divided  ;  its  pastures,  cattle,  sheep,  oaks, 
and  forests  were  famous.  Deut.  32  :  14  ; 
Ps.22:12;  Isa.  2:  13;  Jer.  50  :  19;  Eze. 
39  :  18.  After  the  Captivity  it  was  divi- 
ded into  four  provinces  :  (1)  Gaulanitis, 
or  modern  Jaulan  ;  (2)  Argob,  or  Trach- 
onitis,  now  Lejah  :  (3)  Auranitis,  now 
Haurau,  ;  (4)  Batansea.  Iturtea  was  not 
strictly  a  part  of  Bashan,  though  taken 
by  Israel.  Under  the  Roman  rule  the 
division  was  but  slightly  changed.  The 
country  is  now  nominally  under  Turk- 
ish rule,  but  is  really  held  by  tribes  of 
Arabs,  dangerous,  warlike,  and  unsub- 
dued. 

Ruins. — Bashan  is  almost  literally 
crowded  with  cities  and  villages,  now 
deserted  and  in  ruins,  corroborating 
the  account  in  Scripture.  Josh.  13  :  30. 
There  are  four  classes  of  dwellings  :  (1) 
the  natural  cavern  fitted  up  for  resi- 
dence. (2)  Long  tunnels  descending 
obliquely,  sometimes  150  feet,  at  thebdt- 
tom  of  which  run  out  a  number  of  pas- 
sages or  underground  streets,  16  to  23 
feet  wide,  lined  on  either  side  by  sub- 
102 


terranean  dwellings  furnished  with  air- 
holes in  the  ceilings,  each  generally 
having  only  one  outlet,  and  that  in  a 
rocky,  precipitous  slope.  (3)  Dwellings 
cut  in  the  rock  and  covered  over  with 
stone  vaulting;  not  all  of  these,  however, 
belong  to  early  biblical  times.  Deut. 
3  :  4-13.  (4)  The  villages  in  the  Hau- 
ran  consist  chiefly  of  dwellings  built 
of  handsome  well-hewn  stone,  closely 
jointed  without  cement.  Wood  was  no- 
where used.  The  gates,  doors,  and 
window-shutters  are  of  stone,  turning 
on  stone  hinges ;  the  roofs  are  also  of 
stone,  resting  on  supports  and  arches  of 
the  same  material.  Some  of  the  gate- 
ways are  ornamented  with  sculptured 
vines  and  bear  numerous  inscriptions 
yet  undeciphered,  while  within  are  stone 
cupboards,  benches,  and  candlesticks. 
Many  of  these  dwellings  belong  to  an 
age  since  the  beginning  of  the  Chris- 
tian era,  but,  though  deserted  for  cen- 
turies, seem  almost  as  if  the  occu- 
pants had  gone  out  only  for  a  few 
hours.  Porter's  views  on  their  antiqui- 
ty are  not  accepted.  Among  its  cities 
mentioned  in  Scripture  are  Golan,  Ash- 

TEROTH  KaRNAIM,  EdREI,  SaLCAH,  KeR- 

lOTH,  and  BozRAH.  See  these  titles,  and 
Porter's  Giant  Cities  (1865-6),  Merrill's 
East  of  Jordan  (1881),  and  Baedeker's 
Handbook  of  Syria  and  Palestine  (1876). 

B A  SHAN  -  HA'VOTH-  JA'IR 
(Bashan  of  the  villages  of  Jair),  the 
country  of  Argob,  in  Bashan,  Deut.  3 : 
14,  containing  60  great  cities,  and  called 
Havoth-jair.     Num.  32  :  41. 

BASiH'EMATH  (pleasing),  one 
of  Esau's  wives.  Gen.  26  :  34  ;  36  :  d, 
10,  13,  17. 


Assyrian  Basins.     {British  3Iuseum.) 

BA'SIN*   It  is  impossible  at  tbig  day 


BAS 


BAT 


to  tell  wherein  the  basins,  bowls,  and 
cups  so  often  mentioned  together  ex- 
actly differed,  but  the  basins  were 
probably  small.  "  The  '  basin  '  from 
which  Jesus  washed  his  disciples'  feet 
was  probably  larger  and  deeper  than 
the  hand-basin  for  sprinkling."  John 
13:5. 

BAS^KET.  The  word  is  the  uni- 
form term  by  which  several  pictur- 
esque Hebrew  terms  are  translated. 
The  context  will  generally  enable  us  to 
decide  not  only  on  the  probable  size  of 
the  "  basket,"  but  also  on  its  material. 
Thus,  that  mentioned  in  Jud.  6  :  19  must 
have  been  of  metal,  while  that  in  which 
Paul  was  let  down  from  the  wall  at 
Damascus  was  of  rope.  2  Cor.  11  :  33. 
Wicker  was,  however,  probably  the 
usual  material.  They  were  of  all  shapes, 
sizes,  and  for  all  purposes.  The  fact  is 
unfortunately  concealed  in  our  version 


Egyptian  Baskets.  {After  Wilkinson.) 
that  the  word  for  "  basket "  in  the  ac- 
count of  the  miracle  of  feeding  the  five 
thousand.  Matt.  14  :  20  ;  16:9;  Mark  6: 
43  ;  Luke  9:17;  John  6  :  13,  is  entirely 
different  from  that  similarly  translated 
in  the  miracle  of  feeding  the  four  thou- 
sand. Matt.  15  :  37  ;  Mark  8  :  8 — an  in- 
direct but  striking  proof  that  there  were 
two  miracles.  It  is  not,  however,  possi- 
ble to  tell  wherein  the  difference  con- 
sisted. 

BAS'MATH  {pleasing),  same  name 
as  Bashemath.  A  daughter  of  Solo- 
mon, and  wife  of  Ahimaaz,  one  of  his 
oflScers.     1  Kgs.  4:15. 

BAS'TARD.  Deut.  23  :  2  forbids 
for  ever  the  entrance  of  a  bastard  into 
the  congregation — /.  e,  "  from  intermar- 
rying with  pure  Hebrews."  But  since 
concubinage  was  tolerated,  the  term 
evidently  does  not  apply  to  one  born 
out  of  wedlock.  "The  Rabbins,  there- 
fore, are  probably  right  when  they  in- 
terpret the  word  as  denoting  only  those 
born  of  incest  or  adultery."  See  Con- 
cubine. 

BAT.  Lev.  11 :  19.  An  unclean  beast 
whose  resting-places  are  caves,  old  ruins, 


and  filthy  and  desolate  places.  Hence 
the  allusion  Isa.  2  :  20.  It  has  no  resem- 
blance to  a  bird  except  that  it  can  fly, 
but  the  organs  it  uses  for  this  purpose 
are  altogether  different  from  those  of  a 
bird. 

BATH.  See  Measttres. 
BATH,  BATHING.  In  Eastern 
lands  bathing  is  a  necessity  as  well  as  a 
luxury.  It  is  characteristic  of  the  Mo- 
saic cultus  that  it  enjoins  such  frequent 
washings  ;  e.  rj.  Lev.  14  :  8  ;  15  :  5  :  17  : 
15.  The  high  priest  on  the  day  of 
atonement  must  pay  particular  atten- 
tion to  this  regulation.  16  :  4,  24.  The 
Jews  bathed  in  running  water  or  in 
pools  in  courts.  It  was  not  until  their 
subjection  to  Greece  and  Rome  that 
public  baths  were  known.  Then  came 
in  also  the  luxurious  bathing-customs 
of  those  peoples. 

BATH'-KOL    (daughter,    voice). 
See  Prophecy. 

B  ATH'-RAB'BIM 
(daughter  of  many),  a  gate  of 
Heshbon,  near  which  were  pools. 
Song  Sol.  7  :4. 

BATH-SHE'BA  (daugh- 
ter of  the  oath),  the  daughter  of 
Eliam,  2  Sam.  11  :  3,  otherwise 
called  Ammiel,  1  Chr.  3  :  5,  Ahithophel's 
son,  2  Sam.  23  :  34.  She  became  the  wife 
of  Uriah,  an  officer  in  David's  army.  Her 
beauty  proved  a  snare  to  David,  for  he 
not  only  committed  adultery  with  her, 
but  treacherously  procured  the  death  of 
her  injured  husband.  2  Sam.  11.  The 
child  of  this  intercourse  died.  When  the 
days  of  mourning  were  accomplished, 
David  married  her,  and  she  afterward 
bore  him  three  sons  besides  Solomon. 
When  Adonijah  attempted  to  seize  the 
throne,  Bath-sheba  told  the  king  at  the 
instigation  of  Nathan.  1  Kgs.  1:15. 
It  was  to  her  as  queen-mother  that 
Adonijah  went  with  the  request  for  the 
hand  of  Abishag.  1  Kgs.  2  :  13-22.  See 
Adonijah. 

BATH'-SHU'A  (daughter  of  an 
oath),  a  variant  of  Bath-sheba;  used  in  1 
Chr.  3  :  5. 

BAT^TERING-RAM.  Eze.  4: 
2  and  21 :  22.  This  was  a  long  beam  of 
strong  wood,  usually  oak,  sometimes 
connected  with  a  carriage  or  framework 
of  heavy  timber.  One  end  was  shaped 
like  a  ram's  head,  which  when  driven  re- 
peatedly and  with   great  force  against 

103 


BAT 


BEA 


the  wall  of  a  city  or  fortification  either 
pierced  it  or  battered  it  down.  In  the 
tower  of  the  structure  in  which  the  bat- 
tering-ram was  hung  were  often  posted 


Aiicieut  Battering-ram. 

archers  and  slingers,  who  fired  at  the 
defenders  upon  the  walls  while  their 
comrades  were  pushing  the  ram  along  or 
working  it  against  the  walls.    See  War. 

BAT'TLE-AXE.     See  Armor. 

BAT'TLEMENT.  Deut.  22  :  8. 
A  wall,  parapet,  or  other  structure 
around  the  flat  roofs  of  Eastern  houses, 
designed  as  a  partition  from  an  adjoin- 
ing building  or  to  prevent  persons  from 
falling  off.  The  law  required  a  battle- 
ment to  be  built  upon  every  house.  It 
is  sometimes  used  in  a  more  extensive 
sense  to  denote  the  fortifications  of  a 
city.  Jer.  5:10.  A  traveller  says  that 
at  Aleppo,  where  the  houses  join  each 
other,  the  battlements  are  so  low  that 
he  could  walk  over  the  tops  of  a  dozen 
liouses  without  interruption.  See  Dwell- 
ing. 

BAV'AI,  one  who  helped  rebuild 
the  wall.     Neh.  3  :  18. 

BAY  TREE.  Ps.  37  :  35.  "It 
may  be  questioned  whether  any  partic- 
ular tree  is  intended  by  the  Psalmist ; 
but  if  so,  it  must  have  been  an  evergreen, 
and  may  possibly  be  the  sweet  bay 
{Laurns  nohilis),  which  is  a  native  of 
Palestine.  It  is  not  very  common,  but 
may  be  found  in  most  of  the  wooded 
104 


dells  of  northern  and  western  Pales- 
tine."—  Tristram.  The  leaves  of  the  bay 
are  much  like  those  of  the  American  moun- 
tain-laurel, but  are  fragrant  when  crush- 
ed, and  often  come  to  our 
market  packed  with  figs. 
BAZ'LITHjBAZ'- 
LiUTH  (rt  strippiiKj),  one 
whose  descendants  were 
among  the  Nethinim  who 
returned  with  Zerubbabel. 
Ezr.  2  :  52  :  Neh.  7  :  54. 

BDELLIUM.    Gen. 
2  :  12.    After  much  discus- 
sion, it  is  still  impossible 
to  say  whether  bdellium  is 
a  mineral,  an  animal  pro- 
duction (pearl),  or  a  vege- 
table exudation.     It  is 
probably    the   latter. 
There  is  a  gum  produced 
in  the  East  Indies  which 
has  the  same  name  and  is 
thought  by  many  to  be  the 
same   substance.       It   re- 
sembles   myrrh    in   color, 
and  is  of  a   bitter   taste. 
Num.  11 :  7. 
BEA'CON.     Isa.  30:17.     A  mark 
or  signal   erected  in  some  conspicuous 
place  for  direction  or  for  security  against 
danger.     See  Banners. 

BEALI'AH  {Jehovah  is  Baal,  i.  e. 
lord),  a  Benjamite  who  joined  David  at 
Ziklag.     1  Chr.  12:5. 

BE'ALOTH  {mistresses  ;  plur.  fem- 
inine form  of  Baal),  a  town  in  the  extreme 
south  of  Judah,  Josh.  15:24;  probably 
the  same  as  Baalath-beer,  19 : 8,  the 
modern   Kurmih. 

BEANS.  Eze.  4:9.  The  Eastern 
plant  ordinarily  thus  known  ( Vieia 
/aba)  is  quite  unlike  the  garden  or  field 
bean  of  the  United  States.  It  is  of  the 
same  family,  but  is  an  erect  annual  with 
a  stout  stem,  is  one  of  the  commonest 
field-crops  of  Europe  and  the  Orient, 
and  bears  in  its  pods  large  coarse  seeds 
which  are  fed  to  animals  and  much  eaten 
by  the  poorer  classes.  Kidney-beans 
are  now  sometimes  cultivated  in  Pales- 
tine. 

BEAR.  Prov.  17  :  12.  The  Syrian 
bear  seems  but  a  variety  of  the  brown 
bear  of  Europe  and  Asia,  though  it  is 
much  lighter  in  color.  Its  food  is  seeds, 
fruits,  and  roots,  to  which  it  occasionally 
adds  a  goat  or   sheep.     "  I  never  but 


BEA 


BEA 


once  saw  the  Syrian  bear  south  of  Her- 
mon ;  this  was  in' winter,  in  a  rugged 
ravine   near   the    Lake    of   Gennesaret. 


Syrian  Bear.     {After  Tristram.) 

When  we  visited  Hermon,  before  the 
snow  had  melted  from  the  top,  we  found 
the  snow-ridges  trodden  in  all  directions 
by  the  tracks  of  bears,  which  were  well 
known,  but  not  much  feared,  by  the 
shepherds  ;  and  we  also  saw  their  trace 
in  the  snow  on  Lebanon.  They  descend 
both  sides  of  Hermon  and  do  considerable 
damage  to  the  crops,  especially  the  len- 
tiles,  of  which  they  are  very  fond." — 
Tristrmn.  The  attachment  of  the  fe- 
male bear  to  her  young  is  very  great, 
and  nothing  enrages  her  so  much  as 
to  see  her  cubs  hurt  or  taken  from 
her.  Hence  the  allusions  2  Sam.  17  :  8  ; 
Hos.  13  :  8,  and  also  the  passage  above 
cited. 

BEARD.  Among  the  Jews  much 
attention  was  paid  to  the  beard.  To 
show     any     contempt     toward     it     by 


Fig.  1.  Egyptian  Bearda.     (After  Wilkinson.) 
Fio.  2.  Beards  of  Assyrian,  and  other  Nations. 
(After  Rosellini  and  Layard. ) 

plucking  it  or  touching  it,  except 
from  respect  or  courtesy,  was  esteemed 
a  gross  insult,  while  to  kiss  it  respect- 
fully and  afifectionately  was  regarded  as 


a  signal  mark  of  friendship.  Tearing 
out  the  beard,  cutting  it  entirely  oflF, 
and  neglecting  to  trim  and  dress  it 
were  all  expressions  of  deep  mourn- 
ing. Ezr.  9:3;  Isa.  15  :  2  ;  Jer.  41  :  5 
and  48  :  37. 

The  Arabs  and  Orientals  generally 
at  this  day  cherish  great  respect  for 
the  beard.  They  solemnly  swear  by 
it;  and  their  most  significant  and 
comprehensive  phrase  to  express  their 
good  wishes  for  a  friend  is,  "  May  God 
preserve  your  blessed  beard  !"  We  are 
told  of  an  Arab  who  was  wounded  in 
the  jaw,  and  chose  to  hazard  his  life 
rather  than  to  have  his  beard  cut  oflF 
that  the  surgeon  might  examine  the 
wound.  Hence  the  keenness  of  the  insult 
offered  to  David's  ambassadors.  2  Sam. 
10  :  4,  5.  The  Egyptians  were  accustom- 
ed to  shave  except  when  mourning,  the 
direct  opposite  to  the  Jewish  custom, 
but  they  wore  false  beards,  made  of 
plaited  hair  and  graduated  according 
to  rank.  The  prohibition,  Lev.  19  :  27, 
against  marring  the  "corners  of  the 
beard  "  refers  probably  to  the  Arabian 
custom  of  shaving  off  that  portion  of 
the  beard  upon  the  cheeks  on  a  line 
with  the  ears. 

BEAST.  Gen.  2  :  19.  This  word 
is  generally  used  to  distinguish  all  ani- 
mals from  man,  as  in  Ps.  36  :  6.  Some- 
times quadrupeds  only  are  denoted  by 
it,  as  Lev.  11 :  2  ;  and  in  Gen.  1 :  24,  25, 
it  is  supposed  to  refer  to  creatures  that 
roam  at  large.  Beasts  were  created  on 
the  sixth  day,  and  were  named  by 
Adam.  Paul  describes  some  of  his  op- 
posers  as  wild  beasts,  so  furious  and 
brutal  was  their  treatment  of  him,  1 
Cor.  15  :  32.  A  similar  application  will 
be  found  in  Ps.  22  :  12-16  ;  Eccl.  3  :  18  ; 
Isa.  11:6-8,  and  in  2  Pet.  2:12  and 
Jude  10,  to  denote  a  class  of  wicked 
men.  *' Wild  beasts  of  the  islands" 
Jer.  50  :  39,  etc.,  seem  to  be  jackals 
(literally,  "the  howlers,"  as  in  Ara- 
bic these  animals  are  called  "  the  sons 
of  howling").  "Wild  beasts  of  the 
desert"  probably  denote  such  crea- 
tures as  the  hyena. 

Under  the  ancient  dispensation  the 
beasts  were  sometimes  made  to  partici- 
pate externally  in  the  observance  of 
religious  ceremonies,  Jon.  3  :  7,  8,  and 
suffered,  with  men,  the  judgment  of 
God.     Ex.  9:6  and  13:15;  Ps.  135:8; 

105 


BEA 


BEE 


Jer.  7  :  20  and  21 : 6  ;  Eze.  32  :  13 ;  38  : 
20 ;  Hos.  4  :  3.  See  Clean  and  Un- 
clean. 

BEAT'EN  OIL.     See  Olive. 

BEAT  E]V  WORK.  Ex.  25:18. 
Not  cast,  but  wrought. 

BEB'AI  {})aternal),  the  ancestor  of 
some  who  came  back  with  Zerubbabel. 
Ezr.  2  :  11 ;  Neh.  7  :  16.  Later  on  some 
more  returned  with  Ezra.  Ezr.  8  :  11. 
Four  of  these  came  up  for  censure  as  the 
husbands  of  foreign  wives,  10  :  28  ;  but 
the  cognomen  was  attached  to  the  cove- 
nant.    Neh.  10 :  15. 

BE'CHER  {ijfmtli).  1.  One  of  Ben- 
jamin's sons.  Gen.  46  :  21 ;  1  Chr.  7  :  6,  8. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Ejihraim,  Num. 
26  :  35  ;  called  Bered  in  1  Chr.  7  :  20. 

BECHO'RATH  {first  bom),  one 
of  Saul's  ancestors.     1  Sam.  9  : 1. 

BED.  Gen.  47  :  31.  The  floors  of 
the  better  sort  of  Eastern  houses  were 
of  tile  or  plaster,  and  were  covered  with 
mats  or  cai'pets  ;  and  as  shoes  were  not 
worn  on  them  and  the  feet  were  washed, 
their  floors  seldom  required  sweeping  or 
scrubbing.  Matt.  12  :  11 ;  Luke  15  :  8. 
Thick,  coarse  mattresses  were  thrown 
down  at  night  to  sleep  upon.  The 
poorer  people  used  skins  for  the  same 
purpose.  Such  beds  were  easily  moved. 
Matt.  9  :  6.  On  two  or  three  sides  of  the 
room  was  a  bench,  generally  a  foot  high 
and  three  feet  broad,  covered  with  a 
stuffed  cushion.     This  bench,  called  the 


divan,  was  used  for  both  lying  and  sit- 
ting upon ;  but  at  one  end  of  the  room 
it  was  more  elevated,  and  this  was  the 
usual  place  of  sleeping.  2  Kgs.  1:4; 
20  :  2  ;  Ps.  132  :  3  ;  Am.  3  :  12.  But 
besides  the  divan,  we  find  mention  of 
bedsteads  made  of  wood,  ivory,  Am. 
106 


6:4,  or  other  materials.  Deut.  3  :  11. 
This  knowledge  of  the  construction  of 
Eastern  beds  relieves  of  difficulty  such 
passages  as  Ex.  8  :  3  j  2  Sam.  4  :  5-7 ; 
Ps.  6  :  6  ;  Mark  4  :  21. 

Some  part  of  the  day-clothing  usually 
served  for  bedclothes.  Ex.  22  :  26,  27  ,• 
Deut.  24: 12,  13.  The  Orientals  do  not 
generally  undress  before  lying  down  for 
the  night,  but  are  content  to  take  off  the 
upper  part  of  their  clothing  and  un- 
loose their  girdle. 

Bedsteads  were  used  by  the  ancient 
Egj'ptians,  as  we  know  from  the  monu- 
ments. They  also  used  wooden  pil- 
lows of  the  same  style  as  are  now  in 
use  in  Japan. 

The  pillow  of  the  Hebrews  was  proba- 
bly a  goat-skin  stuffed  with  some  soft  sub- 
stance, since  one  of  this  sort  is  common 
to-day  in  Palestine.  The  pillow  meant 
in  Mark  4  :  38  was  a  rower's  cushion.  It 
has  been  conjectured  that  Saul  and  Eli- 
jah may  have  used  their  skin  water- 
bottles,  "  a  cruse  of  water,"  for  the  pur- 
pose of  a  bolster.  1  Sam.  26  :  12  ;  1  Kgs. 
19 :  6,  margin. 

BE'DAD  {part),  the  father  of 
Hadad,  king  of  Edom.  Gen.  36:35;  1 
Chr.  1  :  46. 

BE'DAN  (servile).  1.  In  1  Sam. 
12 :  11  the  name  of  this  judge  stands 
between  Jerubbael,  or  Gideon,  and 
Jephthah,  but  probably  it  is  a  copyist's 
error  for  Barak,  as  several  of  the  ver- 
sions give  it.  The  difference  in  Hebrew 
is  not  great. 

2.  A  Manassite.     1  Chr.  7:17. 

BEDEI'AH  {servant  of  Jehovah), 
one  who  had  married  a  foreign  wife. 
Ezr.  10  :  35. 

BEE.  Deut.  1  :  44.  The  honey- 
bee is  probably  the  only  species  alluded 
to  in  the  Bible.  They  must  have  been 
very  numerous  in  Canaan,  as  honey  was 
a  common  article  of  food,  1  Kgs.  14  :  3  ; 
Ps.  81:16;  Song  Sol.  5:1;  Isa.  7  :  15, 
and  commerce.     Eze.  27  :  17. 

The  disposition  of  bees  to  take  ven- 
geance on  any  one  who  disturbs  their 
hive  is  alluded  to  in  Ps.  118 :  12. 

Isa.  7 :  18  doubtless  finds  its  explana- 
tion "  in  the  custom  of  the  people  in  the 
East  of  attracting  the  attention  of  any 
one  by  a  significant  hiss,  or  rather  hist." 
Zech.'lO:8. 

We  read,  Jud.  14  :  8,  that  "after  a 
time,"  probably  many  days,  Samson  r^- 


BEE 


BEE 


turned  to  the  carcass  of  the  lion  he  had 
slain,  and  saw  bees  and  honey  therein. 
"  If  any  one  here  represents  to  himself 
a  corrupt  and  putrid  carcass,  the  occur- 
rence ceases  to  have  any  true  similitude, 
for  it  is  well  known  that  in  these  coun- 
tries, at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  the 
heat  will  in  the  course  of  twenty-four 
hours  so  completely  dry  up  the  moist- 
ure of  dead  camels,  and  that,  without 
their  undergoing  decomposition,  their 
bodies  long  remain  like  mummies,  un- 
altered and  entirely  free  from  oifensive 
odor." — (Edi)innn. 

Wild  bees  often  deposited  their  honey 
in  hollow  trees  or  the  clefts  of  rocks.  Ps. 
81  :  16  ;  1  Sam.  14  :  25-27.     See  Honey. 

BEELI'ADA  {Baal  knows),  a  son 
of  David,  1  Chr.  14  :  7  ;  called  Eliada  in 
2  Sam.  5:  16;  1  Chr,  3:8. 

BEEL'ZE-  -   _ 

BUB.  The  name 
properly  should  be 
Beelzebnl  in  all  the 
N.  T.  passages. 
Matt.  10  :  25  ;  12  : 
24.  27  ;  Mark  3:22; 
Luke  11:15,  18,  19. 
But  this  is,  some  say, 
merely  because  to  the 
Greek  tongue  the  lat- 
ter form  was  easier. 
This  name  was  in 
common  use  among 
the  Jews  in  Christ's 
day  as  a  title  of  Sa- 
tan as  the  "prince 
of  the  demons."  It 
means  "  lord  of  the 
house."  Those  who 
regard  Beelzebul  as  a  -: 
corruption  of  Baal- 
zebub  {lord  of  flies), 

the  god  of  the  Ekron-  Well  at  Beer-sheba 
ites,  2  Kgs.  1  :  3,  worshipped  as  the 
patron  deity  of  medicine,  interpret  it 
''  lord  of  dung"  or  "filth,"  and  explain 
the  change  in  the  name  by  the  contempt 
of  the  .Jews. 

BE'ER  {well).  1.  Near  the  Arnon, 
Num.  21:16,18;    probably  Beer-elim. 

2.  A  town  in  Judah,  Jud.  9:21;  proba- 
bly el-Bireh,  10  miles  north  of  Jerusalem. 

BEE'RA  {a  icell),  an  Asherite.  1 
Chr.  7  :  37. 

BEE'RAH  {a  well),  a  Reubenitish 
prince  taken  captive  by  Tiglath-pileser, 
I  Chr.  $;6. 


BE'ER-E'LIM  {loell  of  heroes). 
Isa.  15  :  8.     See  Beeb,  1. 

BEE'RI  {the  well-man).  1.  The 
father  of  Judith,  one  of  Esau's  wives. 
Gen.  26 :  34. 

2.  The  father  of  Hosea  the  prophet. 
Hos.  1:1. 

BE'ER-L  AHAI'-ROI  {wellofthe 
liring),  a  fountain  in  the  wilderness, 
south-west  of  Beer-sheba,  Gen,  16  :  7, 
14;  24  :  62  ;  25  :  11 ;  perhaps  Muweileh  ; 
not  the  same  as  that  in  Gen.  21  :  19. 

BEE'ROTH  {wells),  one  of  four 
Hivite  cities.  Josh.  9:17;  now  el-Bireh, 
10  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  See  Bekr,  2. 

BEE'ROTH  OF  THE  CHIL- 
DREN OF  JAAKAN.  Deut.  10  :  6. 
Same  as  Bene-jaakan,  Num.  33  :  31; 
possibly  el-Mayin,  60  miles  west  of 
Mount  Hor. 


{From  Palmer's  "  Desert  of  the  Exodvs.") 

BE  ER-SHE'BA,   or  BEER'- 

SHEBA  {well  of  seven,  or  of  oath),  a 
city  on  the  southern  border  of  Canaan, 
25  miles  south-west  of  Hebron,  on  a  line 
between  the  uplands  and  the  desert.  It 
is  named  33  times  in  the  Bible;  only 
in  the  0.  T. 

History. — It  was  first  named  by  Abra- 
ham, Gen.  21 :  31-33,  who  lived  there, 
22  :  19  ;  was  re-named  by  Isaac,  Gen.  26 ; 
33,  and  was  then  a  city ;  visited  by  Jit- 
cob,  28:10;  46  :  1 ;  given  to  Judah, 
Josh.  15  :  28  ;  afterward  to  Simeon,  19  : 
2:  X  Chr.  4:28:  a  place  where  judges 

107 


BEE 


BEH 


held  court,  1  Sam.  8:2;  often  noted  as 
the  southern  limit  of  Canaan,  as  Dan 
was  the  northern — "  Dan  even  to  Beer- 
sheba,"  Jud.  20  :  1 ;  1  Sam,  3  :  20  ;  2  Sam. 
3:10;  17  :  11 ;  1  Kgs.  4  :  25  ;  1  Chr.  21 : 
2,  etc. ;  a  place  of  idolatrous  worship, 
Am.  5:5;  8  :  14 ;  was  peopled  after 
the  Captivity,  Neh.  11 :  30  ;  was  a  city  in 
Jerome's  time  ;  now  in  ruins,  but  retains 
its  ancient  name,  Bir-es-seha. 

Wells  and  Ruins. — There  are  two  large 
wells  300  feet  apart,  and  five  smaller 
ones  some  distance  down  the  valley. 
The  larger  of  the  two  chief  wells  is 
]2i  feet  in  diameter  and  38  to  45  feet 
deep  to  the  water,  16  feet  of  the  lower 
portion  being  dug  into  solid  rock,  and 
the  portion  above  this  rock  walled  up 
with  square  hewn  stones,  hard  as  mar- 
ble. The  ropes  of  water-drawers  for 
4000  years  have  worn  over  140  furrows 
in  the  face  of  the  stones,  some  of  them 

4  inches  deep.  The  second  well  is 
smaller,  being  only  about 

5  feet  in  diameter  and  42 
feet  deep.  Around  the 
wells  are  10  or  12  stone 
troughs,  of  oblong  and  ir- 
regular shape,  for  the  use 
of  cattle.  All  day  long 
Arab  herdsmen  and  wo- 
men are  drawing  water  in 
skins  to  fill  the  troughs, 
as  in  the  days  of  Abraham 
and  Isaac. 

BEESH'-TERAH 
{house  of  Astarte),  a  city 
of  Bashan,  Josh.  21  :  27 ; 
same  as  Ashtaroth,  1  Chr, 
6:71. 

BEETLE.    Lev.  11: 
21,  22.     Beetles  have  not 
"legs  above  their  feet  to 
leap  withal   upon    the 
earth,"    neither   are   they 
ever  eaten  by  man.     From  the  connec- 
tion, the  word  probably  indicates  an  in- 
sect of  the   Locust  family,   which   see. 
The   Egyptians   worshipped  the  beetle 
{scarnhxus)  as  a  symbol  of  fertility  and 
immortality. 

BEEVES.  Lev.  22:  19.  As  used  in 
the  Bible,  this  word  is  synonymous  with 
"cattle,"  in  its  modern  use.  As  they  di- 
vide the  hoof,  and  also  chew  the  cud,  they 
were  reckoned  among  clean  animals. 

BEG'GAR,    BEG'GIIVG.      The 
poor  among  the  Hebrews  were  much  fa- 
108 


vored.  They  were  allowed  to  glean  in 
the  fields,  and  to  gather  whatever  the 
land  produced  in  the  year  in  which  it 
was  not  tilled.  Lev.  19  :  10;  25  :  5,  6 ; 
Deut.  24  :  19.  They  were  also  invited  to 
feasts.  Deut.  14  :  29  and  26  :  12.  The  Is- 
raelite could  not  be  an  absolute  pauper. 
His  land  was  inalienable,  except  for  a 
certain  term,  when  it  reverted  to  him 
or  his  posterity.  And  if  this  resource 
were  insuflicient,  he  could  pledge  the 
services  of  himself  and  family  for  a 
valuable  sum.  Those  who  were  indi- 
gent through  bodily  infirmities  were 
usually  taken  care  of  by  their  kindred. 
A  beggar  was  sometimes  seen,  however, 
and  was  regarded  and  abhorred  as  a 
vagabond,  Ps.  109  :  10.  In  later 
times  they  were  accustomed,  it  would 
seem,  to  have  a  fixed  place  at  the 
corners  of  the  streets,  Mark  10  :  46,  or 
at  the  gates  of  the  temple,  Acts  3  :  2,  or 
of  private  houses.     Luke  16  :  20. 


Hippopotamus.    {After  Wood.    "Animal  Kingdom.") 

BEHEMOTH.  Job  40  :  15-24. 
The  word  elsewhere  translated  beasts — 
i.  e.  great  beasts — is  here  given  in  its 
Hebrew  form.  Evidently  this  is  right, 
for  Job  plainly  refers  to  a  beast  pre- 
eminently great.  The  animal  described 
as  the  behemoth  in  the  passage  above 
cited  was  of  prodigioiis  size  and 
strength,  and  corresponds  better  with 
the  river-horse  of  Africa  (Hijjpopota- 
mus  amphibms),  than  with  any  other 
known  animal.  It  is  very  probable 
that    this    creature,   though    not    now 


BEK 


BEL 


found  in  Palestine,  may  once  have  in- 
habited the  rivers  of  Western  Asia. 

The  avc)-a(/c  length  of  the  male  hip- 
popotamus (including  a  tail  about  1  foot 
long)  is  14  feet.  His  girth  is  nearly  the 
same,  and  his  height  at  the  shoulder  is 
5  or  6  feet.  The  huge,  uncouth  body  of 
the  animal  is  sujjported  by  short,  stout 
limbs  with  four  toes,  each  of  which  toes 
has  a  small  hoof.  The  aperture  of  his 
mouth  is  2  feet  broad,  and  his  tusks 
are  more  than  a  foot  long.  Cutting- 
teeth,  which  retain  their  sharpness  by 
the  same  wonderful  provision  seen  in 
the  squirrel,  enable  him  to  mow  as 
with  a  scythe  the  coarse,  tough  plants, 
aquatic  roots,  and  grasses  which  are 
his  food.  A  stomach  capable  of  con- 
taining 5  or  6  bushels  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter prepares  him  to  devour  enormous 
quantities  of  herbage  along  river-mar- 
gins and  prove  sadly  destructive  to 
neighboring  crops. 

Though  clumsy  on  the  land,  in  the 
water  the  movements  of  the  hippo- 
potamus are  often  graceful  and  rap- 
id. For  the  most  part,  he  loves  to 
lie  "in  the  covert  of  the  reeds  and 
fens,"  or  float  in  the  water  with  only 
his  nostrils  visible.  By  way  of  exer- 
cise, he  walks  at  the  bottom  of  the 
river  or  climbs  the  neighboring  hill- 
sides ("mountains"  of  the  Bible). 

"  The  old  commentators  have  made 
all  sorts  of  conjectures  on  the  behe- 
moth. Some  have  maintained  it  was 
the  elephant,  others  the  wild  buff'alo, 
others  the  mammoth  or  some  extinct 
pachyderm,  others  that  it  is  a  poet- 
ical description  of  these  large  crea- 
tures generally.  But  it  appears  clear 
that  the  description  suits  the  hippo- 
potamus exactly,  and  it  alone;  and 
this  description  has  been  adopted  by 
Bochart  and  most  modern  critics.  We 
know  from  the  Egyptian  monuments 
that  this  huge  animal  was  hunted 
with  spears ;  and  noting  its  place 
in  the  description  of  the  marvels  of 
creation  in  Job,  just  before  the  levia- 
than or  crocodile,  the  sequence  seems 
to  be  that,  powerful  and  terrible  as  is 
the  hippopotamus,  yet  it  may  some- 
times be  taken  with  spears  :  '  But  Avhat 
canst  thou  do  with  the  crocodile?  Will 
spears  and  barbs  avail  against  him  ?'  " — 

BE'KAH.     See  Measures. 


BEL.     See  Baal. 

BE'IjA  (a  swalloivincf  tip,  or  destruc- 
tion). 1.  A  king  of  Edom,  eight  gen- 
erations before  Saul.     Gen.  36  :  32,  33  ; 

1  Chr.  1  :  43,  44. 

2.  Benjamin's  eldest  son.  Num.  26  : 
38-40  ;  1  Chr.  7  :  6,  7 ;  8  : 1-3.  In  Gen. 
46  :  21  called  Belah. 

3.  A  Reubenite.     1  Chr.  5:8. 
BE'LiA  (stoallowiny,  or  destruction). 

Gen.  14:2,  8.     See  Zoah. 

BE'LAITES.  The  descendants 
of  Bela  are  so  called  in  Num.  26  :  38. 

BE'LIAL  {icortldcssness).  This 
word  is  applied  by  the  sacred  writers  to 
such  lewd,  profligate,  and  vile  persons 
as  seem  to  regard  neither  God  nor  man. 
Deut.  13  :  13  ;  Jud.  19  :  22,  and  1  Sam. 

2  :  12.  Hence  the  question  of  the  apos- 
tle, 2  Cor.  6  :  15,  to  the  citizens  of  Cor- 
inth, which  was  remarkable  for  its  lewd- 
ness and  profligacy,  has  great  force  : 
"  What  concord  hath  Christ  with  Be- 
lial," the  prince  of  licentiousness  and 
corruption  ? 

BELIEVE'.     See  Faith. 

BELL.  Bells  were  attached  to  the 
bottom  of  the  high  priest's  robe,  that 
he  might  be  heard  when  he  went  into  or 
came  out  of  the  holy  place.  Ex.  28  :  33, 
35.  Many  of  the  Eastern  kings  and 
nobles  wear  bells  in  the  same  manner  at 
this  day,  not  only  for  ornament,  but  to 
give  notice  of  their  approach.  The 
Arabian  ladies  in  the  royal  presence 
have  little  gold  bells  fastened  to  their 
legs,  necks,  and  elbows,  which  make  an 
agreeable  sound  when  they  dance.  The 
"  bells  of  the  horses "  mentioned  in 
Zech.  14  :  20  were  concave  or  flat  pieces 
of  brass,  still  used  in  the  East  as  orna- 
ments upon  animals. 

BEL'LOWS.  The  word  occurs 
once  only  in  the  Authorized  Version, 
Jer.  6  :  29,  but  the  article  must  have 
been  known  before  Moses's  day,  since 
without  them  smelting  ores  would  be 
impossible.  It  is  probable  that  the 
Jews  had  bellows  of  the  same  general 
appearance  as  the  Egyptians',  which 
are  thus  described  by  Wilkinson  :  "  They 
consisted  of  a  leather  bag  secured  and 
fitted  into  a  frame,  from  which  a  long 
pipe  extended  for  carrying  the  wind  to 
the  fire.  They  were  worked  by  the  feet, 
the  operator  standing  upon  them,  with 
one  under  each  foot,  and  pressing  them 
alternately  while  he  pulled  up  each  ex- 

109 


BEL 


BEN 


hausted  skin  with  a  string  he  held  in 
his  hand."  The  modern  Palestinian 
bellows  are  even  simpler,  being  a  mere 
skin  bag  having  a  pipe  fastened  at  one 


Egyptian  Bellows.     (After  CaiUiard.) 

end :  it  is  pressed  between  two  boards, 
and  thus  the  air  expelled. 

BELSHAZ'ZAR  (Bel's  pHuce,  or 
may  Bel  protect  the  king  !)  was  the  son  or 
grandson  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  the 
last  king  of  Babylon.  Dan.  5: 1,18.  Dur- 
ing the  siege  of  the  city  of  Babylon  he 
gave  a  sumptuous  entertainment  to  his 
courtiers,  and  impiously  made  use  of 
the  temple-furniture  (of  which  Nebu- 
chadnezzar had  plundered  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem)  as  drinking-vessels.  In  the 
midst  of  the  festivities,  to  the  terror  of 
the  king,  a  hand  miraculously  appeared 
to  be  writing  upon  the  wall :  Mene, 
Mene,  Tekel,  Upharsin.  Daniel  was 
called  in  to  explain  the  mystery,  which, 
thus  interpreted,  proved  to  be  a  proph- 
ecy of  the  king's  death  and  the  king- 
dom's overthrow,  which  took  place  in 
the  course  of  the  succeeding  night,  when 
Darius  the  Median  captured  the  city. 
Dan.  6:25-31. 

BELTESHAZ'ZAR(5ers2jmice, 
ar  Bel  j)>'otect  his  life  !),  the  name  given 
to  the  prophet  Daniel  at  the  court  of 
Nebuchadnezzar.  Dan.  1 :  7.  See  Dan- 
iel. 

BEN  {son),  a  porter,  a  Levite,  in 
David's  time.     1  Chr.  15: 18. 

BENA'IAH  {whom  Jehovah  hath 
built  up).  1.  Son  of  Jehoiada,  the  chief 
priest,  and  distinguished  for  his  enter- 
prise and  bravery  on  several  occasions. 
2  Sam.  23  :  20-23.  He  was  an  adherent 
of  Solomon  against  the  pretensions  of 
Adonijah,  1  Kgs.  1 :  36,  and  after  put- 
ting Joab  to  death  succeeded  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  army.  1  Kgs.  2  :  29-35. 
110 


2.  One  of  David's  warriors.  2  Sam. 
23  :  30  ;  1  Chr.  11  :  31  ;  27  :  14. 

3.  A  Simeonite  chief.     1  Chr.  4 :  36. 

4.  A  musical  Levite  in  David's  day. 
1  Chr.  15  :  18,  20  ,:  16  :  5. 

5.  A  priest  in  David's  reign.  1  Chr. 
15:24;  16:6. 

6.  A  Levite.     2  Chr.  20  :  14. 

7.  A  Levite  in  Hezekiah's  day.  2  Chr. 
31:13. 

8.  9,  10,  11.  Four  persons  who  had 
foreign  wives.     Ezr.  10  :  25,  30,  35,  43. 

12.  The  father  of  Pelatiah.  Eze.  11 : 
1,  13. 

BEN-AM'MI  {son  of  my  people), 
the  son  of  Lot  by  his  youngest  daughter, 
and  the  progenitor  of  the  Ammonites. 
Gen.  19 :  38. 

BEN'E-BE'RAK  {son  of  light- 
ning), a  city  of  Dan,  Josh.  19  :  45,  prob- 
ably Ibn  Ibrak,  near  el-  Yehudizeh. 

BENEFACTORS  was  a  title 
given  to  several  rulers,  particularly 
to  two  of  the  Egyptian  Ptolemies,  who 
are  called  accordingly  in  the  Greek  form 
Euergetes.  Hence  our  Lord's  remark, 
Luke  22  :  25.  It  is  analogous  to  our 
title  "  Excellency." 

BEN'E-JA^AKAN  {children  of 
Jaakan),  a  tribe  probably  descended 
from  a  grandson  of  Seir  the  Horite,  and 
which  gave  a  name  to  wells  where  Is- 
rael encamped.  Num.  33  :  31,  32  ;  same 
as  Beeroth,  and  as  the  wells  at  el- 
Mayin,  60  miles  west  of  Mount  Hor. 

BEN-HA'DAD  {son,  i.  e.  worship- 
per, of  Hadad).  1.  King  of  Damas- 
cus in  the  time  of  Asa,  king  of  Judah, 
with  whom  he  formed  an  alliance 
against  Baasha,  king  of  Israel.  1  Kgs. 
15  :  18.    See  Asa,  Baasha. 

2.  King  of  Damascus,  and  a  son  of 
the  preceding.  1  Kgs.  20  : 1.  He  was 
engaged  in  numerous  wars  with  Israel, 
and  once  was  taken  prisoner.  1  Kgs. 
20.  See  Ahab.  Afterward  he  declared 
war  against  Jehorara,  king  of  Israel, 
but  the  prophet  Elisha  disclosed  his 
plans  so  accurately  that  Jehoram  was 
able  to  defeat  them.  2  Kgs.  6  :  8-33. 
It  was  Ben-hadad  who  sent  Naaman  to 
Elisha.  2  Kgs.  5.     See  Elisha. 

In  the  siege  of  Samaria,  which  sub- 
sequently took  place,  that  city  was 
reduced  to  the  greatest  extremity. 
The  Syrian  army,  under  Ben-hadad, 
was  lying  around  the  walls,  when  in 
the  course  of  the  night  they  were  led  to 


BEN 


BEE 


conceive  that  they  heard  the  noise  of  an 
immense  army  in  motion.  Supposing 
that  the  city  had  been  succored  by 
supplies  of  men  and  provisions  from 
abroad,  and  terrified  with  the  fancied 
tumult  of  their  apj)roach,  the  Syrians 
just  at  daybreak  tied  for  their  lives, 
leaving  their  camp,  with  all  their  horses, 
asses,  provisions,  utensils,  etc.,  just  as 
they  were,  and  their  garments  and  ves- 
sels scattered  all  along  the  road  by 
which  they  had  fled.  The  citizens  of 
Samaria  were  thus  unexpectedly  relieved 
and  supplied  with  an  abundance  of 
food. 

The  next  year,  Ben-hadad,  being  sick, 
sent  Hazael  to  inquire  of  the  prophet 
Elisha  whether  he  would  recover ;  and 
he  received  for  answer  that  the  king 
might  certainly  recover,  and  yet  would 
surely  die.  Hazael  also  was  informed 
by  the  prophet  that  he  would  be  ele- 
vated to  the  throne  of  Syria,  and  would 
be  guilty  of  enormous  wickedness.  The 
very  next  day  Ben-hadad  was  murdered, 
and  Hazael  became  king  of  Syria.  2 
Kgs.  8:15.     See  Hazael. 

Various  successful  campaigns  against 
Ben-hadad  II.  are  mentioned  upon  the 
tablets  of  the  Assyrian  king,  Shalma- 
neser  II.,  b.  c.  858-823.  Ben-hadad,  who 
is  called  Ben-hadar,  was  in  league  with 
Ahab  when  the  first  campaign  took 
place,  as  the  Bible  says.   1  Kgs.  20:  34. 

3.  Another  person  of  the  same  name, 
and  son  of  Hazael.  2  Kgs.  13:3,  He 
suffered  several  defeats  from  the  hand 
of  Jehoash,  king  of  Israel,  and  was 
compelled  to  relinquish  all  the  land  of 
Israel  which  his  father,  Hazael,  had 
obtained  in  conquest.     2  Kgs.  13  :  25. 

BEN'-HA'IL  {son  of  the  host,  i.  e. 
i-arrior),  one  of  the  *' princes"  whom 
Jehoshaphat  sent  to  teach  the  people 
the  law.     2  Chr.  17  :  7. 

BEN'-HA'NAN  (son  of  one  gra- 
cious), a  Judite.     1  Chr.  4:20. 

BEN'INU  {our  son),  a  Levite  who 
sealed  the  covenant.     Neh.  10  :  13. 

BEN'- JAMIN  {son  of  the  right  hand, 
i.  e,  of  fortune).  1.  The  youngest  son  of 
Jacob  and  Rachel.  His  mother  died  im- 
mediately after  his  birth,  which  took 
place  near  Bethlehem  when  the  family 
were  on  their  journey  from  Padan-aram 
to  Canaan,  With  her  dying  breath  she 
called  him  Ben-oni  {the  son  of  my  sor- 
row), but  his  father  gave  him  the  name 


he  bore.  Gen,  35  :  16-18.  The  relation 
between  him  and  Jacob  was  ever  most 
tender,  ])articularly  after  Joseph's  sup- 
posed death.  We  know,  however,  noth- 
ing about  him  personally.  The  tribe 
formed  from  his  descendants  exhibited 
the  traits  of  courage,  cunning,  and  am- 
bition foretold  by  the  dying  Jacob.  Gen. 
49  :  27.  It  had  its  portion  of  the 
Promised  Land  adjoining  Judah  ;  and 
when  ten  of  the  tribes  revolted,  Benja- 
min continued  steadfast  in  its  attach- 
ment to  Judah,  and  formed  a  part  of 
that  kingdom.  1  Kgs.  12  :  17,  23.  Saul, 
the  first  king,  and  Paul  were  descendants 
of  this  tribe.    1  Sam.  10  :  21 ;  Phil.  3  :  5. 

2.  A  Benjamite  chief.     1  Chr,  7:10. 

3,  One  who  had  a  foreign  wife.  Ezr. 
10:32. 

BEN'JAMIN  {son  of  the  right  hand), 
LAND  OF,  the  portion  of  Canaan 
between  Ephraim,  the  Jordan,  Judah, 
and  Dan,  containing  26  cities,  including 
Jerusalem  and  the  famous  passes  of 
Michmash  and  Beth-horon.  See  Josh. 
18  :  11-28.  It  was  about  25  miles  long 
by  12  wide. 

Physical  Features.  —  This  territory 
was  a  hilly  country,  its  general  level  be- 
ing about  2000  feet  above  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  3000  feet  above  the  Jordan 
valley.  It  includes  mountains  broken 
by  deep  ravines.  For  productions,  etc., 
see  Canaan,  Palestine,  and  Judah. 

Some  of  the  most  important  events 
in  Scripture  history  took  place  in  this 
territory,  which  will  be  noticed  under 
the  kings  of  Judah. 

BE'NO  {his  son),  a  Levite.  1  Chr. 
24 :  26    27. 

BEN-b'NI.     See  Benjamin. 

BEN-ZO'HETH  {son  of  Zoheth), 
a  descendant  of  Judah.     1  Chr.  4:20. 

BE'ON.  Num.  32:3.  See  Baal- 
Meon. 

BE'OR  {torch).  1.  The  father  of 
Bela,  king  of  Edom.  Gen.  36  :  32  j  1 
Chr.  1:43. 

2.  The  father  of  Balaam,  Num.  22 : 
5,  etc. :  called  Bosor  in  2  Pet.  2:15. 

BE'RA  {son  of  evil  ),  king  of 
Sodom.     Gen.  14:2. 

BER'ACHAH  {blessing),  a  Ben- 
iamite  leader  who  joined  David.  1 
Chr.  12  : 3. 

BER'ACHAH,  {blessing),  VAL- 
LEY OF,  where  Jehoshaphat  cele- 
brated  the  victory   over  the   Moabites, 

111 


BER 


BES 


2  Chr.  20  :  26  ;  now  Wady  Breikdt, 
west  of  Tekua  (Tekoa),  and  about  8 
miles  south-west  of  Bethlehem. 

BERACHI'AH  {whom  Jehovah 
hath  blessed),  the  father  of  Asaph.  1 
Chr.  6:39. 

BERAl'AH  {whom  Jehovah  cre- 
ated), a  Benjamite  chief.     1  Chr.  8  :  21. 

B£RE'A,  a  city  of  Macedonia, 
Acts  17 :  10-13,  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Olympian  Mountains  ;  now  Verriu, 
with  a  population  of  about  6000,  though 
some  incorrectly  give  20,000. 

BERECHI'AH  {whom  Jehovah 
hath  blessed).  1.  One  of  David's  pos- 
terity.    1  Chr.  3  :  20. 

2.  A  Levite.     1  Chr.  9  :  16. 

3.  The  father  of  Asaph,  also  called 
Berachiah.     1  Chr.  15  :  17. 

4.  A  doorkeeper  for  the  ark.     1  Chr. 

15  :  23. 

5.  An  Ephraimite  in  the  days  of 
Ahaz.     2  Chr.  28  :  12. 

6.  The  father  of  a  builder  of  the  wall. 
Neh.  3  :  4,  30  ;  6  :  18. 

7.  The  father  of  Zechariah.  Zech. 
1 :  1,  7. 

BE'RED  {hail),  a  place  in  southern 
Palestine,  near  the  well  Lahai-roi.    Gen. 

16  :  14.  Grove  suggests  El-Khulasah, 
12  miles  south  of  Beer-sheba;  Conder 
proposes  Dereid. 

BERENI'CE.     See  Bernice. 

BE''RI  {well),  an  Asherite  chieftain. 
1  Chr.  7  :  36. 

BERI'AH  {in  evil,  or  a  gift).  1. 
A  son  of  Asher.  Gen.  46  :  17  ;  Num. 
26  :  44,  45  ;  1  Chr.  7  :  30,  31. 

2.  A  son  of  Ephraim.     1  Chr.  7  :  23. 

3.  A  Benjamite  chief.   1  Chr.  8  :  13, 16. 

4.  A  Levite.     1  Chr.  23  :  10,  11. 
BERI'ITES,   the  descendants  of 

Beriah,  1.     Num.  26  :  44. 

BE'RITES,  THE  {the  people  of 
the  wells),  a  family  mentioned  in  2  Sam. 
20  :  14,  but  it  is  not  known  who  they 
were. 

BE'RITH  (rt  covenant).  Jud.  9  :  46. 
See  Baal-berith. 

BERNICE,  OR  BERENICE 
{victorious),  was  the  eldest  daughter 
of  Agrippa,  surnamed  the  Great,  and 
sister  to  the  younger  Agrippa,  kings  of 
the  Jews.  Acts  25  :  13,  23  ;  26  :  30. 
Her  first  husband  was  her  uncle  Her- 
od, the  king  of  Chalcis.  She  appears 
in  the  Acts  in  connection  with  her 
brother,  Agrippa  II.,  with  whom  she 
112 


lived  in  incestuous  intercourse  after 
Herod's  death,  a.  d.  48.  To  put  an 
end  to  the  scandal  she  married  Po- 
lemo,  king  of  Cilicia,  whom  she  per- 
suaded to  be 
circumcised. 
The  bond  was 
soon  dis- 
solved, and 
she  returned 
to  her  broth- 

k°V^  /WHi  L  A.  o/quently,  so 
remarkable 
were  her  pow- 
ers of  attrac- 

Bernice.  (On  a  Com  of  Po-  x-  „  „„  j  „^ 
lemoll.)       ■'  tion,    and   so 

Beruice  married  Polemo  II.,  king  Well  pre- 
of  a  part  of  Cilicia.  The  coin  was  g  g  r  y  e  d  her 
struck  in  52  a.d.,  about  the  time  i  .  +  v.      * 

when   Paul   was   at   Corinth   with  oeauty,     tUat 
Aquila  and  Priscilla.  ghe     became 

mistress  to  both  Vespasian  and  his  son 
Titus. 
BERO'DACH-BAL'ADAN. 

2  Kgs.  20  :  12.      See   Merodach-bala- 

DAN. 

BERO'THAH,  and  BER'O- 
THAI  {my  wells),  one  in  the  north 
of  Palestine,  Eze.  47  :  16,  the  other  in 
the  same  region,  2  Sam.  8 :  8.  The  two 
may  be  the  same,  and  possibly  modern 
Beirut,  but  more  probably  farther  east, 
at  Brithen  or  Bretdn,  about  6  miles 
south-west  of  Baalbec. 

BER'YL.  Ex.  28  :  20.  By  the 
Hebrew  word  "  tarshish  "  modern  yel- 
low topaz  is  supposed  to  be  meant. 
This  designation  seems  to  indicate 
the  place  from  which  it  was  brought. 
Beryl,  in  the  N.  T.,  Rev.  21  :  20,  is 
probably  a  different  stone,  and  very  like- 
ly the  mineral  now  so  called,  which  is 
found  in  Palestine,  but  was  less  abun- 
dant and  more  precious  in  ancient 
times  than  in  modern.  It  is  usually 
of  a  light-green  color  and  considerably 
opaque. 

BE'SAI  (sioord,  or  conqueror),  an 
ancestor  to  some  of  the  Nethinim.  Ezr. 
2:49:  Neh.  7:52. 

BESODE'IAH  {in  the  secret  of 
Jehovah),  the  father  of  a  repairer  of 
the  wall.     Neh.  3  :  6. 

BE'SOM.  Isa.  14:23.  A  broom 
made  of  twigs. 

BE'SOR.  1  Sam.  30  :  9-21.  A  tor- 
rent-bed in  the  south  of  Judah ;  proba- 
bly Wady  Sheriah,  south  of  Gaza. 


BET 


BET 


BE'TAH  {confidence).  2  Sam.  8  : 
8.  Called  Tibliath,  1  Chr.  18  :  8;  possi- 
bly Tibhath,  between  Aleppo  and  Eu- 
phrates. 

BEATEN.  Josh.  19  :  25.  A  town  of 
Asher,  east  of  Ptolemais  ,•  now  el  Baneh. 

BETH'-AB'ARA  {house  of  the 
ford),  a  place  beyond  Jordan.  John  1 : 
28.  Some  of  the  best  manuscripts  read 
Bethany  same  as  Beth-abara ;  possi- 
bly at  Beth-nimrah,  or  Nimrin  ;  or,  as 
Conder  thinks,  at  'Abarnh :  a  leading 
ford  of  the  Jordan  on  the  road  to  Gil- 
ead. 

BETH'-A'NATH  {house  of  an- 
swer), a  place  in  Naphtali,  Josh.  19:38; 


Jud.  1  :  83 ;  possibly  at  Hanin,  near 
Diblathaini ;  or  at  'Ainatha. 

BETH -A' NO  Til  {house  of 
echo),  a  city  of  Judah,  Josh.  16:59; 
perhaps  Beit  'Aintin,  3  miles  north- 
east of  Hebron. 

BETH'ANY  {house  of  dates,  or 
of  misery).  1.  A  village  on  the  eastern 
slope  of  Mount  Olivet,  about  \h  to  2 
miles  ("15  furlongs")  east  of  Jerusa- 
lem, John  11:18,  toward  Jericho:  the 
home  of  Mary  and  Martha,  whither 
Jesus  often  went.  Matt.  21:17;  Mark 
11 :  11,  12.  It  was  the  home  of  Simon, 
Mark  14  :  3 ;  the  place  where  Lazarus 
was  raised  from  the  dead,  John  11 :  18- 


Bethaiiy.     {After  Photographs.) 


44 ;  and  near  it  Jesus  ascended  to 
heaven,  Luke  24  :  50 ;  named  only  in 
the  Gospels,  and  there  eleven  times. 

Present  Ajix>earance. — Three  paths 
lead  from  Jerusalem  to  Bethany — the 
first  over  Olivet,  north  of  its  summit ; 
the  third  branches  from  the  first,  below 
Gethsemane,  over  the  southern  slope  of 
Olivet ;  the  second  lies  between  these 
two.  "  The  name,  which  signifies  '  house 
of  poverty,'  was  probably  suggested  by 
its  solitary  and  remote  situation,  bor- 
dering on  the  desert,  or  by  the  fact  that 
lepers,  who  are  popularly  called  the 
'poor,'  once  sought  an  asylum  here." 
Mark  14  :  3. — Baedeker's  Hand  hook. 
The   town   is   now  a    poor    mountain- 


hamlet  of  about  20  rude  stone  houses 
inhabited  by  Moslems.  The  water  is 
good,  and  olive,  fig,  almond,  and  carob 
trees  abound.  The  reputed  sites  of 
Simon's  house  and  that  of  Mary, 
also  ''the  tower"  and  the  tomb  of  Laz- 
arus, are  still  pointed  out.  A  church 
stands  over  the  tomb.  Bethany  is  now 
called  el-Aziriyp.h,  "place  of  Lazarus." 
See  Schaif 's  liihh  Lands,  p.  27fi. 

2.  Some  manuscripts  read  Bethany 
for  Bethabara  in  John  1 :  28.  See  Beth- 
abara. 

BETH- ARAB  AH  {house  of 
the  plain),  a  city  of  .Tudah  in  the  wil- 
derness. Josh.  15  :  6,  61  ;  counted  as  a 
city  of   Benjamin,  Josh.  18:22;  called 

113 


BET 


BET 


Arabah  in  Josh,  18 :  18,  in  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan  near  the  Dead  Sea. 

BETH-A'RAM  {house  of  height), 
a  town  of  Gad  in  the  valley,  Josh.  13  : 
27 ;  perhaps  same  as  Beth-haran. 
Num.  32  :  36 ;  Merrill  locates  it  at  er- 
Jiama,  on  the  Shittim  plain. 

BETH-AR'BEL  {house  of  God's 
court,  or  ftmbush),  probably  Arbela  or 
Irbid,  between  Tiberias  and  Sepphoris. 
Hos.  10  :U. 

BETH-A'VEN  {house  of  naught, 
or  idols),    east   of    Bethel,    Josh.  7:2; 

18  :  12  ;  1  Sam.  13  :  5  ,•  14  :  23  ;  used  as 
a  name  for  Bethel,  "  house  of  God  ;" 
changed  to  Beth-aven, ''  house  of  idols." 
Hos.  4:15;  5:8;  10:5. 

BETH- AZ  MAVETH,  a  town 
in  Benjamin  :  called  Azmaveth,  Neh.  7  : 
28;  12  :  29;  Ezr.  2  :  24;  perhaps  Hiz- 
meh,  south-east  of  Jeba. 

BETH-BA'AL-ME'ON.  Josh. 
13  :  17.     See  Baal-meo\. 

BETH  -  BA'RAH.  Jud.  7  :  24. 
See  Beth-abara. 

BETH'-BIR'EI  {house  of  my  cre- 
ation), a  town  of  Simeon,  1  Chr.  4:31; 
probably  same  as  Beth-lebaoth  and  Le- 
baoth.  Josh.  19  :  6  ;  15  :  32,  in  the  south 
of  Palestine;  probably  Btreh. 

BETH'- CAR  {house  of  lambs),  a 
place  west  of  Mizpeh.  1  Sam.  7  : 1.  Con- 
der  locates  it  at  'Ain  Kdrim. 

BETH-DA'GON(AoMse  o/Z)a^o»). 
1.  A  town  in  Judah,  near  Philistia. 
Josh.  15  :  41.     Perhaps  at  Beit  Dejan. 

2.  A  place  in  Asher.  Josh.  19  :  27. 
Ganneau  locates  it  at  Deljun,  south- 
west of  Ekron  ;   Conder,  at   Tell  D'a^k. 

BETH-DIB'LATHA'IIW  {house 
of  fig-cakes),  a  town  of  Moab ;  same  as 
Almon-diblathaim.  Jer.  48  :  22  ;  Num. 
33:46. 

BETH'EL  {house  of  God).  1.  A 
town  about  12  miles  north  of  Jerusalem. 

Histori/. — Visited  by  Abraham,  Gen. 
12  :  8  ;  13  :  3  ;  marked  by  Jacob  after  his 
vision  of  the  ladder.  Gen.  28  :  11-19; 
31  :  13  ;  dwelling-place  of  Jacob,  Gen. 
35  : 1-8  ;  name  applied  to  Luz,  Jud.  1 : 
22, 23  ;  before  this  the  city  and  the  altar- 
site  appear  to  have  had  different  names, 
see  Josh.  16  :  2  ;  Jud.  1  :  22,  23  ;  Gen.  28 

19  ;  Samuel  judged  there,  1  Sam.  7  :  16 
a  place  of  calf-worship,  1  Kgs.  12  :  29 
2  Kgs.  10 :  29  ;  called  Beth-aven — )'.  e. 
"house   of  idols,"  Hos.  10  :  5,  8  ;  taken 
by    Judah,   2    Chr.  13  :  19 ;    home  of 

114 


prophets,  2  Kgs.  2  :  2,  3 ;  of  priests,  2 
Kgs.  17:28;  23:15-17;  was  desolate. 
Am.  3  :  14;  5  :  5,  6  ;  settled  by  Benja- 
mites  after  the  Captivity,  Neh.  11 :  31 ; 
named  about  seventy  times  in  the  0.  T. ; 
not  noticed  in  the  N.  T. ;  now  called 
Beitin  (9  miles  south  of  Shiloh),  a  vil- 
lage of  about  25  Moslem  hovels,  stand- 
ing amid  ruins  which  cover  about  4 
acres.  Among  the  ruins  is  a  Greek 
church,  which  appears  to  have  been 
built  out  of  the  ruins  of  an  older,  and 
probably  a  Jewish,  edifice.  There  are 
also  the  remains  of  a  tower  and  a  very 
large  cistern.  From  the  top  of  this 
ruined  tower  the  Mount  of  Olives  is 
distinctly  visible,  and  Jewish  tradition 
asserts,  no  doubt  truthfully,  that  from 
the  rival  temple  of  Jeroboam  idol- 
priests  could  look  down  upon  the  tem- 
ple of  Solomon  at  Jerusalem.  The  spot 
is  hallowed  by  Jacob's  dream  of  a  lad- 
der which  reached  from  earth  to  hea- 
ven, and  caused  him  to  exclaim,  "  How 
dreadful  is  this  place  !  this  is  none  other 
but  the  house  of  God,  and  this  is  the 
gate  of  heaven."  Gen.  28:  17. 

2.  A  town  in  the  south  of  Judah ; 
same  as  Chesil,  Bethul,  and  Bethuel. 
Josh.  12:16;  16  :  30 ;  19:  4;  1  Chr.  4 : 
BO.     Either  Beit  Aula,  or  El-Khidasah, 

3.  Mount  Bethel,  Josh.  16  : 1 ;  1  Sam. 
13  :  2,  a  hilly  district  near  Bethel. 

BETH-E'MEK  {house  of  the  val- 
ley), a  town  of  Asher,  Josh.  19  :  27 ;  pos- 
sibly Amkah.  8  miles  north-east  of  Akka. 

BE'THER,  THE  MOUN- 
TAINS OF.  Song  Sol.  2  :  17.  Prob- 
ably near  the  Lebanon  range. 

BETHES'DA  {house  of  mercy,  or 
flowing  water),  a  pool  in  Jerusalem  near 
the  sheep-gate  or  market,  John  5  :  2-9 ; 
tradition  identifies  it  with  the  modern 
pool  Birket-Tsrail,  360  feet  long,  120 
feet  wide,  and  80  feet  deep,  half  filled 
with  rubbish.  Capt.  Warren  found  an 
aqueduct  leading  from  it,  probably  into 
the  Kedron.  Robinson,  with  more  prob- 
ability, regards  Bethesda  as  identical 
with  the  intermittent  Pool  of  the  Vir- 
gin, outside  of  the  city,  above  the  Pool 
of  Siloam. 

BETH-E'ZEL  {house  of  firm  root). 
Mic.  1:11.  Speaker's  Commentary  iden- 
tifies it  with  Azal,  near  Jerusalem. 

BETH-GA'DER  {house  of  the 
ivall),  possibly  a  place  in  Judah.  1  Chr. 
11 :  51 ;  now  Jedur.     See  Geder. 


BET 


BET 


Traditional  Pool  of  Bethesda.     {Birket-Isruil. 


After  a  Photograph  by  Bonfils.) 


m^ 


BETH-GA'MUL  (house  of  camel), 
a  town  of  Moab,  Jer.  48  :  23 ;  perhaps 
Um-el-Jemal,  near  Bozrah,  an  unwalled 
town,  having  some  of  the  most  remark- 
able ruins  in  that  country,  houses,  streets, 
walls,  and  gates  deserted,  but  in  perfect 
preservation.  See  Jer.  48  :  21-25. 
Grove,  however,  thinks  Jemal  too  far 
north-east  to  be  Gamul. 

BETH-GIL'GAL.  Neh.  12  :  29. 
Same  as  Gilgal,  near  Bethel. 

BETH-HAC'CEREM  [house  of 
the  vine),  a  place  near  Tekoa,  Jer.  6:1; 
Neh.  3:14;  probably  the  Frank  Moun- 
tain, 4  miles  south-east  of  Bethlehem. 

BETH-HA'RAN.     See   Beth- 

ARAM. 

BETH-HOG'LA,    or    HOG'- 

LAH  [partridge-house),  a  town  of  Ben- 
jamin, Josh.  15  :  6;  18  :  19,  21  ;  now 
'A  in  Hajla,  between  Jericho  and  the 
Jordan. 

BETH-HO'RON  [house  of  the 
cave),  the  name  of  two  places,  the  "  Up- 

fer"  and  "Nether"  Beth-horon,  Josh. 
6  :  3,  5,  about  3  miles  apart,  on  the 
opposite  sides  of  a  ravine  or  steep  pass 
— the  Thermopylae  of  Palestine — on  the 
road  from  Jerusalem  to  the  seacoast. 
The  "  Nether "  or  lower  town  was  the 
most  important ;  now  Beit  Ur  et-  Tahtn. 
The  Upper  Beth-horon  is  now  Beit  Ur 
el- F  oka. 
BETH-JES'IMOTH,    and 


JESH'IMOTH    [house  of  wastes),  a 

town  of  Moab.  Num.  33  :  49  ;  Josh.  12  : 
3  ;  13  :  20  ;  Eze.  25  :  9.  Schwarz  places 
it  at  Beth-Jisimuth,  north-east  of  the  Dead 
Sea ;  Merrill,  at  Ain  Suweimeh ;  Tris- 
tram, at  er-Rama,  5  miles  north-east  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Jordan. 

BETH-LEB'AOTH  [house  of 
lionesses).      See  Beth-birei. 

BETH'LEHEM  [house  of  bread). 
1.  A  town  in  the  ^'  hill-country,"  about  6 
miles  south  of  Jerusalem,  situated  on  a 
narrow  ridge  running  eastward,  which 
breaks  down  in  abrupt  terraced  slopes 
to  the  deep  valleys  below.  The  town  is 
2527  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  one  of 
the  oldest  in  Palestine. 

History. — It  was  Rachel's  burial-place 
(still  marked  by  a  white  mosque  near  the 
town),  and  called  Ephrath,  Gen.  35  :  19; 
the  home  of  Naomi,  Boaz,  and  Ruth, 
Ruth  1:19;  birthplace  of  David,  1  Sam. 
17  :  12  ;  burial-place  of  Joab's  family,  2 
Sam.  2:32;  taken  by  the  Philistines, 
and  had  a  noted  well,  2  Sam.  23  :  14, 15; 
fortified  by  Rehoboam,  2  Chr.  11  :  6; 
foretold  as  the  birthplace  of  Christ,  Mic. 
5:2;  the  birthplace  of  Jesus,  Matt.  2:1; 
was  visited  by  the  shepherds,  Luke  2  : 
15-17,  and  by  the  magi,  Matt.  2.  It  is 
noticed  over  40  times  in  the  Bible. 

It  has  existed  as  a  town  for  over  4000 
years.  It  was  a  small  place  until  after 
the  time  of  Christ ;  was  improved  and 

116 


BET 


BET 


its  walls  rebuilt  by  Justinian :  had  a 
famous  church  in  a.  d.  6U0 ;  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Arabs,  rebuilt  by  the 
Pranks,  again  twice  destroyed,  A.  D. 
12-1:4  and  in  1489  ;  rebuilt  within  the 
last  two  centuries;  now  has  about  5000 
inhabitants,  nearly  all  nominally  Chris- 
tians, mostly  of  the  Greek  Church.  The 
women  of  Bethlehem,  as  also  those  of 
Nazareth  (the  two  homes  of  Christ), 
are  exceptionally  beautiful,  and  demon- 
strate the  superiority  of  Christian  women 
over  Moslem  women.     It  is  now  called 


Beit-Lahm;  is  surrounded  by  nicely- 
kept  terraces  covered  with  vine,  olive, 
and  fig  trees.  The  church  of  the  Na- 
tivity, the  oldest  in  Christendom,  built 
in  A.  D.  330  by  the  empress  Helena, 
stands  over  the  grotto  reputed  to  be 
the  ])lace  of  our  Lord's  birth,  and  is 
the  joint  property  of  the  Greeks,  Latins, 
and  Armenians,  who  have  separate  con- 
vents adjoining  it.  The  "plain  of  the 
Shepherds"  is  about  a  mile  from  the 
town.  The  so-called  David's  well  is 
pointed  out  nea  r  the  city.    A  massive  col- 


Bethlehem,     {trom  Original  Photograph  by  Bonfils.) 


umn  stands  upon  the  reputed  spot  where 
monkish  legends  say  20,000  martyred 
innocents  were  buried.  The  claim  of 
these  places  as  the  true  localities  where 
the  biblical  events  occurred  rests  wholly 
upon  traditions  covered  with  the  accu- 
mulated rubbish  of  superstition,  which 
render  the  identifications  of  small  value. 
The  chapel  beneath  the  church,  how- 
ever, was  the  study  of  St.  Jerome,  where 
he  spent  thirty  years  on  his  great  work, 
the  Latin  version  of  the  Bible,  called 
the  Vulgate,  and  which  is  still  the  stand- 
ard version  in  the  Roman  Church.  The 
"holy  crypt,"  the  reputed  birthplace 
of  our  Lord,  is  a  cave  in  the  solid  rock, 
twenty  feet  beneath  the  great  choir  of 
the  church.  At  the  entrance  of  a  long 
winding  passage  cut  out  of  the  lime- 
stone rock  is  an  irregular-shaped  chap- 
116 


el,  containing  two  small  recesses.  In  the 
northernmost  of  these  is  a  marble  slab,  on 
which  a  silver  star  marks  the  supposed 
spot  of  the  Nativity.  Hepworth  Dixon 
(  The  Hohj  Land,  1865,  ch.  xiv.)  not  only 
accepts  this  cave  as  the  birthplace  of 
Jesus,  but  also  tries  to  prove  that  it  be- 
longed to  Boaz  and  was  the  home  of 
David.  The  tradition  that  Jesus  was 
born  in  this  cave  is  very  old,  and  is 
first  mentioned  by  Justin  Martyr 
(about  A.  r».  140),  who  was  a  native 
of  Palestine.  The  precise  place  of 
our  Saviour's  birth,  as  that  of  his 
crucifixion,  has  been  left  in  obscur- 
ity by  a  wise  Providence.  The  greet- 
ing of  Boaz  to  the  reapers  may  still 
be  heard  in  the  fields  of  Bethlehem. 
The  farmer  now  salutes  his  laborers 
with   "  The   Lord   be   with   you !"  and 


BET 


BET 


they  reply,  as  in  the  days  of  Ruth,  "  The 
Lord  bless  thee  !"     Ruth  2  :  4. 

2.  A  town  in  Zebulon,  Josh.  19  :  15 ; 
now  a  poor  village,  Beit-Lahm,  6  miles 
west  of  Nazareth. 

BETH-MA  ACHAH.  2  Sam. 
20  :  14,  15.  Same  as  Abel-beth-maa- 
chah,  Abel-maim,  and  Abel ;  now  Abel 
el-Kamh,  a  village  north-west  of  Lake 
Merom.  Grove  supposes  Maachah 
was  a  petty  Syrian  kingdom  north  of 
Palestine. 

BETH-MAR'CABOTH  {house 
of  chariots),  a  town  in  the  south  of 
judah.  Josh.  19  :  5;  1  Chr.  4  :  13. 
Rowland  identifies  it  with  el-Murtabeh, 
10  miles  south-west  of  Beer-sheba. 

BETH-ME'ON.     See    Baal- 

MEON. 

BETH-NIM'RAH  {house  of  leop- 
ards), a  fenced  city  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, Josh.  13  :  27  ;  Num.  32  :  3,  36  ;  same 
as  Nimrah,  and  the  modern  Nimrin, 
on  the  Jordan,  above  Jericho.  Some 
would  identify  it  also  with  Beth-abara. 

BETH-PA'LET  {house  of  flight), 
a  town  in  the  south  of  Judah;  same  as 
Beth-phelet,  Josh.  15  :  27  ;  Neh.  11  :  26  ; 
either  modern  el-Kuseifeh,  near  Mola- 
dah,  or  el-Horn. 

BETH-PAZ'ZEZ  {house  of  dis- 
persion), in  Issachar,  Josh.  19:  21,  west 
of  the  Sea  of  Galilee ;  possibly,  but 
not  probablv.  modern  Beit-Jcnu. 

BETH-PE'OR  {temple  of  Peor), 
a  place  on  Pisgah.  Deut.  3:29;  4:46; 
34  :  6  ;  Josh.  13  :  20.     See  Pisgah. 

BETH'PHAGE  (house  of  green 
figs),  a  place  near  Bethany,  Matt.  21  : 
i  ;  Mark  11 : 1  ;  Luke  19  :  29,  and  possi- 
bly west  of  that  place. 

BETH-PHE'LET.      See  Beth- 

PALET. 

BETH-RE'HOB  {house  of  Re- 
hoh),  called  Rehob,  Num.  13  :  21  ;  2 
Sam.  10  :  6,  8 ;  was  near  Laish,  Jud.  18  : 
28;  possibly  Hunin,  on  the  mountain 
west  of  the  plain  of  Dan,  and  about 
1000  feet  above  it. 

BETHSA'IDA  {house  of  fishing), 
a  city  of  Galilee,  near  Capernaum. 
John  12  :  21;  Matt.  11  :  21.  Many  re- 
cent writers  urge  that  there  were  two 
Bethsaidas,  since  the  desert-place  where 
the  5000  were  fed  belonged  to  ''  the  city 
called  Bethsaida,"  Luke  9:10,  while 
after  the  miracle  the  disciples  were 
to  go    before  him  unto  the  other  side 


to  Bethsaida,  Mark  6  :  45,  which  it  is 
said  could  not  refer  to  the  same 
town. 

1.  If  there  were  two  towns  of  this 
name,  the  first  one,  in  Galilee,  was  on 
the  west  side  of  the  lake.  Robin- 
son, Grove,  Porter,  and  others  place 
it  at  Ain  et-Tahighah,  north  of  Khan 
Minyeh,  others  at  Khan  Mini/ eh. 

2.  Bethsaida  Julias,  in  Gaulanitis,  on 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  Jordan,  near  its 
entrance  into  the  lake. 

But  it  seems  quite  unlikely  that  two 
cities  in  such  close  neighborhood  should 
have  borne  the  same  name.  Hence  Dr. 
W.  M.  Thomson  supposes  that  there  was 
but  one  Bethsaida,  which  was  built  on 
both  sides  of  the  Jordan,  and  places  the 
site  at  Abu-Zani/,  where  the  Jordan  emp- 
ties into  the  Lake  of  Galilee.  The 
Sinaitic  manuscript  omits  *'  belonging 
to  a  city  called  Bethsaida"  in  Luke  9  : 
10;  hence,  Wilson  also  holds  that  there 
is  no  necessity  for  two  Bethsaidas  ;  and 
this  seems  the  more  probable  view. 
The  eastern  part  was  beautified  by 
Philip  the  tetrarch,  and  called  Beth- 
saida Julias  (in  honor  of  a  daughter 
of  the  emperor  Augustus),  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  western  Bethsaida,  in 
Galilee. — Sciiafp  :  Through  Bible  Lands, 
p.  353.     See  Capernaum. 

BETH-SHE'AN  {house  of  quiet), 
BETH'SAN,  OR  BETH'SHAN, 
a  city  5  miles  west  of  the  Jordan,  first 
in  Issachar,  but  later  in  Manasseh. 
Josh.  17  :  11 ;  1  Chr.  7  :  29.  Saul's  body 
was  fastened  to  its  walls,  1  Sam.  31 : 
10,  12;  after  the  Captivity  it  was  call- 
ed Scythopolis,  and  was  a  chief  city 
of  Decapolis ;  now  Beisan,  having 
ruins  of  temples,  colonnades,  hippo- 
drome, theatre,  and  city  walls. 

BETH-SHE'MESH  {house  of 
the  sun).  1.  A  city  on  the  north  of 
Judah  belonging  to  the  priests.  Josh. 
15:10:  21:16;  same  as  Ir-shemesh 
and  Mount  Heres,  Josh.  19:41;  Jud. 
1 :  35  ;  noted  as  the  place  to  which  the 
ark  was  returned,  1  Sam.  6  :  9-20 ;  now 
a  heap  of  ruins  near  'Ain  Shenis,  about 
14  miles  west  of  Jerusalem. 

2.  A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali.  Josh. 
19  :  38.  Conder  proposes  'Ain  csh  Shem- 
styeh. 

3.  A  city  on  the  border  of  Issachar, 
Josh.  19  :  22 :  perhaps  the  same  as 
No.  2. 

117 


BET 


BIB 


4.  A  place  in  Egypt,  Jer.  43  :  13 ;  same 
as  Heliopolis,  or  On,     See  On. 

BETH- SHIT  TAH  {house  of 
acacia),  now  perhaps  the  village  of 
Shattah,  east  of  Jezi'eel.     Jud.  7  :  22. 

BETH-TAP'PUAH  (house  of 
apples),  a  town  of  Judah  near  Hebron, 
Josh.  15:53;  now  Tuffuh,  5  miles  west 
of  Hebron,  and  noted  for  olive-groves 
and  vineyards.  Traces  of  the  ancient 
terraces  still  remain. 

BETHU'EL  (man  of  God),  the 
son  of  Nahor,  nephew  of  Abraham, 
and  father  of  Laban  and  Rebekah. 
Gen.  22  :  22,  23  ;  24:15,24,47;  28:2. 
His  son  Laban  plays  the  prominent 
part  in  the  narrative. 

BE'THUEL,  AND  BE'THUL. 
See  Chesil  and  Bethel. 

BETH'ZUR  {house  of  rock),  in 
the  mountains  of  Judah ;  built  by  Re- 
hoboam  ;  its  ruler  helped  to  repair  Jeru- 
salem, 2  Chr.  11  :  7;  Neh.  3  :  16;  now 
Beit  Siir,  4  miles  north  of  Hebron. 

BET'ONIM,  a  town  in  Gad.  Josh. 
13 :  2(5. 

BETROTH'.  Deut.  28  :  30.  A 
man  and  woman  were  betrothed  or  es- 
poused each  to  the  other  when  they 
were  engaged  to  be  married.  It  is  giv- 
ing one's  troth — i.  e.  faith  or  promise — 
to  marry  at  a  future  time. 

Among  the  Jews  this  relation  was 
usually  determined  by  the  parents  or 
brothers,  without  consulting  the  par- 
ties until  they  came  to  be  betrothed. 
The  engagement  took  place  very  early, 
though  it  was  not  consummated  by  ac- 
tual marriage  until  the  spouse  was  at 
least  twelve  years  of  age. 

The  betrothing  was  performed  a 
twelvemonth  or  more  before  the  mar- 
riage, either  in  writing  or  by  a  piece 
of  silver  given  to  the  espoused  before 
witnesses.  During  the  interval,  how- 
ever, from  the  time  of  espousals  to  the 
marriage,  the  woman  was  considered  as 
the  lawful  wife  of  the  man  to  whom  she 
was  betrothed  ;  nor  could  the  engage- 
ment be  ended  by  the  man  without  a 
bill  of  divorce  ;  nor  could  she  be  un- 
faithful without  being  considered  an 
adulteress.      See  Marriage. 

BEU'LiAH  (married),  a  word  used 
by  Isaiah,  Isa.  62  : 4,  to  set  forth  the 
intimate  relation  of  the  Jewish  Church 
to  God. 

BE'ZAI  (conqueror),  father  of  some 
118 


who  returned.  Ezr.  2  :  17 ;  Neh.  7  : 
23:  10:18. 

BEZAL'EEL  (in  the  shadow  of 
God).  A  famous  artificer  who  received 
wisdom  and  instruction  directly  from 
God  to  qualify  him  for  the  work  of 
building  the  tabernacle  and  preparing 
its  various  furniture.     Ex.  31 :  2. 

2.  One  who  had  married  a  foreign 
wife.     Ezr.  10  :  30. 

BE'ZEK  (lightning).  1.  In  the 
mountains  of  Judah,  Jud.  1  :  3-5;  prob- 
ably Bezek,  near  Jerusalem. 

2.  Possibly  a  district.  1  Sam.  11 :  8, 
9.  Schwartz  places  it  at  Bezik  or  Ah- 
sik ;  Conder  at  Ibzik,  north  of  Tir- 
zah. 

B  E  '  Z  E  R  (ore),  an  Asherite.  1 
Chr.  7  :  37. 

BE'ZER  IN  THE  WILDER- 
NESS, a  city  of  refuge  east  of  the 
Jordan,  Deut.  4:43;  Josh.  20  :  8  ;  21: 
36;  1  Chr.  6:78;  possibly  Burazin,  12 
miles  north-east  of  Heshbon. 

BE'ZETHA,  AxND  BE'ZETH,  a 
hill  in  Jerusalem  north  of  Acra  and  Mo- 
riah.     See  Jerusalem. 

BI'BLE.  "  The  Holy  Bible"  is  the 
name  given  to  the  collection  of  books 
which  contains  the  revelation  of  God  in 
the  creation,  redemption,  and  sanctifica- 
tion  of  the  world ;  a  history  of  the  past 
dealing  of  God  with  his  people;  a  proph- 
ecy of  coming  events  till  the  final  con- 
summation :  and  a  living  exhibition  of 
saving  truth  in  doctrine,  precept,  and 
example  for  all  men  and  all  time.  The 
name  is  from  the  Greek  (ra.  ^l^Ala,  "  the 
books"),  and  means  the  Book  of  books, 
the  best  of  all  books  (so  used  since  the 
fifth  century  in  distinction  from  heret- 
ical and  all  uninspired  writings).  The 
collection  is  likewise  spoken  of  as  the 
"  Scriptures,"  "  the  word  of  God."  The 
Bible  embraces  the  work  of  about  forty 
authors  from  all  classes  of  society,  from 
the  shepherd  to  the  king,  living  during 
an  interval  of  sixteen  hundred  years, 
but  all  of  the  Hebrew  extraction,  with 
the  single  exception  of  Luke,  whose 
Gospel,  however,  came  from  Jewish 
sources,  and  whose  fame  from  his  as- 
sociation with  Paul.  All  forms  of 
literary  composition  unite  to  give  the 
Bible  its  unique  interest,  aside  from 
its ■  religious  importance.  These  books, 
though  differing  in  age,  contents,  and 
style,  represent  one  and  the  same  sys- 


BIB 


BIB 


tem  of  truth  as  revealed  by  God  in 
its  various  aspects  and  adaptations  to 
the  existing  wants  and  progressive  un- 
derstanding of  his  people.  The  Bible 
is  not  a  book  simply;  it  is  an  insti- 
tution. It  never  grows  old ;  it  renews 
its  youth  with  every  ago  of  humanity, 
and  increases  in  interest  and  importance 
as  history  advances.  It  is  to  the  Chris- 
tian the  only  infallible  source  and  rule 
of  his  faith  and  conduct;  it  is  his  daily 
bread  of  life,  his  faithful  guide  in  holy 
living  and  dying,  his  best  friend  and 
companion — far  more  precious  than  all 
other  books  combined.  It  is  now  more 
extensively  studied  than  ever,  and  its 
readers  will  continue  to  multiply  from 
day  to  day  to  all  parts  of  the  earth  and 
to  the  end  of  time.  Let  us  add  some 
testimonies  to  its  importance. 

The  eloquent  F.  W.  Robertson  says : 
"This  collection  of  books  has  been  to 
the  world  what  no  other  book  has  ever 
been  to  a  nation.  States  have  been 
founded  on  its  principles ;  kings  rule  by 
a  compact  based  on  it ;  men  hold  it  in 
their  hands  when  they  give  solemn  evi- 
dence affecting  death  or  property ;  the 
sick  man  is  almost  afraid  to  die  unless 
the  Book  be  within  reach  of  his  hands ; 
the  battle-ship  goes  into  action  with  one 
on  board  whose  oflBce  is  to  expound  it; 
its  prayers,  its  psalms,  are  the  language 
we  use  when  we  speak  to  God ;  eighteen 
centuries  have  found  no  holier,  no  di- 
viner language.  The  very  translation 
of  it  has  fixed  language  and  settled  the 
idioms  of  speech.  It  has  made  the  most 
illiterate  peasant  more  familiar  with  the 
history,  customs,  and  geography  of  an- 
cient Palestine  than  with  the  localities 
of  his  own  country.  .  .  .  The  orator 
holds  a  thousand  men  for  half  an  hour 
breathless,  a  thousand  men  as  one  listen- 
ing to  his  single  word.  But  this  word 
of  God  has  held  a  thousand  nations  for 
thrice  a  thousand  years  spell-bound — 
held  them  by  an  abiding  power,  even 
the  universality  of  its  truth  ;  and  we  feel 
it  to  be  no  more  a  collection  of  books, 
but  the  Book."  The  translators  of  the 
A.  v.,  in  their  Address  unto  the  Reader 
(reprinted  in  the  Cambridge  Paragraph 
Bible),  say  of  the  Bible:  "And  what 
marvel  ? — the  original  thereof  being  from 
heaven,  not  from  earth ;  the  author  be- 
ing God,  not  man  :  the  inditer,  the  Holy 
Spirit,  not  the  wit  of  the   apostles    or 


prophets ;  the  penmen,  such  as  were 
sanctified  from  the  womb  and  endued 
with  a  principal  portion  of  God's  Spirit; 
the  matter,  verity,  piety,  purity,  upright- 
ness ;  the  form,  God's  word,  God's  tes- 
timony, God's  oracles,  the  word  of  truth, 
the  word  of  salvation,  etc. ;  the  effects, 
light  of  understanding,  stableness  of 
persuasion,  repentance  from  dead  works, 
newness  of  life,  holiness,  peace,  joy  in  the 
Holy  Ghost;  lastly,  the  end  and  reward 
of  the  study  thereof,  fellowship  with  the 
saints,  participation  of  the  heavenly  na- 
ture, fruition  of  an  inheritance  immortal, 
undefiled,  and  that  shall  never  fadeaway. 
Happy  is  the  man  that  delighteth  in  the 
Scripture,  and  thrice  happy  that  medi- 
tateth  jn  it  day  and  night !" 

The  Bible  is  ordinarily  divided  into 
two  parts,  called  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments. But  it  would  be  more  accurate 
to  say  *'  the  Old  and  New  Covenants,"  in- 
asmuch as  ''  testament"  implies  the  idea 
of  a  will  and  the  death  of  the  testator. 

In  the  present  article  the  general  ques- 
tions in  regard  to  the  Bible  will  be  dis- 
cussed. The  matters  relating  to  the 
formation  of  the  collection  will  be 
found  under  Canon,  and  the  particulars 
of  the  different  books  under  their  re- 
spective names. 

I.  The   Original  Languages   of   the 
Bible. 

1.  The  0.  T.  is  written  in  Hebrew,  a 
Shemitic  tongue,  differing  in  most  re- 
spects very  widely  from  the  Japhetic  or 
Aryan  languages,  to  which  family  ours 
belongs.  The  difference  is  not  simply 
in  vocabulary,  but  in  grammatical  struc- 
ture, and  also  in  the  manner  of  writing, 
which  is  from  right  to  left,  giving  rise 
to  the  common  saying  that  Hebrew  books 
begin  at  the  last  page.  It  is  triliteral — 
i.  e.  its  words  are  built  up  according  to 
certain  rules  from  roots  formed  of  three 
consonants.  The  verb  has  only  two 
tenses,  the  perfect  and  the  imperfect. 
There  is  no  proper  declension  of  nouns, 
and  only  two  genders,  masculine  and 
feminine.  There  are  three  numbers, 
singular,  dual,  and  plural.  There  are 
no  compounds,  in  our  sense  of  the 
term;  the  article,  conjunction,  and 
preposition,  expressed  each  by  a  single 
consonant,  are  attached  directly  to  the 
word.  Pronouns  undergo  a  similar 
treatment,  *'  whether  they  are  the  sub- 

119 


BIB 


BIB 


ject  or  object  of  verbs  or  dependent 
upon  other  forms  of  speech.  Thus  the 
Hebrew  *  and  from  his  land  '  is  written 
as  one  word,  though  it  embraces  a  con- 
junction, preposition,  noun,  and  pro- 
noun ;  but  this  is  a  mere  aggregate,  in 
which  each  element  retains  its  separate 
force  unchanged,  not  a  compound,  in 
which  the  several  constituents  combine 
in  the  expression  of  one  idea." — Prof.  W. 
H.  Green.  Hebrew  is  highly  figurative — 
pre-eminently  fitted  for  devotion,  but 
by  lack  of  precision  singularly  unfitted 
for  philosophy.  It  was  therefore  just 
the  requisite  medium  for  an  introduc- 
tory revelation.  The  0.  T.  does  not 
argue  against  or  analyze  or  defend  any 
religion  in  set  phrase,  but  it  fills  the 
mind  with  the  knowledge  of  the  true 
God  and  inspires  the  heart  in  his  ser- 
vice. 

2.  The  N.  T.  was  written  in  Greek, 
which  had,  since  the  Macedonian  con- 
quest of  Alexander  the  Great,  supplanted 
Hebrew  in  common  use  among  the  Jews 
who  dwelt  in  the  Roman  provinces,  and 
was  the  medium  of  communication  be- 
tween all  parts  of  the  civilized  world. 
The  ancient  Greek  literature  is  a  peren- 
nial source  of  inspiration  and  know- 
ledge. The  language  is  at  once  vigorous 
and  flexible,  profound  and  clear,  remark- 
ably well  suited  to  express  every  variety 
of  thought.  It  is  equally  adapted  to  the 
concise,  the  critical,  and  the  common- 
place. In  short,  every  order  of  mind 
can  use  it  appropriately.  It  was  in  that 
day  a  better  channel  than  the  Hebrew 
for  a  divine  revelation,  and  that  of  the 
highest  kind.  Hebrew  no  longer  met 
the  wants  of  culture.  By  nature  it  was 
hampered.  It  was  the  language  of  mon- 
otheism, but  not  of  developed  trinita- 
rianism. 

The  N.  T.  Greek  is  the  Macedonian, 
and  more  particularly  the  Hellenis- 
tic, dialect,  more  or  less  mixed  with 
Hebraisms,  arising  from  the  fact  that 
the  writers  were  Jews.  In  some  books 
this  tinge  is  very  strong,  especially  in 
Matthew,  Mark,  and  Revelation.  On 
the  contrary,  the  Greek  of  James  and 
Luke,  particularly  in  the  preface  of 
Luke's  Gospel  and  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  Acts,  is  good  and  forcible.  Paul  has 
a  style  of  his  own;  broken  and  involved, 
interminable  at  times,  as  his  sentences 
are,  they  are  bold,  pregnant,  and  lively. 
120 


But  whether  with  classical  finish  or 
unadorned  simplicity,  in  this  language 
the  apostles  addressed  their  own  coun- 
trymen and  the  Gentiles  upon  the  mo- 
mentous truths  and  facts  of  the  ever- 
lasting gospel. 

II.  The  Text  of  the  Bible. 

The  Bible,  like  the  Saviour  whom  it 
presents,  is  divine-human  in  its  cha- 
racter. The  written  word  became  flesh, 
as  well  as  the  personal  Word.  The  eter- 
nal truth  of  God  passed  through  the  men- 
tal faculties  of  the  prophets  and  apostles, 
and  uttered  itself  in  human  speech.  Its 
contents  were  first  in  the  mind,  and  then 
written  out,  either  directly  by  the  in- 
spired man  or  at  his  dictation.  The 
autographs  have  perished.  We  possess 
at  best  but  copies  of  other  copies.  These, 
although  made  with  reverent  care,  are 
not  free  from  the  imperfections  of  hu- 
man writings.  Errors  would  be  per- 
petuated and  new  ones  constantly  made. 
This  was  pre-eminently  the  case  with 
the  N.  T.  The  number  of  textual  vari- 
ations in  the  Greek  N.  T.  or  "  different 
readings,"  as  they  are  called,  amounts 
to  150,000.  And  yet  we  may  claim  that 
a  special  Providence  has  watched  over 
the  purity  and  integrity  of  the  text  of 
Holy  Scripture,  since  only  about  400  of 
these  are  of  any  consequence,  the  rest 
being  trifles  of  spelling,  etc.,  r.nd  none 
of  these  400  affect  a  doctrine  or  precept. 

1.  The  Hebrew  Bible  of  to-day  is  a 
reprint  of  the  so-called  Masoretic  text 
— /.  e.  the  text  punctuated  and  vocalized 
by  a  body  of  Jewish  scholars  who  lived 
at  Tiberias,  and  at  Sora  in  the  Euphrates 
valley,  from  the  sixth  to  the  twelfth 
century,  and  who  committed  to  writing 
the  mass  of  traditional  notes  of  all 
kinds  called  the  Masora — i.  e.  tradi- 
tion. Up  to  the  beginning  of  that 
period  the  Hebrew  text  was  written 
without  "points,"  as  the  vowel-points 
are  called.  These  were  added,  and  thus 
the  pronunciation  was  fixed.  By  means 
of  other  marks  punctuation  and  the 
tone-syllables  were  indicated.  The  sep- 
aration of  the  text  into  verses  by  means 
of  two  dots  arranged  like  a  colon  and 
the  assortment  of  the  books  in  a  fixed 
order  had  been  previously  effected.  It 
is  stated  that  after  the  Masoretes  had 
finished  their  labors  all  the  manuscripts 
which    had    not    this    text   were    con- 


BIB 


BIB 


demned  as  "  profane  and  illegitimate," 
which  caused  most  of  these  rejected 
copies  to  perish.  Thus  the  facts  that 
there  are  very  few  old  Hebrew  manu- 
scripts— the  oldest  dating  from  the 
tenth  century — and  that  the  same  text 
is  found  in  each,  are  accounted  for.  But 
happily  for  the  scholars  of  Hebrew,  the 
Masoretes  marked  their  corrections 
upon  the  margin  instead  of  inserting 
them  in  the  text,  and  therefore  they 
are  at  liberty  to  reject  or  use  them. 

The  Hebrew  character  has  changed 
from  an  irregular  to  a  square  form.  The 
Rabbins,  however,  in  their  books  em- 
ployed still  another  form,  which  is  more 
cramped.  The  manuscripts  whose  use 
is  obligatory  in  the  synagogues  to-day 
are  written  without  punctuation-marks 
upon  rolls,  and  are  very  carefully  writ- 
ten and  preserved. 

The  whole  Hebrew  Bible  was  first 
printed  in  1488 ;  a  second  edition  ap- 
peared in  1494.  This  was  the  one  used 
by  Luther.  All  subsequent  Hebrew 
Bibles  have  been  little  more  than  re- 
productions of  these  two  editions. 

2.  The  Greek  New  Testament. — It  is 
quite  in  keeping  with  the  character  of 
Christianity,  which  is  free,  active,  bold, 
and  progressive,  that  the  little  book 
upon  which  it  rests  for  its  initial  his- 
tory, its  theology,  and,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, for  its  polity,  should  exhibit  such 
diverse  elements  at  work  upon  it,  and 
likewise  that  the  book  itself  should  ex- 
ist in  so  many  more  or  less  variant 
texts.  Superstition,  which  secured  the 
Jew  a  verbatim  copy,  as  far  as  possible, 
of  his  sacred  Scriptures,  did  not  oper- 
ate to  anything  like  the  same  extent  in 
the  case  of  the  Christians.  They  es- 
teemed it  a  great  privilege  to  have  the 
Gospels  and  Epistles,  but  as  copies 
multiply  in  the  Church  we  find  the 
thoughts  of  the  inspired  writer  are 
better  preserved  than  his  exact  words. 
At  all  events,  the  "various  readings" 
increased,  A  very  fruitful  source  of 
variation  was  the  habit  of  writing  at 
dictation,  for  a  word  incorrectly  heard 
would  be  of  course  incorrectly  written. 
Then,  too,  the  use  of  "  ligatures,"  or 
combinations  of  letters,  to  save  time, 
the  arbitrary  signs  employed,  and  the 
inarks  of  correction  or  doubt  gradually 
worked  into  the  text  from  the  margin, 
^ach  and  all  contributed  to  destroy  the 


correctness  of  the  copy.  Superfluous 
words,  filling  out  one  sentence  by  piec- 
ing to  it  a  part  of  another  (e.  g.  Rom. 
8  :  1  compared  with  8  :  4  shows  conclu- 
sively that  the  latter  clause  of  ver.  1  is 
repeated  by  inadvertence  from  ver.  4), 
marginal  glosses  which  at  last  crept 
into  the  text, — these  are  some  of  the 
unintentional  faults  of  all  copies.  But 
these  variations  evince  the  lively  inter- 
est which  all  classes  took  in  the  book, 
and  therefore  are  an  indirect  proof  of 
its  divinity.  They  multiply  the  means 
for  ascertaining  the  original  reading 
and  supersede  the  necessity  of  conjec- 
ture, to  which  we  must  often  resort  in 
the  case  of  the  ancient  classics.  So 
far  from  being  alarmed  at  this  state 
of  things,  we  see  in  it  the  hand  of  God, 
who  does  not  want  his  Church  to  be 
bound  to  the  letter,  but  to  be  free  in  the 
Spirit,  and  to  exercise  all  its  powers  of 
research  upon  his  holy  word. 

In  the  case  of  the  N.  T.  the  number 
of  manuscripts  is  very  large,  consider- 
ing the  labor  and  expense  of  transcrib- 
ing. They  are  divided  into  two  classes  : 
The  uncials,  which  are  written  through- 
out in  capitals,  and  with  no  division  of 
words  or  of  sentences,  and  with  very  few 
and  simple  marks  of  punctuation.  The 
writing  is  in  columns  of  uniform  width, 
from  one  to  four  on  a  page,  the  letters 
filling  out  the  page  irrespective  of  the 
completion  of  a  word.  The  material 
was  parchment  in  book-form.  The 
uncials  go  down  to  the  tenth  century. 
The  most  important  uncial  manuscripts 
are  the  Sinaitic  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury (discovered  by  Prof.  Tischendorf 
in  the  convent  of  St.  Catherine,  on 
Mount  Sinai,  1859,  and  published  in 
fac-simile,  1862),  the  Vatican  of  the 
same  age  (in  the  Vatican  Library  at 
Rome),  and  the  somewhat  later  Alex- 
andrian (in  the  British  Museum,  Lon- 
don). The  second  kind  of  manuscripts, 
the  cursives,  are  so  called  because  written 
in  running-hand.  The  uncial  form  was, 
however,  retained  for  some  time  after 
this  in  church  copies.  From  about  the 
eleventh  century  paper  made  from  cot- 
ton or  linen  superseded  parchment. 
The  style  of  penmanship  and  other 
peculiarities  in  writing  enable  "  diplo- 
matists," as  such  experts  are  called,  to 
tell  the  century  to  which  any  given  man- 
uscript belongs.    The  later  manuscripts 

J21 


BIB 


BIB 


are  of  little  or  no  critical  account  since 
the  discovery  of  the  older  or  uncial  man- 
uscripts. 

The  N.  T.  in  Greek  was  first  printed 
as  part  of  the  Complutensian  Polyglot, 
which  Cardinal  Ximenes  patronized,  at 
Alcala,  the  modern  name  for  the  Spanish 
townComplutum,  in  1514,  but  the  Poly- 
glot was  not  published  till  1622.  The 
editors,  probably  in  their  ignorance,  pre- 
tended to  have  relied  for  the  text  upon 
very  ancient  manuscripts  received  from 
Rome;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
manuscripts  were  comparatively  recent 
and  very  inaccurate.  The  first  Greek 
Testament />H6^;'sAerf  was  that  of  Eras- 
mus, which  appeared  in  1516.  The  so- 
called  "  Textus  Receptus,"  or  received 
text,  is  derived  from  the  second  edition 
of  Elzevir,  published  at  Leyden,  1633. 
It  is  in  the  main  a  copy  of  Beza's  (1565- 
1589).  The  typographical  beauty  of 
the  Elzevir  edition  and  its  handy  shape, 
and  not  its  critical  merit,  determined 
its  acceptance.  In  England  the  text 
of  Stephens  (1550),  which  is  substan- 
tially the  same  with  the  text  of  Elzevir, 
has  often  been  reprinted  and  taken  as 
the  basis  of  critical  editions  from  Mills 
down  to  Tregelles,  although  Bentley 
suggested  a  new  basis  from  the  oldest 
sources.  The  text  of  the  N.  T.  has 
been  brought  into  its  present  satisfac- 
tory condition  after  long-continued  and 
patient  study,  and  every  Bible  student 
should  thank  God  for  the  scholars  he 
has  raised  up  to  do  this  work.  All 
honor  to  the  immortal  names  of  Gries- 
bach  (1754-1812),  Lachmann  (1793- 
1851),  Tischendorf  (1815-1874),  Tre- 
gelles (1813-1875),  Westcott,  and  Hort, 
for  to  them  are  we  indebted  for  the 
oldest  and  purest  text  of  the  Greek 
Testament  which  can  be  attained  at 
the  present  day,  and  which  makes  a 
revision  of  our  English  version  at  once 
desirable  and  safe. 

III.  The  Order  op  the  Books  and  the 
Names  of  their  Divisions. 

1.  The  Old  Testament. — The  Jew- 
ish arrangement  diff'ers  widely  from 
ours.  The  N.  T.  recognizes  a  division 
of  the  0.  into  "  the  Law  and  the 
Prophets,"  Matt.  11:13;  22:40;  Acts 
13  :  15,  etc.,  which  phrase  was  doubtless 
a  popular  way  of  speaking  of  the  whole 
book.  AVe  also  find  a  longer  phrase, 
122 


"the  Law,  the  Prophets,  and  the 
Psalms,"  Luke  24  :  44.  The  Jews 
divided  their  sacred  Scriptures  into 
(a)  the  Law — i.  e.  the  five  books  of 
Moses,  commonly  known  as  the  Pen- 
tateuch, the  five-fold  book;  (6)  the 
Prophets,  divided  into  the  earlier,  in- 
cluding Joshua,  Judges,  First  and  Second 
Samuel,  First  and  Second  Kings,  and 
later,  which  are  subdivided  into  the 
greater  —  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Eze- 
kiel — and  the  twelve  so-called  minor 
prophets;  (c)  The  Holy  Writings,  or 
Hagiographa,  as  they  are  usually  denom- 
inated, comprising  the  Psalms,  Prov- 
erbs, Job,  Canticles,  Ruth,  Lamentations, 
Ecclesiastes,  Esther,  Daniel,  Ezra, 
Nehemiah,  First  and  Second  Chronicles. 
In  this  probably  chronological  order 
the  books  are  arranged  in  the  Hebrew 
Bibles. 

The  Christian  division  into  historical, 
poetical,  and  prophetical  books  is  topi- 
cal and  more  apj^ropriate.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  enumerate  the  books,  as 
a  full  list  is  appended  to  almost  every 
copy  of  the  Bible. 

2.  The  New  Testament  is  divided  into 
the  Gospels,  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the 
Epistles,  both  Pauline  and  Catholic  (the 
latter — those  of  James,  Peter,  John,  and 
Jude — so  called  because  not  addressed 
to  particular  churches  or  individuals, 
but  of  universal  import),  and  the  Reve- 
lation ;  or  more  briefly  into  the  histori- 
cal, the  doctrinal,  and  the  prophetical 
books.  The  oldest  manuscripts  vary 
in  their  arrangement.  Many  put  the 
Catholic  Epistles  immediately  after  the 
Acts,  while  the  Sinaitic  puts  the  Pauline 
Epistles  before  the  Acts. 

IV.  The  Division  of  the  Text  into 
Chapters  and  Verses. 

The  ancient  mode  of  writing  was  con- 
tinuous; no  stops  of  any  kind  were 
made,  nor  were  words  separated.  See 
article  Book.  As  soon  as  any  break  is 
made  we  get  the  germs  of  a  system  of 
division,  for  these  breaks  will  indicate 
punctuation,  and  thus  serve  the  second- 
ary purpose  of  facilitating  reference 
and  remembrance.  We  find  that  the 
division  of  the  sacred  text  into  sections 
was  early  made  as  a  matter  of  neces- 
sity, but  that  chapters  and  verses  were 
of  much  later  origin. 

1.   The  Old  Testament. — The  Rabbinic 


Specimens  of  existing  MSS.  of  the  Scriptures. 

M  ycTH  f  /  o  Kj:oce 

4th  Cent.     Codux  Siiiaiticus. — 1  Tiiu   iii.  IG. 
TO  T1J?  euaejSeta?  |  /avo-TTjpioc  [Oe  late  corr.]  os  e. 

N  O  PC  M  H  C  ^^^PfT 

4th  Cent.    Codex  Sinaiticus. — John  i.  18. 
roYevTjs  0[eo]s  [o  oiv  corr.J  eis  tov. 

T   -A.eNGinoN6<po&oYN 
I  -:  - 


t 


4th  Cent.    Codex  Vaticanus. — Mark  xvi.  8. 
iTTaai;  Kai  ovSevi  ov  |  See  eiTTov  €(^o/3ovc  |  ro  yap: 


^4Apx•riHNOxqrocKAloxoracM 
^    Tn|^oc-rOMo7>r'UAieCHhio\oroc  • 

5th  Cent.    Codex  Alexandrinus. — John  i.  1. 
El*  o-PXt  ^^  **  A.070?  Kttt  0  A070S  >)»'  I  Trpos  to;'  0[eo]v  xai  0[eo]  s  rjv  o  Aoyos^ 


^t4 ■  y*aty» nu'^vt'ircpg  '^tp<rwX*'g*  ^*^««f*«r»*«oir 
fc-^'"  . ■■.,  _  ■■     V     ._\m  i.7rtL  umxrrif^f* 


10th  Cent.    Codex  Basiliensis,  known  to  Erasmus,  but  little  used  by  him. 
-Luke  i.  1-2  nearly,  as  in  all  Greek  Testaments. 


BIB 


BIB 


division  is  very  elaborate.  It  origina- 
ted in  the  liturgical  use  in  worship  ;  and 
so,  the  more  the  books  were  used,  the 
more  complete  was  the  notation.  The 
N.  T.  quotations  from  the  0.  T.  for  the 
most  part  are  cited  with  no  more  specific 
reference  than  to  the  book  from  which 
they  come,  but  sometimes  in  other  ways : 
thus,  "  the  bush  "  quoted  from  in  Mark 
12  :  26  and  Luke  20  :  37  was  a  familiar 
section  of  our  present  Exodus,  and 
was  only  one  of  similar  terms  for  other 
parts.  In  like  manner,  the  existence 
of  a  cycle  of  lessons  is  indicated  by 
Luke  4:17;  Acts  13  :  15  ;  15  :  21 ;  2  Cor. 
3  :  14,  and  this,  whether  identical  or  not 
with  the  later  Rabbinic  cycle,  must 
have  involved  an  analogous  arrange- 
ment to  that  subsequently  adopted. 
Prof.  Plumptre,  in  Smith's  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible  says :  "  The  Law  was 
divided  first,  much  later  the  Prophets ; 
the  former  into  fifty-four  sections,  to 
correspond  with  the  number  of  Sab- 
baths in  the  Jewish  intercalary  year. 
But  these  sections  were  subdivided  to 
fit  them  for  reading  by  diflFerent  persons 
in  the  synagogue  service.  The  Prophets 
were  not  so  uniformly  nor  so  impera- 
tively divided.  Yet  in  intention  these 
sections  corresponded  to  the  sections  of 
the  Law,  so  that  they  together  consti- 
tute a  'table  of  lessons'  for  Sabbath 
public  use.  Some  time  in  the  ninth 
century  a.  d.  the  sections  were  divided 
into  verses." 

2.  The  New  Testament. — The  Gospels 
were  divided  first  about  the  middle  of 
the  third  century  (a.  d.  220),  by  Am- 
monius  of  Alexandria,  into  short  chap- 
ters, "  constructed  to  facilitate  the  com- 
parison of  corresponding  passages  of 
the  several  Gospels."  Later  on  the 
Acts,  the  Pauline  and  the  Catholic 
Epistles,  and  finally,  about  a.d.  500,  the 
Revelation,  were  thrown  into  chapters. 

Our  present  division  of  all  the  books 
in  the  Bible  into  chapters  is  much  later, 
dating  from  Cardinal  Hugo  de  St.  Cher 
(died  1263),  whose  Concordance  to  the 
Vulgate  popularized  the  use  of  verses 
likewise.  This  division  was  introduced 
into  the  Latin  Bible,  and  afterward  into 
the  Greek  0.  T. 

The  present  system  of  verses  was  pre- 
pared and  introduced  by  Robert  Ste- 
phens in  his  Greek  Testament,  1551. 

While  both  these  divisions  are  on  the 
124 


whole  well  made,  there  are  numerous 
places  where  correction  is  loudly  de- 
manded ;  chapters  begin  in  wrong 
places,  and  verses  end  in  the  midst 
of  a  sentence.  These  divisions  are  at 
best  necessary  evils.  The  reading  of 
the  Bible  is  interrupted  by  them,  ow- 
ing to  the  practice  of  ending  with  a 
chapter.  Paragraph  Bibles  are  to  be 
commended,  because  in  them  the  sec- 
tions are  arranged  according  to  the 
writer's  thought,  irrespective  of  the 
chapters,  and  the  verses  are  merely 
indicated  by  numbers  on  the  margin. 
No  verses  are  marked  in  Tyndale,  Cov- 
erdale,  or  the  Great  Bible. 

V.  The  Translations  of  the  Bible. 
1.  Ancient  Translations. 

(a)  Into  Chaldee. — Since  the  Jews, 
during  the  Captivity,  had  lost  command 
over  Hebrew,  it  became  necessary  to 
translate  the  sacred  books  into  their  ver- 
nacular, the  Chaldee.  We  find  a  refer- 
ence to  this  state  of  things  in  Neh.  8  :  8. 
These  Chaldee  translations  and  para- 
phrases are  called  Targums  (the  word 
means  interpretation),  but  there  is  no 
one  which  comprises  the  whole  0.  T. 

(b)  Into  Greek. — The  best  known  is 
called  the  Septuagint,  and  is  commonly 
represented  in  scholarly  books  by  the 
Roman  numerals  LXX.  It  was  made 
direct  from  the  Hebrew  by  a  company 
of  learned  Alexandrian  Jews  in  that 
city  under  the  patronage  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  and  begun  b.  c.  285.  It 
is  not  of  equal  fidelity  throughout. 
The  name  Septuagint — i.  e.  seventy, 
a  round  number  for  the  more  exact 
seventy-two — arose  from  a  tradition 
that  the  work  was  executed  in  sev- 
enty-two days  by  seventy-two  Jew- 
ish scholars.  The  version  was  made 
from  Egyptian  Hebrew  manuscripts, 
and  probably  at  different  times, 
which  may  account  for  the  inequal- 
ity. As  it  now  stands,  it  includes 
the  Apocrypha,  but  did  not  at  the 
beginning.  Those  books  were  gradually 
added.  The  LXX.  has  exerted  great 
influence,  was  claimed  by  the  Jews  to 
be  inspired,  was  in  universal  use 
among  them  in  Christ's  day,  is  con- 
tinually quoted  by  the  N.  T.  writers 
and  by  the  Greek  Fathers,  was  trans- 
lated instead  of  the  Hebrew  into 
Latin,   and    is    the    authority    in    the 


BIB 


BIB 


Greek  Church  to-day.  When  the 
Christians  in  debate  quoted  it  against 
their  Jewish  adversaries,  the  latter 
awoke  to  the  fact  that  their  own  re- 
gard for  it  was  excessive,  and  there- 
fore abandoned  it  and  returned  to  the 
study  and  use  of  the  original  Hebrew. 
Though  not  literal,  and  perhaps  inten- 
tionally so,  it  is  very  valuable  in  ex- 
plaining the  Hebrew  text.  Other  Greek 
translations  were  made  by  Aquila, 
Theodotion,  and  Symmachus,  but  they 
exist  only  in  fragments. 

(c)  Into  Si/riac. — A  translation  into 
this  language,  made  by  Christians,  di- 
rect from  the  Hebrew,  called  the  Peshito 
{aimple,  because  it  was  literal,  and  not 
paraphrastic),  was  in  common  use  in  the 
fourth  century,  but  probably  dates  from 
the  latter  part  of  the  second.  It  is  the 
earliest  of  these  direct  versions. 

{d)  Into  Latin. — The  one  called  the 
Itala,  made  from  the  Septuagint,  existed 
very  early  in  the  Latin  Church.  But  the 
one  which  is  now  the  "  authorized  ver- 
sion "  in  the  Church  of  Rome  was  made 
by  Jerome,  the  most  learned  Christian 
of  his  day,  directly  from  the  Hebrew, 
A.  D.  385-405.  It  is  called  the  Vulgate, 
and  was  declared  by  the  Council  of  Trent 
(1563)  to  be  of  equal  authority  with  the 
original  Bible.  All  Roman  Catholic  ver- 
sions must  be  conformed  to  it. 

It  was  very  natural  that  the  first 
book  printed  was  the  Bible.  Gutenberg, 
the  inventor  of  the  art  of  printing,  turned 
his  skill  unto  the  service  of  God(  1450-55). 
Before  discussing  other  versions,we  quote 
a  few  lines  upon  pre-Reformation  Bibles  : 
"The  earliest  printed  Bibles  in  the  mod- 
ern European  languages  were  the  first 
and  second  German  Bibles  by  Mentelin 
and  Eggesteyn  of  Strasburg,  of  rather 
uncertain  date,  but  certainly  not  later 
than  1466.  In  1471  appeared  at  Venice 
two  translations  into  Italian — the  one  by 
Malermi,  printed  by  Vindelin  de  Spira, 
and  the  other  by  Nicolas  .Tenson.  In  1477 
was  printed  the  first  N.  T.  in  French,  by 
Buyer,  at  Lyons,  and  the  same  year  ap- 
peai-ed  the  first  edition  of  the  0.  T.  in 
Dutch,  printed  at  Delft  by  Jacob  Jacobs 
zoen  and  Mauritius  Yemants  zoen.  In 
1480  was  published  the  splendid  Bible 
in  the  Saxon  or  Low  German  language, 
from  the  press  of  Heini-ich  Quental,  of 
Cologne,  followed  by  a  second  edition  in 
1491,  and  a  third  in  1494.     The  Psalms, 


in  Dutch,  first  came  out  in  1480,  in  small 
octavo,  and  in  Greek  and  Latin  in  1481, 
while  the  first  Hebrew  Pentateuch  ap- 
peared in  1482.  The  entire  Bible,  done 
into  French  paraphrase,  was  published 
by  Guyard  de  Moulins  in  1487.  A  full 
translation  appeared  in  the  Bohemian 
language,  printed  at  Prague  in  14S8. 
The  same  year  appeared  the  entire  0. 
T.  in  Hebrew  from  the  press  of  Abra- 
ham ben  Chayim  de'  Tintori,  at  Son- 
cino.  This  chronological  arrangement 
shows  us  also  many  noteworthy  points, 
such  as  that  nearly  all  the  earliest  Bi- 
bles were  huge  folios ;  that  the  first 
Bibles  printed  at  Rome  and  Venice  ap- 
peared in  1471,  and  that  the  sixth  Ger- 
man Bible,  by  G.  Zainer,  in  1475,  at 
Augsburg,  was  the  first  with  the  leaves 
folioed  or  numbered ;  that  the  first  quarto 
Bible  appeared  in  1475,  printed  by  John 
Peter  de  Ferratis  at  Placentia,  which  also 
was  the  first  book  printed  at  Placentia ; 
that  the  first  of  Coburger's  celebrated 
Bibles  appeared  in  Nuremberg  in  1475, 
and  that  by  the  end  of  the  century  no 
less  than  thirteen  large  folio  Bibles  had 
come  from  this  house  alone ;  that  the  four 
splendid  Bibles  printed  in  1476  all  bear 
the  printers'  signatures,  though  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  say  with  certainty  which  was  the 
first;  that  the  first  Bible  with  a  distinct 
title-page  was  printed  at  Venice,  by 
George  de  Ravabenis,  in  1487,  in  small 
quarto,  and  that  the  first  Bible  in  small 
octavo  —  or  the  poor  man's  Bible — was 
the  earliest,  or  among  the  earliest  books, 
from  the  press  of  Johann  Froben,  of  Basle, 
in  1491. 

"  Prior  to  the  discovery  of  America 
no  less  than  twelve  grand  patriarchal 
editions  of  the  entire  Bible,  being  of 
several  different  translations,  appeared 
from  time  to  time  in  the  German  lan- 
guage;  to  which  add  the  two  editions 
by  the  Otmars  of  Augsburg  of  1507  and 
1518,  and  we  have  the  total  number  of 
no  less  than  fourteen  distinct  large  fo- 
lio pre-Reformation  or  ante-Lutheran 
Bibles,  No  other  language  except  the 
Latin  can  boast  of  anything  like  this 
number." — Henry  Stevens  :  Bibles  in 
the  Caxton  Exhibition,  pp.  27,  28. 

Thus,  prior  to  the  Reformation,  there 
were  translations  of  the  entire  Bible  in- 
to the  principal  languages.  Still,  their 
unwieldy  size  and  great  cost  kept  them 
from  popular  use,  although,  more  than 

125 


BIB 


BIB 


is  commonly  supposed,  they  carried  a 
knowledge  of  the  Word  unto  the  com- 
mon people,  and  thus  prepared  the  way 
for  better  things.  These  several  transla- 
tions were  from  the  Vulgate  j  those  now 
to  be  very  briefly  mentioned  were  made 
after  the  Reformation,  and  from  the 
original  tongues. 

2.  Modern   Translations. 

(a)  Into  German. — We  have  already 
seen  that  there  were  fourteen  editions  of 
the  entire  Bible  printed  and  circulated 
in  Germany  before  Luther  (1483-1546) 
nailed  his  theses  upon  the  church-door 
at  Wittenberg,  Oct.  31,  1517.  But  to 
the  great  Reformer  is  due  the  credit  of 
translating  the  entire  Bible,  together 
with  the  Apocrypha,  out  of  the  original 
tongues.  He  conceived  the  idea,  and 
carried  it  out  by  translating  the  N.  T. 
while  in  friendly  captivity  in  the  Wart- 
burg  during  1521.  He  published  the 
work  in  the  fall  of  1522.  Then  he  be- 
gan at  the  0.  T.,  and  published  the 
translation  in  sections  as  he  advanced. 
The  first  edition  of  the  entire  Bible  ap- 
peared in  1534.  Ten  editions  of  the 
original  version  were  printed.  In  1541 
he  issued  an  edition  in  which  the  first 
had  been  faithfully  revised  by  his  col- 
leagues and  himself.  This  translation 
is  that  used  in  Germany  to-day.  It  has 
often  been  remarked  that  it  fixed  the 
German  language  and  at  the  same  time 
established  Protestantism. 

(b)  Into  French. — A  French  version 
by  Le  Fevre  was  published  at  Antwerp 
in  1530.  But  there  is  no  national 
French  version;  that  which  comes  near- 
est to  it  is  Olivetan's,  which,  however,  is 
sadly  defective,  though  improved  by 
Calvin,  his  cousin.  This  version  ap- 
peared in  1535  in  the  village  of  Serri- 
eres,  near  Neufchatel,  at  the  expense  of 
the  AValdenses.  Of  existing  versions, 
Segond's  (1880)  is  by  far  the  best. 

(c)  Lito  Dutch. — The  States-general's 
translation,  ordered  by  the  Synod  of 
Dort  (1619),  is  reputed  the  most  accu- 
rate of  all  present  modern  versions. 

(d)  Into  English. — The  story  of  the 
English  Bible  begins  before  the  Ref- 
ormation. 

(1.)  John  de  Wycliffe  (about  1324- 

84),  aided  by  Hereford,  was  the  first  to 

translate  the  entire  Bible  into  English. 

The  greater  part  of  the  translation  of 

126 


the  N.  T.  was  made  by  him ;  this  ap- 
peared in  1381.  The  0.  T.  was  princi- 
pally the  work  of  Nicholas  de  Hereford, 
but  Wycliffe  finished  it.  Manuscript  cop- 
ies were  multiplied.  Many  poor  priests 
went  through  the  country  preaching 
from  this  version.  The  first  true  text 
was  not  brought  out  in  print  before  1850, 
in  the  edition  of  Forshall  and  Madden, 
in  4  vols.  (The  earliest  printed  editions 
of  the  N.  T.  by  Baber  and  in  Bagster's 
English  Hexupla  are  not  the  version  of 
Wycliff"e,  but  of  one  of  his  followers). 

Wycliff'e  simply  translated  from  the 
Vulgate,  and  hence  there  was  need  of  a 
new  and  independent  version.  Besides, 
the  change  in  the  language  required  it. 
The  invention  of  printing  rendered  it 
possible  to  give  the  Bible  in  the  vernac- 
ular to  the  masses,  but  the  Roman 
Church  has  never  been  favorable  to 
this,  knowing  full  well  that  Bible  study 
means  independent  research  and  protest 
against  unscriptural  traditions.  It  was 
not  until  the  gathering  storm  of  the 
Reformation  burst  upon  the  deformed 
and  diseased  Roman  communion  that 
the  English  people  received  a  transla- 
tion from  the  original  languages  of  the 
entire  Bible. 

(2.)  For  doing  this  the  credit  belongs 
to  William  Tyndale  (born  1484),  who 
was  burnt  at  the  stake,  a  martyr  to  the 
cause  of  religious  liberty,  Oct.  6,  1536; 
but  not  before  he  had  by  his  work  won 
an  imperishable  fame.  Filled  with  the 
one  wish,  which  he  lived  to  realize — to 
give  everj^  one  who  could  read  English 
the  opportunity  of  reading  for  himself 
God's  holy  word — he  endured  the  con- 
tradiction of  sinners  against  himself. 
Understanding,  as  he  says,  "  that  there 
was  no  place  to  translate  the  N.  T.  in 
all  England,"  he  went  to  Europe  in 
1524,  and  carried  on  his  work  amid 
every  sort  of  difficulty  and  danger.  The 
N.  T.  appeared  at  Worms  in  the  latter 
part  of  1625,  and  arrived  in  England  the 
early  part  of  1526,  where  it  was  exten- 
sively circulated.  Tyndale  revised  it, 
and  published  in  this  enforced  and 
stealthy  way  several  editions  under  his 
personal  supervision.  He  also  issued  at 
intervals  various  books  of  the  0.  T.,  and 
the  manuscript  translation  of  other  parts 
was  just  before  his  death  transmitted  to 
Thomas  Poynitz  of  Antwerp,  who  finally 
delivered  them  to  John  Rogers  {alias 


BIB 


BIB 


Thomas  Matthew),  who  subsequently 
edited  them. 

(3.)  Miles  Coverdale  (1488-1569)  is 
the  next  name  upon  the  list.  He  differed 
greatly  from  his  predecessor,  Tyndale, 
lacking  his  independence  and  devotion 
and  his  knowledge  of  the  original  lan- 
guages, yet  on  the  whole  he  deserves 
well  of  posterity.  His  translation  of 
the  entire  Bible  appeared  Oct.  4,  15;]5, 
prefaced  by  a  fulsome  dedication  to  the 
king,  Henry  VIII.  In  order  to  render 
the  volume  more  attractive,  it  was  illus- 
trated with  several  wood-cuts.  It  was 
avowedly  not  made  from  the  original 
tongues,  but  from  three  Latin  and  two 
German  translations  (viz.  the  Vulgate, 
Erasmus,  Pagninus,  Luther,  and  Leo 
Juda).  The  0.  T.  was  based  chiefly  on 
the  Swiss-German  (ZUrich)  Bible,  and 
the  N.  T.  on  Tyndale,  although  with 
many  variations.  It  was  printed  in 
Antwerp  at  the  expense  of  Jacob  van 
Meteren,*  but  published  in  London. 
This  translation  had  but  little  influence 
upon  the  so-called  A.  V. 

(4.)  The  "Thomas  Matthew"  Bible 
was  a  compilation,  although  not  a  me- 
chanical one,  under  this  assumed  name, 
made  by  John  Rogers  (1505-55),  Tyn- 
dale's  friend,  who  is  famous  as  the  first 
Marian  martyr,  burnt  at  Smithfield,  Feb. 
4, 1555,  from  the  above-mentioned  trans- 
lations of  Tyndale  and  Coverdale.  It 
was  published  in  London,  1537,  but 
probably  printed  by  Jacob  van  Meteren 
in  Antwerp.f  The  publishers,  Messrs. 
Grafton  &  Whitechurch,  in  some  way 
interested  Archbishop  Cranmer  in  this 
edition,  who  through  Crumwell  pro- 
cured a  royal  license  for  it,  and  this 
Bible  became  the  first  authorized  ver- 
sion. And  so  it  came  about  that  this 
edition  of  the  Bible,  which  was  two- 
thirds  Tyndale's  translation,  "  that  had 
been  again  and  again  publicly  stigma- 
tized and  condemned  by  authority  of 
this  same  king,  Henry  VIII.,  and  even 
actually  prohibited  seven  years  before, 
was  now  'set  forth  with  the  king's  most 
gracious  license,'  this  authorization  being 
printed  in  red  ink  in  each  separate  vol- 
ume." Appended  to  the  chapters  are 
notes ;  upon  this  part  the  editor  laid 
out  his  strength. 

(5.)    Richard   Tavener  (1505-1575) 

*Vide  Henry  Stevens  :  Bibles  in  Caxton  Exhibi- 
tion, pp.  38,  seq.  t  Stevens,  p.  75. 


issued  a  revised  edition  of  the  Matthew 
Bible  in  1539,  but  it  never  was  widely 
used.  Its  sale  may  have  been  stopped 
by  the  publication  of  the  so-called  Great 
Bible. 

(6.)  The  "Great  Bible,"  sometimes 
called  Whitechurch's,  after  one  of  the 
printers'  names,  or  oftener  "  Cranmer's 
Bible,"  from  the  mistaken  idea  that  he 
was  the  editor  of  it,,  was  published  in 
London,  1539.  Its  name  came  from  its 
size  ;  its  pages  are  fully  15  inches  in 
length  and  over  9  in  breadth.  Its  text  is 
Matthew's,  revised  by  Coverdale,  who 
in  his  singular  humility  thus  revised 
his  own  work.  To  Crumwell's  Protes- 
tant zeal  and  triumphant  energy  do  we 
owe  the  volume.  It  was  devoid  of 
notes.  It  was  the  first  edition  which 
printed  in  a  ditferent  type  the  words  not 
found  in  the  original.  It  also  derives 
interest  from  the  fact  that  the  Scripture 
sentences  in  the  English  Prayer-book 
in  the  Communion  Service,  in  the  Hom- 
ilies, and  the  entire  Psalter  are  taken 
from  it.  In  1540  appeared  the  Cran- 
mer Bible,  so  called  from  the  arch- 
bishop's prologue,  but  in  fact  only  a 
new  revised  edition  of  the  Great  Bible 
of  the  previous  year. 

(7.)  The  Geneva  Version  (1560), 
made  by  the  refugees  from  the  Marian 
persecution,  j^rincipally  by  William 
Whittingham  (1524-89),  whose  wife  was 
Calvin's  sister.  But  the  Genevan  Bible 
must  not  be  confounded  with  the  New 
Testament  which  appeared  there  in  June, 
1557,  the  fruit  of  the  editorial  labors 
of  Whittingham.  The  Genevan  Bible 
was  begun  the  January  following.  The 
N.  T.  had  for  the  first  time  the  division 
of  verses  (following  the  Greek  of 
Stephens,  1551),  with  the  numbers  pre- 
fixed. It  had  also  characteristic  mar- 
ginal notes,  and  marks  by  italics  the 
words  supplied.  The  Genevan  Bible, 
having  been  begun,  was  carried  reso- 
lutely through.  It  is  not  known  how 
many  were  engaged  upon  it,  but  a  large 
share  of  the  work  fell  upon  Whitting- 
ham, Avho  tarried  in  Geneva  along  with 
Gilby  and  Sampson  a  year  and  a  half 
after  Queen  Elizabeth's  accession  in 
order  to  complete  the  work  begun  dur- 
ing the  dark  days  of  ''Bloody  Mary." 
The  Bible  finally  appeared  April,  1560, 
with  a  dedication  to  the  queen.  The 
translation    is    careful     and     scholarly 

127 


BIB 


BIB 


work,  based  chiefly  upon  Tyndale  and 
Cranmer,  with  many  proofs  of  the 
influence  of  Beza.  It  is  really  the 
first  complete  direct  English  trans- 
lation from  the  original  Hebrew  and 
Greek  Scriptures.  It  at  once  became 
widely  popular.  "  It  was  printed  in 
Roman  characters,  with  division  into 
chapters  and  verses.  It  was  not  a 
heavy,  unhandy  fqlio  like  the  editions 
of  Coverdale,  Rogers,  or  the  Great 
Bible,  but  a  moderate  and  manageable 
quarto.  Its  marginal  notes  were  a 
kind  of  running  comment,  vigorous  and 
lucid,  dogmatic  and  practical.  ...  It 
became  at  once  the  people's  book  in 
England  and  Scotland,  and  it  held  its 
place  not  only  during  the  time  of  the 
Bishops'  Bible,  but  even  against  the 
present  A.  V.  for  at  least  thirty  years. 
It  was  the  first  Bible  ever  printed  in 
Scotland  (1576-79),  and  it  was  the 
cherished  volume  in  all  Covenanting 
and  Puritan  households." — Eadie  :  The 
English  Bible,  vol.  ii.  p.  16. 

(8.)  The  Bishops'  Bible. — In  the  early 
part  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign  the 
Great  Bible  was  allowed  to  be  read  in 
the  churches  as  the  authorized  version, 
but  the  Genevan  edition  was  a  formi- 
dable rival,  greatly  excelling  it  in  popu- 
larity and,  besides,  in  accuracy.  Thus 
it  came  about  that  a  revision  was  de- 
manded, and  this  Archbishop  Parker 
(1504—75)  was  anxious  to  make.  He 
began  it  about  1563-64,  having  dis- 
tributed the  work  to  15  scholars,  8 
of  whom  were  bishops,  and  therefore 
the  Bible  was  called  ''The  Bishops' 
Bible,"  and  the  book  was  published  in 
1568.  It  contained  no  word  of  flattery, 
nor  even  a  dedication,  but  was  ornament- 
ed with  143  copper-plate  engravings  of 
maps,  portraits,  coats  of  arms,  etc.;  it  also 
had  notes,  brief  but  valuable,  generally  on 
matters  of  interpretation,  but  occasion- 
ally dogmatic.  It  was  a  revision  of 
the  Great  Bible,  which  in  turn  was 
based  on  "  Matthew's "  recension  of 
Tyndale.  An  eff'ort  was  made  to  secure 
for  the  Bishops'  Bible  the  royal  sanc- 
tion, but  ineffectually.  Convocation, 
however,  passed  a  decree  in  1571  ''that 
every  archbishop  and  bishop  should 
have  at  his  house  a  copy  of  the  Holy 
Bible  of  the  largest  volume  as  lately 
printed  in  London,  and  that  it  should 
be  placed  in  the  hall  or  large  dining- 
128 


room,  that  it  might  be  useful  to  their 
servants  or  to  strangers."  The  order 
applied  to  each  cathedral,  and,  "  so  far 
as  could  be  conveniently  done,  to  all 
the  churches."  The  Bishops'  Bible 
supplanted  the  Great  Bible,  but  could 
not  the  Genevan,  because  that  was 
wide-spread  among  the  peoj^le.  The 
most  important  fact  in  its  history  is 
that  it  was  made  the  basis  for  the 
recension  which  resulted  in  our  pres- 
ent A.  V. 

(9.)  Roman  Catholic  Translations. — 
The  Roman  Church  has  never  been 
friendly  to  vernacular  translations  of 
the  Scriptures.  Hence  we  should  not 
expect  it  would  spontaneously  make 
one ;  but  when  the  Genevan  version 
became  so  popular  in  England,  it 
seemed  desirable  that,  since  English 
Roman  Catholics  were  sure  to  fall  in 
with  it,  they  should  be  given  a  correc- 
tive in  the  shape  of  a  translation  by 
some  of  the  faithful.  The  N.  T.  ap- 
peared at  Rheims,  in  France,  in  1582, 
and  the  0.  T.  at  Douai  (1609-10),  al- 
though it  had  been  prepared  before  the 
appearance  of  the  N.  T.,  but  delayed  for 
lack  of  means.  The  first  complete  edi- 
tion of  the  entire  Bible  according  to  this 
recension  was  published  at  Rouen  (1633- 
35).  Its  translators  were  good  scholars, 
but  were  obliged  to  take  the  Latin  Vul- 
gate as  the  basis,  and  to  adhere  very 
closely  to  it.  They  accompanied  the 
translation  with  polemical  notes.  On 
the  whole,  the  work  is  inferior  to  our 
version,  and  disfigured  by  unintelligi- 
ble Latinisms.  No  effort  was  made  to 
give  this  translation  any  circulation. 
It  was  issued  in  an  expensive  form, 
and  none  of  the  Church  dignitaries 
concerned  themselves  with  it.  Cardi- 
nal Wiseman  {Essays,  vol.  i.  pp.  73-75) 
says  :  ''  To  call  the  Roman  Catholic  ver- 
sion now  in  use  the  version  of  Rheims 
and  Douai  is  an  abuse  of  terms.  It  has 
been  altered  and  modified  till  scarcely 
any  verse  remains  as  it  was  originally 
published ;  and  so  far  as  simplicity 
and  energy  of  style  are  concerned,  the 
changes  are  in  general  for  the  worse." 
The  revision  was  chiefly  made  by  Dr. 
Challoner  (1750)  and  by  Dr.  Troy  (1791). 
The  Catholic  version  has  retained  from 
the  Vulgate  some  of  the  oldest  and  best 
readings  and  a  large  number  of  Latin- 
isms, some  good  (as  advent,  victim,  alle- 


BIB 


BIB 


gory,  prevarication,  altercation,  fallacy), 
others  which  have  never  gone  into  pub- 
lic use  (as  azyntes,  corhana,  parasceve, 
consubstantial,  coin(piination,  scenope- 
gia).  It  has  contributed  some  improve- 
ments to  King  James's  revisers.  See  ex- 
amples in  Moulton's  History  of  the  Enrj- 
lish  Bible,  p.  187  (London,  1878).  "  Noth- 
ing is  easier,"  says  Dr.  Moulton,  "  than 
to  accumulate  instances  of  the  eccentri- 
■city  of  this  revision,  of  its  obscure  and  in- 
flated renderings  ;  but  only  minute  study 
can  do  justice  to  its  faithfulness  and  to 
the  care  with  which  the  translators  exe- 
cuted their  work." 

(10.)  The  King  James's  Version 
(1611). — The  final  outcome  of  this  series 
of  original  translations  and  revisions  of 
transUvtions  of  the  Scriptures  was  the  so- 
called  A.  v.,  which  for  250  years  has  been 
the  channel  whereby  God's  truth  has 
flowed  into  Anglo-Saxon  minds.  But 
it  has  been  even  an  instructor  in  o-ther 
things  than  those  of  religion,  for  from 
it  the  language  has  drawn  its  stability. 
Its  style  is  regarded  with  admiration 
by  natives  and  foreigners  alike.  It  is 
the  first  of  English  classics.  Even  se- 
ceders  to  Rome  admit  this,  as  the  sweet 
and  fervent  hymnist,  Dr.  F.  William 
Faber,  whose  remarkable  judgment  (of- 
ten falsely  attributed  to  Dr.  John  Henry 
Newman)  is  well  worth  quoting  in  full: 
"  Who  will  say  that  the  uncommon  beau- 
ty and  marvellous  English  of  the  Protest- 
ant Bible  is  not  one  of  the  gre<at  strong- 
holds of  heresy  in  this  country  ?  It  lives 
on  the  ear  like  a  music  that  can  never  be 
forgotten,  like  the  sound  of  church-bells, 
which  the  convert  hardly  knows  how  he 
can  forego.  Its  felicities  often  seem  to 
be  almost  things  rather  than  mere  words. 
It  is  part  of  the  national  mind  and  the 
anchor  of  national  seriousness.  Nay,  it 
is  worshipped  with  a  positive  idolatry, 
in  extenuation  of  whose  grotesque  fa- 
naticism its  intrinsic  beauty  pleads 
availingly  with  the  man  of  letters 
and  the  scholar.  The  memory  of  the 
dead  passes  into  it.  The  ])otent  tradi- 
tions of  childhood  are  stereotyped  in 
its  verses.  The  power  of  all  the  griefs 
and  trials  of  a  man  is  hidden  beneath 
its  words.  It  is  the  re])reseiitative  of 
his  best  moments;  and  all  that  there 
has  been  about  him  of  soft,  and  gentle, 
and  pure,  and  penitent,  and  good  sjieaks 
to  him  for  ever  out  of  his  Enailish  Bi- 


ble. It  is  his  sacred  thing,  which 
doubt  has  never  dimmed,  and  contro- 
versy never  soiled.  It  has  been  to 
him  all  along  as  the  silent — but  oh 
how  intelligible  ! — voice  of  his  guar- 
dian angel,  and  in  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  land  there  is  not  a 
Protestant,  with  one  spark  of  religious- 
ness about  him,  whose  spiritual  biogra- 
phy is  not  in  his  Saxon  Bible.  And  all 
this  is  an  unhallowed  power  !" 

The  A.  V.  is  a  monument  to  the 
memory  of  King  James  I.  of  England, 
but  he  had  no  more  to  do  with  it 
than  to  appoint  the  commission,  and 
did  not  contribute  a  penny  for  its  exe- 
cution. It  was  abruptly  proposed  in 
the  Hampton  Court  Conference  (Jan., 
1604)  by  a  learned  Puritan  divine, 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Reynolds  (1549-1607), 
president  of  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Oxford,  who  suggested  to  His  Majesty 
''that  there  might  be  a  new  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible,  because  those  which 
were  allowed  in  the  reign  of  King 
Henry  VIII.  and  Edward  VI.  were 
corrupt  and  not  answerable  to  the 
truth  of  the  original."  Bishop  Ban- 
croft opposed  the  motion  as  imperti- 
nent, but  the  vain  king,  who  thought 
himself  as  wise  as  Solomon,  unexpect- 
edly and  at  once  agreed  to  it,  and  dis- 
played his  biblical  erudition  by  criti- 
cising the  previous  translations,  espe- 
cially that  of  Geneva,  which  he  hated  on 
account  of  its  marginal  notes.  He  in- 
vited a  number  of  distinguished  schol- 
ars to  do  the  work  (June  ;>0,  1604),  but 
without  any  expense  to  himself.  Pro- 
fessing his  own  poverty,  he  held  ouf 
before  the  revisers  the  hope  of  Church 
preferment,  giving  orders  to  the  bish- 
ops to  that  effect,  and  for  their  immedi- 
ate expenses  he  called  upon  the  bishops 
and.  chapters  to  contribute  toward  the 
requisite  amount. 

Revision  had  no  attractions  for  the 
clergy  nor  for  the  people.  The  Bish- 
ops' and  (xeneva  Bibles  already  in  their 
hands  seemed  to  answer  every  purpose. 
Accordingly,  as  far  as  can.  be  deter- 
mined, no  one  responded  to  the  king's 
call  for  money  ;  yet  since  the  whole 
amount  A^as  only  about  £700,  the  pro- 
portion from  each  diocese  was  really 
small.  "  King  James's  version  never 
cost  King  James  a  farthing."  At  the 
chancellor's  suggestion,  the  revisers  met 

129 


BIB 


BIB 


at  the  universities,  where  they  received 
board  and  lodging  free  of  cost ;  and 
"  at  the  final  revision  the  6  or  12  re- 
visers received  each,  according  to  one 
statement,  ?>()  shillings  a  week  from  the 
Company  of  Stationers."  The  work 
of  revision  thus  arranged  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1604  was  not  really  begun  in 
earnest  till  the  spring  of  1(307,  and  then 
occupied  about  2  years  and  9  months. 
Dr.  Reynolds,  who  had  proposed  the 
work,  and  who  was  well  qualified  to 
carry  it  on,  died  in  that  year,  just  as 
his  wish  was  to  be  gratified.  The  origi- 
nal number  of  revisers  appointed  by 
the  king  at  the  suggestion  of  some  one 
unknown,  but  probably  Richard  Ban- 
croft (1544-1610),  then  the  bishop  of 
London,  soon  afterward  the  archbishop 
of  Canterbui-y,  was  54,  but  owing  to 
death,  declinature,  and  other  causes 
there  were  only  47  actually  engaged. 
These  47  formed  themselves  into  6  com- 
panies, two  meeting  at  Westminster, 
Cambridge,  and  Oxford  respectively. 

The  following  are  the  rules  which 
were  composed  to  govern  them  in  their 
labors  : 

"(1.)  The  ordinary  Bible  read  in  the 
Church,  commonly  called  'The  Bishops' 
Bible,'  to  be  followed,  and  as  little  altered 
as  the  truth  of  the  original  will  permit. 

"(2.)  The  names  of  the  prophets  and  the 
holy  writers,  with  tiie  other  names  of  the 
text,  to  be  retained  as  nigh  as  may  be,  ac- 
cordingly as  they  were  vulgarly  used. 

"  (3.)  The  old  ecclesiastical  words  to  be 
kept ;  viz. :  the  word  church  not  to  be  trans- 
lated congregntion,  etc. 

"(4.)  When  a  word  hath  divers  significa- 
tions, that  to  be  kept  which  hath  been  most 
commonly  used  by  the  most  ancient  fathers, 
being  agreeable  to  the  propriety  of  the 
place  and  the  analogy  of  the  faith. 

"(o.)  Tlie  division  of  the  chapters  to  be 
altered  either  not  at  all  or  as  little  as  may 
be,  if  necessity  so  require. 

"  (fi.)  No  marginal  notes  at  all  to  be  affix- 
ed, but  only  for  the  explanation  of  the  He- 
brew or  Greek  words  which  cannot,  with- 
out some  circumlocution,  so  briefly  and 
fitly  be  preserved  in  the  text. 

"(7.)  Such  quotations  of  places  to  be  or- 
iginally set  down  as  shall  serve  for  the  fit 
reference  of  one  Scripture  to  another. 

"(8.)  Every  particular  man  of  each  com- 
pany to  take  the  same  chapter  or  chapters; 
and  having  translated  or  amended  them 
severally  by  himself  where  he  thinketh 
good,  all  to  meet  togetlier,  confer  what  they 
have  done,  and  agree  for  their  parts  what 
shall  stand. 

"(9.)  As  any  one  company  hath  des- 
patched any  one  book  in  this  manner,  they 
130 


shall  send  to  the  rest  to  be  considered  of 
seriously  and  judiciously;  for  His  Majesty 
is  very  careful  in  tliis  point. 

"(10.)  If  any  company,  upon  the  review 
of  the  book  so  sent,  doubt  or  differ  upon 
any  place,  to  send  then)  word  thereof,  note 
the  place,  and  withal  send  the  reasons;  to 
wliich  if  they  consent  not,  the  difference 
to  be  compounded  at  the  general  meeting, 
which  is  to  be  of  the  chief  persons  of 
each  company  at  the  end  of  the  work. 

''(11.)  When  any  place  of  special  obscur- 
ity is  doubted  of,  letters  to  be  directed  by 
authority  to  send  to  any  learned  man  in 
the  land  for  his  judgment  of  such  a  place. 

"(12.)  Letters  to  be  sent  from  every 
bishop  to  the  rest  of  his  clergy,  admonish- 
ing them  of  this  translation  in  hand,  and 
to  move  and  charge  as  many  as  being  skil- 
ful in  the  tongues,  and  having  taken  pains 
in  that  kind,  to  send  his  particular  obser- 
vations to  the  company  either  at  West- 
minster, Cambridge,  or  Oxford. 

"(13.)  The  directors  in  each  company  to 
be  the  deans  of  Westminster  and  Chester 
for  that  place,  and  the  king's  professors 
of  Hebrew  and  Greek  in  either  univer- 
sity. 

"(14.)  These  translations  to  be  used 
when  they  agree  better  with  the  text  than 
the  Bishops'  Bible:  Tindale's,  Matthew's 
[Rogers'],  Coverdale's,  Wliitchurch's  [Cran- 
mer's],  (reneva. 

"(15.)  Besides  the  said  directors  before 
mentioned,  three  or  four  of  the  most  an- 
cient and  grave  divines  in  either  of  the 
universities,  not  employed  in  translating, 
to  be  assigned  by  the  vice-chancellor,  upon 
conference  with  the  rest  of  the  heads,  to 
be  overseers  of  the  translations,  as  well 
Hebrew  as  Greek,  for  the  better  observa- 
tion of  the  fourth  rule  above  specified." 

How  closely  these  rules  were  followed 
it  is  impossible  to  say.  The  secrets  of 
their  sessions  have  been  inviolably  kept; 
for  although  the  translators  were  en- 
gaged for  3  years,  of  the  incidents  of 
their  labor  little  can  be  gathered  from 
contemporaneous  history,  and  little  was 
probably  known  beyond  the  circle  of 
the  translators.  A  passing  I'emark  of 
Selden  furnishes  nearly  all  that  can 
now  be  known  of  what  may  be  termed 
the  private  history  of  our  English  Bible  : 
"The  translation  in  King  James's  time 
took  an  excellent  way.  That  part  of  the 
Bible  was  given  to  him  who  was  most 
excellent  in  such  a  tongue,  and  then 
they  met  together,  and  one  read  the 
translation,  the  rest  holding  in  their 
hands  some  Bible,  either  of  the  learned 
tongues,  or  French,  Spanish,  Italian, 
e-tc.  If  they  found  any  fault,  they 
spoke;  if  not,  he  read  on." — Table  Talk. 
When     the    revision     was     completed, 


BTB 


BIB 


three  copies  of  the  whole  Bible  were 
sent  [to  London] — one  from  Cambridge, 
a  second  from  Oxford,  and  a  third  from 
Westminster — where  they  were  commit- 
ted to  six  persons,  two  from  each  com- 
pany, who  reviewed  the  whole.  This 
final  revision  lasted  9  months.  The 
work  was  at  last  given  up  to  the  printer, 
Ilobert  Barker;  the  proofs  were  read 
by  Dr.  Thomas  Bilson,  bishop  of  Win- 
chester, and  Dr.  Myles  Smith  (appoint- 
ed bishop  of  (xloucester  in  1012). 

The  first  edition  of  the  A.  V.,  includ- 
ing the  Apoci-ypha,  appeared,  bearing 
date  1611,  in  handsome  folio,  in  black 
letter,  with  a  beautiful  frontispiece  en- 
graved by  C.  Boel  of  Richmont.  Be- 
sides the  translation,  there  were  given 
a  Calendar,  a  Table  of  Lessons,  and 
elaborate  Tables  of  Genealogies.  The 
dedication  was  fulsome  in  its  praise 
of  James.  The  preface,  entitled  "  The 
Translators  to  the  Reader,"  written  by 
Dr.  Myles  Smith,  is  pedantic,  according 
to  our  notions,  but  written  in  excellent 
English,  and  important  as  a  clear  state- 
ment of  the  principles  upon  which  the 
revision  was  made.  The  title-page  con- 
tained the  words  ''  Appointed  to  be  read 
in  the  churches " — i.  e.  of  England. 
But  there  is  no  evidence  that  this  ap- 
pointment was  ever  made  by  convoca- 
tion or  Parliament,  privy  council  or  the 
king.  The  version  "  gained  currency 
partly  by  the  weight  of  the  king's  name, 
partly  by  the  personal  authority  of  the 
prelates  and  scholars  who  had  been  en- 
gaged upon  it,  but  still  more  by  its  own 
intrinsic  superiority  over  its  rivals." — 
Wesfcott.  The  printing  of  the  so-called 
A.  V.  at  once  stopped  the  printing  of 
the  Bishops'  Bible,  though  it  did  not 
that  of  the  Genevan  Bible,  which  con- 
tinued to  be  used,  especially  in  New 
England,  until  about  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  when  King  James's 
version  was  on  all  hands  accepted  as  the 
English  Bible. 

"  When  all  ci'itical  helps  and  sources 
of  influence  have  been  taken  into  ac- 
count, the  student  whose  analysis  [of  the 
A.  v.]  has  been  most  complete  will  find 
most  to  admire  in  the  work  that  the 
translation  or  revision  of  1607^11  has 
given  us.  The  praise  he  will  award  to 
the  revisers  will  not  be  indiscriminate 
eulogy.  He  will  discover  that  very 
much  that  they  have  transmitted  to  us 


was  inherited  by  them  from  others ;  the 
execution  of  different  parts  of  the  work 
will  prove  to  be  unequal,  the  Epistles, 
for  example,  standing  far  below  the 
Pentateuch  in  accuracy  and  felicity  of 
rendering  ;  many  flaws  and  inconsisten- 
cies will  reveal  themselves;  occasionally 
it  will  be  found  that  better  renderings 
have  been  deliberately  laid  aside,  and 
worse  preferred ;  but,  notwithstanding, 
almost  every  paragraph  will  bear  testi- 
mony to  the  tact,  care,  diligence,  and 
faithfulness  of  the  men  to  whom,  in 
God's  providence,  we  owe  the  version  of 
the  Scriptures  which  has  come  down  to 
us  consecrated  by  the  associations  of  250 
years." — Moulton  :  History  of  the  Eng- 
lish Bible,  pp.  207-8. 

The  modern  edition  of  the  English 
Bible  is  a  great  improvement  upon  that 
of  1611.  In  that  year  there  were  two 
issues,  both  incorrectly  printed,  and 
both  containing  errors  which  were  not 
typographical.  Much  care  has  been 
taken  since  that  date  to  make  the  ver- 
sion, in  grammatical  and  typographical 
correctness,  as  nearly  perfect  as  possible. 
Three  editions  of  the  A.  V.  deserve  par- 
ticular mention:  (1.)  Bishop  Lloyd's 
(London,  1701),  containing,  for  the  first 
time,  marginal  dates,  derived  princi- 
pally from  Archbishop  Ussher  ;  (2.)  the 
Cambridge  Bible  of  1762,  edited  by  Dr. 
Paris;  (3.)  the  Oxford  edition  of"l769, 
edited  by  Dr.  Blayney.  ''  These  editors 
sought  to  apply  with  greater  consistency 
the  principle  of  denoting  additions  to 
the  original  text  by  italic  type,  substi- 
tuted ordinary  forms  of  words  for  such  as 
had,  in  their  opinion,  become  obsolete, 
and  made  very  large  additions  to  the 
number  of  marginal  references,  which 
in  our  present  Bible  are  said  to  be  seven 
times  as  numerous  as  in  the  edition  of 

1611 [But]  as  late  as  1830,  Bibles 

were  often  printed  with  serious  want  of 
accuracy.  The  last  forty  years  have 
witnessed  a  considerable  improvement, 
and  recent  editions  have  left  little  to  be 
desired.  The  Cambridge  Paragraph 
Bible,  edited  by  Dr.  Scrivener,  is  the 
classic  edition  of  the  A.  V.,  and  is  a 
monument  of  minute  accuracy  and  un- 
sparing labor." — MouLTOX  :  History  of 
the  Emjlish  Bible,  pp.  209-11. 

In  the  Jubilee  Memorial  of  the  Amer- 
ican Bible  Society,  prepared  by  Rev. 
Isaac  Ferris,  D.  D.,  LL.D.  (New  York, 

131 


BIB 


BIB 


1867),  it  is  stated  (p.  25)  that  the  Amer- 
ican Bible  Society's  Version  Committee 
in  1847  undertook  a  "most  careful  re- 
vision of  our  English  text  in  order  to 
secure  its  conformity  to  the  British,  so 
as  to  make  what  should  be  a  standard 
edition.''  Their  final  report  was  made 
in  1851.  But  inasmuch  as  their  changes 
were  many  and  important,  there  was  a 
constitutional  objection  to  the  Society's 
adopting  this  revision,  and  then,  more- 
over, there  was  a  deep  prejudice  or  re- 
luctance to  any  alteration ;  and  there- 
fore the  revision  was  rejected  in  1852. 
A  new  committee  was  appointed,  and  the 
Bible,  as  it  came  from  their  hands,  with 
some  fruits  of  the  labors  of  the  previous 
committee,  is  now  (since  1860)  the  stand- 
ard of  the  American  Bible  Society. 

VI.  The  Anglo-American  Revision  of 
THE  Authorized  Version. 

The  reasons  for  desiring  a  revision 
may  be  thus  stated:  (1.)  During  the  268 
years  since  our  version  was  finished  the 
English  language  has  undergone  some 
changes ;  some  words  have  become  ob- 
solete, and  others  have  changed  their 
signification.  In  this  way  sentences 
which  conveyed  a  clear  and  correct 
meaning  to  our  ancestors  mislead  or 
mystify  us.  It  will  be  suflScient  to  in- 
stance such  examples  as  :  to  ear  for  to 
plouffh:  to  2ir event  for  to  (jo  before,  to  pre- 
cede ;  to  let  for  to  hinder ;  carriage  for 
bagijage.  (2.)  Immense  strides  have 
been  made  in  all  biblical  studies.  The 
geography  and  archaeology  of  the  Holy 
Land,  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  languages, 
both  in  grammar  and  dictionary,  are  far 
better  known  now  than  they  could  be  in 
King  James's  time.  The  A.  V.  is  very 
careless  and  inconsistent  in  the  use  of  the 
article,  the  tenses  and  modes  of  verbs. 
(3.)  The  text  of  the  Bible  is  now  in  a  very 
satisfactory  state — much  nearer  the  ipsis- 
si7na  verba  of  the  inspired  writers  than 
that  known  in  1611.  '' The  number  of 
the  various  readings,"  says  Prof.  Ezra 
Abbot,  "  which  have  been  collected  from 
more  than  500  manuscripts,  more  than 
a  dozen  ancient  versions,  and  from  the 
quotations  in  the  writings  of  more  than 
a  hundred  Christian  fathers,  only  attests 
the  exuberance  of  our  critical  resources, 
which  enable  us  note  to  settle  the  true 
text  of  the  N.  T.  with  a  confidence  and 
precision  which  are  wholly  unattainable 
132 


in  the  case  of  any  Greek  or  Latin  clas- 
sical author ;  Jbut]  in  the  time  of  our 
translators  of  1611  only  a  small  fraction 
of  our  present  critical  helps  was  avail- 
able." We  are  able  to  appreciate  this 
remark  when  we  remember  that  the  best 
texts  rely  on  manuscripts  of  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries,  while  of  our  Greek 
and  Latin  classics  many  (e.  g.  ^schyliis 
and  Sophocles)  are  transcriptions  from 
only  one  ancient  manuscript,  and  that 
not  earlier  than  the  tenth  century. 

The  Anglo-American  Bible  revision 
movement  originated  in  the  Convoca- 
tion of  Canterbury,  May  6,  1870,  by 
the  appointment  of  a  committee  of 
eminent  biblical  scholars  and  dignita- 
ries of  the  Church  of  England  to  under- 
take the  revision  in  association  with 
scholars  from  other  denominations. 
The  English  committee  was  divided  into 
two  companies,  one  for  each  Testa- 
ment, who  held  monthly  meetings  in 
the  Jerusalem  Chamber  and  the  Chap- 
ter Library  at  the  deanery  of  West- 
minster, London.  The  American  com- 
mittee was  organized  in  1871,  on  invi- 
tation of  the  British  committee,  to 
co-operate  with  it.  It  was  similarly 
composed  of  representative  scholars  of 
different  denominations,  and  met  for 
several  days  of  each  month  in  the  Bible 
House,  New  York.  The  two  commit- 
tees embraced  about  80  active  members 
(exclusive  of  about  20  more  who  died 
or  resigned  after  the  work  began),  and 
were  in  constant  correspondence.  They 
submitted  to  each  other  portions  of 
their  work  as  it  advanced,  and  issued  one 
and  the  same  revision.  The  variations  of 
the  American  committee  were  embodied 
in  an  appendix.  Some  American  editions 
embody  these  variations  in  the  text. 

The  object  set  before  them  was  to  bring 
King  James's  version  up  to  the  present 
state  of  the  English  language  without 
changing  the  idiom  and  vocabulary, 
and  to  the  present  standard  of  biblical 
scholarship.  It  was  not  the  intention  to 
furnish  a  new  version,  but  merely  a  con- 
servative revision  of  the  received  version, 
so  deservedly  esteemed  in  all  churches. 
And  so  slight  are  most  of  the  changes 
that  the  mass  of  readers  and  hearers  will 
scarcely  mark  them,  while  a  careful  com- 
parison will  reveal  improvements  in 
every  chapter  and  almost  every  verse. 
The  object  was  to  remove  acknowledged 


BIB 


BIB 


errors,  obscurities,  and  inconsistencies, 
to  make  a  good  and  faithful  version  bet- 
ter and  more  faithful,  and  thus  to  bring 
the  old  Bible  nearer  the  understanding 
and  make  it  dearer  to  the  heart  of  Eng- 
lish-speaking Christendom. 

The  general  principles  followed  by 
both  committees  are  as  follows : 

"  (1.)  To  introduce  as  few  alterations  as 
possible  in  the  text  of  the  A.  V.  consistent- 
ly with  faithfulness. 

"  (2.)  To  limit,  as  far  as  possible,  the  ex- 
pression of  such  alterations  to  the  lauguage 
of  the  Authorized  and  earlier  English  ver- 
sions. 

"  (3.)  Each  company  to  go  twice  over  the 
portion  to  be  revised — once  provisionally, 
the  second  time  finally,  aud  on  principles 
of  voting  as  hereinafter  is  provided. 

"  (4.)  That  the  text  to  be  adopted  be  that 
for  whicli  the  evidence  is  decidedly  pre- 
ponderating ;  and  that  when  the  text  so 
adopted  ditfers  from  that  from  which  the 
A.  V.  was  made,  the  alteration  be  indicated 
in  the  margin. 

"  (5.)  To  make  or  retain  no  change  in 
the  text  on  the  second  final  revision  by 
each  company  except  two-thirds  of  those 
present  approve  of  the  same,  but  on  the 
first  revision  to  decide  by  simple  majori- 
ties. 

"  (6.)  In  every  case  of  proposed  altera- 
tion tliat  may  have  given  rise  to  discus- 
sion, to  defer  the  voting  thereupon  till  the 
next  meeting  whensoever  the  same  sliall 
be  required  by  one-third  of  those  present 
at  the  meeting,  such  intended  vote  to  be 
announced  in  the  notice  for  the  next 
meeting. 

"  (7.)  To  revise  the  headings  of  chapters, 
pages,  paragraphs,  italics,  and  punctuation. 

"(8.)  To  refer,  on  the  part  of  each  com- 
pany, when  considered  desirable,  to  di- 
vines, scholars,  and  literary  men,  whether 
at  home  or  abroad,  for  their  opinions." 

The  revised  New  Testament  appeared 
in  England  May  17,  and  in  America 
May  20,  1881.  Several  million  copies 
were  sold  in  a  few  months.  In  the 
United  States  there  were,  almost  at  once, 
upwards  of  twenty  reprints.  The  New 
Testament  for  the  first  time  in  history 
supplanted  the  newspaper  in  popular 
interest.  It  was  sold  upon  news-stands, 
hawked  through  the  streets,  and  read  on 
all  public  conveyances.  It  was  the  liter- 
ary event  of  the  century.  Its  reception 
by  the  religious  public  was  most  flatter- 
ing. The  revised  Old  Testament  is 
expected  in  1885.  It  will  then  be  for 
the  churches  to  decide,  through  their 
ecclesiastical  authorities,  whether  the 
Anglo-American  revision  shall  supersede 


King  James's  Version.  If  the  verdict 
be  favorable,  the  British  and  Foreign 
and  the  American  Bible  Societies  can 
amend  their  constitutions  so  as  to  allow 
them  to  publish  the  revised  version. 

VII.  Other  Versions,  and  the  Dis- 
tribution OP  THE  Bible. 

The  Bible  is  now  printed  in  226  dif- 
ferent livtgtuujes  or  dialects.  More  than 
four-fifths  of  these  versions  are  the 
product  of  missionary  scholarship  and 
zeal.  In  many  cases  the  very  language 
needed  to  be  reduced  to  a  written  form 
and  permeated  with  Christian  thought 
before  a  translation  could  be  made. 
The  chief  agencies  in  giving  the  Scrip- 
tures this  world-wide  distribution  are  : 

(1.)  21ie  Britiah  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society,  founded  March  7,  1804.  Its 
predecessors,  the  most  prominent  of 
which  were  the  "  Society  for  Promoting 
Christian  Knowledge,"  1698,  and  the 
"  Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel 
in  Foreign  Parts,"  1701,  had  cultivated 
a  much  narrower  field.  The  honor  of 
suggesting  a  society  to  send  Bibles  all 
through  the  world  has  been  assigned  to 
Rev.  Joseph  Hughes,  a  Baptist  and 
one  of  the  secretaries  of  the  London 
Religious  Tract  Society,  Lord  Teign- 
mouth  was  the  first  president.  Up  to 
1878  this  society  had  issued  82,407,062 
copies  of  the  Scriptures. 

(2.)  The  American  Bible  Society, 
founded  May  8,  1816.  The  need  of  a 
national  society  had  been  felt  for  some 
time,  but  the  obstacles  in  the  way  pre- 
vented its  formation.  Hon.  Elias  Bou- 
dinot,  LL.D.,  was  the  first  president. 
The  society  had,  up  to  Jan.  1,  1879,  is- 
sued 35,621,262  copies  of  the  Scriptures. 

Twice  as  many  copies  of  the  Bible 
have  been  circulated  in  the  present  cen- 
tury in  heathen  lands  as  were  issued 
between  the  first  printed  Bible  (1450- 
1455 — no  date)  and  the  era  of  Bible  so- 
cieties, in  1804.  One  hundred  and  forty- 
nine  million  copies  of  Bibles,  Testaments, 
and  portions  have  been  distributed  by 
the  various  Bible  societies  in  this  and 
other  countries  since  1804.  And  thou- 
sands of  copies  have  been  privately 
printed.  ''  The  demand  for  the  printed 
Bible  has  always  been  great.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  within  three  years  after  the 
publication  of  the  Great  Bible  in  1539, 
no  less  than  21,000  copies  were  printed. 

133 


BIC 


BIR 


Between  1524  and  1611,  278  editions  of 
Bibles  and  Testaments  in  English  were 
printed.  In  1611,  1612,  1613,  five  edi- 
tions of  King  James's  A'^ersion  were  pub- 
lished, besides  separate  editions  of  the 
New  Testament." — Manual  of  (he  Amey- 
ican  Bible  Society,  1876,  p.  34. 

The  enormous  demand  for  the  Bible 
still  continues,  and  it  is  a  most  healthy 
sign.  The  entrance  of  God's  AVord 
giveth  light.  It  is  a  veritable  miracle 
how  rapidly  its  use  dissipates  moral 
and  spiritual  darkness.  As  Chancellor 
Kent  once  said :  "  The  general  distri- 
bution of  the  Bible  is  the  most  effectual 
way  to  civilize  and  humanize  mankind ; 
to  purify  and  exalt  the  general  system 
of  public  morals  ;  to  give  efiicacy  to  the 
just  precepts  of  international  and  mu- 
nicipal law  ;  to  enforce  the  observance 
of  prudence,  temperance,  justice,  and 
fortitude,  and  to  improve  all  the  rela- 
tions of  social  and  domestic  life." 

BICH'RI  [youthful),  a  progenitor 
of  Sheba.     2  Sam.  20:1. 

BID'KAR  {son  of  stabbing,  i.e.  stab- 
ler), a  "captain  "  of  Jehu  who  had  rid- 
den in  the  chariot  with  Ahab  as  an  up- 
per officer.     2  Kgs.  9  :  25. 

BIER.  Luke  7  :  14.  The  bed  or 
frame  on  which  the  dead  body  is  con- 
veyed to  the  grave.  Probably  it  was 
made  (as  coffins  are  in  modern  times) 
more  or  less  expensive  in  shape  and  or- 
nament according  to  the  circumstances 
and  rank  of  the  deceased.  2  Chr.  16  : 
14.     See  Burial. 

BIG'THA  [gift  of  God),  one  of  the 
"chamberlains  "  or  eunuchs  in  the  ha- 
rem of  King  Ahasuerus.     Esth.  1:10. 

BIG'THAN,  OR  BIG'THANA 
{gift  of  God),  a  chamberlain  or  eunuch 
who,  with  Teresh,  a  fellow-eunuch, 
sought  to  lay  hand  on  King  Ahasuerus. 
Esth.  2:  21;  6:2. 

BIG'VAI  (hajypy?).  1.  "Children 
of  Bigvai"  returned  with  Zerubbabel, 
Ezr.  2:14;  Neh.  7 :  19,  and  others  with 
Ezra.     Ezr.  8  :  14. 

2.  One  of  this  name  was  prominent 
under  Zerubbabel,  and  afterward  sign- 
ed the  covenant.  Ezr.  2:2;  Neh.  7  : 
7:  10:16. 

BIL'DAD  (son  of  strife),  one  of 
Job's  three  friends  who  visited  him  in 
his  affliction,  and  whose  arguments  in 
justification  of  God's  dealings  occupy 
chaps.  8,  18,  and  25  of  the  book  of  Job. 
134 


Job  2  :  11.  See  Job.  The  name  Shu- 
hite  is  probably  derived  from  the  coun- 
try in  which  he  lived,  or  from  Shuah, 
son  of  Abraham  and  Keturah,  whose 
descendant  he  may  have  been. 

BILi'EAM  (foreigners),  a  place  in 
Manasseh,  1  Chr.  6  :  70  ;  same  as  Ibleam 
and  Gath-rimmon.  Josh.  17:17;  21: 
25.  Porter  would  locate  it  near  Megiddo, 
on  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  ;  Drake,  be- 
hind Jenin,  on  the  same  plain,  and  nt 
the  ruin  liclameh. 

BIL'GAH  (cheerfulness).  1.  The 
head,  in  the  time  of  David,  of  the  fif- 
teenth course  of  the  priests.  1  Chr. 
24:14. 

2.  A  priest  who  returned  under  Zerub- 
babel.    Neh.  12  :  5,  18. 

BIL'GAI  (cheerfulness),  probably 
the  same  with  Bilgah,  2.  A  priest  who 
sealed  the  covenant.     Neh.  10  :  8. 

BIL'HAH  (timid,  modest),  the 
handmaid  of  Rachel,  and,  by  Jacob, 
the  mother  of  Dan  and  Naphtali.  Gen. 
29:29;  35:25. 

BIL'HAH.     See  Balah. 

BIL'HAN  (modest).  1.  A  Horite 
chief.     Gen.  36  :  27  ;  1  Chr.  1 :  42. 

2.  A  Benjamite  chief.   1  Chr.  7:10. 

BIL'SHAN  (son  of  the  tongue,  i.  e. 
eloquent),  a  companion  of  Zerubbabel 
on  the  Return.     Ezr.  2:2;  Neh.  7  :  7. 

BIM'HALi  (son  of  circumcision,!,  e. 
circumcised),  an  Asherite.  1  Chr.  7 : 
33. 

BIN'EA  (fountain),  a  descendant 
of  Saul.     1  Chr.  8:37;  9:43. 

BINNU'I  (a  building).  1.  A  Levite. 
Ezr.  8:23. 

2,  3.  Two  who  had  foreign  wives. 
Ezr.  10  :  30,  38. 

4.  A  Levite,  a  builder  of  the  wall. 
Neh.  3 :  24. 

5.  The  father  of  some  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel,  Neh.  7  :  15 ;  called, 
Bani  in  Ezr.  2:10. 

BIRDS  are  mentioned  as  articles  of 
food  in  Dent.  14  :  11,  and  lists  of  birds 
not  to  be  eaten  are  given.  Lev.  11  :  13- 
19;  Deut.  14  :  12-19.  In  general,  the 
ravenous  kinds  feeding  on  flesh  are  for- 
bidden. From  Job  6:6;  Luke  11  :  12 
we  learn  that  the  eggs  of  birds  were  also 
eaten.  In  the  cleansing  of  the  leper 
birds  were  used  in  a  peculiar  way.  Lev. 
14 :  4-7. 

There  was  a  humane  law  in  the  Jew- 
ish  code   which   forbade  the  taking  a 


BIR 


BIS 


mother-bird,  though  her  young  might 
be  taken.  The  common  mode  of  tak- 
ing birds  was  with  a  snare.  Ps.  124 :  7  ; 
Prov.  7  :  2;} ;  Am.  3  :  5.  A  speckled  bird, 
Jer.  12  :  9,  probably  means  a  vulture 
(in  Hebrew),  which,  as  is  well  known, 
other  birds  are  accustomed  to  pursue  and 
attack.  Some  authors  find  etymological 
reasons  for  reading  "  hyena"  instead  of 
*'  speckled  birds  "  in  Jer.  12  :  9.  Many 
of  the  birds  of  Palestine  are  similar  to 
our  own,  but,  strictly  speaking,  there  is 
but  one  species  common  to  both  coun- 
tries. The  house-sparrow  {Passer  do- 
t)iesticus),  which  we  have  received  from 
England,  is  found  in  the  towns  along 
the  coast.  Of  322  kinds  obtained  by 
Mr.  Tristram  in  the  Holy  Land,  172  are 
also  found  in  England,  260  in  Europe, 
and  2()  are  peculiar  to  Palestine. 

BIR'SHA  {so)i  of  gndlessness),  a 
king  of  Gomorrah.     Gen.  14  :  2. 

BIRTH.     See  Children. 

BIRTH'DAYS.  The  custom  of 
making  a  feast  in  anniversary  of  a  birth 
is  very  ancient.  We  find  reference  to 
it  in  Gen.  40  :  20.  In  regard  to  the  cus- 
tom in  Egypt,  Wilkinson  tells  us  :  ''  The 
birthdays  of  the  kings  were  celebra- 
ted with  great  pomp.  They  were  look- 
ed upon  as  holy,  no  business  was  done 
upon  them,  and  all  classes  indulged  in 
the  festivities  suitable  to  the  occasion. 
Every  Egyptian  attached  much  import- 
ance to  the  day,  even  to  the  hour,  of 
his  birth."  But  the  Jews,  probably  on 
this  very  account,  "  regarded  their  ob- 
servance as  an  idolatrous  custom." 
"  The  day  of  our  king,"  spoken  of  in 
Hos.  7:5,  was  probably  his  birthday. 
It  was  upon  Herod's  birthday  that  John 
Baptist  was  beheaded.  Matt.  14  :  6-10. 
The  fact  that  the  Herodian  family 
observed  birthdays  would  be  an  addi- 
tional grievance  on  the  part  of  the 
Jews. 

BIRTH  RIGHT.  Gen.  25  :  31. 
The  first-born  son  among  the  Jews 
enjoyed  sj^ecial  privileges  above  his 
brethren,  and  these  privileges  were  hence 
called  his  birthright,  or  his  right  by 
birth.  Among  these  privileges  were, 
consecration  to  the  Lord,  Ex.  22  :  29 
("  In  consequence  of  this  fact — that  God 
had  taken  the  Levites  from  among  the 
children  of  Israel,  instead  of  all  the 
first-born,  to  serve  him  as  priests — 
the  first-bora  of  the  other  tribes  were 


to   be   redeemed   at   a  valuation   made 

by  the  priest,  not  exceeding  five  she- 
kels, from  serving  God  in  that  capa- 
city. Num.  18  :  \b,  16  j  comp.  Luke  2  : 
22  tf."  —  Home's  Introdnction)  ;  great 
dignity,  (Jon.  49  :  3  ;  a  double  por- 
tion of  his  father's  estate,  Deut.  21 :  17  ; 
and  (in  the  royal  families)  succession  to 
the  kingdom.  2  Chr.  21 :  3.  Though  this 
was  not  invariably  the  case.  Solomon 
was  a  younger  son  ;  so  was  Jehoahaz, 
2  Kgs.  23:31,  36,-  and  so  was  Abijah. 
2  Chr.  11 :  18-22.  The  eldest  son  seems 
to  have  been  regarded,  in  the  father's 
absence,  as  in  some  respects  his  rep- 
resentative. 

The  paternal  blessing  was  also  in  a 
peculiar  sense  the  right  of  the  first-born, 
though  the  right  itself  and  all  the  bless- 
ings of  it  might  be  forfeited  or  trans- 
ferred, as  in  the  case  of  Jacob  and 
Esau,  Gen.  25  :  33,  Reuben  and  Jo- 
seph. 1  Chr.  5:1.  But  wlioever  enjoy- 
ed it  was  regarded  as  invested  with 
great  dignity  and  superiority.  The 
Jews  attached  a  sacred  import  to  the 
title  "first  born." 

Hence  the  peculiar  force  and  appro- 
priateness of  the  titles  "first  born," 
"first  begotten,"  given  to  the  divine 
Redeemer.  Rom.  8  :  29  ;  Col.  1:18; 
Heb.  1  :  2,  4,  6. 

BIR'ZAVITH  {olive-source),  an 
Asherite.     1  Chr.  7:  31. 

BISH'LAilI  {son  of  peace),  a  Per- 
sian olficer  in  Palestine  at  the  time  of 
the  Return  who  wrote  a  letter  against 
Jerusalem  to  Artaxerxes.    Ezr.  4  :  7. 

BISH'OP.  1  Tim.  3  :  2.  The 
original  Greek  word  means  "  overseer," 
as  Joseph  was  in  Potiphar's  house.  Gen. 
39  :4,  or  as  the  three  thousand  six  hun- 
dred men  were  in  Solomon's  temple,  2 
Chr.  2:18,  or  as  Uzzi  was  of  the  Le- 
vites. Neh.  11 :  22.  In  the  N.  T.  the 
term  is  synonymous  with  presbyter  or 
elder,  with  this  difference — that  bishop  is 
borrowed  from  the  Greek  and  signifies 
the  function,  jyresbyter  is  derived  from 
an  office  in  the  synagogue  and  signifies 
the  dignity  of  the  same  office.  Comp. 
Acts  20:  17,  28;  Phil.  1:1:  1  Tim.  3  : 
Iff.;  Tit.  l:5ff.  These  presbyters  or 
bishops  of  the  apostolic  period  were 
the  regular  teachers  and  pastors,  preach- 
ers and  leaders,  of  the  congregations.  We 
may  imagine,  however,  that  among  them- 
selves there  would  be  a  division  made 

135 


BIS 


BLE 


according   to   individual    fitness.      See 
Elder. 

BISH'OPRIC.  Acts  1 :  20  ;  1  Tim. 
3:  1.  The  jurisdiction,  charge,  or  ofiice 
of  a  bisho]). 

BITHI'AH  {daughter,  i.  e.  wor- 
shipper, of  Jehovah),  a  daughter  of 
Pharaoh  and  wife  of  Mered.  1  Chr. 
4:18. 

BITH'RON  {ravi)ie),  a  defile  or 
tract  of  country  east  of  the  Jordan, 
toward  Mahanaim.     2  Sam.  2  :  29. 

BITHYN'IA,  a  rich  Roman  prov- 
ince of  Asia  Minor,  on  the  Black  Sea  ; 
named  onlv  twice  in  Scripture.  Acts 
16:7:  1  Pet.  1:1. 

BITS.     See  Harness. 

BIT  TER  HERBS.  Ex.  12:8. 
The  Jews  were  commanded  to  eat  the 
Passover  with  a  salad  of  bitter  herbs; 
and  the  Rabbins  tell  us  that  such  plants 
as  wild  lettuce,  endives,  and  chicory 
were  employed  for  that  purpose,  as  they 
still  are  by  the  Arabs  in  those  regions. 
The  use  of  them  on  that  occasion  was 
intended  to  call  to  their  remembrance 
the  severe  and  cruel  bondage  from  which 
God  delivered  them  when  they  were 
brought  out  of   Egypt. 

BIT'TERN.  Isa.  34:11.  Doubt- 
less a  correct  translation.  The  bitterns 
belong  to  the  heron  tribe,  and  the  Ori- 
ental species  differ  but  slightly  from  the 
American.  A  solitary  bird,  its  strange 
booming  note  is  often  heard  during 
the  stillness  of  the  night  in  fens  and 
marshes.  The  language  of  prophecy, 
Isa.  14:23  and  34:11;  Zeph.  2:14, 
imports  the  utmost  solitude  and  deso- 
lation. 

BITU'MEN.     See  Slime. 

BIZJOTH'JAH  (contempt  of  Je- 
hovah), in  the  south  of  Judah,  Josh.  15  : 
28  ;  perhaps  same  as  Baalah  and  mod- 
ern Deir-el-Beldh. 

BIZ'THA  {enmieh),  one  of  the 
seven  "chamberlains"  or  eunuchs  of 
Ahasuerus.     Esth.  1:10. 

BLAINS.  Ex.  9:9.  Burning  pus- 
tules or  ulcers,  which  broke  out  upon 
the  Egyptians  and  all  their  beasts,  and 
constituted  the  sixth  plague.  "  It  seems 
to  have  been  the  black  leprosy,  a  fear- 
ful kind  of  elephantiasis."  —  Smith. 
Perhaps  reference  is  made  to  this  plague 
in  Deut.  28  :  27. 

BLAS'PHEMY.     Col.  3  :  8.     The 
word,   in    its    original   use,  denotes  all 
136 


manner  of  detraction  or  calumny,  such 
as  is  expressed  by  the  terms  rail,  revile, 
speak  evil,  etc. ;  but  in  the  restricted 
sense  of  the  Scriptures  and  of  common 
use,  it  denotes  reproachful,  irreverent, 
or  insulting  language  concerning  God 
or  any  of  his  names  or  attributes.  Lev. 
24:  10-16.  Whoever  thinks  of  the  cha- 
racter of  God  as  infinitely  holj',  just,  and 
good  will  not  be  surprised  that  this  of- 
fence was  regarded  as  very  heinous,  and 
was  punished  by  stoning.  There  is  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  the  sin  of  pro- 
fane swearing,  so  common  at  this  day, 
is  less  odious  and  offensive  to  God  than 
it  was  in  the  time  of  Moses. 

Blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost, 
Matt.  12  :  32,  such  as  the  Pharisees  were 
guilty  of.  or  were  in  danger  of  commit- 
ting, when  they  ascribed  the  miracle  of 
curing  the  blind  and  dumb  man  (who 
was  also  possessed  with  a  demon)  to  the 
agency  of  Beelzebub  or  Satan,  is  de- 
clared to  be  unpardonable. 

It  is  far  worse  than  ''  grieving  the 
Spirit."  Some  persons  are  apprehen- 
sive that  they  have  committed  this  sin 
and  give  themselves  up  to  despair,  but 
such  fears  prove  that  they  are  still  open 
to  recovery  and  pardon.  The  sin  against 
the  Holy  Ghost  implies  a  state  of  final 
and  hopeless  impenitence,  and  is  com- 
mitted by  those  who  have  again  and 
again  wilfully  resisted  the  influences 
and  warnings  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
have  made  themselves  incapable  of 
repentance,  and  consequently  of  par- 
don. 

BLAS'TUS  (sprout),  the  chamber- 
lain of  Herod  Agrippa  I.     Acts  12  :  20. 

BLEM'ISH.  For  a  list  of  cere- 
monial blemishes  see  Lev.  21:18-20; 
22  :  20-24. 

BLESS,  BLESSED,  BLESS- 
ING. Gen.  12:2:  22:17,  18.  These 
words  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
sacred  writings,  and  their  particular 
force  may  generally  be  determined  by 
the  connection.  Men  are  said  to  bless 
God  when  they  ascribe  to  him  the  praise 
and  glory  which  are  due  to  him.  Ps.  134. 
God  blesses  men  in  bestowing  upon  them 
continually  mercies,  spiritual  and  tempo- 
ral. Job  42  :  12  ;  Ps.  45  :  2.  And  men 
are  said  to  bless  their  fellow-creatures 
when,  as  in  ancient  times,  in  the  spirit 
of  prophecy  they  predicted  blessings  to 
come  upon  them.     This  was  the  kio<i 


BLE 


BOA 


of  blessing  which  the  patriarchs  pro- 
nounced. Gen.  49.  So  Moses  blessed 
Israel.  Dent.  33.  The  form  of  bless- 
ing prescribed  by  the  Jewish  ritual, 
Num.  6  :  23-27,  is  admirably  simple  and 
sublime.  It  was  pronounced  standing, 
with  a  loud  voice,  and  with  the  hands 
raised  toward  heaven.  Luke  24  :  50. 
National  blessings  and  cursings  were 
sometimes  pronounced.  Deut.  27  and 
28  ;  Isa.  19  :  25. 

Thk  Cup  of  Blessing,  1  Cor.  10  :  10, 
and  Cup  of  Salvation,  Ps.  116  :  13,  are 
expressions  derived  from  a  custom  prev- 
alent among  the  Jews  at  their  feasts. 
The  master  of  the  feast  took  a  cup  of 
wine  in  his  hand,  and  solemnly  blessed 
God  for  it  and  for  all  the  mercies  which 
were  then  acknowledged.  It  was  then 
passed  to  all  the  guests,  each  of  whom 
drank  of  it  in  his  turn.  The  aptness 
and  force  of  the  figures  employed  in  the 
above  passages  are  thus  made  obvious. 

BLESSING,  VALLEY  OF. 
See  Berachah,  Valley  of. 

BLIND'NESS  is  extremely  com- 
mon in  the  East,  as  all  travellers  in 
those  lands  observe.  In  Egypt  espe- 
cially ophthalmia  prevails  extensively 
among  children  and  adults.  The  in- 
fliction of  blindness  was  in  old  times 
a  common  as  well  as  barbarous  punish- 
ment or  penalty  of  resistance  to  a  vic- 
torious enemy.  Jud.  16  :  21;  1  Sam. 
11 :  2  ;  2  Kgs.  25  :  7.  There  are  several 
recorded  occasions,  when,  as  translated 
in  A.  v.,  God  miraculously  sent  blind- 
ness. Gen.  19  :  11  ;  2  Kgs.  6  :  IS  ;  Acts 
9:  8;  13:  11.  In  these  incidents  there  was 
not  so  much  an  actual,  though  tran- 
sient, loss  of  vision  as  a  confusion  of 
sight — perhaps  really  a  mental  confu- 
sion, which  gave  all  the  uncertainty 
of  actual  blindness,  as  in  Luke  24:  16. 
The  word  ''  blindness  "  is  likewise  em- 
ployed in  a  spiritual  sense  as  meaning 
the  sinner's  inability  to  recognize  di- 
vine truth  ;  e.q.    Rom,  11:  25;  Eph.4:18. 

BLOOD  is  the  fluid  of  life  in  the 
animal  body.  Ex.  29  :  12.  Its  use  was 
expressly  prohibited  to  Noah  when 
everything  else  was  freely  given  him. 
Gen.  9  :  -4.  By  the  Jewish  law  also  it 
was  expressly  and  solemnly  forbidden. 
Lev.  17  :  10,  etc.  The  reason  of  this  in- 
terdiction is  probably  because  blood  was 
sacredly  appropriated.  Lev. 17:  11.  The 
Jewish  ritual  abounds  with  the  use  of 


blood,  Heb.  9  :  22 ;  and  the  manner  of 

em})Ioying  it  is  stated  with  minuteness 
in  lleb.  9  and  10,  where  also  its  use 
and  efl'ects  are  shown  in  striking  con- 
trast with  the  blood  shed  upon  the  cross. 
See  also  Acts  20  :  28  ;  Rom.  5:9;  Eph. 
1:7;  Col.l:U;  lleb.7:27;  1  John  1 :  7. 

The  prohibition  of  eating  blood  or 
animals  that  are  strangled  has  been  al- 
ways rigidly  observed  by  the  Jews.  In 
the  Christian  Church  the  custom  of  re- 
fraining from  things  strangled  and  from 
blood  continued  for  a  long  time.  In  the 
council  of  the  apostles  held  at  Jerusalem, 
Acts  15,  it  was  declared  that  converts  from 
paganism  should  not  be  subject  to  the  le- 
gal ceremonies,  but  that  they  should  re- 
frain from  idolatry,  from  fornication, 
from  eating  blood,  and  from  such  ani- 
mals as  were  strangled  and  their  blood 
thereby  retained  in  their  bodies:  which 
precept  was  observed  for  many  ages  by 
the  Church.   Acts  15  :  20-29. 

The  notion  that  the  blood  of  the  vic- 
tims was  peculiarly  sacred  to  the  gods 
is  impressed  on  all  ancient  pagan  myth- 
ology.    See  Christ. 

Blood,  Avenger  of.  See  Avenge, 
Cities  of  Refuge. 

BLUE.     See  Colors. 

BOANER'GES  {sons  of  thunder), 
the  name  Christ  gave  to  James  and 
John,  probably  because  of  their  fiery 
zeal ;  for  proof  of  which,  see  Luke  9  : 
51 :  Mark  9  :  38  ;  comp.  Matt.  20  :  20. 

BOAR.  Ps.80:13.  This  is  the  origi- 
nal stock  of  the  common  hog,  and  when 
hard  pressed  is  a  very  furious  and  for- 
midable animal.  The  wild  boar  is  found 
throughout  Europe  and  the  neighboring 


Wild  Boxi       (Alter  Tribttum) 

parts  of  Africa  and  Asia.  Travellers  tell 
us  that  it  is  found  in  great  numbers  on 
the  banks  of  the  Jordan,  among  the  reeds 

137 


BOA 


BOO 


of  the  Sea  of  Tiberias,  and  generally 
among  the  thickets  of  the  Holy  Land. 
In  some  districts  wild  boars  are  so  de- 
structive to  the  vineyards  and  crops  that 
it  is  necessary  at  times  to  keep  nightly 
watch  against  them.  —  Hartley  :  lie- 
searches  in  Greece,  p.  234. 

BO'AZ,  OR  BO'OZ  {lovely),  was 
a  descendant  of  Judah,  Ruth  2:1,  and 
through  him  is  traced  the  reijiilar  suc- 
cession of  Jewish  kings.  Matt.  1  :  5. 
Boaz  was  a  man  of  wealth  and  of  great 
respectability.  He  married  Ruth  and 
begat  Obed,  the  father  of  Jesse,  the 
father  of  David.     See  Ruth. 

BO'AZ  {lireli/},  one  of  the  brazen 
pillars  erected  by  Solomon  before  the 
portico  of  the  temple.  Its  companion 
was  Jachin.  They  were  named  for 
their  givers  or  makers,  or  else  had  a 
symbolical  meaning.  1  Kgs.  7  :  21;  2 
Chr.  3  :  17;  Jer.  52  :  21. 

BOCH'ERU  (youth),  the  son  of 
Azel.  1  Chr.  8  :  38;'9  :  44. 

BO'CHIM  (weepers),  so  named 
from  the  weeping  of  Israel.  Jud.  2  : 
1-5.  It  was  west  of  the  Jordan,  above 
Gilgal. 

BO'HAN  (tJmmb),  a  Reubenite. 
Josh.  15:6:  18:17. 

BO'HAN  (thumb),  STONE  OF, 
in  the  valley  of  Aehor,  between  Judah 
and  Benjamin.  Josh.  15  :  6  ;  18  :  17.  The 
"  stone  of  the  finger,"  in  Wadi/  Daber, 
may  be  on  its  site. 

BOIJj.     See  Medicine. 

BOL'LED.  Ex.  9  :  31.  The  ex- 
pression /lax  loas  boiled  means  that  it 
was  podded  or  nearly  in  a  state  to  be 
gathered,  and  of  course  the  loss  of  it  was 
much  more  severe  than  it  would  have 
been  at  an  earlier  stage  of  its  growth. 

BOL'STER.     See  Bed. 

BOND,  BOND'AGE,  BOND'- 
MAN,  BONDWOMAN,  BOND'- 
MAID.     See  Servant. 

BON'NETS.    See  Clothes,  Mitre. 

BOOK.  What  we  call  books  were 
unknown  to  the  ancient  Jews,  at  least 
in  their  present  convenient  form.  Let- 
ters were  engraved  on  stone,  brick,  met- 
al (as  lead  and  copper),  or  wood,  and 
written    on  cloth  and  skins,   and  at  a 


inthebegi 

nnixgwast 

hewordan 

DTHEWORD 
WASWITHft 
ODANDTHE 


wordwasg 
odthesamr 
wasintheb 
eginningw 
ithgodall 
thingswer 


later  period  on  parchment.  Ex.  17:14; 
2  Tim.  4  :  13.  Tablets  of  lead  and  brass 
or  copper  of  great  antiquity  have  been 
discovered  in  modern  times. 

The  earliest  mode  of  preserving  in- 
scriptions was  by  engraving  on  a  rock. 
Comp.  Job  19  :  24.  The  Sinaitic  penin- 
sula, especially  the  Wady  Mukatteb  (the 
"Sculptured  Valley"),  and  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Mount  Serbal  and  Mount 
Sinai,  are  full  of  rock-inscriptions  (call- 
ed the  Sinaitic  Inscriptions). 

The  loriting-table  mentioned  Luke  1 : 
63  was  probably  a  tablet  covered  with 
wax  or  otherwise  prepared  to  be  written 
upon.  Deut.  27  :  2,  3.  Such  tablets 
were  used  in  England  as  late  as  the  year 
1300. 

Leaves  and  the  bark  of  trees  were  also 
used,  and  were  often  prepared  with  much 
skill.  The  people  of  Ceylon  write  with 
a  bodkin  on  broad  and  thick  leaves  cut 
into  narrow  slips ;  and  these  leaves,  be- 
ing fastened  together,  make  books  which 
they  call  alias.  The  missionaries  often 
prepared  tracts  in  this  form  before  paper 
and  printing  were  introduced  upon  the 
island.  In  Sumatra  and  among  the 
Indians  of  North  America  bark  is  still 
used  for  making  letters  and  pictures. 

Leather  and  linen  or  cotton  cloth  were 
also  used.  These  were  prepared  in  the 
form  of  long  rolls,  12  or  14  inches  wide, 
and  fastened  at  each  end  to  sticks  (like 
the  rollers  to  which  maps  are  attached), 
and  which  were  rolled  together  till  they 
met  midway.  Sometimes  these  leaves 
were  connected  in  the  form  of  modern 
books,  and  opened  in  the  same  way.  In 
this  case  the  sheets  were  fastened  to  rods, 
and  these  rods  passed  through  rings,  and 
thus  formed  the  back  of  the  book. 

The  writing  was  generally  in  capital 
letters  and  without  punctuation  or  di- 
vision of  words ;  and  when  used,  the 
reader  unrolled  the  manuscript  as  far  as 
the  place  which  he  wished  to  find,  and 
kept  before  him  just  so  much  as  he  would 
read. 

The  pages  resembled  the  following  in 
their  general  appearance,  though  they 
were  of  course  wider  and  longer  than 
these,  and  were  read  from  right  to  left: 


EMADEBYHI 

MANDWITHO 

UTHIMWASN 

OTANYTHIN 

GMADKTHA 

TWASMADB 


138 


INHIMWASLI 

FEAXnTHELI 

FEWASTHELI 

GHTOFMENA 

NDTHELIGHT 

SHINETHIND 

John  1 :  1-5. 


BOO 


BOO 


These  columns  could  be  divided  from 
one  another  and  used  separately,  as  we 
may  cut  the  columns  of  a  newspaper 
which  is  printed  on  one  side  only,  and 
arrange  the  extracts  as  we  like.  Some- 
times the  reading  was  what  is  called 
furrow-wise.  The  first  line  was  from 
right  to  left,  and  the  second  from  left 
to  right,  and  so  on  alternately,  like 
ploughing  a  field.  The  roll  or  book 
of  curses  which  Ezekiel  saw  was  30 
feet  long  and  20  wide.  The  writing 
was  usually  on  one  side,  but  not  al- 
ways. Eze.  2 :  10. 

When  the  roll  was  done  with,  it  was 
carefully  deposited  in  a  case.  The  cut 
on  the  next  page  shows  the  book  of  the 
Law  rolled  upon  two  cylinders,  with  the 
seal  at  one  side. 

There  were  other  forms  of  the  scroll, 
and  also  collections  of  sheets  in  the  shape 
of  a  modern  book,  secured  with  rings  and 
rods. 

A  very  good  idea  may  be  formed  of 
an  ancient  roll  by  supposing  a  common 
newspaper  to  have  rods  or  rollers  at  the 
right  and  left  sides.  The  reader  takes 
hold  of  the  rods  and  unrolls  the  sheet 
until  he  comes  to  the  desired  column. 
Thus,  in  Luke  4  :  17  the  phrase  "  opened 
the  book  "  would  properly  read  "  unrolled 
the  scroll,"  and  in  v.  20  for  "  closed  the 
book  "  read  •'  rolled  up  the  volume  "  or 
"  scroll."  This  shows  the  force  of  the 
figure,  Isa.  34  :  4,  where  the  heavens  are 
represented  as  rolled  together  as  sud- 
denly as  the  opposite  ends  of  an  un- 
rolled scroll  fly  to  meet  each  other  when 
the  hand  of  the  reader  is  withdrawn 
from  it. 

A  kind  of  paper  was  made  from  the 
stalk  of  an  Egyptian  vegetable  called 
papyrus,  or  paper-reed,  Avhich  is  still 
found  in  various  parts  of  India.  See 
Bulrush.  The  stalk  was  slit  with  a 
needle  into  plates  or  layers  as  broad  and 
thin  as  possible.  Some  of  them  were  10 
or  15  inches  broad.  These  strips  were 
laid  side  by  side  upon  a  flat  horizontal 
surface,  and  then  immersed  in  the  water 
of  the  Nile,  which  not  only  served  as  a 
kind  of  sizing,  but  also  caused  the  edges 
of  the  strips  to  adhere  together  as  if 
glued.  The  sheets  thus  formed  were 
dried  in  the  sun  and  then  covered  with 
a  fine  wash,  which  made  them  smooth 
and  flexible.  They  were  finally  beaten 
with  hammers   and  polished.     Twenty 


or  more  of  these  sheets  were  sometimes 
connected  in  one  roll. 

The  pen  or  style*  was  made  of  some 
hard  substance,  perhaps  not  unlike  the 
instruments  used  by  glaziers  to  cut 
glass.  Jer.  17  :  1.  Upon  tablets  of  wax 
an  instrument  was  used,  one  end  of 
which  was  pointed,  to  mark  the  letters, 
and  the  other  broad  and  flat,  to  make 
erasures.  Pens  or  styles  of  copper  are 
now  used  by  the  Ceylonese.  On  a  soft 
substance  like  linen  or  papyrus,  the 
marks  were  painted  with  a  fine  hair- 
pencil,  as  is  practised  among  the  Chi- 
nese to  this  day. 

Most  of  the  Eastern  nations  now  use 
the  reed-jjen,  which  is  split  with  an  in- 
strument used  as  we  use  the  penknife. 
Jer.  36  :  23.  The  pith  is  removed,  and 
the  bark  or  rind,  being  split  like  a  quill, 
retains  and  properly  sheds  the  ink.  It 
is  not  hard  or  stiff"  enough  to  be  used 
long  without  mending.     See  Pen. 

Ink  was  prepared  from  a  variety  of 
substances  (see  Ink),  and  those  who 
were  skilful  in  writing  wore  an  ink- 
horn  fastened  to  the  girdle,  Eze.  9 : 
2,  which  is  the  present  mode  among 
the  Persians  and  the  Moors  of  Bar- 
bary.     See  Inkhorn. 

As  tables  were  unknown,  the  paper  or 
other  substance  written  upon  was  laid 
upon  the  knees  or  held  firmly  with  the 
left  hand. 

A  sealed  book  was  a  roll  fastened 
together  by  a  band  or  string,  and  a  seal 
aflixed  to  the  knot,  Isa.  29  :  11,  as  seen 
in  the  cut. 

Book  op  the  Generation,  Gen.  5:1; 
Matt.  1 : 1,  signifies  the  genealogical  his- 
tory or  records  of  a  family  or  nation. 

Book  of  the  Living,  Ps.  69:28,  and 
the  kindred  phrase.  Book  of  Life,  Rev. 
21 :  27,  are  supposed  to  allude  to  the 
genealogical  lists  or  registers  kept  by 
the  Jews,  from  which  the  names  of  the 
dead  were  erased.  Isa.  4 :  3.  The  apt- 
ness and  force  of  the  figurative  use 
of  the  terms  are  sufficiently  obvious. 

Books  of  Judgment.  Dan.  7  :  10.  The 
allusion  here  is  probably  either  to  the 
practice  of  opening  books  of  account 
to  settle  with  servants  or  laborers,  or 
to  the  custom  of  the  Persian  kings  to 
have  a  book  in  which  a  daily  record  is 
made  of  special  services  performed  by 

*  Hence  the  word  style,  signifying  one's  maU' 
ijer  of  writing — easy  style,  elegant  style,  etc. 

139 


BOO 


BOT 


any  of  their  subjects,  and  of  the  re- 
wards which  were  given  to  the  indi- 
viduals. Esth.  6  : 1-3. 

Book  of  the  Wars  op  the  Lord,  Num. 
21 :  14,  Book  of  Jasher,  or  the  Right- 


Book  of  the  Law  closed. 

Eous,  Josh.  10  :  13  and  2  Sam.  1 :  18, 
and  Book  of  the  Chronicles  (or  an- 
nals) of  the  kings  of  Judah  and  Is- 
rael, 1  Kgs.  14:19,29,  are  the  names 
of  ancient  writings  known  to  the  Jews, 
but  not  preserved  in  the  sacred  canon. 

BOOTH.  See  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles. 

BOOT'Y.  Moses  laid  down  the 
law  upon  this  subject  in  Num.  31 :  26- 
30.  In  regard  to  the  army,  David 
made  the  additional  rule  that  those 
who  "tarried  by  the  stuff" — the  bag- 
140 


gage-guard — should  share  equally  with 
those  Avho  fought.  1  Sam.  30  :  24.  No 
booty  could  be  taken  from  the  Canaan- 
ites,  as  they  were  all,  with  all  they  had, 
devoted  to  destruction.  But  in  wars 
outside  of  Palestine  the  practice  was 
allowable.  Metallic  articles  were  kept 
Josh.  6:17-19;    cf.  Deut. 


for  holy  use. 
20:12-18. 

BO'OZ,  FOR  BO'AZ.   Matt. 
Luke  3:  32. 


1:5; 


BOR'DER.     See  Clothes. 
BORROW.     See  Loan. 
BOS'CATH.     2  Kgs.  22  :  1.     See 

Bozkath. 

BO'SOM.  The  dress  of  the  Jews 
was  such  as  allowed  them  to  carry  with- 
in a  fold  in  the  bosom  of  the  robe  what 
could  not  be  carried  in  the  hand.  Isa. 
40  :  11  ;  Luke  6  :  38,  It  was  also  used 
to  denote  a  place  of  rest  and  security. 
Hence  the  term  Abraham's  bosom  is  fig- 
uratively spoken  of  as  the  abode  of  Laz- 
arus, and  means  the  same  as  paradise. 
Luke  16  :  23  ;  comp.  23  :  43.  To  lean 
on  the  bosom  implied  great  intimacy. 
John  13  :  23.  The  position  of  John, 
leaning  on  the  bosom  of  the  Saviour, 
was  easy  and  natural,  since  the  com- 
pany were  reclining  at  table  upon 
couches,  and  the  back  of  his  head  came 
near  the  bosom  of  Jesus,  who  was  on  his 
left.  The  use  of  this  term,  John  1  :  18, 
imports  the  perfect  unity  of  the  Father 
and  Son. 

BO'SOR,  in  2  Pet.  2  :  15,  Greek 
form  of  Beor. 

BOS'SES,  the  prominent  or  pro- 
jecting parts  of  the  buckler,  and  of 
course  the  thickest  and  strongest.  Job 
15  :  26. 

BOTCH,  probably  the  black  lep- 
rosy, or  elephantiasis.  Deut.  28  :  27,  35. 
See  Leprosy. 

BOT'TLE.  Gen.  21  :  14.  Ancient 
bottles  were  made  of  the  skins  of  ani- 
mals, which  were  properly  dressed  for 
the  purpose.  The  openings  of  the  skin 
were  closed  except  at  the  neck,  through 
which  the  liquor  was  to  be  received  and 
discharged,  and  which  was  fastened  by 
a  string,  like  a  bag.  They  were,  of 
course,  of  different  sizes  and  shapes,  as 
the  skins  of  kids,  goats,  or  oxen  might 
be  used.  Bruce  describes  particularly  a 
bottle  which  he  saw  in  Arabia,  made  in 
this  manner,  of  an  ox-skin,  which  would 
hold  60  gallons. 


BOW 


BOZ 


Christian  missionaries  in  Eastern 
countries  frequently  speak  of  the  goat- 
skins and  leathern  bottles  in  which 
they   carry    water    in    their    journeys. 


Skin-Bottles.     (Ayre.) 

Where  the  travelling  is  rough  and  the 
vessels  likely  to  strike  against  each 
other,  they  are  made  of  the  strongest 
material  that  can  be  found.  The  skins 
or  bottles  used  for  new  wine  were  of 
the  freshest  and  most  flexible  kind, 
in  order  that  they  might  the  better 
endure  the  process  of  fermentation. 
Matt.  9:17. 

The  effect  of  smoke  on  a  skin-bottle 
would  be  to  blacken  and  shrivel  it. 
Ps.  119 :  83.  Water  or  wine  put  into 
such  a  bottle  would  all  run  out.    Nearly 


Arab  Water-Carner. 

all  the  drinking-water  now  used  in  Egypt 
is  brought  from  the  river  Nile  in  skin- 
bottles,  by  Arab  water-carriers,  as  shown 
in  the  ])icture. 

BOVV.     See  Armor. 

BOW,  a  posture.  Gen.  37:  10.  To 
bow  down  one's  self  is  expressive  of 
great  reverence  and  humility.  Gen.  24  : 


26,  48  ;  1  Kgs.  1 :  58  and  2:19.  It  was 
a  common  mode  of  salutation  in  the 
East  to  kneel  upon  one  knee  and  bow 
the  head  until  it  touched  the  ground. 

It  is  still  the  custom  in  many  Eastern 
nations  for  subjects  to  kneel  before  the 
throne  of  the  king  and  bow  their  heads 
slowly  till  they  touch  tlie  earth. 

BOWELS.  As  we  use  the  terms 
heart,  breast,  bosom,  so  this  term  is  used 
by  the  sacred  writers,  evidently  in  a  figu  - 
rative  sense,  for  affections  or  emotions  of 
the  heart.  Col.  3  :  12  ;   1  John  3:17. 

BOX  TREE.  Isa.  41  :  19.  A 
small  evergreen  tree,  either  the  same 
with  or  closely  resembling  the  shrubby 
box  of  our  gardens.  One  species  (  nit.rus 
longifoUa)  is  found  on  Lebanon,  and 
may  once  have  been  common  in  Pales- 
tine. It  is  believed  that  the  Phoenicians 
imported  the  wood  of  other  species  from 
Chittim,  and  used  it  with  ivory  for  in- 
laid work.  The  perfect  proportions  of 
this  tree,  its  perennial  beauty  of  foliage, 
and  its  utility  illustrate  the  prosperity 
and  grace  which  God  will  bestow  on 
Zion.  Isa.  60:13. 

BO'ZEZ,one  of  two  sharp  rocks  be- 
tween Geba  and  Michmash.  1  Sam.  14: 
4,  5.  Robinson  traced  them  out  in  Wady 
Snweineit,  but  Stanley  could  not  make 
them  out.     Conder  suggests  El  Hosn. 

BOZ'KATH,  AND  BOS  CATH 
[stotnj  hei</ht),  a  place  on  the  plains  of 
Judah.  Josh.  15  :  39  ;  2  Kgs.  22  :  1. 
Warren  proposes  BesJiit  as  its  site. 

BOZ^RAH  (fortress),  two  cities. 
1.  Bozrah  in  Edoin,  Isa.  34 :  6  ;  63:1, 
which  was  to  become  a  perpetual  waste, 
Jer.49:13;  Am.l:12;  Mic.  2:12;  mod- 
ern Bnseircli,  in  the  mountains  of  Petra, 
20  miles  south-east  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

2.  Bozrah  in  Moab.  Jer.  48  :  24. 
Judgment  has  surely  fallen  upon  it. 
Porter  thinks  it  the  same  as  modern 
Buzrah,  where  are  the  ruins  of  a  mag- 
nificent city  nearly  5  miles  in  circuit, 
once  having  100,()00  inhabitants,  but 
now  only  20  families.  It  is  near  the 
Hauran,  60  miles  south  of  Damascus. 
Portions  of  its  massive  walls  and  towers, 
theatre,  temples,  stone  doors  and  roofs, 
some  of  the  ruins  of  the  work  of  the  early 
inhabitants. perhaps  the  giants  llephaim, 
and  more  of  the  work  of  later  Roman 
builders,  are  still  to  be  seen  in  good  state 
of  preservation.  Bozrah  at  one  time  had 
17  bishops  under  its  archbishop. 

141 


BRA 


BEE 


BRACE'LET.      An   ornament 
(chain  or  clasp)  worn  on  the   arm    by 


Bracelets.     {British  Mu.'-eum.     From  Ayre.) 

1.  Gold  Egyptian  Bracelets.  2.  Silver  Bracelet. 
3.  Bronze,  with  Bell  attached,  taken  from  Mummy  of 
a  Girl.  4.  Iron,  with  Cornelian  Setting.  5.  Bracelet 
of  Cowries. 

both  sexes.  Gen.  24:30.  Among  East- 
ern princesses  it  is  a  badge  of  royalty, 
and  was  probably  regarded  as  such  in 
the  time  of  David.  2  Sam.  1:10.  The 
royal  bracelet  was  of  much  richer  ma- 
terials, and  was  worn  above  the  elbow  ; 


Assyrian  Bracelets.    (From  Nineveh  Marbles. 
Ayre.) 

the  common  bracelet  was  worn  on  the 
wrist.  Eze.  16  :  11. 

BRAM'BLE.     See  Thorns. 

BRANCH.  This  word  is  often  fig- 
uratively used  by  the  sacred  writers. 
Ps.  80:'l5;  John  15:  5,  6.  It  is  also 
one  of  the  titles  of  the  Messiah.  Isa. 
11  :  1  comp.  with  Isa,  53  :  2  ;  Zech. 
3 :  8  and  6:12.  The  family  of  Jesse  is 
represented  under  the  figure  of  the  stock 
of  a  tree  firmly  rooted,  and  the  coming 
of  Christ  from  the  seed  of  David  is 
represented  as  the  shooting  forth  of  a 
branch,  which  is  here  called,  by  way 
142 


of  distinction  and  eminence,  "  THE 
BRANCH  ;"  for  Christ,  even  in  his 
common  nature,  far  surpassed  all  the 
house  of  David  in  the  dignity,  power, 
and  glory  of  both  his  person  and  oflSce. 

BRASS,  This  compound  metal  was 
probably  unknown  in  ancient  times,  but 
bronze,  a  mixture  of  tin  and  copper, 
may  sometimes  be  referred  to  under 
this  name.  That  which  is  called  brass 
in  most  passages  of  the  sacred  writ- 
ings was  doubtless  what  we  call  cop- 
per. Gen.  4  :  22 ;  Deut.  8:9.  It  was 
used  for  a  variety  of  purposes  about  the 
temple,  and  also  for  fetters,  Jud.  16  :  21 ; 
2  Kgs.  25  :  7  ;  armor,  1  Sam.  17  :  6,  6  ; 
and  musical  instruments.  1  Chr.  15  :  19  ,• 
1  Cor.  13:1.  The  words  brass,  brazen, 
etc.,  occurring  under  the  words  Armor, 
Altar,  Book,  etc.,  are  used  in  conform- 
ity with  the  common  English  translation 
of  the  Bible,  and  not  with  technical  ac- 
curacv. 

BRA'ZEJV   SEA.     See  Layer. 

BRAZEN  SERPENT.  See 
Serpent. 

BREAD.  The  bread  of  the  Jews 
was  generally  made  of  wheat.  Barley 
and  other  grains  were  sometimes  used. 
Jud.  7:13. 

The  materials  were  prepared  as  in 
modern  days.  See  Mill,  Sieve.  The 
kneading  of  the  dough  was  performed 
in  kneading-troughs.  Gen.  18  :  6 ;  Ex.  12  : 
34 ;  Jer.  7:18,  or  wooden  bowls  such  as 
the  Arabians  use  at  this  day  for  a  like 
purpose,  although  some  suppose  that  the 
kneading  was  done  upon  a  circular  piece 
of  leather  such  as  is  now  used  in  Per- 
sia, and  which  would  be  more  proper- 
ly called  a  kneading-bag,  as  it  draws 
up  like  a  knapsack.  Either  of  the 
utensils  would  be  easily  transported. 
Very  simple  leaven  was  used  in  the 
dough.  The  loaves  were  shaped  like 
a  plate,  and  when  leavened  were  ordi- 
narily of  the  thickness  of  one's  little 
finger.  See  Table.  These  cakes  were 
generally  baked  in  either  public  or  pri- 
vate ovens.  The  fuel  was  wood  or 
dried  flower-stalks  or  grass.  Other 
modes  of  baking  were,  however,  used  ; 
as  by  spreading  the  dough  upon  heated 
stones  or  throwing  it  into  the  embers 
of  the  fire.  A  pan  likewise  seems  to 
have  been  used  at  other  times.  2  Sam. 
13  :  9.  The  unleavened  bread  was  very 
thin,  and  was  broken,  not  cut.  Lam.  4 : 


BEE 


BRI 


4  ;  Matt.  26  :  26  ;  Mark  14  :  22  ;  Luke 
22  :  19.  The  term  bread  is  often  used 
for  food  or  provisions  in  general. 

Bread-corn,  Isa.  28  :  28,  is  used  for 
wheat,  barley,  or  any  other  grain  from 
which  bread  was  made. 

The  figurative  expressions  bread  of 
norroirs,  Ps.  127  :  2,  and  bread  of  tears, 
Ps.  80  :  5,  may  denote  that  the  suffering 
of  sorrow  and  the  shedding  of  tears 
had  become  as  much  a  part  of  the  por- 
tion of  every  day  as  one's  daily  bread. 
So  the  bread  of  wickedness,  Prov.  4:  17, 
and  bread  of  deceit,  Prov.  20:17,  de- 
note not  only  a  living  or  estate  obtained 
by  fraud  and  sin,  but  that  to  do  wick- 
edly is  as  much  the  portion  of  a  wicked 
man's  life  as  to  eat  his  daily  bread. 

BREAK'FAST.     See  Meals. 

BREAST'PLATE.  1.  A  part  of 
the  official  dress  of  the  Jewish  high  priest. 
Ex.  28  :  15.  It  was  a  piece  of  embroi- 
dered work,  about  10  inches  square  and 
made  double,  with  a  front  and  lining, 
so  as  to  answer  for  a  pouch  or  bag.  It 
was  adorned  with  twelve  precious  stones. 
See  High  Priest. 

The  two  upper  corners  were  fastened 
to  the  ephod,  from  Avhich  it  was  not  to 
be  loosed,  Ex.  28  :  28,  and  the  two  lower 
corners  to  the  girdle.  The  rings,  chains, 
and  other  fastenings  were  of  gold  or  rich 
lace.  It  was  called  the  memorial,  Ex. 
28  :  12,  29,  inasmuch  as  it  reminded  the 
priest  of  his  representative  character  in 
relation  to  the  twelve  tribes ;  and  it  is 
also  called  the  breastplate  of 
judgment,  Ex.  28  :  15,  per- 
haps because  it  was  worn  by 
him  who  was  instrumentally 
the  fountain  of  justice  and 
judgment  to  the  Jewish 
Church.  Others  think  it  is 
because  the  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim  were  annexed  to  it.  See 
Urim  and  Thummim. 

2.  The  breastplate  was  also 
that  article  of  ancient  armor 
which  protected  the  breast. 
Eph.6:14.  See  Armor.  Its 
figurative  use  in  the  passage 
above  cited,  and  also  in  Isa. 
69  :  17,  is  sufficiently  obvious. 

BREECH'ES,   a  kind 
of  drawers,  reaching  from  the  loins  to  the 
thighs,  worn  by  the  priests.  Ex.  28  :  42. 

BRETH'REN  OF  THE 
LORD.     See  Brother. 


BRICK,  Gen.  11 : 3,  was  a  building- 
material  among  the  Jews,  but  the  size  of 
their  bricks  was  much 
larger  than  that  of 
ours.  Bricks  found 
among  the  ruins  of 
l>abylon  are  a  foot 
s(iuare,  and  resemble 
tile  rather  than  brick. 
They  were  usually 
hardened  by  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  although 
kilns  were  not  un- 
known.   2    Sam.    12  : 

Egyptmn     Brick  3^      j         43  ;  9 ;    Nah. 
stamped     witli     the  „    ',  .  -r  I 

oval  of  Tliothmes  3  :  14.  In  lower 
III.  {British  Mu-  Egypt  many  pictures 
seam.    Ayre.)  ^„  ^^^  ^^„g  represent 

the  Jews  making  bricks  under  the  lash 
of  the  Egyptian  taskmasters,  in  confir- 


Assyrian  Brick  from  Nimroud,  inscribed  with 
Shalmaneser's  Name  and  Title.    {Ayre.) 

mation  of  the  account  in  the  book  of 
Exodus,  1:11;  5:7-14. 


Jews 


and  Captives  making  Bricks  in  Egypt. 

BRIDE,    BRIDE 'GROOM, 
BRIDE-CHAMBER.    See  Mar- 

RIAGE. 

BRIDLE.     See  Harness. 

143 


BRI 


BUL 


BRI'ERS.     See  Thistle. 

BRIG'ANDINE.  Supposed  to  be 
the  same  with  the  habergeon  and  coat 
of  mail.    Jer.  46  :  4.     See  Armor. 

BRIM'STONE.  Ps.  11  ;  6.  Sul- 
phur, a  Avell-known  mineral  substance, 
exceedingly  inflammable,  and  which 
when  burning  emits  a  suffocating  smell. 
We  are  told  that  the  cities  of  the  plain 
were  destroyed  by  a  rain  of  fire  and 
brimstone.  There  is  nothing  incredi- 
ble in  this,  even  if  we  suppose  only 
natural  agencies  wei'e  employed.  Like 
many  other  travellers,  the  writer  has 
pieces  of  pure  sulphur  and  of  asphalt 
or  mineral  pitch,  both  found  in  that 
vicinity  in  abundance  and  highly  in- 
flammable. Volcanic  action  might 
easily  have  filled  the  air  with  inflam- 
mable substances,  falling  down  in 
streams  of  liquid  fire  upon  those  de- 
voted cities. 

This  word  is  often  figuratively  em- 
ployed. Job  18  :  15  ;  Isa.  34  :  9  ;  Rev.  21: 
8.  Whether  the  word  is  used  literally  or 
not  in  the  passages  which  describe  the 
future  sufferings  of  the  wicked,  we  may 
be  sure  that  it  expresses  terrible  pun- 
ishment. 

BROTHER,  BRETH'REIV, 
a  term  which  properly  denotes  the  near- 
est consanguinitj' — that  is,  male  children 
of  the  same  parents,  as  in  Gen.  4  :  2  and 
42:13,  but  sometimes  persons  of  more 
remote  kindred  or  of  the  same  nation, 
Gen.  13  :  8  :  Esth.  10  :  3  ;  Acts  7  :  25,  37 
and  13  :26,  or  even  those  who  are  close- 
ly united  in  affection.  2  Sam.  1  :  26.  In 
the  N.  T.  the  term  is  more  frequently 
applied  to  the  spiritual  relationship 
which  the  true  followers  of  Christ  sus- 
tain to  him  and  to  each  other.  Matt.  12  : 
50;  Rom.  14:10;  2Thess.  2:13. 

"  The  Brethren  of  the  Lord." — 
The  N.  T.  repeatedly  speaks  of  brethren 
(and  also  of  sisters)  of  Jesus,  and  names 
four  of  them — Jame«,  Joseph,  Simon,  and 
Judas.  There  are  three  theories  about  the 
degree  of  this  relationship.  1.  The  sim- 
plest explan.ation  is  that  they  were  the 
full  brothersof  Jesus,  or  younger  children 
of  Joseph  and  Mary.  This  is  the  natural 
deduction  from  the  context.  Matt.  1 :  25  ; 
13 :  55.  But  the  feeling  of  reverence 
for  the  virgin  mother,  the  value  placed 
upon  celibacy  in  the  eai'ly  Church, 
the  instinctive  shrinking  from  regard- 
ing Mary  as  an  ordinary  woman,  bear- 
144 


ing  children  in  sorrow,  and  that,  too, 
after  the  Hob/  Ghoxt  had  overshadowed 
her  and  she  had  given  birth  to  the  Mes- 
siah,— have  suggested  to  the  Roman  and 
Greek  Churches  and  to  many  Protestants 
two  other  theories.  2.  That  they  were 
the  children  of  Joseph  by  a  former 
marriage.  So  taught  Epiphanius  and 
the  ancient  Greek  Church.  3.  That 
they  were  the  children  of  Mary,  the 
wife  of  Alpheus,  the  supposed  sister  of 
the  Virgin  Mary,  and  hence  that  they 
were  Christ's  cousins,  and  among  the 
apostles.  So  St.  Jerome  and  the  Ro- 
man Church.  Lange  has  modified  this 
view  by  supposing  that  Alpheus  was 
the  brother  of  Joseph,  and  that  be- 
cause he  died  earh'  they  were  adopt- 
ed by  Joseph  into  his  family,  which 
is  extremely  improbable.  The  strong- 
est objection  to  1  is  that  Jesus  com- 
mended his  mother  to  John.  John  19  : 
26.  2  is  not  open  to  any  grave  objec- 
tion. 3  is  beset  with  difficulties:  (1.) 
It  does  violence  to  the  natural  and 
usual  meaning  of  the  word  "  brother," 
while  the  N.  T.  has  a  special  term  for 
"cousins."  Col.  4:10;  Luke  1:36.  (2.) 
It  assumes  that  two  sisters  had  the  same 
name,  Mary.  (3.)  It  fails  to  explain 
how  these  brethren  could  also  be  apos- 
tles, while  we  are  told  that  they  did  not 
believe  in  Jesus  before  the  resurrection 
and  treated  him  rather  disrespectfully. 
John  7  :  5.  (4.)  It  is  probable  that 
Salome,  and  not  Mary,  was  the  sister  of 
our  Lord's  mother.  .John  19  :  25.  The 
natural  view  furnishes  an  argument  in 
favor  of  the  historical  character  of  the 
Gospels. 

BUCK'LER.     See  Armor. 

BUILD'INGS.     See  Dwellings. 

BUK'Kl  (iraxtiiH/).  1.  The  Danite 
chief  chosen  of  the  Lord  to  represent 
his  tribe  in  the  division  of  the  Land 
of  Promise.    Num.  34  :  22. 

2.  One  of  the  high-priestly  line.  1  Chr. 
6  :  5,  51  :  Ezr.  7  :  4.  Probably  he  was 
never  the  high  priest. 

BUKKI'AH  (ivnsthig  from  Jeho- 
vah), the  chief  of  the  sixth  division  of 
singers.  1  Chr.  25:4,  13. 

BUL.     See  Month. 

BULLS.  Cattle,  being  often  left  to 
roam  for  years  at  pleasure,  became  half 
wild.  In  the  rich  pastures  of  Bashan 
the  bulls  were  strong  and  ferocious.  Ps. 
22  :  12.     In  Deut.  14  :  5  and  Isa.  51 :  20 


BUL 


BUli 


there  is  a  Hebrew  word  translated  "  wild 
bull"  which  is  believed  to  mean  the  oryx 
( Oryx  lencoryx),  a  large  and  powerful  an- 
telope still  found  on  the  borders  of  Pal- 
estine. Its  chief  means  of  defence  are 
its  sharp  horns,  often  more  than  3  feet 
in  length,  which  gracefully  curve  over 
its  back,  but  which  in  conflict,  by  bend- 
ing the  neck,  are  thrown  forward.  When 
entangled  **  in  a  net"  these  horns  would 
be  a  great  disadvantage. 

BULRUSH,  RUSH,  a  large 
sedge  {Oi/penis prtpj/nis)  still  found  upon 
Lake  Merom  and  the  northern  shores  of 
the  Sea  of  Galilee.  It  was  formerly  abun- 
dant in  Egypt,  but  has  now  disappeared. 
Upon  the  upper  Nile  it  is  still  found,  and 
it  is  used  by  the  modern  Abyssinians 
for  constructing  boats.  Ex.  2  : 3-5  ;  Isa. 
18:2. 

The  bulrush  grows  in  shallow  water 
or  mire.  Job  8:11.  It  has  an  unbranch- 
ing  straight,  trian- 
gular culm,  termi- 
nating in  a  large 
head  (umbel)  of 
small  and  somewhat 
drooping  stems,  as 
shown  in  the  cut, 
bearing  the  chaffy 
fruit  on  their  ex- 
tremities. The 
stalk  is  usually 
about  10  feet  high 
and  2  or  3  inches  in 
diameter  at  the 
base.  An  area  of 
papyrus  sur- 
mounted by  its 
beautiful  tufted 
plumes  is  a  fine 
sight. 

From  this  plant 
paper  was  first 
made  and  derived 
its  name.  See 
Book. 

BUL'WARK. 
See  War. 

BU'NAH  (f//s- 
cre.tion),  one  of  Ju- 
dah's  descendants. 
1  Chr.  2:25. 

BUN'NI  {built). 
9:4. 

2.  One  who  sealed  the  covenant.  Neh. 
10:16. 

3.  A  Levite.  Neh.  11 :  15. 

10 


Bulni.sh. 

A  Levite,  Neh. 


Bunni  is  said  to  have  been  the  Jewish 
name  of  Nicodemus. — Ewnld. 

BUR'DEN.  This  word,  when  it  is 
used  in  connection  with  some  city  or 
nation  (as  tlie  burden  of  Monb,  the 
burden  of  Nineveh,  etc.),  expresses  the 
disastrous  and  calamitous  import  of 
the  prophecy.  The  burden  of  the  des- 
ert of  the  sea  (Babylon),  the  burden  of 
the  vdlley  of  vision  (Jerusalem),  and 
similar  expressions,  are  explained  by 
their  subject  or  connection.  The  phrase 
is  frequently  used  by  Isaiah.  Isa.  13  :  1 ; 
15  :  1.  etc. 

BURIAL,  BURY.  Gen.  23:4; 
Matt.  26  :  12.  It  was  customary  among 
the  Jews,  and  ancients  generally,  for 
the  children  or  near  kindred  to  close 
the  eyes  of  the  dying.  Gen.  46  :  4. 
A  loud  and  general  wailing  followed 
the  decease,  John  11  :  19,  31,  33,  and 
continued  many  days  after  burial.  The 
body  of  the  deceased  was  washed  and 
laid  out.  Acts  9  :  37.  It  was  wrapped 
in  folds  of  linen  cloth,  and  the  head 
bound  around  with  a  napkin.  It  is 
said  that  Lazarus  was  bound  "  hand 
and  foot  with  grave  clothes,"  John 
11  :  44,  and  it  is  supposed  by  many 
that  each  limb  had  its  separate  wrap- 
per, as  it  was  customary  in  Egypt  to 
wrap  even  each  finger  in  a  separate 
cloth  or  band,  so  that  hundreds  of 
yards  of  cloth  are  often  unwound  from 
one  of  their  mummies.  When  thus 
bound  around,  it  was  placed  on  a  bier, 
in  readiness  to  be  borne  to  the  grave. 
See  Bier,  Embalm. 

The  climate,  and  the  uncleanness 
which  was  contracted,  under  the  law, 
from  contact  with  a  dead  body,  or  even 
by  coming  into  the  same  apartment 
with  it,  would  naturally  lead  to  the  cus- 
tom of  early  interments.  In  Persia,  we 
are  told,  it  is  not  customary  to  keep  the 
dead  over  two  or  three  hours,  and  the 
European  Jews  universally  bury  their 
dead  early.  There  were  many  excep- 
tions in  this  respect,  however.  The 
practice  of  embalming  was  not  general 
among  the  Jews,  though  spices,  etc., 
were  used  in  their  burials.  2  Chr.  16  : 
14  ;  John  19  :  40.  Jacob  and  Joseph, 
whose  bodies  were  embalmed,  both  died 
in  Eg3'pt,  wliere  the  art  of  embalming 
was  very  skilfully  practised.  In  Jacob's 
case  we  are  told  that  Joseph  commanded 
his  servants  the  physicians  to  embalm 

145 


BUR 


BUR 


his  father,  aud  then  he  was  placed  in  a 
coffin  in  Egypt,  and  thence  his  body  was 
carried  to  Machpehih,  in  Canaan,  and 
buried.  Gen.  50  :  2,  7,  l.").  Coffins  were 
used  in  Egypt  and  Babylon,  but  are  un- 
known in  the  East  even  at  the  present 
day%  excej)t  when  a  body  is  to  be  con- 
veyed to  a  distant  place.  See  Embalm. 
All  civilized  nations  have  agreed  in  at- 
tending with  some  solemnity  to  the  bur- 
ial of  their  dead.  Among  the  Jews  the 
bier  was  followed  to  the  grave  by  the  near- 
est relations  and  other  fi'iends.  2  Sam.  3  : 
31  ;  Luke  7  :  12.  Other  persons  attend- 
ed, and  sometimes  mourners  (or  rather 
wailers  by  profession)  were  employed  to 
attend  the  body.  Jer.  9:17;  Eze.  24 : 
17;  Am.  5:16;  Matt.  9:23.  This  is 
the  custom  now  in  many  Eastern  na- 
tions. 

Certain  places  were  appropriated  by 
the  Jews  to  the  purpose  of  burying  the 
dead,  and  thev  were  both  public  and 
private.  Gen.  2*3  :  4 :  50  :  13  ;  Jud.  8  :  32  ; 
16 :  31  ;  2  Sam.  2  :  32  ;  21  :  14 ;  2  Kgs. 
23  :  6  ;  Jer.  26  :  23.  They  were  usually 
selected  in  gardens,  2  Kgs.  21 :  18,  26  ; 
John  19  :  41 ;  or  fields.  Gen.  23  :  11  ;  or 
caves  in  the  sides  of  the  mountains, 
2  Kgs.  23  :  16,  17  ;  or  in  rocks,  Isa.  22  : 
16  ;  and  to  be  unburied  was  regarded  as 
exceedingly  disgraceful.  1  Sam.  17  :  44— 
46  ;  2  Kgs.  9:10;  Ps.  141 :  7  ;  Jer.  8 :  2 
and  22:  19.  The  grave  was  called  the 
house  or  home  of  the  dead.  Job 
30  :  23  ;  Eccl.  12  :  5.  The  burial- 
places  were  usually  in  retired 
situations,  and  hence  were  the 
resort  of  demoniacs.  Matt.  8  :  28, 
and  were  usually  without  the  city 
walls.  Kings  and  prophets  alone, 
it  would  seem,  were  buried  with- 
in the  walls.  Josh,  24  :  30,  33  :  1 
Sam.25:l;  28:3;  2  Kgs.  21: 18; 
2  Chr.  16  :  14;  24:  16;  33:20; 
Neh.  3:16.  Though  solitary, 
the)'  were  selected  with  reference 
to  shade,  prospect,  efc.  Gen.  23: 
17;  35:8;  1  Sam.  31:13. 

The  desire  to  be  buried  with 
,  one's  kindred  was  very  strong,  2 
Sam.  19  :  37;  and  it  is  remark- 
able that  the  Jews,  as  a  people, 
in  all  their  dispersions  and  suf- 
ferings, retain  an  ardent  desire  to  be 
buried  in  their  own  land,  especially 
around  Jerusalem. 

It  was  not  unusual  for  a  single  family 
146 


to  have  near  their  dwelling-house  a 
small  building  without  door  or  window, 
built  of  stone  or  other  durable  mate- 
rial, which  was  called  the  sepulchral 
house  or  family  mansion  for  the  dead. 
The  following  description  of  the  tombs 
of  the  Judges  is  taken  from  Baedeker's 
Palentine  nud  Syria,  p.  238  :  On  the 
western  side  of  the  rock  there  is  a  small 
fore-court,  leading  to  a  vestibule,  from 
which  is  entered  the  tomb-chamber. 
The  portal  was  once  capable  of  being 
closed  from  within.  On  the  left  side 
of  the  chamber  are  7  shaft-tombs, 
above  which,  at  irregular  distances, 
ai-e  3  vaulted  niche-tombs,  and  at  the 
back  of  these  again  there  are  several 
shaft-tombs.  In  the  western  wall  is  a 
niche.  Adjoining  this  first  chamber 
on  the  east  and  south  are  2  others, 
on  about  the  same  level,  and  2  on  a 
lower  level.  They  have  tombs  on  three 
sides.  A  passage  with  3  tombs  de- 
scends from  the  first  to  the  north-east- 
ern chamber,  which  contains  13  tombs. 
The  other  side-chamber  contains  no 
tomb. 

The  sepulchres  of  the  Jews  were 
sometimes  expensively  built  and  adorn- 
ed or  garnished,  and  were  whitened  at 
short  intervals,  so  as  to  make  them 
conspicuous,  that  they  might  be  avoid- 
ed, as  contact  with  them  occasioned 
ceremonial     uncleanness.       Hence    the 


Plan 


of  Tumbs  of  the  Judges.    {After  de  Saulcy.) 

force  of  our  Lord's  reproof.  Matt.  23  : 
27.  Sometimes  titles  or  inscriptions 
were  placed  on  them.  2  Kgs.  23  :  17. 
To  build  a  sepulchre  for  a  man  was  an 


BUR 


BYT 


expression  of  respect  and  honor.  Matt. 
23  :  21)  :    Luke-11  :  48. 

The  most  faiuous  sepulchres  in  Pales- 
tine are  the  Machpelah,  the  burial-place 
of  the  patriarchs,  under  the  great 
mosque  of  Hebron,  to  which,  however, 
no  stranger  is  admitted  ;  the  sepulchre 
of   Joseph,   near   Jacob's    well,   in    Sa- 


Tomb  of  tlie  Judges.    (From  Photograph  by  Good.) 


maria ;  the  tombs  of  the  kings  and  the 
tomhs  of  the  Judges,  near  Jerusalem  : 
and  the  supposed  sepulchre  of  Christ,  in 
the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  in 
Jerusalem. 

BURNING  BUSH.  See  Moses 
and  Shittim-wood. 

BURNT- OFF  BRING.  See 
Sacrificp:. 

BUSH.  Mark  12:  26;  Luke  20:^7. 
In  these  passages  reference  is  made  to 
that  section  of  Scripture  in  which  the 
account  of  the  burning  bush  is  to  be 
found,  and  not  to  the  bush  itself. 

BUSH'EL.     See  Measures. 

BUT'LER,  an  honorable  officer 
of  the  king's  household,  called  ''cup- 
bearer "  Xeh.  1:11,  it  being  his  duty  to 
fill  and  bear  the  cup  or  drinking-vessel 
to  the  king.  The  chief  butler  had  the 
charge  and  oversighji  of  the  rest.  Gen. 
40  :  1-13. 

BUT'TER.  As  this  word  is  used 
in  the  Scriptures,  it  probably  means 
sour  or  coagulated  milk,  which,  when 
mingled  with  water,  is  still  regarded 
as  a  very  agreeable  and  refreshing 
beverage  by  Eastern  nations.  Gen. 
18  :  S.  Their  butter,  such  as  it  was, 
might   have    been    sometimes    clarified 


and  preserved  in  jars,  as  at  the  present 
day  in  Asia,  and  when  poured  out  re- 
sembles rich   oil. 

The  figurative  expression  in  Job  29  : 
6,  "  I  washed  my  steps  with  butter," 
denotes  primarily  the  abundance  with 
which  the  ])atriarch  was  blessed ;  but 
it  is  also  supposed  by  some  to  refer  to 
the  great  quantities  of  cream  which 
his  herds  produced,  and  which  were 
trodden  into  butter.  This  fanciful  in- 
terpretation aside,  the  passage  seems 
to  be  self-explanatory,  the  figurative 
allusion  to  butter  having  the  same 
force  and  eff'ect  as  that  to  oil. 

The  place  of  butter  as  a  general  ar- 
ticle of  food  in  the  East  was  supplied 
in  some  measure  by  the  vegetable  oil 
which  was  so  abundant. 

Butter  was  made  by  pouring  the  milk 
into  a  goat-skin,  and  then  shaking  or 
treading  it  to  and  fro  in  a  uniform  di- 
rection until  the  separation  of  the  but- 
ter took  place.  The  butter  mentioned 
in  Jud.  5  :  25  was  probably  cream,  or  a 
preparation  of  which  cream  was  a  com- 
ponent part.  It  is  not  improbable  that 
the  bottle  of  milk  in  the  passage  cited 
was  no  other  than  a  skin  which  had 
been  used  as  a  churn,  and  that  the  re- 
freshment was  butter-milk,  presented 
in  the  richest  vessel  that  was  at  hand. 
Butter-milk  is  still  esteemed  a  most  re- 
freshing beverage  by  the  Arabs. 

Butter  and  honey  were  used  together, 
and  were  esteemed  among  the  choicest 
productions  of  the  land.  And  travel- 
lers tell  us  that  the  Arabs  now  use 
cream  or  new  butter  mixed  with  honey 
as  a  principal  delicacy. 

BUZ  (coDtempf),  a  territory :  per- 
haps named  from  Buz,  and  probably 
in  northern  Arabia.  Jer.  25  ;  23 ;  Gen. 
22:21. 

BUZ  (contempt).  1.  A  son  of  Abra- 
ham's brother  Nahor.  Gen.  22  :  21. 

2.  A  Gadite.  1  Chr.  5  :  14. 

BU'ZI  {contempt),  the  father  of  Eze- 
kiel  the  ])rophet.  Eze.  1  :  3. 

BUZ'ITE,  THE.  Elihu  is  so 
called.  Job  32  :  2,  (5 ;  probably  because 
he  was  the  descendant  of  Buz.  Gen. 
22  :  21. 

BYTHIN'IA.     See  Bithynia. 

147 


CAB 


CJE 


O. 


CAB.     See  Measitkes. 

CAB'IION,  a  place  in  Judah.  Josh. 
15  :  40.  Three  places  have  been  suggest- 
ed as  its  site — el-Kufeir,  10  miles  south- 
east of  Ashkelon  ;  el-Knheibeh,x\QdiY  Beit 
Jihrin  ;  and  Abu  Knhus. 

CAB'INS,  Jer.  37  :  16,  or  CELLS, 
were  probably  niches  or  apartments 
within  the  dungeon,  for  the  separate 
confinement  of  prisoners.  The  idea 
conveyed  is,  that  the  prophet  suffered 
the  most  severe  and  loathsome  impris- 
onment. 

C  A'BUIi.  1 .  A  2:)lace  in  Asher,  Josh. 
19:27;  now  Kahtd,  10  miles  south-east 
of  Accho. 

2.  A  name  of  the  land  containing  20 
cities  given  by  Solomon  to  Hiram,  1  Kgs. 
9:  10-13,  in  a  region  of  Galilee  east  of 
Accho.  The  word  has  no  special  mean- 
ing in  Hebrew. 

C^'SAR,  the  official  title  of  the 
Roman  emperors.  It  is  borrowed  from 
the  famous  Julius  Caesar.  It  occurs 
about  30  times  in  the  N.  T.,  and  is  ap- 
plied to  Augustus,  Luke  2:1;  Tiberius, 
Luke  3:1;  Claudius,  Acts  11 :  28  ;  and 
Nero,  Acts  25  :  8.  Such  Jews  as  were 
Roman  citizens  had  the  right  of  appeal 
to  Caesar,  Acts  25  :  11,  who  was  their 
ruler.     See  separate  names. 

C^'SARAUGUS'TUS.  See  Au- 
gustus. 

CESAR,  CLAU'DIUS.  See 
Claudius. 

C.ESARE'A,  the  chief  Roman  city 
of  Palestine  in  New  Testament  times. 
It  was  on  the  Mediterranean,  about  44 
miles  south  of  Acre,  and  47  miles  in  a 
direct  line  north-west  of  Jerusalem. 
It  had  a  harbor  protected  by  an  arti- 
ficial wall  or  breakwater. 

History. — Originally  it  was  called 
"Strato's  Tower."  Herod  the  Great 
built  a  city  there,  b.  c.  10,  and  named 
it  in  honor  of  Augustus  Caesar.  Herod 
Agrippa  I.  died  there.  Acts  12:  19-23. 
Philip  the  evangelist  lived  there,  8  :40  ; 
21 :  8,  16,  and  Cornelius,  10  :  1-24.  Paul 
frequently  visited  it,  9  :  30  :  18  :  22  ;  21 : 
8  ;  23  :  33  ;  was  in  bonds  there  two  years, 
24  :  27  ;  it  was  the  official  residence  of 
148 


Festus  and  of  Felix.  Vespasian  was 
declared  emperor  there.  It  had  a  learn- 
ed school  and  an  episcopal  see;  was  the 
birthplace  of  Procopius ;  the  residence 
for  a  time  of  Origeu ;  of  Eusebius,  the 
historian,  who  was  bishop  of  Cfesarea  ; 
was  a  noted  city  in  the  time  of  the 
Crusades ;  was  twice  rebuilt  by  the 
Christians ;  fell  into  decay ;  and  is 
now  in  ruins.  It  is  called  Knisnri- 
eh.  Large  quantities  of  the  building- 
stones  have  been  carried  to  other  towns 
and  used  for  building.  Stanley  calls  it 
the  most  desolate  site  in  Palestine,  with 
no  signs  of  human  life,  and  the  nearest 
road  passes  at  a  distance  from  the  ex- 
tensive ruins. 

C^SARE'A-PHILIPPI,  the 
Greek  Paneas,  now  called  Banias  by 
the  Arabs,  is  a  town  at  the  base  of  Mount 
Hermon,  about  20  miles  north  of  the  Sea 
of  Galilee  and  45  miles  south-west  of  Da- 
mascus. It  was  the  northern  limit  of  our 
Lord's  journeys.  Matt.  16  :  13;  Mark 
8  :  27,  and  was  probably  Baal-gad  of 
Old  Testament  history.  It  was  here 
that  Peter,  in  the  name  of  all  the  other 
apostles,  made  that  fundamental  con- 
fession of  faith  in  Christ  as  the  Son  of 
God  and  the  Saviour,  and  that  Christ 
uttered  the  prophecy  concerning  the 
indestructible  character  of  his  Church. 
Matt.  16  :  16  IF.  The  gushing  waters  of 
the  sources  of  the  Jorda*i  and  the  im- 
movable rocks  of  Mount  Hermon  were 
in  full  view  when  our  Lord  spoke  those 
words,  and  served  to  illustrate  their 
meaning.  The  landscape  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  in  Palestine,  and  has 
been  called  the  Syrian  Tivoli. 

History. — The  town  is  remarkable  for 
its  physical  and  historical  associations. 
It  was  near  two  important  sources  of 
the  Jordan  ;  its  ancient  classical  name 
was  Pniieion,  in  commemoration  of  the 
sanctuary  of  the  god  Pan ;  it  was  en- 
larged by  Philip  the  Tetrarch,  and 
named  Caasarea-Philippi  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  other  Ca^sarea,  on  the  Med- 
iterranean ;  later  on  it  was  called  Ncro- 
lu'as  by  Herod  Agrippa  II.;  it  became 
the  seat  of  a  bishopric;  it  was  repeatedly 


Coesarea.    i^Frotn  a  Photograph.    Palestine  Exploration  Fund.) 


Csesarea-Philippi,  or  Baiiias.     (After  Photographs  of  Frith  and  Good.) 


Sources  of  the  Jordan  uear  Banias.     {After  Photographs  of  Frith  and  Good.) 


c^ 


CAL 


taken  during  the  Crusades,  It  is  now 
called  Banias,  and  has  about  50  houses, 
many  ruins  of  columns,  towers,  temples, 
a  bridge,  and  of  a  remarkable  castle. 
The  place  is  now  noted  for  one  of 
the  chief  sources  of  the  Jordan,  which 
rushes  in  clear  crystal  springs  from  be- 
neath the  rocks  of  Mount  Hermon,  and 
flows  rapidly  towards  Dan,  uniting  with 
another  source  below  that  town. 

CiE'SAR'S  HOUSE' HOLD, 
Phil.  4  :  22,  was  Paul's  phrase  for  the  ser- 
vants and  dependents  in  the  palace  of  the 
Roman  emperor,  some  of  whom  were  con- 
verts. It  is  unlikely  that  any  members 
of  the  imperial  family  are  meant,  al- 
though the  expression  (as  Lightfoot  re- 
marks) "  might  include  equally  the  high- 
est functionaries  and  the  lowest  menials." 

CA'IAPHAS  {depression)  was  the 
high  priest  of  the  Jews,  A.  d.  27-36,  and 
therefore  at  the  time  of  our  Saviour's  trial. 
John  11 :  49,  51.  The  ofl&ce  was  formerly 
held  for  life,  but  at  this  time  it  was  filled 
and  vacated  at  the  pleasure  of  the  Roman 
government.  The  raising  of  Lazarus 
roused  the  Sanhedrin  to  action,  and 
Caiaphas  turned  their  thoughts  toward 
the  execution  of  the  hated  and  feared 
Prophet  by  deliberately  advising  his 
death  on  the  score  of  expediency.  His 
language  was  unconsciously  prophetic. 
John  11 :  49-52. 

After  Christ's  arrest  he  was  arraigned 
before  Caiaphas.  A  vain  effort  having 
been  made  to  secure  false  testimony 
sufficient  for  his  condemnation,  Cai- 
aphas at  last  adjured  him  to  declare 
whether  he  was  indeed  the  Christ,  the 
Son  of  God.  On  Jesus's  answering  af- 
firmatively, Caiaphas  pretended  to  be 
so  shocked  at  his  supposed  blasphemy 
that  he  declared  all  further  witness  was 
unnecessary  to  convict  him,  and  the 
council  unanimously  condemned  hira  to 
de.ith.  Matt,  26  :  fi5-68. 

As  Caiaphas  had  no  power  to  inflict 
the  punishment  of  death,  Christ  was 
taken  from  him  to  Pilate,  the  Roman 
governor,  .John  18:28,  that  his  execu- 
tion might  be  duly  ordered.  See  An- 
nas. Before  Caiaphas,  Peter  and  John 
were  brought  for  trial.  Acts  4  :  6. 

CAIN  {jjossessi'in),  the  first-born  of 
Adam  and  Eve.  Gen.  4:1.  Welcomed 
as  the  promised  deliverer,  he  disap- 
pointe<l  his  paients'  dearest  hopes  and 
proved  to  be  of  a  bad  heart,  for  out  of 
150 


envy  because  his  brother's  sacrifice  had 
been  accepted  and  his  own  rejected,  he 
slew  his  brother.     See  Abel. 

For  this  crime  he  was  banished  from 
his  home.  But  God,  remembering  mer- 
cy in  the  midst  of  wrath,  gave  him 
some  sign  or  mark  whereby  he  would 
have  protection  from  attacks  likely  to 
be  made  upon  him  as  the  accursed  of 
God.  He  then  went  to  the  land  of  Nod, 
to  the  east  of  Eden  ;  after  the  birth  of 
his  son  Enoch  (and  perhaps  other  chil- 
dren), he  began  to  build  a  city — i.  e.  a 
village  of  rude  huts,  as  distinguished 
from  the  movable  tents  of  the  nomads. 
Gen.  4:16,  17.     See  Nod. 

CAIN  {lance),  in  the  mountains  of 
Judah,  Josh.  15  :  57  ;  perhaps  modern 
Yiikin,  south-east  of  Hebron. 

CAI'NAN  (possession,  or  a  smith). 
1.  The  sonof  Enos.  Gen.  6:  9-14  ;  Luke 
3 :  37.  He  is  called  Kenan,  which  is  the 
correct  form,  in  1  Chr.  1 :  2.  He  lived 
910  years. 

2.  A  son  of  Arphaxad,  Luke  3  :  36 ; 
but  as  the  name  is  not  found  in  the  He- 
brew, it  is  probably  an  unwarranted 
interpolation  into  the  Septuagint,  and 
thence  copied  by  Luke  into  his  Gospel. 

CAKE.     See  Bread. 

CA'IjAH  (old  age),  one  of  the  old- 
est of  Assyrian  towns  ;  founded  by 
Nimrod,  Gen.  10:11,  and  probably  for 
a  time  the  capital  of  the  Assyrian  king- 
dom. Layard,  Porter,  and  Kalisch  lo- 
cate it  at  Kileh-Shenjliat,  on  the  Tigris, 
40  miles  below  Nimroud,  where  there  is 
a  vast  ruin  3  miles  in  circuit.  The 
Rawlinsons,  Geo.  Smith,  and  others, 
place  it  at  Nimroxid,  where  are  ruins  cov- 
ering about  1000  acres.  They  indicate 
a  town  in  the  form  of  an  irregular  quad- 
rangle, surrounded  by  a  wall,  flanked 
with  towers,  and  pierced  with  gates. 
The  r^piains  of  palaces,  temples,  and  a 
famous  tower  or  pyramid  forui  a  mound 
of  ruins,  600  yards  long,  with  a  cone 
140  feet  high.  See  Assyria  and  Ar- 
menia. 

CAL'AMUS,  Song  Sol.  4: 14  :  Eze. 
27  :  19,  OR  SWEET  CALAMUS, 
Ex.  30  :  23,  OR  SWEET  CANE,  Isa. 
43  :  24  ;  Jer.  6  :  20,  All  probably  names 
for  the  same  plant.  It  seems  to  have  been 
an  aromatic  reed  brought  ''from  afar 
country."  Lemon-grass  ( Andi-opogon) 
is  ''  a  plant  of  remarkable  fragrance 
and  a  native  of  Central  India,  where  it 


CAL 


CAL 


is  used  to  mix  with  ointments,  on  ac- 
count of  the  delicacy  of  its  odor."  Cal- 
amus ma}-^  have 
been  a  species  of 
this. 

CAL'C  O  L 
(sHsteiHiuce),  a  Ju- 
dite,  1  Chr.  2:6; 
probably  same 
with  Chalcol.  1 
Kgs.  4  :  31.  He 
was  one  of  the 
four  sages  whom 
Solomon  excelled 
in  wisdom. 

CALDRON, 
a  vessel  for  boiling 
flesh  for  any  use, 
ceremonial  or  do- 
mestic. 1  Sam.  2: 
14;  2  Chr.  35:13; 
.Job  41  • ''O  •  Mic  Reeds.  (SchuffS  "  r-qm- 
dOD    -±1.-0,     iviic.         ^^  Commentary.- ■) 

CAXEB  (capnlle).  1.  The  son  of 
Ilezron,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and 
father  of  Hur.  1  Chr.  2 : 9  (where  he  is 
called  Chelubai),  18,  19,  42,  46,  48. 

2.  One  of  the  twelve  spies  sent  by 
Moses  into  Canaan.  Num.  13  :  6.  He 
and  Joshua  were  the  only  adults  born 
in  Egypt  who  entered  the  land  as  con- 
querors, because  they  brought  a  truth- 
ful report,  while  the  other  ten  were 
frightened,  told  exaggerated  stories  of 
the  native  population,  and  spread  dis- 
content and  despair.  Caleb  and  Joshua 
assured  the  people  that  they  might  eas- 
ily gain  possession  of  Canaan.  In  return 
for  these  assurances,  the  people  proposed 
to  stone  them.  A  plague  from  the  Lord 
broke  out,  and  the  lying  spies  were  all 
killed.  Num.  13  and  14.  Forty-five 
years  afterward,  when  the  conquest 
was  completed  and  the  land  apportion- 
ed among  the  tribes,  Caleb,  being  then 
eighty-five  years  of  age,  applied  to 
Joshua  for  his  share,  reminding  him  of 
the  promise  of  God,  by  which  he  and 
Joshua  were  excepted  from  the  general 
curse  of  the  people,  and  proposed  to 
take,  as  his  share  of  the  land,  Kirjath- 
arba,  the  stronghold  of  the  giants  and 
the  centre  of  their  fortifications.  His 
request  was  granted,  and  he  accordingly 
attacked  and  subdued  Kirjath-arba,  and 
thence  proceeded  to  Kirjath-sepher, 
another  stronghold,  afterward  called 
Debir.     Here  he  proposed   to  give  his 


daughter  Achsah  in  marriage  to  the 
man  who  should  capture  the  city.  His 
nephew,  Othniel,  undertook  the  enter- 
prise and  succeeded,  and  received  the 
promised  reward.  Caleb's  possessions 
were  called  bv  his  name.  Josh.  14  and 
15  ;  1  Sam.  30  :  14. 

3.  A  Caleb,  the  son  of  Hur,  is  men- 
tioned in  1  Chr.  2  :  50.  He  may  bo 
identical  with  the  spy. 

CA'IiEB  (o  (lo(/),  the  district  in 
Judah,  between  Hebron  and  Carmel, 
assigned  to  Caleb.   1  Sam.  30  :  14. 

CALF.  Gen.  18  :  7.  A  fatted  calf 
was  regarded  by  the  Jews  as  the  choicest 
animal  food.  1  Sam.  28 :  24  :  Am.  6:4; 
Luke  15  :  23.  The  allusion  in  Jer.  34  : 
18  is  to  an  ancient  custom  of  ratifying 
a  contract  or  covenant  in  the  observance 
of  which  an  animal  was  slain  and  divi- 
ded, and  the  parties  passed  between  the 
parts,  signifying  their  willingness  to  be 
so  divided  themselves  if  they  failed  to 
perform  their  covenant.  Gen.  15  :  9, 
10,  17. 

Calf,  Molten,  Ex.  32  :  4,  was  an  idol- 
god  prepared  by  Aaron  in  compliance 
with  the  request  of  the  children  of  Is- 
rael, who  had  become  impatient  at  the 
absence  of  Moses  and  desired  some  visi- 
ble image  or  representation  of  the  Deity. 
See  Aaron.  It  was  probably  made  of 
wood  and  thickly  overlaid  with  gold. 

The  golden  calves  of  Jeroboam,  1  Kgs. 
12  :  28,  were  objects  of  worship  set  up  by 
that  king  in  the  land  of  Israel  to  prevent 
the  ten  tribes  from  resorting  to  Jerusa- 
lem to  worship,  and  so  more  effectually 


Bronze  Figure  of  Api.s.     (  Wilkinson.) 
to  separate  them  from  the  house  of  Da- 
vid.    One  of  the  idols  was  in  Pan  and 

151 


CAL 


CAM 


the  other  in  Bethel,  the  two  extremes 
of  his  kingdom.  It  is  supposed  this 
wicked  king  had  become  acquainted 
with  the  forms  and  objects  of  idola- 
trous worship  while  he  dwelt  in  Egypt. 
1  Kgs.  11 :  iU.  His  sin  is  almost  always 
mentioned  whenever  his  name  is  used. 
See  Jeroboam. 

Calves  of  our  Lips,  Hos.  14 :  2,  is 
a  figurative  expression  signifying  the 
fruits  of  our  lips,  or  our  offerings  of 
praise  to  God.  Calves  were  used  in 
sacrifices,  and  we  are  to  render  praises 
and  thanksgivings  to  God  as  the  offer- 
ing of  our  lips.  Heb.  13  :  15. 

CAL'NEH  {fortified place?),  a  city 
of  Chaldiea  founded  by  Nimrod.  Gen. 
10  :  10;  Am.  6:2;  probably  the  same 
as  Calno,  Isa.  10  : 9,  and  Canneh,  Eze. 
27  :  23.  Some  have  proposed  to  locate 
Calneh  at  Ctesiphon,  or  Kileh-Shenjhat, 
on  the  Tigris,  40  miles  below  Nimroud. 
Rawlinson  and  others,  however,  place 
ancient  Asshur  at  Kileh-Sherghat,  and 
identify  Calneh  with  Niffer.  The  ruins 
at  Niffer  are  60  miles  north-west  of  War- 
ka,  and  on  the  east  side  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, but  30  miles  from  the  present 
course  of  the  river.  They  are  conceded 
to  be  of  very  great  antiquity,  and  are 
divided  into  nearly  equal  groups  by  a 
deep  ravine  or  channel,  120  feet  wide, 
apparently  the  dry  bed  of  a  river  which 
once  ran  through  the  town.  Inscriptions 
found  in  the  mounds  indicate  that  the 
ancient  name  of  the  city  was  Nijnir, 
probably  the  Nojiher  of  the  Talmud, 
and  hence  the  Calneh  of  Genesis. 

CAL'VARY  {skul/),  the  place 
where  our  Lord  was  crucified,  so  call- 
ed from  its  conical  shape.  There  is 
no  Scrijjture  warrant  for  the  popu- 
lar phrase  "Mount  Calvary."  It  was 
simply  an  elevation.  Tradition  places 
the  site  at  the  modern  church  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre,  within  the  present 
walls  of  Jerusalem.  This  view  is  stout- 
ly maintained  by  George  AVilliams,  Rit- 
ter,  Krafft,  Raumer,  Rosen,  De  Saul- 
cy,  Sepp,  Tischendorf,  and  several  of 
the  members  of  the  British  Palestine 
Survey.  It  is  as  stoutly  disputed  by 
Robinson,  Tobler,  John  Wilson,  Bar- 
clay, Thomson,  Bonar,  Meyer,  Ewald, 
S.  J.  Andrews,  and  others. 

The  arguments  turn  chiefly  on  the 
course  of  the  second  wall  of  Josephus 
— whether  it  ran  so  as  to  include  or 
162 


to  exclude  the  present  church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre.  The  evangelists  place  Calva- 
rv  distinctly  outside  of  the  city  in  Matt. 
28  :  32  ;  Heb.  13  :  12  :  John  19  :  20,  41. 
The  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  is 
inside  the  present  city,  which  is  much 
smaller  now  than  in  the  time  of  Christ. 
To  establish  the  traditional  site  it  must  be 
proved  that  the  second  wall  excluded  the 
church,  which  is  quite  improbable.  Mr. 
Schick  and  Bishop  Gobat  of  Jerusalem 
locate  Calvary  near  the  Grotto  of  Jere- 
miah, north-west  of  the  Damascus  gate; 
Fisher  Howe  and  Conder,  on  the  Grotto 
of  Jeremiah ;  Barclay  suggests  a  place 
near  Gethsemane.  As  in  the  case  of 
Moses,  so  in  that  of  Jesus,  it  may  be  best 
that  the  exact  place  of  his  crucifixion  and 
burial  remain  unknown  and  out  of  the 
reach  of  profanation  and  idolatry. 

CAM'EL,  a  well-known  and  highly 
useful  animal  in  Eastern  countries,  and 
justly  called  "the  ship  of  the  desert." 
It  is  by  the  law  of  Moses  unclean.  Lev. 
11 :  4.  The  camel  is  usually  about  6  feet 
in  height  to  the  saddle.  Though  he 
makes  loud  complaints  when  caused  to 
kneel  or  receive  a  load,  he  is  still  docile, 
and  marches  on  as  under  a  painful  sense 
of  duty.  He  varies  in  color  from  white  to 
black,  but  is  ordinarily  tawny.  In  the 
Bible  lands  the  Arabian  or  one-hump- 
ed camel  ( Camelits  dromedcu-ius)  is  found. 
Two-humped  camels  (C.  Bactrianus)  are 
rarely  used  except  in  Central  Asia. 

The  feet  of  this  animal  are  provided 
with  a  tough,  elastic  sole,  which  prevents 
them  from  sinking  in  the  sand.  His 
hump  serves  as  a  cushion  for  loads,  Isa. 
30  :  6,  and  a  store-house  of  food  against 
times  of  scarcity.  There  is  a  large  cal- 
lus on  his  breast  and  three  pairs  of  cal- 
luses on  his  legs,  which  protect  him 
from  laceration  when  kneeling  upon 
sharp  stones.  His  nostrils  are  adapted 
for  breathing  with  safety  in  a  sand- 
storm. A  horny  mouth  with  divided 
upper  lip  is  fitted  for  the  harsh  and 
thorny  shrubs  of  the  desert,  which  he 
seems  to  prefer  to  more  tender  herbage. 
The  second  stomach  of  the  camel,  which 
is  a  ruminant  animal,  is  divided  into 
hexagonal  cells,  and  receives  and  re- 
tains for  gradual  use  the  water  which  is 
drunk.  On  a  full  supply  he  can  live 
even  20  or  30  days.  As  the  camel  never 
sensibly  perspires,  there  is  no  loss  in  this 
direction.    These  qualities  all  combine  to 


CAM 


CAM 


adapt  the  animal  to  the  countries  he  in- 
habits and  to  the  services  required  of  him. 
He  is,  perhaps,  more  sure-footed  than  the 
ass,  more  easily  supported,  and  capable 
of  an  incomparably  greater  burden.  lie 
can  carry  a  load  of  600  or  800  pounds 


Camel. 

at  the  rate  of  30  miles  a  day,  and,  on 
short  journeys,  1000  to  1200  pounds. 
His  usual  speed  is  two  and  a  half  miles 
an  hour,  but  the  breed  of  fast  camels 
called  distinctively  dromedaries,  Jer.  2  : 
23,  will  travel  100  miles  a  day. 

Like  a  docile  colt,  this  animal  is  driven 
or  led  by  a  rude  halter.  Crescent-shaped 
ornaments  of  cloth  and  cowrie-shells,  or 
even  of  silver,  are  often  hung  to  the  cam- 
el's neck  Jud.  8  :  21,  26.  The  flesh  and 
milk  are  used  for  food  (except  by  Jews) ; 
the  skin  and  hair  are  employed  for  gar- 
ments ;  the  bones  are  cut  into  various 
articles  5  and  sometimes  the  dung  is 
needed  for  fuel. 

The  ordinary  life  of  the  camel  is  from 
30  to  50  years.  Camels  were  formerly, 
and  are  still,  in  the  East,  among  the 
chief  possessions  of  the  wealthy.  Gen. 
12  :  16  ;  30  :  43  ;  37  :  25  ;  Jud.  6  :  5  and 
7:12;  1  Sam.  30:17;  1  Kgs.  10:2;  1 
Chr.  5  :  21  :  2  Chr.  14  :  15 ;  Job  1  :  3  and 
42:  12;   Isa.  30:6.  153 

The  expression  in  Matt.  19  :  24  is  usu- 
ally considered  figurative,  denoting  some- 
thing beyond  human  power.  The  same 
form  of  expression  is  used  among  the 
Arabs  and  by  the  Rabbins  in  respect  to 
the  elephant.  Some  believe  that  the 
expression  refers  to  the  small  door 
within  the  large  and  heavy  door  of 
the  Oriental  gate,  for  this  is  called  in 
Arabic  "Me  needle's  eye."  Rolla  Floyd 
(a  well-known  Syrian  dragoman)  told 
the  writer  that  till  recently  it  was  the 
custom  to  close  the  gates  of  Jerusalem 
from  12  till  2  on  Fridays  during  Moham- 
medan   worship,    but    this    small    door 


might  then  be  used.  On  one  such  oc- 
casion, Mr.  F.  was  waiting  outside  the 
Jafla  gate  for  some  travellers,  when  a 
train  of  camels  arrived.  He  saw  them 
enter  the  city  by  unloading  each  ani- 
mal and  taking  it  separately  through 
"  the   needle\  eye." 

Another  figurative  expression  occurs 
Matt.  23  :  24,  in  which  the  inconsistency 
of  the  scribes  and  Pharisees  (who  at- 
tended to  the  most  unimportant  cere- 
monies of  their  religion,  while  they 
were  unjust,  unmerciful,  and  faithless) 
is  compared  to  one  who  should  very 
carefully  strain  nut  (not  at)  a  gnat  or 
other  small  insect  from  the  liquor  he 
was  about  to  drink,  and  yet  swallow 
an  animal  as  large  as  a  camel.  See 
Drink. 

Travellers  sometimes  throw  over  the 
camel,  u])on  the  top  of  his  burden,  a  pair 
of  panniers,  in  which  they  ride,  one  on 
either  side.  Two  boxes  like  small  car- 
riage-bodies are  often  hung  upon  the 
animal  in  the  same  manner,  and  in  these 
females  may  ride  and  be  sheltered  from 
the  heat.  Gen.  24:64.  It  is  easy  to  see 
how  Rachel  might  have  concealed  her 
father's  idols.  Gen.  31 :  34.  The  camel 
is  said  to  choose  ruinous  and  desolate 
places  for  his  habitations,  and  hence  the 
force  of  the  prophetic  language  respect- 
ing Rabbah,  Eze.  25  :  5  ;  though  the 
prophecy  would  be  abundantly  verified 
if  the  place  should  merely  become  a 
stopping-place  for  caravans. 

Camel's  Hair,  Matt.  3  :  4,  was  made 
into  cloth.  2  Kgs.  1:8;  Zech.  13:4. 
Sometimes  the  fabric  was  wrought  of 
the  finest  and  softest  part  of  the  hair, 
and  was  then  a  very  rich  and  luxurious 
article  of  dress.  A  coarser  kind  was 
used  for  the  covering  of  tents  and  for 
the  upper  garments  of  shepherds  and 
camel-drivers.  Travellers  tell  us  that 
modern  dervishes  wear  cloth  of  this 
kind,  and  also  leathern  girdles.  The 
raiment  of  John  the  Baptist,  Matt.  11 :  8, 
was  probably  of  this  kind,  for  it  is  put 
in  opposition  to  soft  raiment ;  but  some 
think  it  was  of  prepared  camel's  hide. 

CAME'LEON.     See  Chameleon. 

CA'MON  {stalks,  or  grain  f),  where 
Jair  was  buried,  Jud.  10 :  5  ;  east  of  Jor- 
dan, in  Gilead. 

CAMP.  This  term  is  frequently 
used  in  reference  to  the  movements  of 
the  children  of  Israel,  and  many  pas- 

153 


CAM 


CAM 


sages  of  the  Levitical  law  relate  to 
things  that  are  to  be  done  within  or 
without  the  camp. 

The  form  of  encamping,  Ex.  16  :  13, 
is  particularly  prescribed  in  Num.  2. 
The  tabernacle  occupied  the  centre,  and 
nearest  to  this  were  the  tents  of  the  Le- 
vites,  who  were  intrusted  with  the  prin- 
cipal care  of  it.  Num.  3.  The  whole 
body  of  the  people,  embracing  upward 


of  600,000  fighting-men,  besides  women 
and  children,  were  formed  in  four  di- 
visions, three  tribes  constituting  a  di- 
vision, so  that  the  tabernacle  was  en' 
closed  in  a  hollow  square.  Each  of 
these  divisions  had  a  standard,  as  well 
as  each  tribe  and  each  of  the  large  fam- 
ily associations  of  which  the  tribes  were 
composed.  Each  tribe  had  its  captain  or 
commander  assigned  by  Uod's  direction. 


NOUTH. 

FOURTH    DIVISION.       CAMP    OP    DAN, 

157,600. 

DAN, 

o 
o 
1— 1 

62,700. 

a 
>► 

CO 

ASHER,       AND      NAPHTALI, 

o 

41,500.                    53,400. 

*^ 

Iph" 

S5^ 

So 

l-H 

2 

CJ<  M 

W 

<J 

S^* 

4^  > 

m 

K 

3  "=" 

MERARITES, 

O  r- 

H 

a 

3200. 

2 

H 

a  CO 

> 

*     >? 

^ 

O 

^i 

w 
o 

zn" 

PU 

a 

COURT 

^   ^ 

^T  «i 

2! 

S3  o"  -^ 
ft-  Tt^ 

So 

O  lO 

OP  THE 

TABERNACLE. 

IE 

a  o 

31 

O 

■=3 

m 

^            ' H  -^ 

> 

KOHATHITES, 

2750. 

a 

fi- 

K  <M 

O  t-i 

» 

<)  JO 

"=2 

n 

S 

•     S5 

h- 1 

H- 

REUBEN, 

fc 

46,500. 

o 

M 

H 

SIMEON,         AND        GAD, 

o 

^ 

59,300.                  45,650. 

SOUTH.      SI 

3C0ND   DIVISION.       CAMP   OF    REUBE> 

r,  151,450. 

The  view  of  such  a  mass  of  people, 
maintaining  the  most  perfect  order  and 
subordination,  might  well  excite  the 
admiration  of  the  beholder.  Num.  24 : 
2-5.  It  is  not  diflBcult  to  imagine  the 
emotions  which  such  a  view  would 
awaken  in  one  who,  from  the  summit 
of  Mount  Peor,  looked  down  upon  the 
vast  congregation  of  the  Lord's  people 
gathered  around  the  sacred  symbols  of 
his  presence. 

"  How  beautiful  are  thy  tents,  0  Jacob  ! 
And  thy  tabernacles,  O  Israel  ! 
As  the  Valleys  are  they  spread  forth  ; 
As  gardens  by  the  river's  side  : 
As  lign-aloeswhicli  Jehovah  hath  planted, 
As  cedars  beside  the  waters." 

Num.  24:5,6. 
154 


"  Outside  of  the  camp  "  must  all  de- 
filement and  all  defiled  persons  be  put. 
Consequently,  lepers,  those  defiled  by 
contact  with  the  dead,  captives  taken 
in  war,  were  ke})t  out  for  a  greater  or 
less  period,  and  the  ashes  of  the  sacri- 
fice and  all  that  was  not  burnt  on  the 
altar  were  carried  out.  The  dead  were 
there  buried,  and  there  executions  and 
the  burning  of  the  young  bullock  for 
the  sin-offering  took  place.  See  refer- 
ences in  order  :  Lev.  13  :  46  ;  14  :  3  ; 
Num.  12:14,15;  31:19:  Josh.  6:23; 
Deut.  23:10,12;  Lev.  6  :  1 1  ;  8:17: 
10  : 4,  5  ;  24  :  14  ;  4  :  12.  AVe  are  not  to 
picture  an  enormous  camp  lying  four- 
square, containing  regular  streets,  like 


CAM 


CAN 


a  modern  military  camp,  because  in 
that  case  these  regulations  evidently 
could  not  be  carried  out  without  a  great 
expenditure  of  time.  But  the  Israelites 
traversed  a  country  broken  up  into  in- 
numerable little  valleys,  and  oftentimes 
the  host  must  have  stretched  along  for 
miles,  but  so  closely  hemmed  in  between 
mountain-sides  that  to  go  without  the 
camp  would  be  but  a  few  steps. 

In  later  times,  when  Israel  was  set- 
tled in  the  Promised  Land,  we  find 
scattered  references  to  camps.  They 
appear  to  have  been  generally  pitched 
upon  high  ground.  Jud.  7  : 1,  8  ;  1  Sam. 
17  :  4  ;  28  :  4.  They  were  sometimes 
intrenched ;  at  other  times  a  barrier 
was  formed  of  the  baggage-wagons. 
Jehoshaphat  established  permanent 
camps.  2  Chr.  17  :  2. 

CAM'PHIRE.  Song  Sol.  4: 13.  A 
shrub,  sometimes  10  feet  high,  growing 
in  Egypt  and  other  Eastern  countries, 
and  called  henna  {Lawsonia  alba). 

The  white-and-yellow  flowers  grow 
in  clusters,  like  the  lilac,  and  are  very 
fragrant.     From  the  leaves,  when  dried 


Cam  phi  re.     {Lawsonia  alba.) 

and  pulverized,  is  made  an  orange  or 
reddish  dye,  with  which  females  stain 
their  hands  and  feet.  Sonnini  saj's  that 
Eastern  women  "are  fond  of  decorating 
themselves  with  the  flowers  of  the  hen- 
na-plant ;  that  they  take  them  in  their 


hands  and  perfume  their  bosoms  with 
them."  What  we  call  ca7njihor  is  an 
entirely  diff'erent  substance.  It  is  re- 
markable that  camphire  is  still  found 
growing  only  at  one  place  in  Palestine, 
and  thatEn-gedi.  Song  Sol.  1:14. 

CA'NAAN  {low,  humbled),  the  fourth 
son  of  Ilam,  Gen.  10:6;  1  Chr.  1:8, 
and  the  progenitor  of  those  peoples  who 
inhabited  the  country  on  the  west  of  the 
Jordan.  Noah,  his  grandfather,  cursed 
him  on  awaking  from  his  drunken  sleep 
because  of  the  conduct  of  Ilam,  his 
father.  Gen.  9  :  20-25.  The  difficulty  is 
easiest  solved  if  we  trust  a  Jewish  tra- 
dition that  Canaan  was  the  one  who  first 
saw  his  grandfather's  shame,  and  that, 
instead  of  decorously  concealing  it,  he 
told  his  father.  His  descendants  bore 
the  curse.  The  Israelites  carried  on  a 
war  of  extermination  against  them,  and 
they  became,  in  great  measure,  servants 
or  slaves. 

CANAAN,  LAND  OF.  Gen. 
12 : 5.  The  country  inhabited  by  the 
posterity  of  Canaan,  who  were  hence 
called  Canaanites,  and  which  was  given 
by  God  to  the  children  of  Israel,  the 
posterity  of  Abraham,  as  their  posses- 
sion. Ex.  6:4;  Lev.  25:38. 

The  original  boundaries  were  Mount 
Lebanon  on  the  north,  the  wilderness 
of  Arabia  on  the  south,  and  the  Arabian 
desert  on  the  east.  On  the  west  their 
possessions  extended  at  some  points  to 
the  margin  of  the  Mediterranean.  Their 
boundaries  on  this  side  were  partially 
restricted  by  the  Philistines,  who  held 
the  low  lands  and  strong  cities  along 
the  shore.  Gen.  10  :  19.  Besides  the 
possessions  of  the  Israelites,  the  land 
of  Canaan  embraced  Phoenicia  on  the 
north  and  Philistia  on  the  south-west. 
Zeph.  2  :  5.  The  land  of  Canaan  was 
called  the  land  of  Israel,  1  Sam.  13  :  19, 
because  it  was  occupied  by  the  descend- 
ants of  Jacob  or  Israel;  the  holi/  land, 
Zech.  2  :  12  ;  the  la)id  of  jjromise,  Heb. 
11 :  9,  because  it  was  promised  to  Abra- 
ham and  his  posterity  as  their  posses- 
sion ;  the  l<(nd  of  Jndah,  Jer.  39  :  10, 
because  Judah  was  the  leading  tribe; 
the  land  of  the  Hebrews,  Gen.  40  :  15,  or 
the  descendants  of  Eber,  an  ancestor  of 
Abraham.  The  modern  name  of  Pal- 
estine, or  the  land  of  the  Philistines, 
was  originally  applied  to  the  region  ly- 
ing along  the  coast   of   the   Mediter- 

155 


CAN 


CAN 


ranean,  south-west  of  the  Land  of  Prom- 
ise, but  in  its  present  usage  denotes  the 
whole  country  bounded  by  the  Jordan 
on  the  east,  the  Mediterranean  on  the 
west,  Arabia  on  the  south,  and  Lebanon 
on  the  north.      For   physical   features, 

see    PA.LESTINE. 


Sketch-Map  of  Canaan  before  the  Conquest. 

History. — Previous  to  its  conquest  by  which 
Joshua,  Canaan  was  peopled  by  several 
tribes,  as  Ilittites,  Jebusites,  Amorites, 
Girgasites,  Hivites,  Perizzites,  and  four 
others,  all  early  known  as  Canaanites. 
Gen.  10  :  15-19.  Later,  '^Canaanites" 
appears  to  designate  a  separate  tribe,  and 
156 


the  land  was  inhabited  by  them  and  six 

other  tribes.  Canaan  was  the  country  for 
which  Terah  started,  Gen.  11 :  31 ;  Abrani 
dwelt  in  it ;  it  was  promised  to  him  for 
a  possession.  Gen.  12  :  5,  8,  etc. ;  Isaac, 
Jacob,  and  the  patriarchs  made  their 
home  there.  Gen.  26-35.  It  was  left 
by  Jacob  because  of  the 
famine ;  searched  by  the 
twelve  spies.  Num.  13:2; 
viewed  by  Moses,  Deut. 
32:49;  conquered  by 
Joshua,  Josh.  11:23;  di- 
vided by  lot  among  the 
twelve  tribes.  Josh.  13  :  7  ; 
a  king  of  the  country  was 
slain  by  Deborah  and  Ba- 
rak. Jud.  4:24.  See  Map. 
In  the  temple  at  Kar- 
nak,  in  Egypt,  a  triple  list 
of  118  or  119  towns  of  Ca- 
naan has  lately  been  dis- 
covered, which  is  believed 
to  be  a  record  of  an  Egyp- 
tian conquest  of  the  land 
by  Thothmes  III.  previous 
to  that  by  Joshua.  Seethe 
list  of  these  towns  in  Con- 
der's  Tent- Work  in  Pales- 
tine, vol.  ii.  344-346.  It 
is  the  oldest  known  record 
of  Canaanite  cities  before 
the  time  of  Joshua.  For 
later  history  see  Judah, 
Kingdomof;  Israel, King- 
dom OF ;  and  Palestine. 

CA'NAANITES, 
THE.  See  preceding 
article. 

CA  ]VA  OF  GALr- 
LEE,   a  town    noted   as 
the  scene  of  Christ's  first 
miracle,  John  2  :  1-11,  and 
of  another  miracle,  4  :  46, 
and  as  the  home  of   Na- 
thanael.   21:2.    Tradition 
places   it  at   Kefr-Kenna, 
about  four  English  miles 
north-east  of  Nazareth, 
and  the  traveller  is  now 
shown  an  earthen  jar, 
is    claimed    to    be   one   of    the 
water-jars  used  at  the  wedding.      Rob- 
inson   and    others,   with    less  probabil- 
ity, identify   Cana    with    Kdna-el-JelU, 
about  9  miles    north  of    Nazareth.     It 
has  a  fine  situation,  and  the  ruins  indi- 
cate the  existence  in  former  times  of  a 


CAN 


CAN 


considerable  village.  Contler  suggests 
a  new  location,  and  proposes  to  place 
Cana  at  Jio'neh,  north-east  of  Nazareth, 
and  only  one  and  a  half  miles  distant. — 
CONDEH  :  Tent-  Work-  in  PaleHtine,  1878, 
i.  p.  154.     This  lacks  confirmation. 

CAN'DACE  {>iovereiijn  of  hIuvch  ?). 
The  name  is  a  title  of  Ethiopian  queens. 
Acts  8  :  27.  Her  chamberlain  or  treas- 
urer, a  eunuch,  was  met  by  Philip  the 
evangelist  on  the  road  between  Jerusa- 
lem and  Gaza,  and  converted.  See 
Philip. 

CAN'DLE.  Job  18  :  6.  Often  used 
figuratively  to  denote  light  generally. 
See  Lamp. 

CANDLESTICK,  GOLD'- 
EN — a  misnomer,  as  it  held  only 
lamps — Ex.  25  :  31.  It  was  a  splendid 
article  of  the  tabernacle  furniture,  made 
of  fine  gold,  not  moulded,  but  "  of  beat- 
en work,"  and  computed  by  some  to 
have  been  worth,  at  the  modern  value 
of  gold,  $30,000.  It  consisted  of  a 
shaft  or  stem,  supposed  to  have  been  5 
feet    high,    with    six     branches.       The 


Golden  Candlestick.     {From  the  Arch  of  Titus.) 

branches  came  out  from  the  shaft  at 
three  points,  two  at  each  point,  as  in 
the  accompanying  cut,  and  the  width 
of  the  whole  candlestick  across  the  top 
was  about  three  feet  and  a  half.  It  was 
richly  adorned  with  raised  work  repre- 
senting flowers,  and  also  knops  or  knobs, 
and  little  bowls  resembling  half  an 
almond-shell.       At    the    extremity    of 


each  branch  there  was  a  socket  for 
the  lamj).  and  also  at  the  top  of  the 
main  shaft,  making  seven  in  all.  Tongs 
to  remove  the  snuif  and  dishes  to  receive 
it,  as  well  as  oil-vessels,  were  articles 
of  furniture  belonging  to  the  can- 
dlestick, and  were  all  made  of  gold. 
The  lights  were  trimmed  and  supplied 
daily  with  the  ])urest  olive-oil.  The,y 
were  lighted  at  night  and  extinguished 
in  the  morning,  thougli  some  su))pose 
that  a  part  of  them  at  least  were  kept 
burning  through  the  day.  The  candle- 
stick was  so  situated  as  to  throw  the 
light  on  the  altar  of  incense  and  on  the 
table  of  shew-bread,  occupying  the 
same  apartment,  and  from  which  the 
natural  light  was  excluded. 

In  Solomon's  temple  there  were  10 
golden  candlesticks.  1  Kgs.  7:49;  2 
Chr.  4  :  7.  They  were  taken  to  Baby- 
lon. Jer.  52:19.  In  Zerubbabel's  tem- 
ple there  was  only  one  candlestick. 
This  was  removed  from  Herod's  temple 
by  Titus,  and  carried  immediately  before 
him  in  his  triumphal  entry  into  Rome. 
It  is  sculptured  uj)on  the  Arch  of  Titus, 
in  Rome.  Its  after-history  is  curious. 
Titus  deposited  it  in  the  Temple  of 
Peace ;  it  was  carried  to  Carthage  by 
Genseric,  A.  D.  465 ;  recovered  by  Beli- 
sarius ;  brought  to  Constantinople,  and 
then  "  respectfully  deposited  in  the 
Christian  church  of  Jerusalem,"  A.  D. 
533.      Nothing  further  is  known  of  it. 

CANE.     See  Calamus. 

CANKER-WORM.  Joel  1:4; 
Nah.  3  :  15,  16.  This  was  one  of  the 
army  of  destroying  insects  by  which 
the  land  of  Juda?a  was  laid  waste.  It 
is  thought  that  the  original  word  means 
rather  the  locust  in  its  larva  or  cater- 
pillar state,  when  it  is  even  more  de- 
structive than  after  it  acquires  wings 
and  is  about  to  fly  away.  Of  this  Na- 
hum's  words  are  very  expressive :  it 
"spoileth  and  fleeth  away." 

CAN'NEII.     See  Calneh. 

CAN'ON  (literally,  a  cane,  then  a 
rod  of  measurement)  means  the  collec- 
tion of  books  of  the  0.  and  N.  T.  which 
form  the  original  and  authoritative 
written  rule  of  faith  and  practice  in  the 
Christian  Church. 

I.  The  0.  T.  C((non.—Q\\Y  Bible  is  a 
growth  of  many  generations.  Moses  put 
the  "  book  of  the  law  "  in  the  side  of  the 
ark.  Deut.  31  :  26.     This    book,    which 

157 


CAN 


CAN 


contained  not  alone  direct  precepts,  Ex. 
24  :  7,  but  also  general  exhortations, 
Deut.  28:61,  and  historical  narratives, 
Ex.  17  :  14,  was  further  increased  by  the 
records  of  Joshua,  Josh.  24  :  26,  and 
probably  by  other  writings.  1  Sam.  10  : 
25.  At  a  subsequent  time  collections  of 
psalms  and  proverbs  were  made.  The 
later  prophets,  especially  Jeremiah,  were 
familiar  with  the  writings  of  their  pred- 
ecessors. But  although  book  was  added 
to  book,  there  probably  was  no  collec- 
tion made  containing  them  all  until  the 
Caj^tivity.  According  to  Jewish  tradi- 
tion, the  formation  of  the  canon  of  the 
0.  T.  in  its  present  form  was  due  to  Ezra 
and  the  men  of  the  "  great  synagogue." 
The  division  of  the  0.  T.  into  three 
parts — the  Law,  the  Prophets,  and  the 
Hagiographa — I.  e.  the  remaining  sa- 
cred writings — (see  Bible)  was  not  ar- 
bitrary or  accidental,  but  was  a  reflec- 
tion of  the  true  historical  order  of  their 
composition.  The  Law  is  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Jewish  state;  the  Prophets 
relate  the  story  of  the  struggles  of  the 
Jews  against  internal  and  external  dan- 
gers, and  likewise  the  revelation  of  the 
divine  Mind  toward  them  and  their 
neighbors;  the  Hagiographa  contain 
additional  information,  and,  above  all, 
the  outpourings  of  the  nation's  heart 
and  the  expression  of  their  wisdom. 
According  to  Josephus,  there  were  only 
22  books  in  the  sacred  canon,  corre- 
sponding to  the  number  of  letters  in  the 
Hebrew  alphabet.  But  this  short  list 
was  made  by  combining  several  books 
which  we  projierly  separate.  Thus,  the 
two  books  of  Samuel,  of  Kings,  of 
Chronicles,  formed  but  one  book  respect- 
ively ;  Judges  and  Ruth,  Ezra  and  Ne- 
hemiah,  Jeremiah  and  Lamentations, 
were  similarly  combined;  and  finally, 
the  twelve  minor  prophets  were  reck- 
oned as  one  book.  And  although  other 
lists,  slightly  different,  are  given,  still 
the  main  fact  is  testified  to  that  the  Jews 
had  a  certain  fixed  and  uniform  amount 
of  writing  to  which  they  gave  a  divine 
character  and  paid  peculiar  regard. 
This  list  does  not  include  the  Apocry- 
pha of  the  Septuagint,  which,  accord- 
ingly, has  been  excluded  from  the 
Protestant  0.  T.,  though  often  printed 
between  the  Testaments.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  however,  receives  them 
as  authentic.  The  British  and  Foreign 
158 


Bible  Society  ceased  to  print  them  after 
1826.  The  American  Bible  Society  like- 
wise omits  them. 

We  may  therefore  say  that  the  0.  T., 
as  we  have  it  to-day,  existed  shortly 
after  the  Captivity,  and  that  the  present 
number  and  arrangement  of  the  books 
do  not  affect  its  age,  since  nothing  has 
been  added  or  omitted  which  had  any 
right  to  be  in  the  canon  or  the  individ- 
ual books. 

The  canon  as  we  have  it  existed  in  our 
Lord's  day,  as  is  evident  from  the  quo- 
tations in  the  N.  T.  by  him  and  his  dis- 
ciples. There  are  in  all  275  quotations 
from  different  books,  but,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  words  of  Enoch  in  Jude, 
no  book  out  of  the  canon  is  used  for  this 
purpose.  We  may  therefore  feel  cer- 
tain that  we  have  a  canon  endorsed  by 
the  highest  conceivable  authority.  It 
should,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  Septuagint  version  is  generally 
quoted,  even  when  it  differs  from  the 
Hebrew.  The  apostles  were  no  slaves 
of  the  letter,  but  used  the  Scriptures  in 
the  freedom  of  the  Spirit. 

II.  The  N.  T.  Canon.— T\\Q  history 
of  the  collection  and  authoritative  de- 
termination of  the  N.  T.  canon  may  be 
divided  into  three  periods. 

1.  Doivn  to  A.  D.  170. — Paul  claimed 
for  his  Epistles  ''  a  public  use  and  an 
authoritative  power."  1  Thess.  5:27;  2 
Thess.  3:6;  Col.  4  :  16;  1  Tim.  4  :  6. 
John  solemnly  warns  against  any  addi- 
tions to  or  deductions  from  the  book  of 
Revelation.  Rev.  22:18,  19.  Peter  sig- 
nificantly puts  Paul's  Epistles  side  by 
side  Avith  '"'  the  other  Scriptures."  2  Pet. 
3  :  16.  Nothing  is  more  striking  than  the 
great  difference  in  contents  and  expres- 
sion between  the  N.  T.  and  the  Chris- 
tian writings  of  the  following  centuries. 
This  difference  is  a  subsidiary  but  con- 
vincing proof  of  the  inspiration  of  the 
former.  We  see  in  the  Apostolic  Fath- 
ers (a.  n.  70-120)  evidence  of  acquaint- 
ance with  at  least  the  majority  of  our 
present  N.  T. 

The  period  from  A.  D.  120-170  has 
been  termed  the  age  of  the  apologists. 
These  efforts  to  defend  the  Christian 
faith  led  to  a  new  use  of  the  facts  of 
Christ's  life,  and  it  then  became  mani- 
fest how  gi-eatly  superior  the  four  Gos- 
pels were  to  all  other  accounts ;  and 
accordingly,  they  were   separated  and 


CAN 


CAP 


assigned  to  a  place  of  honor  and  abso- 
lute authority.  At  the  close  of  the  pe- 
riod was  composed  the  Muratorian 
canon  in  the  West,  while  about  the 
same  time  appeared  the  S3'riac  transla- 
tion of  the  N.  T.  called  the  Peshito,  and 
the  first  Latin  versions  called  Itala. 

2.  From  A.  D.  170  to  A.  D.  303.— As 
the  result  of  the  investigations  in  the 
patristic  writings  of  this  period,  West- 
cott  declares  that  the  four  Gospels,  the 
Acts,  1  Peter,  1  John,  13  Epistles  of 
Paul,  and  the  Apocalj'pse  (the  Revela- 
tion) were  accepted  by  the  Church,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Apocalypse, 
have  never  been  questioned  since  until 
modern  times.  Speaking  generally,  we 
may  say  that  of  the  so-called  *'  dis- 
puted"  books  of  the  N.  T.  the  Apoca- 
lypse was  universally  received  by  all 
the  Christian  writers,  while  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews  found  acceptance  in  the 
Oriental,  but  not  in  the  Occidental, 
Church.  Judging  from  the  writings, 
"  the  Epistles  of  James  and  Jude  and  the 
second  and  third  of  John  were  little 
used,  and  the  second  of  Peter  was  bare- 
ly known." 

3.  From  A.  D.  SOS  to  A.  D.  307.— At 
the  close  of  this  jieriod  the  third  Coun- 
cil of  Carthage,  A.  D.  397,  took  place, 
memorable  as  that  by  Avhich  the  present 
canon  of  the  N.  T.,  with  its  27  books, 
was  ratified.  Since  that  time  it  has 
remained  unchanged.  Luther  revived 
doubts  concerning  some  of  the  7  books 
Avhieh  Eusebius  calls  "disputed,"  es- 
pecially the  Epistle  of  James  (which  he 
could  not  harmonize  with  Paul's  doc- 
trine of  justification  by  faith) ;  but 
these  were  private  opinions,  and  were 
not  adopted  by  the  Lutheran  Church. 
All  the  Protestant  Churches  agree  with 
the  Ureek  and  the  Roman  Churches  as 
regards  the  extent  of  the  canon  of  the 
N.  T.  And  this  little  book  contains  the 
chief  wisdom  of  the  world,  and  will  con- 
tinue to  guide  mankind  in  the  way  of 
salvation  to  the  end  of  time. 

CAN'TICLES.     See  Song  of  Sol- 

OMOX. 

_  CAPER'NAUM  (town  ofNahum),  a 
city  of  great  interest  as  the  home  of  Jesus 
after  he  left  Nazareth.  Though  it  fills  a 
large  place  in  the  gospel  narrative,  it  is 
not  once  mentioned  in  0.  T.  history,  nor  in 
any  portion  of  the  Bible  except  the  four 
Gospels.  It  is  called  Christ's  "  own  city," 


Matt.  9:1,  and  it  was  the  scene  of  t^omo  of 
his  most  remarkable  miracles,  labors,  and 
discourses.  Matt.  8  :  5-14  ;  9  :  2  ;  17  :  24 ; 
John  6  : 1 7-C^> ;  4  :  46,  etc.  Much  explo- 
ration, study,  and  discussion  have  been 
given  to  determine  its  true  site,  but  the 
question  is  still  unsettled. 

The  gospel  narrative  throws  some 
general,  though  not  very  definite,  light 
upon  the  location  of  this  lost  city.  It 
was  (1)  a  city  of  Galilee,  Luke  4:  31; 
(2)  by  the  lake-coast.  Matt.  4:13:  John 
6  :  17,  24;  (3)  with  collectors  of  customs, 
and  probably  a  custom-house,  Matt.  17  : 
24  ;  Mark  2  : 1,  14;  Luke  5  :  27  compared 
with  Matt.  9:1,9;  (4)  it  had  a  noted  syn- 
nagogue,  built  by  a  Roman  centurion, 
Matt.  8:5;  Mark  1 ;  21 ;  Luke  7:1,5; 
(5)  it  was  joined  with  Chorazin  and  Beth- 
saida  in  the  woes  pronounced  upon  them 
by  Christ,  and  its  complete  destruction 
was  predicted.  Matt.  11:20-23;  Luke 
10  :  13-15 ;  (6)  it  has  been  inferred  also 
from  the  Scriptures  that  Capernaum  was 
in  the  land  of  Gennesaret,  but  this  is  not 
certain.  Comp.  Matt.  14 :  34  with  John 
6  :  16,  17,  24,  25.  These  indicate  that  the 
city  was  on  the  west  side  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  and  near  its  northern  end. 

Two  places  have  been  mainly  urged 
as  marking  the  site  of  ancient  Caper- 
naum :  (1)  Khan  Alinyeh,  supported  by 
Robinson  (1852),  Macgregor  (1864), 
Porter  (1875),  Kiepert,  Sepp,  and  by 
members  of  the  recent  British  and  Amer- 
ican Palestine  Exploration  Societies 
(Kitchener  and  Merrill)  ;  (2)  Tell  Hum, 
maintained  by  Dr.  Wilson,  Major  Wil- 
son, W.  M.  Thomson,  Stanley,  Hep- 
worth  Dixon,  Ritter,  Baedeker,  De- 
litzsch,  Plumptre,  Schaff",  and  others. 

Tell  Hum  is  a  ruin  near  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  about  two  miles  south-west  of 
where  the  river  Jordan  enters  the  sea. 
Khan  Minyeh  is  a  Saracen  inn  on  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  plain  of 
Gennesaret  {cl-Gkuweir),  about  5  miles 
south-west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Jordan 
and  2i  to  3  miles  below  Tell  Hum,  and 
situated  near    the  lake. 

Several  other  places  have  been  sug- 
gested :  as  'Ain  Mudaumrah,  once  urged, 
but  afterward  abandoned,  by  Tristram, 
and  ruins  near  Bethsaida  Julias;  but 
their  claims  are  generally  regarded  as 
not  well  supported. 

The  argument  from  tradition  is  divid- 
ed between  Khan  Mhii/eh,  and  Tell  Hum, 

159 


CAP 


CAP 


but  prevailingly  in  favor  of  Tell  Hum. 
Conder  {Tent-  Work  in  Palestine, ii.  182) 
claims  Jewish  and  Arab  tradition  for 
Khan  Mini/eh,  but  Br.  Thomson  and 
Furrer  claim  it  decidedly  for  Tell  Hum. 
The  arguments  for  Khan  Mini/eh, 
briefly  stated,  are:    (1)   It  is  near  the 


Gennesaret,  from  Khan  Minyeh.     {From  a  Photograph  taken  for  the 
Palebtlne  Exploration  Fund.) 


sea-shore,,  while  Tell  Hum  is  at  some 
distance  from  the  shore;  (2)  it  is  in 
the  land  of  Gennesaret,  if  Gennesaret  is 
identical  with  el-Ghnweir  ;  (3)  it  is  well 
located  for  a  custom-house,  on  the  high- 
way from  Jerusalem  to  Damascus. 

The  arguments  in  support  of  Tell  Hum 
mainly  are  ;  (1 )  The  extensive  ruins,  cov- 
ering a  space  half  a  mile  long  by  a  quar- 
ter of  a  mile  wide,  indicate  a  large  city 
like  Capernaum  ;  (2)  the  ruins  of  a  large 
synagogue  have  been  discovered  there  ; 
(3)  when  Christ  crossed  the  lake  from 
Capernaum,  Mark  6  :  33,  the  crowd  ran 
around  the  end  of  the  lake  to  meet  him  ; 
and  it  is  claimed  that  Tell  Hum  is  more 
likely,  therefore,  to  have  been  his  start- 
ing-point than  Khan  Minyeh  ;  (4:)  Jose- 
phus,  wounded  on  the  plain  of  Batikha, 
at  the  north  end  of  the  lake,  was  car- 
ried to  Capernaum,  most  likely  the 
nearest  place — not,  therefore,  at  Khan 
Minyeh,  but  Tell  Ham;  (5)  historical 
narratives  of  the  sixth  and  seventh  cen- 
turies and  the  Jewish  and  Arab  tradi- 
tion appear  to  favor  Tell  Hum  as  Caper- 
naum ;  (6)  the  identity  of  name,  for  Ca- 
pernaum means  "  the  village"  {Ke/r  or 
160  '"' 


Kafr)  "oi  Nahum,"  and  Tell  Hum 
means  "the  mound  or  ruins  of  Hum" 
— (■.  e.  Nahum. 

The  strongest  argument  against  Khan 
Minyeh  is  the  absence  of  ruins  of  suffi- 
cient importance  to  indicate  a  city  of 
the  size  of  Capernaum.  The  English  Sur- 

vey    party    in    iSIWi 

g-;^^--^  _  .,_i  dug  up  at  Khan  Min- 
yeh  chiefly  fragments 
of  pottery ;  Kitchener 
in  1877  examined  the 
more  extensive  exca- 
vations, bringing  to 
light  what  appeared 
to  him  to  be  a  wall 
of  squared  stones. 
Robinson  conjectures 
that  the  ruins  of  Ca- 
jiernaum  were  trans- 
orted  to  Tiberia8,but 
Tiberias  was  already 
built  when  Caper- 
naum was  in  its 
I )  r  0  sp  eri  ty .  Those 
who  place  Caper- 
naum at  Khan  Min- 
yeh usually  locate 
C  h  o  r  a  z  i  n  at  Tell 
Hum  and  Bethsaida 
This  theory  leaves  the 


at  Et-Tdh l<i h a h , 
important  ruins  at  Kerazeh  to  be  ex- 
plained. As  the  latter  cannot  be  ig- 
nored, they  form  a  strong  objection  to 
Khan  Minyeh.  If,  however,  Capernaum 
was  at  Tell  Hum,  then  Chorazin  was 
doubtless  at  Kerazeh,  and  no  important 
ruins  remain  unexplained. 

At  present,  therefore,  the  arguments 
are  strongly  in  favor  of  Tell  Hum,  but 
a  final  decision  of  the  question  must 
wait  further  excavations.  The  explo- 
rations of  the  English  society  organ- 
ized in  1878-1879  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  the  sites  of  the  three  cities 
may  furnish  information  for  the  satis- 
factory settlement  of  this  question. 

Bulns  at  Tell  Hum. — The  most  re- 
markable ruin  at  Tell  Hum  is  that  of  a 
Jewish  synagogue.  Around  this,  and 
up  the  slope  behind  it,  are  the  remains 
of  an  ancient  town;  the  walls  of  many 
private  houses  can  be  traced,  and  the 
appearance  of  a  main  street  leading 
toward  ancient  Chorazin.  The  syna- 
gogue was  about  75  feet  long  by  58  feet 
wide  ;  its  walls  were  built  of  hard  white 
limestone,  almost  marble,  resting  on  ba- 


CAP 


CAP 


saltic  rock.  Portions  of  columns,  pedes- 
tals, capitals  of  the  Corinthian  order,  and 
blocks  of  stone  have  been  uncovered  on 
its  site,  and  on  the  lintel  of  a  door  a  rep- 
resentation of  the  pot  of  manna  was  dis- 
covered, recalling  the  words  of  Jesus: 
"Your  fathers  did  eat  manna  in  the 
wilderness,  and  are  dead."  John  6 :  49. 
If  Tell  Hum  is  Capernaum,  then  this 
synagogue  was  doubtless  the  one  which 


Kuins  at  Tell  Hum.    (From  a  Photograph. 
the  pious  Roman  centurion  built,  Luke 
7:1-10,  and  in  which  Jesus  taught. 

North  of  the  town  are  two  tombs,  one 
built  under  ground  of  limestone  blocks 
after  the  hard  basaltic  rock  had  been  cut 
away ;  the  other  above  ground  and  white- 
washed within  and  without,  as  in  our 
Lord's  day.  Matt.  23  :  27. 

The  road  from  Khan  Miin/eh  to  Tell 
Hum  now  leads  over  the  rocks  at  some 
height  above  the  lake.  It  is  a  narrow 
path,  more  like  an  ancient  conduit  than 
a  road.  From  this  height  the  view  ex- 
tends to  Tiberias.  A  short  distance 
from  Khan  Minyeh  by  the  seashore  is 
'Ain  et-Tin,  or  ''Fig  Spring"  (which 
Dr.  Robinson  erroneously  identified  with 
the  spring  '^Kapharnaum,"  mentioned  by 
Josephus).  A  mile  farther  north  is  the 
charming  bay  Et-Tdhu/hah,  by  which 
some  locate  western  Bethsaida,  but  at 
which,  more  probably,  was  the  suburb 
and  harbor  of  Capernaum :  here  is  a 
very  copious  fountain  abounding  in 
fish  (probably  the  "  Kapharnaum  "  of 
Josephus),  and  a  large  stream  which 
turns  a  mill  and  once  watered,  through 
an  aqueduct,  the  plain  of  Gennesaret. 
The  road  from  Et-Tdbighah  continues 
11 


northward   along   the   bank,   on    which 
several  springs  and  the  remains  of  build- 
ings are  to  be  seen,  until  it  reaches  Tell 
Hum.    From  thence  northward  to  Kera- 
zeh,  probably  Choraziri,  is  about  2  miles, 
and  there  are  traces    of  a   paved  road 
which  connected  the  city  with  the  great 
caravan-road  to  Damascus.     Following 
the  shore  of  the  lake  to  the  north-west 
about  2  miles,  where  the  Jordan  emp- 
ties into  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  is  Abu  Ztaiy, 
which  Dr.  Thomsoti 
.^regards    as    Beth- 
ij'  saida,  the  birthplace 
of   Peter  and  An- 
drew.    The  ruin   of 
all   these   cities    has 
een  so  complete  as 
to  render  their  very 
sites    doubtful,    and 
strikingly  to  remind 
us  of  the  fearful  pre- 
diction of  our  Lord 
concerning  them. 
Matt.  11  :  21-23. 

CAPH'TOR 

chaplet),   the   origi- 

Palestine  Exploration  Fund.)    jjj^j    home     of    the 

Caphtorim  or  Philistines.  Deut.  2  :  23 ; 
Jer.  47  :  4 ;  Am.  9  :  7.    Some  have  placed 


it  in  Cappadocia,  others  in  Cyprus  or  in 
Crete.  It  is  more  probably  identical  with 
Caphtur,  and  the  northern  deltaof  Egypt. 

CAPPADO'CIA,  the  largest  and 
most  easterly  province  of  Asia  Minor. 
On  the  north  was  Pontus,  on  the  east 
the  Euphrates,  beyond  which  were  Ar- 
menia and  Mesopotamia,  on  the  south 
Syria  and  Cilicia,  and  on  the  west  Ga- 
latia.  It  was  high  table-land,  inter- 
sected by  ranges  of  mountains,  sparse- 
ly wooded,  but  good  for  grain  or  graz- 
ing. Cappadocia  was  conquered  by 
Cyrus,  ruled  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
tributary  to  the  vSeleucidte,  and  became 
a  Roman  province,  A.  D.  17.  Some  of 
its  people  were  in  Jerusalem  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost,  Acts  2  :  9,  and  afterward 
Christians  of  the  province  were  ad- 
dressed by  Peter.  1  Pet.  1:1. 

CAP'TAIN,  an  officer  in  the  Jew- 
ish army  whose  rank  or  power  was  des- 
ignated by  the  number  of  men  under 
his  command,  as  captain  of  fifty  or 
captain  of  a  thousand,  and  the  com- 
mander or  chief  of  the  whole  army  was 
called  the  captain  of  the  host.  Deut.  1 : 

161 


CAP 


CAP 


15  ;  2  Sam.  19  :  13,  etc.  The  divisions 
of  the  army  were  regulated  in  some 
measure  by  the  division  of  families,  as 
the  heads  of  families  were  usually  offi- 
cers. 2  Chr.  25  :  5.      Captains    of  hun- 


A  Roman  Captain  or  Centurion. 

dreds,  or  larger  companies,  were  proba- 
bly what  would  be  called  in  modern 
phrase  staflf-officers,  and  formed  the 
council  of  war.  1  Chr.  13  :  1.  The  ''cap- 
tain of  the  guard,"  Acts  28  :  16,  was  the 
commander  of  the  Praetorian  troops  at 
Rome.     See  Centuriox. 

Captain  op  the  Temple,  Acts  4:1, 
was  the  chief  of  the  priests  and  Levites 
who  kept  guard  around  and  within  that 
sacred  edifice.  In  this  non-military 
sense  is  Christ  called  ''  Captain "  in 
Heb.  2:  in. 

CAP'TIVE.  Gen.  14:14.  Usually 
denotes  one  taken  in  war.  Among  East- 
ern nations  such  persons  were  treated 
with  great  cruelty,  and  were  subjects 
of  merchandise.  For  instances  of  this 
merciless  treatment  see  Jud.  1  :  7  ;  1  Sam. 
11  :  2  ;  2  Sam.  8  :  2  ;  2  Kgs.  26  :  7.  It 
is  a  remarkable  fact  that  though  the  Is- 
raelites dealt  in  many  instances  harshly 
with  those  they  capture<l,  yet  their  con- 
duct stood  out  in  such  favorable  contrast 
to  that  of  heathen  nations  that  the  hu- 
manity of  some  even  of  their  worst  kings 
was  reckoned  upon  by  their  conquered 
enemies.  1  Kgs.  20  :  31-34.  The  pas- 
sage Joel  3  :  3  brings  out  into  melan- 
162 


choly  prominence  both  the  lot  of  pris- 
oners of  war  and  also  the  contempt 
manifested  for  the  Jews.  The  Bible 
(Speaker's)  Commentary  thus  expounds 
the  verse  :  "  The  Jewish  prisoners  were 
held  so  cheap  that  a  slave-girl  was  sold 
by  her  captor  for  a  draught  of  wine,  and 
a  slave-boy  was  given  in  place  of  the 
small  coin  thrown  to  a  prostitute.  Dur- 
ing the  Jewish  war  Titus  took  97,000 
prisoners,  of  whom  he  publicly  sold  all 
that  were  under  17  years  of  age.  After 
Hadrian's  Jewish  war  four  Jews  were 
sold  for  a  measure  of  barley  at  Hebron." 
The  Romans  sometimes  compelled  a  cap- 
tive to  be  joined  with  a  dead  body,  and 
to  bear  it  about  until  the  horrible  efflu- 
via destroyed  the  life  of  the  living. 

The  capture  of  Judsea  by  the  Romans, 
A.  D.  70,  was  commemorated  by  coins 
which  are  shown  in  the  following  cut : 


Coins  to  Coniniemorate  the  Capture  of  Judsea. 
(Farrar's  "Life  of  Christ.") 

On  the  left-hand  coin  Is  seen  the  emperor  Titus ;  Ju- 
daea is  weeping  at  the  foot  of  a  palm  tree.  On  the 
right  hand,  a  Jewish  captive  with  hands  tied  behind 
his  back  looks  upon  a  Jewess  seated  at  the  foot  of  a 
palm  tree. 

CAPTIV^ITY.  Num.  21:29.  A 
term  usually  employed  to  denote  an  im- 
portant era  in  the  history  of  the  Jewish 
people.  To  punish  their  rebellions  and 
idolatries,  God  suffered  them  to  come 
into  frequent  bondage  to  surrounding 
nations.  Six  of  their  partial  and  tran- 
sient captivities  took  place  at  an  early 
period  of  their  history,  of  which  a  par- 
ticular account  is  given  in  Judges. 

Soon  after  the  close  of  Solomon's 
reign  the  kingdom  was  divided.  Ten 
of  the  tribes  took  the  name  of  "  the 
kingdom  of  Israel,"  leaving  the  tribes 
of  Judah  and  Benjamin  to  constitute 
the  kingdom  of  Judah.  Each  of  these 
two  kingdoms  suffered  a  distinct  captiv- 
ity. The  Jews  reckon  four  national  cap- 
tivities—  the  Babylonian,  the  Median, 
the  Grecian,  and  the  Roman. 

Pul,  B.  c.  762,  and  then  Tiglath-pileser, 
B.  c.  740,  kings  of  Assyria,  made  war  upon 


CAP 


CAP 


the  kingdom  of  Israel  and  carried  a  large 
number  of  the  peo])le  (chiefly  those  of 
the  tribes  of  Reuben,  (Jad,  and  Manas- 
seh)into  captivity,  2  Kgs.  15  :  29  ;  1  Chr. 
5  :  2(3,  and  the  residue  remained  under 
their  own  king,  but  paid  tribute  to  the 


Piisouerd  before  Saigoii.     {Nineveh  Marbles.) 

Assyrian  government.  After  the  lapse 
of  20  years  this  tribute  was  refused, 
and  therefore  Shalmaneser  besieged  and 
(after  three  years)  Sargon  captured 
Samaria,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom, 
and  the  great  mass  of  the  people  were 
transported  to  provinces  beyond  the  Eu- 
phrates, B.  c.  721.  Their  fate  is  a  fre- 
quent subject  of  speculation,  but  noth- 
ing definite  can  be  determined.  Nor 
was  the  kingdom  of  Judah  long  left  un- 


Jewish  Captives  before  Darius.     (From  Ancient  Bas-relief  at 
Fersepolis. ) 

molested.  In  Hezekiah's  reign  Senna- 
cherib, king  of  Assyria,  took  the  fenced 
cities  of  Judah,  b.  c.  713,  and  would 
have  taken  Jerusalem  had  Hezekiah  not 
sent  him  a  heavy  tribute.  2  Kgs.  18  :  ^'^. 
His  next  attempt  on  the  city,  which  oc- 


curred some  little  time  after,  was  defeat- 
ed by  a  miracle.  2  Kgs.  19  :  35. 

Nebuchadnezzar  repeatedly  overran 
the  kingdom  of  Judah,  the  first  time  in 
the  third  year  of  Jehoiakim.  lie  carried 
a  few  captives  to  Babylon,  among  whom 
were  Daniel  and  his  companions,  b.  c. 
606.  2  Kgs.  24  : 1 ;  Dan.  1 : 1-4.  In  the 
tenth  or  eleventh  year  of  Jehoiakim  he 
came  again,  b.  c.  698,  2  Chr.  36 :  6,  and 
a  third  time  in  the  eighth  year  of  the 
reign  of  Jehoiachin.  This  invasion  re- 
sulted in  the  carrying  away  of  10,000 
Jews.  2  Kgs.  24:10-16.  The  70  years' 
captivity  began  when  Nebuchadnezzar, 
for  the  fourth  time,  invaded  Judaja, 
B.  c.  588.  2  Kgs.  25  : 1.  The  king,  Zed- 
ekiah,  was  taken,  his  sons  slain,  the 
temple  burnt  and  the  city  despoiled, 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  population 
carried  into  Babylonia.  Jer.  52 :  8-13. 
During  this  long  captivity  the  rite  of 
circumcision  was  observed,  the  genea- 
logical tables  filled,  distinctions  of  rank 
maintained,  and  thus  the  Jews  retained 
their  nationality  intact. 

In  B.  c.  536  the  Jews  Avere  allowed  to 
return  from  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  as  a 
portion  of  them  did  under  Zerubbabel, 
Ezr.  2  : 2,  and  some  time  afterward  un- 
der Ezra,  Ezr.  7  :  7,  b.  c.  468,  and  Nehe- 
miah,  Neh.  7  :  66,  B.  c.  445.  Those  who 
remained  in  Assyria  or  scattered  over 
the  Roman  empire,  but  kept  up  their 
national  distinctions,  were  known  as 
"  The  Dispersion,"  John  7  :  36  ;  1  Pet. 
1:1;  Jas.  1:1,  and  afterward  were 
starting-points  for  Christianity. 

Children   of   the    Captivity,    Ezr. 
4  :  1,   a   common    figure   of 
speech,  denoting  those  who 
were   in    captivity,   or   per- 
haps  sometimes   literally 
their  posterity.     Turn  ayuin, 
Ps.  126  :  1,   turn  mcay,  Jer. 
29  :  14,  turn  back,  Zepli.  3  : 
20,   or  bring  again,  Eze.  16: 
63,  the  vajjtivity,  are  figura- 
tive phrases,  all  referring  to 
the  Jewish  nation  in  bondage 
and  their  return  to  Canaan. 
A  similar  expression  is  used 
in   relation    to    individuals,   as    in    Job 
42:10:     The    Lord    turned    the    captiv- 
itij  of  Job — that  is,  he  released  him  from 
the  unusual  sufferings  and  perplexities 
to  Avhich  he  had  been  in  bondage,  and 
caused  him  to  rejoice  again  in  the  favor 

163 


CAR 


CAR 


of  God.  He  led  captivity  captive,  Eph. 
4  :  8,  or  "  he  led  those  as  his  captives  who 
had  made  captives  of  others/'  is  a  figur- 
ative allusion  to  the  victory  which  our 
blessed  Redeemer  achieved  over  sin  and 
death,  by  whom  our  ruined  race  are 
brought  into  bondage.  Rom.  8  :  21  ; 
Gal.  4:24;   Ileb.  2:15;  2  Pet.  2:19. 

CAR'BUNCLE.  This  term  repre- 
sents two  Hebrew  words.  The  first,  Ex. 
28  :  17  ,-  39  :  10  :  Eze.  28  :  13,  meaning 
Jlashing  like  Utjhtmng,  is  supposed  to  be 
either  the  emerald  or  beryl,  both  of 
which  are  precious  stones  of  a  green 
color.  "  Thy  gates  of  carbuncles,"  Isa. 
64:  12,  has  reference  to  a  stone  shining 
like  fire — possibly  a  brilliant  species  of 
ruby. 

CARCHEMIISH,  or   CHAR'- 


CHEMISH  {citadel  of  Chemoah),  a 
chief  city  of  northern  Syria,  on  the 
Euphrates,  where  a  great  and  decisive 
battle  was  fought,  in  which  Nebuchad- 
nezzar defeated  Pharaoh-necho,  2  Chr. 
35  :  20  ;  2  Kgs.  23  :  29  ;  Jer.  46  :  2,  in 
B.  c.  605.  It  was  formerly  identified 
with  Circesium.  Rawlinson  placed  it  at 
Bir,  near  Hierapolis,  on  the  Euphrates; 
a  later  writer  at  K<(laat,  below  lievedjil. 

CARE 'AH  {bald-head),  the  father 
of  Johanau.  2  Kgs.  25:23.  Elsewhere 
spelt  Kareah. 

CA'RIA,  a  small  Roman  province 
in  the  south-western  part  of  Asia  Minor. 
Its  cities,  Cnidus  and  Miletus,  are  men- 
tioned in  Acts  20  :  15  ;  27  :  7. 

CAR'MEL  {fruitful,  or  wooded). 
1.  One  of  the  most  noted  mountains  in 


Mount  Caiinel,  from  the  Bay  of  Aci 
Palestine,  a  range  or  ridge  about  12 
miles  long,  one  end  jutting  into  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  in  a  bold  bluff  over 
500  feet  high,  extending  thence  south- 
east until  it  abruptly  breaks  off  in  an 
inland  bluff  over  500  feet  above  the  sea- 
level.  Its  highest  elevation,  about  4  miles 
from  the  east  end,  is  nearly  1740  feet. 
It  is  specially  noted  as  being  the  scene 
of  remarkable  events  in  the  history  of 
Elijah  and  Elisha.  2  Kgs.  2:25;  4:25. 
The  scene  of  the  famous  contest  between 
Elijah  and  the  prophets  of  Baal,  1  Kgs. 
18  :  20-42,  was  near  the  east  end  of  the 
ridge,  at  el-Mahrakah  (/.  e.  "  burnt-offer- 
ing ") ;  a  well  is  near,  and  a  slippery  path 
leads  down  to  the  Kishon,  several  hun- 
dred feet  below.  This  stream  is  now  call- 
164 


re.  {After  Views  of  G.  M.  Powell.) 
ed  Xahr  el-Miikafta,"  river  of  slaughter," 
in  memory  of  this  event.  It  is  a  sacred 
mountain  alike  to  Jews,  Christians,  and 
Moslems,  and  formerly  swarmed  with 
monks  and  hermits.  One  tract,  known 
as  the  Monk's  Cavern,  has  hundreds  of 
caves,  and  a  little  below  is  the  traditional 
cave  of  Elijah.  On  the  mountain  is  the 
large  monastery  of  the  Carmelites,  which 
affords  hospitable  accommodation  and  a 
magnificent  view.  It  is  now  occupied 
by  eighteen  monks.  The  German  col- 
ony of  Haifa  has  recently  planted  vine- 
yards on  Mount  Carmel. 

Present  Aj^pearance. — Carmel  is  cov- 
ered with  a  profusion  of  vegetation, 
illustrating  "  the  excellency  of  Carmel." 
Isa,  35  :  2.     It  is  still  known  as  Kurmul 


CAR 


CAS 


and  MarElijas  (Mount  St.  Elias).  The 
rugged  sides  of  the  ridge  are  of  hard, 
dark  stone,  always  steej),  often  precip- 
itous, covered  with  shrubs  of  dark,  rich 
green.  These  shrubs  are  chiefly  a  kind 
of  pistachio  with  no  berries,  the  sponge- 
laurel,  the  hawthorn,  and  the  arbutus. 
The  bare  spots  are  covered  with  flowers, 
as  rock-roses,  striped  asphodel,  the  daisy, 
and  the  red  and  purple  anemone.  The 
horse  of  the  traveller  often  presses  out 
a  sweet  fragrance  from  the  thyme  and 
mint.  Herds  of  goats  are  frequently  seen 
climbing  its  steep  sides,  and  occasional- 
ly a  gazelle  bounds  through  the  shrubs, 
while  the  fox,  jackal,  wolf,  and  a  stray 
wild  boar  and  a  panther  (chetoh)  add  to 
the  animal  life  of  the  mountains.  The 
partridge  and  woodcock  also  abound. 
Huge  valleys  upward  of  1000  feet  deep 
wind  tortuously  from  the  main  ridge  to 
the  sea,  requiring  hours  to  cross  to  the 
opposite  summits.  The  rock  is  a  com- 
pact, sandy  limestone. 

2.  A  town  in  the  mountains  of  Judah, 
where  Saul  set  a  monument,  1  Sam.  15 : 
12  ;  25  :  2,  5,  7,  40  ;  27  :  3,  and  Uzziah 
had  vineyards,  2  Chr.  26  :  10  ;  now  A";;?-- 
mnl,  10  miles  south-east  of  Hebron, 
where  are  ruins  of  a  strong  castle. 

CAR'MI  (vhie-dresser).  1.  The 
fourth  son  of  Reuben,  progenitor  of  the 
Carmites.  Gen.  46  :  9  :  Ex.  6  :  14  ;  Num. 
26:6;  1  Chr.  5:3. 

2.  The  father  of  Achan,  the  "  troubler 
of  Israel."  .Jos.  7:1,  18. 

CAR'PENTER.  The  first  allu- 
sion to  the  carpenter's  trade  in  the 
Scriptures  occurs  in  the  command  to 
Noah  to  build  the  ark.  Gen.  6:  14-16, 
and  the  directions  here  given  presup- 
pose quite  a  considerable  skill.  The 
second  time  the  trade  is  mentioned 
is  in  the  description  of  the  setting  up 
of  the  tabernacle  in  the  wilderness,  Ex. 
25:23;  27:1-15,  where  various  kinds 
of  wood-work — the  ark,  the  table,  the 
iiltar,  the  acacia  boards,  etc. — are  spoken 
of.  From  this  point  and  throughout  the 
holy  writings  frequent  mention  is  made 
of  this  trade;  and  though  it  appears 
that  both  David,  2  Sam.  5: 11,  and  Sol- 
omon, 1  Kgs.  5  :  6,  employed  foreign  art- 
isans, the  numerous  allusions,  in  the  his- 
torical, prophetical,  and  poetical  books  of 
the  0.  T.,  to  the  tools,  implements,  and 
methods  of  this  trade,  show  that  the  na- 
tive craftsmen  must  have  been  possessed 


of  great  skill,  and  the  trade  itself  held  in 
high  esteem  among  the  people. 

Joseph,  the  husband  of  Mary,  was  a 
carpenter,  Matt.  13  :  55,  and  our  L«rd 
himself  worked  at  the  trade,  Mark  6  :3. 
"  Is  not  this  the  carpenter's  son  ?"  yea, 
"Is  not  this  the  carpenter?"  asked  the 
people,  not  in  contempt,  but  in  wonder. 
They  implied,  however,  that  they  re- 
garded him  as  one  of  themselves,  as  no 
better  than  they.  But  we  may  be  thank- 
ful that  our  Lord  is  thus  called,  for  the 
very  word  "  is  full  of  meaning,  and  has 
exercised  a  very  noble  and  blessed  in- 
fluence over  the  fortunes  of  mankind. 
It  has  tended  to  console  and  sanctify 
the  estate  of  poverty,  to  ennoble  the 
duty  of  labor,  to  elevate  the  entire  con- 
ception of  manhood  as  of  a  condition 
which  in  itself  alone,  and  apart  from 
every  adventitious  circumstance,  has 
its  own  grandeur  and  dignity  in  the 
sight  of  God." — Farrar  :  Life  of  Christ, 
ch.  vii. 

CAR'PUS  (fruit),  a  friend  of  Paul 
at  Troas.  2  Tim.  4  :  13. 

C  AR'RI  AGE  (from  carro, "  a  car  "), 
old  English  for  "  baggage,"  luggage  re- 
quiring to  be  carried.  Jud.  18  :  21  ;  1  Sam. 
17  :  20,  22  ;  Isa.  10  :  28  ;  46  :  1  ;  Acts  21  : 
15.  They  "took  up  their  carriages" — 
i.  e.  they  packed  up  their  things  and 
commenced  their  journey. 

CARSHE'NA  (illustrious?),  one 
of  the  seven  highest  princes  of  Persia 
and  Media.  Esth.  1  :  14. 

CART.     See  Wagon. 

CASE'MENT.     See  Window. 

CASIPH'IA.  Ezr.8:17.  Probably 
near  Ahava. 

CAS'LUHIM  (fortified),  a  Mizra- 
ite  people  or  tribe.  Gen.  10  :  14;  1  Chr. 
1:12. 

CAS'SIA.  Ex.  30  :  24.  The  bark  of 
a  tree  (Cinnamomum  cassia)  like  the  cin- 
namon, and  one  of  the  ingredients  of 
the  holy  anointing  oil.  It  was  brought 
from  India  by  the  Tyriane.  The  lie- 
brew  refers,  in  Ps.  45 : 8,  to  another 
kind  of  spice,  remarkable  for  its  fra- 
grance, and  not  yet  identified  with 
much  probability. 

CAS'TLE,  in  Acts  21 :  34,  37  ;  22  : 
24  ;  23  :  10,  16,  32,  means  "the  fortress 
at  the  north-west  corner  of  the  temple 
in  Jerusalem.  It  was  called  by  Herod 
the  Tower  of  Antonia,  in  honor  of  his 
patron,  Mark  Antony.    The  temple  was 

165 


CAS 


CED 


a  kind  of  citadel  that  guarded  Jerusa- 
lem, and  so  the  Tower  of  Antonia  was 
a  fortress  that  commanded  the  temple." 
— Ayre. 

CASTOR  AND  POLLUX.  Acts 
28  :  11.  In  heathen  mythology/'  Castor" 
and  "  Pollux  "  were  the  names  of  twin 
sons  of  Jupiter  who  presided  over  the 


Castor  and  Pollux.     (From  a  Coin  of  Bruttii.) 

destinies  of  sailors.  Hence  an  image 
representing  them  was  often  seen  on  the 
prow  of  ancient  ships,  like  the  figure- 
heads of  modern  days.  In  the  case  of 
Paul's  ship,  the  name  was  Castor  and 
Pollux. 

CAST  OUT,  comp.  John  9  :  22 
and  U,  OR  EXCOMMUNICATE, 
was  to  cut  off  from  the  privileges  of 
the  Jewish  Church. 

CAT'ERPILLAR  {tJie  consumer), 
probably  another  word  for  locusts  in 
their  immature  or  wingless  state,  ap- 
pearing in  vast  numbers  and  of  most 
destructive  voracity.  1  Kgs.  8  :  37. 
Hence  they  were  often  employed  as  the 
agents  in  the  execution  of  God's  judg- 
ments, Ps.  78  :  46  and  105  :  34,  and  fig- 
uratively represent  a  great  multitude. 
Isa.  33  :  4 ;  Jer.  51 :  14,  27.  They  were 
regarded  as  among  the  most  desolating 
visitations  of  God's  hand. 

CAT^TLE.  Gen.  1  :  25.  In  the 
common  scriptural  use  of  this  term  it 
embraces  the  tame  quadrupeds  em- 
ployed by  mankind,  as  oxen,  horses, 
sheep,  camels,  goats,  etc.  Gen.l3:2;  Ex. 
12  :  29  and  34  :  19  ;  Num.  20  :  19  ;  32  : 
16,  and  Ps.  50  :  10,  and  .Job  1  :  3,  where 
the  word  translated  ''substance"  would 
be  more  properly  rendered  "cattle." 

The  allusion  in  Job  36  :  33  is  ex- 
plained by  the  well-known  fact  that 
certain  animals  of  this  class  are  pecu- 
liarly sensitive  to  the  change  of  air 
which  precedes  rain. 

CAUL.     Isa.  3  :  18.     The  attire  of 
the  head,  made  of  net-work  and  orna- 
mented.   In  Hos.  13  :  8  the  word  "  caul " 
166 


denotes  the  pericardium,  or  membranous 
bag  which  encloses  the  heart.  This 
word  in  the  Pentateuch  denotes  one  of 
the  viscera,  probably  the  great  lobe  of 
the  liver. 

CAVE.  Caves  are  very  common 
in  Palestine,  and  the  names  of  sec- 
tions of  country  Avere  derived  from 
this  fact,  as  the  Hauran,  Eze.  47  :  16,  is 
caveland,  and  the  Horites  are  dwellers 
in  caves.  They  were  made  use  of  a3 
temporary  dwelling-places.  Gen.  19:."l(i; 
as  places  of  concealment,  Josh.  10  :  1  6  ; 
Jud.  6:2;  I  Sam.  13  :  6  :  22  :  1,  2; 
24  :  3 ;  2  Sam.  23  :  13  :  1  Kgs.  18  :  4 ; 
19  :  9;  Heb.  11  :  38 ;  and  as  bnrial- 
jilaces.  Gen.  23  :  17,  19  and  49  :  29; 
John  11 :  38.  Some  noted  ones  are  named 
in  the  Bible,  such  as  Adullam,  the  Mach- 
pelah,  Makkedah,  etc.  The  manger  in 
which  our  Lord  was  born  may  have  been 
a  cave.     See  Tombs  and  Burial. 

CE  '  DAR.  Undoubtedly  several 
cone-bearing,  evergreen  trees  are  in- 
cluded under  this  title.  But  ordinarily, 
and  especially  when  the  full  form  is 
given — cedar  of  Lebanon — the  still  fa- 
mous tree  of  that  name  [Cedrus  Libanl) 
is  meant.  The  Scrij^tures  correctly  give 
its  charaeteristics.  Comp.  Ps.  92  :  12  ; 
Eze.  31 :  3-6  ;  1  Kgs.  7  :  2  ;  10  :  27  ;  Song 
Sol.  4:11;  Hos.  14  :  6 ;  Isa.  2  :  13  ;  10  : 
19.  It  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  and 
majestic  evergreen  trees  of  Eastern 
forests,  and  is  found  upon  Mounts 
Amanus  and  Taurus,  in  Asia  Minor,  and 
other  parts  of  the  Levant,  but  in  its 
greatest  perfection  on  Mount  Lebanon. 
It  grows  to  the  height  of  70  or  80  feet. 
The  branches  are  thick  and  long,  spread- 
ing out  almost  horizontally  from  the 
trunk,  which  is  sometimes  30  or  40 
feet  in  circumference.  Eze.  31  :  3,  6,  8. 
Maundrell  measured  one  which  was  36 
feet  and  6  inches  in  the  girth,  and  111 
feet  in  the  spread  of  its  boughs.  The 
wood  is  of  a  red  color  and  bitter  taste, 
which  is  offensive  to  insects,  and  hence 
it  is  very  durable  and  admirably  adapt- 
ed for  building.  A  specimen  of  this 
wood  in  the  British  Museum  is  labelled 
"  Cedar  of  Lebanon,  from  Palace  of 
Nimrod  ;  3000  years  old."  Cedar  was 
used  for  the  most  noble  and  costly  edi- 
fices, as  the  palace  of  Persepolis,  the 
palace  of  Solomon,  and  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem.  This  timber  served  not  only 
for  beams  for  the  frame  and  boards  for 


CED 


CED 


covering  buildings,  but  was  also  wrought 
into  the  walls.  2  Sam.  7  :  2  ;  1  Kgs.  6  : 
36  and  7  :  12.  The  gum  which  exudes 
from  the  trunk  and  the  cones  is  as  soft 
and  fragrant  as  the  balsam  of  Mecca. 

This  tree,  there  is  reason  to  believe, 
once  quite  covered  the  mountains  of 
Lebanon  between  the  heights  of  3000 
and  7000  feet.  Rev.  H.  H.  Jessup  has 
visited  and  described  eleven  distinct 
groves  of  cedars  on  those  mountains, 
including,  altogether,  several  thousand 
trees. 

The  principal  forest  visited  by  trav- 
ellers is  8  hours'  ride  from  Baalbec,  on 
Cedar  Mountain   (Jebel    el-Arz),  about 


6300  feet  above  the  sea-level,  a  little 
below  the  summit.  Baedeker  [Palestine 
and  Syria,  p.  505)  thus  describes  it: 
"  The  group  occupies  the  top  of  a  hill 
with  five  culminating  points  of  various 
sizes,  on  the  eastern  and  western  sides 
of  which  runs  a  water-course.  It  con- 
sists of  about  350  trees,  the  tallest  of 
which  does  not  exceed  78  feet  in  height. 
The  rock  on  which  they  grow  is  white 
limestone,  and  the  decaying  spines, 
cones,  and  other  matter  have  formed 
a  dark-colored  soil.  The  oldest  trees, 
about  9  in  number,  are  on  the  south- 
eastern height.  In  the  midst  of  the 
north-western  group  stands  a  Maronite 


Cedars  of  Lebanon. 

chapel.  Unfortunately,  no  care  what- 
ever is  taken  of  these  noble  trees.  The 
goats  eat  all  the  young  shoots,  and  cedar 
branches  are  even  used  for  fuel,  par- 
ticularly on  the  occasion  of  an  annual 
festival  in  August.  Countless  names 
are  cut  on  the  trunks  of  the  trees. 
...  In  gloomy  weather  the  sombre 
group  and  its  black  surroundings 
form  a  weird  and  wild  picture." 

In  most  of  the  botanic  gardens  and 
arboretums  of  Europe  and  America 
growing  specimens  of  this  monarch  of 
Eastern  forests  may  now  be  seen.  It 
thrives  especially  well  in  England.  In 
the  general  appearance  of  its  bark  and 
foliage  it  is  much  like  the  larch,  but  it 


{After  Photographs.) 

is  a  far  more  widely-branching  and 
massive  tree. 

Dr.  G.  E.  Post,  of  Beirfit,  Syria,  who  is 
a  good  botanist,  supplies  the  following 
interesting  information  concerning  this 
tree  :  "  The  first  mention  of  the  cedar 
in  the  Bible  is  in  Lev.  14:  4,  6,  49,  51, 
52,  with  the  parallel  passage.  Num. 
19  :  6.  The  children  of  Israel  were 
then  in  the  peninsula  of  Mount  Sinai. 
Did  the  cedar  grow  in  that  region  ?  or 
is  the  cedar  there  alluded  to  a  differ- 
ent tree  from  the  cedar  of  Lebanon  ? 

"  There  are  other  trees  known  now  in 
Syria  as  cedars.  The  Aleppo  pine  is 
one,  and  it  is  quite  probable  that  this 
tree   may   have  grown   in    that    region, 

167 


CED 


CEN 


although  not  more  so  than  that  the 
cedar  itself  was  there.  The  juniper 
{Jimiperiis  oxycedrus)  still  grows  in  the 
peninsula  of  Sinai ;  and  being  of  the 
same  family  as  the  cedar,  it  is  allowable 
to  regard  it  as  the  plant  here  intended. 
A  species  of  juniper  is  known  in  Eng- 
lish by  the  name  of  'cedar.'  In  view, 
however,  of  admitted  changes  in  climate 
in  all  the  countries  bordering  the  east- 
ern end  of  the  Mediterranean,  there  is 
nothing  to  forbid  the  possibility  of  the 
cedar  of  Lebanon  having  once  existed 
on  Sinai.  It  grows  on  the  Atlas  chain 
and  the  mountains  connecting  Taurus 
with  the  Himalayas,  as  well  as  in  the 
latter  groups.  May  it  not  have  found 
in  Sinai  a  connecting  station  between 
its  distant  homes  in  the  Atlas  and  the 
Lebanon  and  Himalayas  ? 

*'  Some  very  foolish  things  have  been 
said  about  the  durability  of  the  cedar. 
It  has  been  pronounced,  perhaps  from 
trials  on  specimens  taken  from  Euro- 
pean or  American  trees,  a  crooked,  in- 
ferior, perishable  wood.  In  point  of 
fact,  it  is  notable  for  toughness,  dura- 
bility, and  adaptedness  to  the  climate 
and  circumstances  of  Syria.  There  is 
no  such  thing  as  a  rotten  cedar. 
Branches  broken  off  by  the  tempests 
lie  unrotten  on  the  ground.  The  trunks, 
where  barked  by  travellers  or  peeled  by 
the  lightning,  remain  dead,  but  un- 
oorrupted.  The  name  of  Lamartine, 
carved  on  one  of  the  giant  trees  109 
years  ago,  is  fresh  and  legible  to-day. 
All  other  woods  indigenous  to  Syria  are 
liable  to  the  attacks  of  insects  or  a  kind 
of  dry  rot.  Cedar  beams  are  unchange- 
able. No  greater  injury  has  been  done 
to  Lebanon  than  denuding  it  of  its  kingly 
tree.  The  cedar  is  a  desirable  wood  for 
carving.  Isa.  44  :  14.  It  is  hard,  fra- 
grant, takes  a  high  polish,  which  devel- 
ops a  beautiful  grain,  and  it  grows 
darker  and  richer  by  time. 

'"The  trees  of  the  Lord  are  full  of  sap  ; 
the  cedars  of  Lebanon,  which  he  hath 
planted.'  Ps.  104:16.  The  aromatic 
sap  of  this  tree  exudes  from  the  slight- 
est scratch,  and  distills  in  copal  drops 
down  the  bark.  If  two  branches  rub 
together,  they  soon  unite.  Several  trees 
are  often  joined  in  this  way  through  the 
superabundance  of  their  vitality. 

"  '  The  righteous  shall  flourish  like  the 
palm  tree  ;  he  shall  grow  like  a  cedar 
168 


in  Lebanon.'  A  palm  tree  attains  its 
height  in  a  hundred  years  or  less ;  a  ce- 
dar grows  for  thousands  of  years.  A 
palm  tree  soon  bears  fruit  and  flour- 
ishes ;  a  cedar  grows  slowly  and  tarries 
long  before  it  bears  fruit,  but  it  con- 
tinues to  bear  fruit  long  centuries  after 
the  palm  tree  has  decayed.  It  continues 
fat  and  flourishing  (green).  The  cedar 
is  ever  green.  Its  vitality  is  equally 
apparent  in  the  heat  of  summer  and 
the  snows  of  winter.  How  apt  a  likeness 
of  the  righteous,  who  grows  in  grace  as 
he  lengthens  out  his  years  !  The  cedar 
still  bears  multitudes  of  cones  when  it 
has  been  riven  by  lightning,  torn  and 
almost  uprooted  by  the  wind.  So  afflic- 
tion but  develops  the  graces  of  the 
righteous,  and  the  green  branches  bear 
abundance  of  fruit  when  the  blighted 
ones  have  been  severed  and  for  ever 
lost."     See  Lebanon. 

CE'DRON.  John  18:1.     See  Ke- 

DRON. 

CEIL'ING.  We  have  a  description 
of  the  ceiling  of  Solomon's  temple  and 
palace  in  1  Kgs.  6:9,10,15;  7:3;  2 
Chr,  3:5.  It  was  made  of  planks  of 
cedar  or  fir  "laid  on  beams  or  rests  in 
the  wall."  Eastern  floors  and  ceilings 
were  just  the  reverse  of  ours.  Their 
ceilings  were  of  wood,  painted,  Jer.  22  : 
14,  ours  are  of  plaster  ;  their  floors  were 
of  plaster  or  some  sort  of  tiles,  ours  are 
of  wood. 

CEL^LARS.  1  Chr.  27  :  27.  Of 
cellars  such  as  are  common  among  us 
nothing  was  known  in  the  East,  if  we 
except  the  chambers  which  are  used  in 
Persia  for  the  storing  of  earthen  jars 
or  other  vessels  of  wine.  Among  the 
Hebrews  and  Greeks  these  jars  were 
buried  up  to  the  neck  in  the  ground. 
The  word  "wine-cellars"  in  the  passage 
cited  probably  denotes  the  patches  of 
ground  used  to  bury  wine.     See  Wine. 

CEL'O-SYR'IA.  See  Ccelo- 
Syria. 

CEN'CHREA  (accurately  CEN'- 
CHRE^-E),  the  eastern  harbor  of  Cor- 
inth, on  the  Saronic  Gulf,  and  the  em- 
porium of  its  trade  with  the  Asiatic 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  about  9 
miles  east  of  that  city;  the  western 
harbor  was  Lechaeum.  A  church  was 
formed  at  Cenchrea.  of  which  Phebe 
was  a  deaconess.  Rom.  16  :  1.  Paul 
sailed   from    thence   to   Ephesus.    Acts 


CEN 


CEN 


18  :  18.  The  town  was  full  of  idolatrous 
monuments  and  shrines.  It  is  now  call- 
ed Kikn'eii. 

CEN'SER.  Lev.  10:1.  A  vessel 
used  in  the  temple-service  for  the  pur- 
pose of  carrying  the  fire  in  which  the 
incense  was  burned,  taken  from  the  per- 
petual supply  on  the  altar  of  burnt- 
oflfering.  It  was  sometimes  made  of 
pure  gold.  1  Kgs.  7  :  50;  2  Chr.  26  : 
16,  19.      The    censer  was  held  in  one 


/^Oj^S*) 


Egyptian  Censers.  ( Wilkinson.) 
hand,  and  the  incense  was  carried  in 
the  other  hand.  The  priest  strewed  the 
pulverized  incense  upon  the  fire,  and 
the  cloud  of  smoke  ascended  up  in  a 
dark  volume  and  filled  the  apartment 
with  its  fragrance.  The  word  ren- 
dered "censer"  in  Heb.  9  :  4  means  a 
golden  altar  of  incense. 

CEN'SUS.  In  the  0.  T.  there  is 
mention  made  of  twelve  censuses. 

1.  The  earliest  was  under  Moses,  in  the 
third  or  fourth  month  after  the  Exodus. 
Its  object  was  to  raise  money  for  build- 
ing the  tabernacle,  each  person  num- 
bered— ;'.  e.  every  male  from  20  years  and 
upward  —  being  obliged  to  pay  half  a 
shekel.  The  census  showed  there  were 
60?,,550  men.    Ex.  38  :  26. 

2.  In  Num.  1  :  2  there  is  the  order  for 
a  second  numbering,  in  the  second 
month    of    the    second   year   after   the 


Exodus.  The  result  showed  the  same 
figures.  Num.  1 :  46.  This  fact  has  led 
some  to  suppose  that  these  two  number- 
ings  were  in  fact  one,  but  applied  to  dif- 
ferent purposes. 

3.  The  next  census  was  made  imme- 
diately before  the  entrance  of  the  He- 
brews into  Canaan.  Num.  26.  The 
total  number  of  males  fit  for  military 
service  was  601,730,  while  the  Levite 
males  from  a  month  old  were  23,000. 

4.  For  a  long  time  after  that  there 
was  no  reckoning  made.  But  David, 
instigated  by  Satan,  out  of  mere  curi- 
osity and  ambition  to  know  how  large 
a  people  he  governed,  ordered  a  count, 
which  showed  that  the  men  of  Israel 
over  20  years  of  age  were  800,000,  and 
of  Judah  500,000.  2Sam.~24:9;  1  Chr. 
21 :  1.  These  are'  round  figures,  and  do 
not  quite  agree  with  those  of  1  Chr.  21 :  5. 

6.  Solomon  completed  the  census  by 
causing  the  foreigners  and  remnants  of 
the  conquered  nations  resident  within 
Palestine  to  be  numbered.  2  Chr.  2  : 
17,  18. 

We  read  of  much  more  frequent  cen- 
suses after  this :  6.  Rehoboam,  1  Kgs. 
12  :  21 ;  7.  Abijam,  2  Chr.  13  :  3,  17  ;  8. 
Asa,  2  Chr.  14  :  8,  9  ;  9.  Jehoshaphat.  2 
Chr.  17  :  14-19  ;  10.  Amaziah,  2  Chr.  25  : 
6,6;  11.  Uzziah,  2  Chr.  26  :  13.  All 
these  must  have  kept  at  least  an  account 
of  how  many  could  bear  arms,  since  we 
find  in  the  passages  cited  the  number  of 
their  troops.  Besides,  the  numbers  re- 
ferred to  are  those  of  the  separate  tribes 
and  companies — e.  g.  Jud.  7:3;  1  Kgs. 
20:15:  Jer.  52:30. 

12.  The  last  general  census  was  that 
made  at  the  time  of  the  Return.  Ezr. 
2  :  64  and  8  :  1-14  give  the  numbers  of 
males  in  the  first  and  second  caravan. 

These  figures  indicate  the  importance 
attached  to  the  census,  though  no  sci- 
entific use  was  made  of  it,  as  by  us. 
It  would  appear  that  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  was  most  populous  under  Je- 
hoshaphat. The  numbers,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  area  of  the  country,  have  been 
quoted  as  an  objection  to  the  narrative. 
But  while  it  must  be  freely  granted  that 
the  population  was  dense,  still  the  den- 
sity has  been  paralleled,  and  even  ex- 
ceeded, in  modern  times.  Palestine,  it 
should  be  remembered,  was  a  very  fer- 
tile land.  On  the  census  of  Cyrenius, 
Luke  2  :  2,  see  Taxkvg,  Days  op  the. 

169 


CEN 


CHA 


CENTU'RION.  Matt.  8 :  5.  The 
title  of  an  officer  of  the  Roman  army 
who  had  command  of  100  soldiers.  See 
Captain. 

CE'PHAS  {rock),  a  Syriac  surname 
given  to  Simon,  which  in  the  Greek  is 
rendered  Petros,  and  in  the  Latin  Petrus, 
both  signifying  "  a  rock."  John  1  :  42. 
See  Peter. 

CESARE'A.     See  C^sarea. 

CESARE'A-PHILIP'PI.  See 
C^sarea-Philippi. 

CHAFF.  The  Hebrew  farmer  sepa- 
rated the  corn  from  the  husk  by  throw- 
ing the  mixed  mass  up  against  the  wind. 
On  account  of  their  weight,  the  grains 
were  thrown  quite  a  distance,  while  the 
light  chaflf  fell  immediately  to  the  ground 
if  not  blown  entirely  .away.  Hence  the 
exceedingly  forcible  image  of  the  wicked 
being  swept  off  by  the  breath  of  God.  Ps. 
1  :  4  ;  35  :  5.  In  the  figurative  language 
of  John  the  Baptist,  the  winnowing- 
shovel — called  in  our  version  a  "  fan  " 
— is  said  to  be  in  the  hand  of  God,  and 
with  it  he  will  thoroughly  purge  his 
floor.  Matt.  3  :  12;  Luke  3  :  17. 

CHAINS.  A  distinction  must  be 
made  het^veen  fetters,  which  were  for  the 
feet,  and  chains,  which  were  for  any  part 
of  the  body.  Chains  were  worn  for  orna- 
ment, dignity,  or  restraint.  They  were 
made  of  gold  for  the  first  two  purposes, 
and  of  iron  for  the  last.  In  the  ancient 
Orient  both  sexes  wore  them  ostenta- 
tiously. They  were  put  on  Joseph  and 
Daniel  as  a  symbol  of  sovereignty.  Gen. 
41 :  42  ;  Dan.  6  :  29.  So  to-day  kings 
wear  the  chain  of  the  order  of  the  Gold- 
en Fleece.  Chains  were  put  by  the  Mid- 
ianites  upon  their  camels.  Jud.  8:21. 
They  were  also  worn  by  women  as  a  fas- 
tening between  the  anklets.  Isa.  3:19. 
The  chains  used  on  prisoners,  Jud.  16  : 
21  : 2  Sam.  3  :  34  ;  2  Kgs.  25  :  7  ;  Jer.  39 : 
7  ;  52  :  11,  were  fetters.  HandcuflFs  were 
also  used.  The  Roman  practice  was  to 
bind  the  prisoner's  hand  to  the  hand  of 
a  soldier,  or  to  a  soldier  by  either  hand. 
Acts  12  :  6,  7;  21  :  33;  28  :  16,  20;  2 
Tim.  1:16. 

The  "  chains  "  which  bound  the  mad- 
man of  Gadara,  Mark  5  :  3,  4,  were  prob- 
ably not  of  iron,  but  were  ropes.  The 
iron  "  fetters  "  he  shivered. 

"  Chain  "  is  used  in  Lam.  3  :  7  in  a  met- 
aphorical sense  to  denote  tribulation. 
CHALCEDONY.     Rev.   21  :  19. 
170 


A  variety  of  quartz  much  like  the  agate, 
of  pearly,  wax-like  lustre,  and  of  great 
translucency  ;  sometimes  called  white 
carnelian.  Its  name  is  from  Chalcedon, 
near  Constantinople. 

CHALU^E'A,  a  country  anciently 
situated  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Eu- 
phrates, and  bordering  on  the  Persian 
Gulf.  It  had  an  estimated  area  of  23,000 
square  miles,  about  the  same  as  the  mod- 
ern kingdom  of  Denmark,  or  half  that  of 
Louisiana  in  the  Mississippi  Delta.  In 
later  times,  and  in  a  more  extended 
sense,  it  included  a  territory  about  450 
miles  long  by  100  to  130  miles  wide. 
It  occupied  the  southern  portion  of  the 
great  Mesopotamian  plain,  the  most  fer- 
tile part  of  that  country.  It  was  ren- 
dered still  more  productive  by  numer- 
ous canals,  which  were  used  for  defence, 
for  commerce,  and  for  navigation.  The 
country  was  naturally  divided  into  two 
portions,  the  larger  part  lying  between 
the  rivers  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and 
the  smaller  portion  lying  on  the  south- 
western side  of  the  latter  river.  It  was 
also  divided  into  Northern  and  South- 
ern Chaldtea,  each  having  four  import- 
ant cities.  In  later  times  the  "  land 
of  the  Chaldseans "  was  applied  to 
all  Babylonia,  and  to  the  whole  of  the 
empire  over  which  the  Chalda;ans  ruled. 

Physical  Features  and  Products. — The 
chief  features  of  the  country  were  the 
rivers,  for  on  all  sides  it  was  a  dead 
level,  broken  now  only  by  solitary 
mounds,  old  ruins,  marshes,  and  streams. 
The  summers  are  hot,  the  winters  rainy, 
and  seldom  colder  than  30°  F.  Wheat, 
millet,  barley,  dates,  and  fruits  of  all 
kinds  were  abundant.  Its  fertility  and 
productions  were  proverbial  in  ancient 
times.  For  sketch-map  of  Cbaldjea, 
see  Assyria. 

History. — It  is  noticed  in  Scripture  as 
the  native  country  of  Abram,  Gen.  11 :  31  ; 
its  people  attacked  Job,  Job  1 :  17,  and 
it  was  the  term  by  which  the  empire  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  was  sometimes  called. 
Originally  it  was  the  district  in  the  south 
of  the  "  land  of  Shinar  "  where  Nimrod 
built  four  cities.  Gen.  10  :  10.  Chaldaea 
soon  extended  its  influence  and  sway, 
until  in  the  time  of  Abraham  its  con- 
quests reached  nearly  to  the  sources  of 
the  Euphrates,  and  westward  into  Ca- 
naan and  Syria.  Among  the  four  great 
kingdoms  or  empires  on  the  Euphrates, 


CHA 


CHA 


secular  historians  usually  place  the 
Chaldaean  as  the  first  in  order  or  earli- 
est, lasting  for  about  ten  centuries,  from 
B.  c.  2300  to  about  b.  c.  1300;  the  Assyr- 
ian empire  next,  lasting  about  six  and 
a  half  centuries,  from  b.  c.  1270  to  b.  c. 
625;  the  Babylonian  empire  third  in  or- 
der, continuing  from  about  B.C.  625  to  B.C. 
538  ;  and  the  Medo-Persian  fourth.  Some 
of  these  kingdoms  in  their  earlier  history 
no  doubt  existed  contemporaneously  for 
a  time.  Chaldsea  and  Assyria  were  at 
times  independent  of  each  other;  hence 
the  order  given  above  applies  chiefly  to 
them  as  empires.  The  great  cities  of 
the  Chaldaean  empire  were  Ur,  Ellasar, 
Babylon,  Erech,  Accad,  Calneh,  Sephar- 
vaim,  Ahava,  and  Cutha.  Its  great  rulers 
were  Nimrod,  Urukh,  and  Chedorlaomer. 
The  latter  marched  an  army  for  1200 
miles  on  a  conquering  tour  to  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  held  Canaanitish  nations  in 
subjection  for  12  years.  Gen.  10  :  9 ; 
14  :  1-4,  The  Chalda?ans,  according  to 
Rawlinson  and  others,  were  chiefly  of 
Cushite  origin,  while  their  more  north- 
ern neighbors  were  Semitic.  After  the 
lapse  of  centuries  the  former  lost  their 
Cushite  character,  and  became  a  people 
scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  Assyr- 
ians. After  their  subjugation,  in  B.C. 
1300,  they  held  an  insignificant  place  in 
history  for  over  six  centuries,  but  re- 
covered themselves  in  b.  c.  625,  and  es- 
tablished a  new  kingdom,  known  as  the 
Babylonian  empire.  For  the  later  his- 
tory see  Babylox,  Assyria,  and  Nine- 
veh. 

CHALKS-STONES.  Isa.27:9.  A 
soft  mineral  substance  resembling  what 
we  call  limestone.  To  make  the  stones 
of  the  Jewish  altars  like  chalkstones  is 
to  crumble  and  destroy  them. 

CHAM'BER.  Gen.  43:30.  Usu- 
ally, the  private  apartments  of  a  house 
are  called  chambers.  2  Sam.  18  :  33  ;  Ps. 
19  :  5  ;  Dan.  6  :  10.  Particular  rooms 
of  this  class  in  Eastern  houses  were 
designated  by  significant  terms. 

Guest-chamber.  Mark  14  :  14,  This 
we  may  suppose  to  have  been  a  spacious 
unoccupied  room,  usually  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  house,  and  furnished  suita- 
bly for  the  reception  and  entertainment 
of  guests  and  for  social  meetings.  The 
proverbial  hospitality  of  the  Jews  would 
make  such  provision  necessary,  and  es- 
pecially at  Jerusalem,  in  festival   sea- 


sons, when  every  house  in  the  city  was 
the  stranger's  home.  Mark  14  :  15  ;  Luke 
22  :  12  ;  Acts  1 :  13.     See  Hospitality. 

Inner  Chamber.  2  Kgs.  9:2.  A 
chamber  within  another  chamber. 

Little  Chamber.  2  Kgs.  4  :  10.  An 
apartment  built  upon  and  projecting 
from  the  walls  of  the  main  house,  and 
communicating  by  a  private  door  with 
the  house,  and  by  a  private  stairway 
with  the  street. 

Upper  Chamber,  or  Loft,  Acts  9  :  37. 
occupied  the  front  part  of  the  building, 
over  the  gate  or  outer  entrance,  and  was 
used  to  lodge  strangers.  Comp.  1  Kgs, 
17  :  19  and  23  with  2  Kgs.  4  :  10.  See 
Dwellings. 

CHAM'BERING,  licentiousness, 
wantonness.  Rom.  13  :  13. 

CHAM'BERLAIIV.  2  Kgs. 23: 11. 
An  officer  who  has  charge  of  the  royal 
chambers,  or  the  king's  lodgings,  ward- 
robes, etc.  In  Eastern  courts  eunuchs 
were  commonly  employed  for  this  ser- 
vice. Esth.  1 :  10,  12,  15.  The  word  oc- 
curs twice  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.,  but  entirely 
different  offices  are  meant  in  the  Greek. 
Blastus,  "  the  king's  chamberlain,"  men- 
tioned in  Acts  12  :  20,  "  held  a  post  of 
honor  which  involved  great  intimacy 
and  influence  with  the  king."  Eras- 
tus,  "  the  chamberlain  of  the  city  of 
Corinth,"  who  sent  salutations  to  the 
Roman  Christians,  Rom.  16  :  23,  was 
probably  the  treasurer  of  the  city. 

CHAME'LEON.  Lev.  11 :  30.  A 
species  of  lizard  of  very  singular  anat- 
omy, appearance,  and  habits.  "It  re- 
mains exclusively  on  trees  (and  bushes), 
often  suspended  by  its  tail  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  a  branch,  whence  it  darts 
forth  its  long  tongue,  covered  with  a 
viscous  fluid,  to  entrap  passing  insects. 
Each  foot  is  a  grasping  hand,  by  which 
it  clings  with  great  force  to  a  branch, 
but  it  is  almost  helpless  on  the  ground. 
The  chief  peculiarity  of  this  lizard  is 
the  enormous  size  of  the  lungs  (whence 
arose  the  fable  that  it  lived  on  air),  and 
these,  when  filled,  render  the  animal 
semi-transparent.  It  has  the  faculty 
of  changing  color  more  developed  than 
in  any  other  lizard,  and  this  change  is 
influenced,  not  by  the  bodies  on  which 
it  happens  to  rest,  but  by  the  wants 
and  passions  of  the  animal.  The  struc- 
ture of  the  eyes  is  very  wonderful.  They 
are  so  prominent  that  one-half  of  the  ball 

171 


CHA 


CHA 


projects  out  of  the  head,  and  not  only 
can  they  be  moved  in  any  direction, 
but  each  has  an  independent  action : 
one  eye  may  be  looking  forward,  while 
with  the  other  the  animal  examines  an 


Chameleon.    (After  Tristram.) 
object   behind    it.       The   chameleon    is 
very  common  in   Egypt  and  the  Holy 
Land,  especially  in  the  Jordan  valley." 
—  Tristram. 

CHAM'OIS  (pronounced  sham'my). 
Deut.  14 :  5.  The  true  chamois  is  be- 
lieved never  to  have  lived  in  Arabia  or 
Palestine.  It  is  now  thought  that  this 
animal  of  the  Bible  was  a  species  of 
wild  sheep  {Ovis  tragelephus)  formerly 
abundant  among  the  mountains  of  Si- 
nai, but  now  apparently  confined  to 
Africa. 

CHA'NAAN,  Greek  form  of  Ca- 
naan. Acts  7  :  1.     See  Canaan. 

CHAN'CELLOR.  The  word  oc- 
curs in  Ezr.  4:  8,  17  as  the  translation, 
of  the  Hebrew  lord  of  counsel — i.  e. 
counsellor,  royal  prefect — the  oflBce  held 
by  Rehum,  who  was  the  Persian  gover- 
nor in  Samaria  at  the  time. 

CHANGEABLE  SUITS  OF 
AP'PAREL.     See  Clothbs. 

CHANGERS  OF  MONEY,  or 
MONEY-CHANGERS.  Matt.  21 : 
12  ;  John  2  :  14.  When  Judaea  became 
a  pi'ovince  of  Rome  the  Jews  were  re- 
quired to  pay  taxes  in  Roman  currency, 
while  the  annual  tribute  for  the  service 
of  the  sanctuary  was  the  half-shekel 
of  Jewish  currency.  To  exchange  the 
172 


one  for  the  other  was  the  business  of 
the  money-changers,  like  the  business 
of  modern  brokers.  They  stationed 
themselves  in  the  courts  of  the  temple, 
the  place  of  general  resort  for  stran- 
gers from  every  part  of  the  land,  and 
their  oppressive  and  fraudulent  prac- 
tices probably  justified  the  allusion  of 
our  Saviour  to  a  den  of  thieves. 

CHANGES  OF  RAIMENT. 
See  Clothes. 

CHANT.     See  Viol. 

CHAP'EL.  The  word  occurs.  Am. 
7 :  13,  as  a  mistranslation  for  SANC- 
TUARY, a  place  of  worship.  Bethel 
is  called  the  king's  sanctuary  by  one 
of  the  idol-jjriests,  because  there  the 
king  of  Israel  paid  idolatrous  worship 
to  the  golden  calves.     See  Bethel. 

CHAP'ITERS  (French  chajntre), 
Ex.  36  :  38,  OR  CAPITALS  (as  they 
are  called  in  modern  architecture),  are 
the  upper  or  ornamental  part  of  a 
column. 

CHAP'MAN  (from  the  same  root 
as  cheap,  cho})),  merchant.  2  Chr.  9  :  14. 
In  the  corresponding  passage,  1  Kgs. 
10  :  15,  spice-merchants . 

CHA'RAN.     See  Haran. 

CHAR'ASHIM,  VALLEY  OF 
{ravine  of  craftsmen),  near  by  Lydda. 
1  Chr.  4:  14;   now  Hirsha. 

CHAR'CHEMISH.  2  Chr.  35  : 
20.     See  Carchemish. 

CHAR'GER  (old  English,  from 
the  French  charger),  that  on  which  a 
thing  is  laid,  a  dish.  Num.  7  :  13  ;  Ezr. 
1:9;  Matt.  14 :  S,  11.  A  shallow  bowl 
or  basin  used  for  receiving  the  blood  at 
the  preparation  of  the  sacrifices.  The 
charger  in  which  Herod's  daughter 
brought  the  head  of  John  Baptist  was 
probably  a  trencher  or  platter. 

CHAR'IOT.  Chariots  were  not 
exclusively  used  for  warlike  purposes. 
In  the  Bible,  instances  of  a  peaceful  use 
occur,  as  in  the  account  of  Joseph's  ex- 
altation, Gen.  41:43,  and  meeting  with 
his  father,  46  :  29  ;  Ahab's  fleeing  before 
the  coming  storm  at  the  command  of 
Elijah,  1  Kgs.  18  :  44  ;  Naaman's  com- 
ing to  Elisha,  2  Kgs.  5:9;  and  the 
Ethiopian  eunuch's  journey  homeward. 
Acts  8  :  28.  But  the  commoner  use  was 
for  war.  They  are  first  mentioned  in 
the  Bible  in  connection  with  Joseph  in 
Egypt.  Later  on  they  formed  part  of 
Pharaoh's  pursuing  army  at  the  Exodus. 


CHA 


CHA 


And  they  were  pai*t  of  the  offensive 
weapons  among  all  nations  which  figure 
in  Bible  history.  The  use  of  war-chari- 
ots was  introduced  by  David.  2  Sam. 
8  :  4.  This  change  was  obedient  to  the 
altered  condition  of  the  people,  from  a 
democracy,  which  relies  upon  volunteers 
for  its  defence,  to  a  monarchy,  which 
employs  a  regular  army.  Solomon  had 
1400  chariots,  and  cities  fortified  for 
their  safe-keeping.  1  Kgs.  10  :  2() ;  9  : 
19.  After  his  day  they  formed  a  regu- 
lar branch  of  the  military  service,  and 
are  frequently  mentioned.  1  Kgs.  22 : 
34;  2  Kgs.  9:16,21  ;  13  :  7,  14  ;  18  :  24; 
23  :  30  ;    Isa.  31  :  1.      The   texts  just 


Egyptian  Chariot.     (After  Wilfcinson.) 


quoted  also  prove  that  Egypt  was  the 
source  whence  both  the  chariot-horses 
and  the  chariots  themselves  were  prin- 
cipally drawn.  A  description  of  an 
Egyptian  chariot  will  therefore  be  a 
description  of  a  Jewish  one.  The 
Egyptian  chariot  was  an  '"  almost  semi- 
circular wooden  frame  with  straight- 
ened sides,  resting  posteriorly  on  the 
axle  of  a  pair  of  wheels,  a  rail  of  wood 
or  ivory  being  attached  to  the  frame  by 
leathern  thongs,  and  a  wooden  upright 
in  front.  The  back  of  the  car  was  open, 
and  the  sides  were  strengthened  and 
embellished  with  leather  and  metal 
binding  ;  the  floor  was  of  rope  net-work, 
to  give  a  springy  footing  to  the  occu- 


pants. On  the  off-side  were  the  bow- 
case,  sometimes  the  quiver,  and  spear- 
case,  crossing  diagonally  ;  the  last  named 
inclined  backward.  If  two  warriors 
were  in  the  chariot,  there  was  a  second 
bow-case.  The  wheels  had  usually  six 
spokes,  fastened  to  the  axle  by  a  linch- 
pin, secured  by  a  thong.  The  horses 
had  a  breast-band  and  girths  attached 
to  the  saddle,  but  were  without  traces. 
They  wore  head-furniture,  often  orna- 
mented, with  a  bearing-rein.  The  driv- 
ing-reins passed  through  rings  on  each 
side  of  both  horses.  Two  persons  gen- 
erally were  in  a  chariot,  but  there  was 
sometimes  a  third,  holding  the  umbrella 
of  state."  —  Wil- 
kinson :  Anc. 
Egypt.,  1879,  vol.  i. 
pp.222-241:  vol.ii. 
pp.  201-203.  The 
Assyrian  war- 
chariots  were  near- 
ly similar.  Some- 
times a  third  horse 
was  attached,  but 
in  later  times  this 
was  laid  aside ;  the 
chariot  was  made 
higher,  and  the 
quiver  placed  in 
front  instead  of  on 
the  side.  —  Lay- 
ARD :  Nineveh,  vol. 
ii.  pp.  348-354; 
Ayre  :  T r  ea  8  .  of 
Bib.  Knowledge. 

Chariots  armed 
with  scythes  were 
used  in  later  times. 
Warriors  some- 
times fought  standing  up  in  them,  or 
else  used  them  to  carry  them  into  the 
battle,  and  leaping  from  them  fought 
on  foot. 

The  word  "chariot"  is  sometimes 
used  figuratively  ;  e.  g.  in  Ps.  68  :  17  it 
means  the  angelic  host.  Elisha  called 
Elijah  ''the  chariot  of  Israel  and  the 
horsemen  thereof."  2  Kgs.  2:12.  The 
imagery  was  borrowed  from  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  miraculous  ascent.  The 
phrase  means  that  Elijah,  by  his  pray- 
ers and  his  counsels,  was  the  true  de- 
fence of  Israel,  and  better  than  either 
chariots  or  horsemen. 

Captains  op  Chariots.  The  phrase 
occurs   in    Ex.   14  :  7  ;    15  :  4  ;    1  Kgs. 

173 


CHA 


CHE 


22 :  33.  In  the  first  two  passages  it 
means  "commanders  of  the  highest 
rank,  chosen  specially  to  attend  on  the 
person  of  Pharaoh ;  probably  com- 
manders of  the  2000  Calasirians,  who, 
alternately  with  the  Hermotybians, 
formed  his  body-guard.  They  may 
have  been,  for  the  most  part,  known  to 
Moses."  —  Bible  (Speaker's)  Comtnen- 
tary,  in  loco. 

Chariots  op  the  Sun.  It  was  a 
Persian  practice  to  dedicate  a  char- 
iot and  horses  to  the  sun.  These 
chariots  were  white,  and  drawn  proba- 
bly by  white  horses  in  sacred  proces- 
sions. This  idolatrous  practice  found 
favor  in  Judah,  for  it  is  recorded,  to  the 
honor  of  Josiah  and  as  a  proof  of  his 
zeal,  that  he  took  away  the  horses  which 
previous  kings  had  given  to  the  sun, 
and  burned  the  chariots  of  the  sun  with 
fire.  2  Kgs.  23:11. 

CHAR'ITY  (from  Lat.  caritas, 
Fr.  charite).  In  1  Cor.  13  : 1  and  paral- 
lel passages  the  Saxon  word  love  (to 
God  as  well  as  to  man)  would  better  ex- 
press the  sentiment  intended.  See  Love. 
Charity,  in  the  popular  acceptation  of 
the  word,  is  confined  to  love  to  suffering 
men,  or  almsgiving.     See  Alms. 

CHARM,  CHARMER.  See 
Adder,  Asp,  Divination. 

CHAR'RAN.  Acts  7  :  2,  4.  The 
Greek  form  of  Haran,  which  see. 

CHAT'TER.  See  Crane,  Swal- 
low. 

CHE'BAR,  a  river  in  Chald^a, 
Eze.  1:1,  3;  3  :  15,  etc. ;  probably  the 
same  as  Habor,  and  perhaps  the  royal 
canal  which  connected  the  Tigris  with 
the  Euphrates,  30  miles  above  Babylon. 

CHE'BEL  {6ord),a.  Hebrew  topo- 
graphical term,  Josh.  2:15;  1  Sam.  10  : 
5;  Ps.  16  :  6  ;  usually  applied  to  the  Ar- 
gob.  Deut.  3:4,  13,  14;  1  Kgs.  4:13. 
See  under  Bashan. 

CHEDORLA'OMER  [handful 
of  sheaves),  the  king  of  Elam,  and  one 
of  the  four  allied  kings  who  subjected 
the  kings  of  the  five  cities  of  the  plain. 
These  remained  in  the  service  of  Che- 
dorlaomer  for  twelve  years,  but  in  the 
thirteenth  rebelled.  Chedorlaomer  sum- 
moned the  allies,  met  the  five  kings, 
completely  routed  them,  carried  off  much 
spoil,  part  of  which  belonged  to  Lot. 
whom  they  likewise  captured.  Abrani 
started  in  pursuit  with  his  own  ser- 
174 


vants,  defeated  them,  was  able  to  re- 
cover all  the  spoil  and  his  nephew  Lot. 
In  the  battle  Chedorlaomer  appears  to 
have  perished.  The  narrative  is  given 
in  Gen.  14. 

CHEEK.  To  be  struck  upon  the 
cheek  was,  among  the  Hebrews,  to  be 
grossly  insulted.  In  proof  see  1  Kgs. 
22:24;  Job  16: 10;  Matt.  5  :  39. 

CHEESE  was  a  common  article  of 
food  among  the  Hebrews.  The  word 
occurs  but  three  times  in  the  Bible,  and 
in  each  case  the  original  word  is  differ- 
ent. 1  Sam.  17  :  18  ;  2  Sam.  17  :  29  ;  Job 
10  :  10.  It  is  difficult  to  decide  how  far 
these  terms  correspond  with  our  notion 
of  cheese.  In  the  original  the  first  word 
means  "  a  cutting,"  "  ten  sections  of 
curds,"  soft  cheese;  the  root  of  the 
second  word  means  "  to  scrape,"  im- 
plying that  the  cheese  was  grated; 
while  the  third  word  means  "  curdled 
milk."  The  modern  Bedouins  use  a 
kind  of  coagulated  butter-milk,  which 
is  ground  when  dried  hard,  and  eaten 
mixed  with  butter. 

CHE'LAL  (perfection),  one  who  had 
a  strange  Avife.  Ezr.  10  :  30. 

CHEL'LUH  (completed),  one  whO' 
had  a  strange  wife.     Ezr.  10  :  35. 

CHE'LUB  (fruit-basket,  or  bird- 
cage). 1.  One  of  Judah's  posterity.  1 
Chr.  4:11. 

2.  The  father  of  one  of  David's  oflB- 
cers.  1   Chr.  27  :  26. 

CHELU'BAI  (capable),  Hezron's 
son  ;  same  with  Caleb.  1  Chr.  2 : 9,  18, 
42. 

CHEM'ARIMS  (those  who  go  about 
in  black  :  i.  e.  asce^?'cs),  priests  of  false 
gods.  Zeph.  1:4;  2  Kgs.  23  :  5,  margin  ; 
Hos.  10  :  5,  margin. 

CHE'MOSH  (subduer),  the  na- 
tional deity  of  the  Moabites,  who  were 
his  people,  as  the  Israelites  are  the  peo- 
ple of  Jehovah.  Num.  21:29;  Jer.  48: 
7,  46  ;  called  "  the  abomination  of  Moab." 
1  Kgs.  11  :  7.  Solomon  introduced,  1 
Kgs.  11 :  7,  and  Josiah  suppressed,  2  Kgs. 
23  :  13,  his  worship  in  Jerusalem.  Upon 
the  recently  discovered  Moabite  Stone, 
King  Mesha,  2  Kgs.  3  :  4,  attributes  to 
his  god  Chemosh  his  victories.  See 
DiBON.  The  same  traits  of  cruelty  and 
lust  prove  him  to  have  been  identical 
with  Molech,  the  god  of  the  Ammon- 
ites. Jud.  11  :  24.  It  was  to  Chemosh 
that  Mesha  offered  his  son.  2  Kgs.  3  ; 


CHE 


CHE 


27.  The  god  is  also  identified  with 
Baal-Peor,  Saturn,  or  Mars. 

CHENA'ANAH(  wc-chnnt).  1 . 
The  father  of  the  false  prophet  Zedeki- 
ah.  1  Kgs.  22  :  11,  24;  2  Chr.  18  :  10,  23. 

2.  A  Benjamite.  1  Chr.  7:10;  perhaps 
same  as  the  preceding. 

CHEN'ANI  (contracted  from  next 
name),  a  Levite  who  took  part  in  the 
purification  of  the  ])eople  under  Ezra. 
Neh.  9:4. 

CHENANV AH  {irhom  Jehovah  hath 
made),  a  Levite  chief  in  David's  reign. 

1  Chr.  15:22.  27:  26:29. 

CHE '  PHAR  -  HAAM'MONAI 
{village  of  Ainiiionites),  a  village  of  Ben- 
jamin. Josh.  18  :  24. 

CHEPHI'RAIl  [village),  one  of 
four  towns  of  the  Gibeonites,  belonging 
to  Benjamin,  Josh.  9:17;  18  :  26  j  Ezr. 

2  :  25  ;  probably  now  Kefir,  8  miles  west 
of  Gibeon.     Conder  gives  it  as  Kejireh. 

CHE'RAN  {lyre),  a  Horite  chief's 
son.  Gen.  36:26;  1  Chr.  1:41. 

CHER'ETHIMS,  identical  with 
Cherethites. 

CHER'ETHITESandPEL'E- 
THITES  (executioners  and  couriers) 
formed  the  bodj'^-guard  of  King  David. 
2  Sam.  8  :  18;  15  :  18;  20:  7.  It  is 
probable  they  were  mercenaries,  origi- 
nally Philistines,  for  Cherethite  is  con- 
nected with  Pelethite,  which  was,  it  is 
likely,  only  another  form  of  the  word 
Philistine. 

CHE'RITH  (gorge),  THE 
BROOK,  a  brook  or  torrent  "before 
Jordan"  where  the  prophet  Elijah  was 
hid.  1  Kgs.  17  :  5.  Its  location  is  much 
disputed.  Robinson  and  several  others 
identify  it  with  Wadij  Kelt,  a  swift, 
b-awling  stream,  20  yards  wide  and  3 
)jet  deep,  running  into  the  Jordan  from 
the  west,  a  little  south  of  Jericho.  Some 
identify  it  with  Wady  Fusail,  a  little 
farther  north,  and  yet  others  think  it 
was  some  stream  on  the  other,  or  eastern, 
side  of  the  Jordan. 

CHER'UB.  Ezr.  2:59;  Neh.  7: 
61.  A  place  in  Babylonia;  perhaps 
Cheripha  of  Ptolemv. 

CHERUB,  CHER'UBIM. 
Man.y  derivations  have  been  proposed. 
The  best  are  from  roots  signifying  either 
"  strong  "  or  "  to  plough  ;"  hence,  terri- 
ble. The  cherubim  were  not  angels, 
since  altogether  different  occupations 
are  given  to  them  in  the  Bible.     Thus 


angels  are  sent  out  upon  messages,  but 
the  cherubim  always  are  in  the  presence 
of  God.  They  are  winged,  and  are  in 
appearance  like  combinations  of  parts 
of  diflerent  aniinals.  The  word  first 
occurs  in  Gen.  3  :  24,  and  is  applied  to 
the  guard  which  was  placed  over  Eden 
after  the  expulsion  of  fallen  man. 

"  It  is  remarkable  that  while  there 
are  precise  directions  as  to  their  position, 
attitude,  and  material,  Ex.  26  :  18,  etc., 
and  descriptions,  2  Chr.  3: 10-13,  noth- 
ing is  said  about  their  shajje,  except 
that  they  were  winged.  On  the  whole, 
it  seems  likely  that  the  word  'cherub' 
meant  not  only  the  com})osite  creature 


Egyptian  Winged  Figures. 

form,  of  which  the  man,  lion,  ox,  and 
eagle  were  the  elements,  but,  further, 
some  peculiar  and  mystical  form." — 
Smith  :   Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 

According  to  the  primitive  concep- 
tion, the  cherubim  were  the  bearers  of 
God  when  he  appeared  in  his  glory  upon 
the  earth,  Ps.  18  :  10  ;  so,  in  Ezekiel's  vis- 
ion, they  carry  the  throne  of  God.  Eze. 
11  :  22  ;  cf.  1 :  19  ;  10  :  16  flf.  They  are  the 
"  wings  of  the  wind,"  by  which  God 
in  the  thunder-cloud  is  borne  to  the 
world.  Isa.  19  : 1 ;  Ps.  104  :  3.  Hence 
they  are  the  witnesses  of  his  presence: 
wherever  they  are,  God  is.  How  appro- 
priately, therefore,  were  representations 
of  them  placed  in  the  tabernacle  and  tem- 
ple! In  the  former,  two  golden  cheru- 
bim stood  in  the  holy  of  holies,  upon 
the  mercy-seat.  Ex.  37  :  8.  They  were 
likewise  pictured  upon  the  curtains.  26  : 
1,  31;  36:8,  35.  In  Solomon's  temple 
two  colossal  figures  of  the  cherubim, 
overlaid  with  gold,  stood  upon  the  floor 

175 


CHE 


CHI 


and  overshadowed  the  ark,  which  was 
between  them,  in  the  holy  of  holies.  1 
Kgs.  6  :  27.  They  were  also  carved 
upon  the  doors,  upon  all  the  '*  walls  of 
the  house,"  and  put  between  represen- 
tations of  palm  trees.  1  Kgs.  6 :  29,  32, 
35  ;  2  Chr.  3  :  7.  Indeed,  in  all  parts 
did  they  constitute,  with  lions,  oxen, 
and  palm  trees,  the  ornamentation  of 
the  temple.  1  Kgs.  7  :  29,  36.  The  cheru- 
bim, therefore,  testified  that  God  was  in 
the  midst  of  his  people. 

A  second  idea  which  they  represent  is 
that  they  were  the  watchers  of  the  places 
where  God  is.  They  cover  his  glory  from 
vulgar  gaze ;  they  stand  in  the  service 
of  the  invisible  and  the  unapproachable 
God.    Comp.  Ex.  19  :  9,  16  ;  24  :  15. 

Similar  winged  creatures  are  met  with 
in  great  variety  in  the  legends  and  sym- 
bols of  other  peoples  of  antiquity,  but 
the  originality  of  the  Hebrew  cherubim 
is  not  to  be  disputed.  Still,  the  forms 
which  they  assumed  may  have  been  in 
part  derived  from  these  nations.  Very 
interesting  is  the  comparison  of  the  He- 
brew cherubim  with  figures  in  the  Egyp- 
tian and  Assyrian  temples. 

CHES'ALON  {strength),  a  place  on 
the  north-west  of  Judah,  Josh.  15:10; 
probably.  A^es^a,  8  miles  west  of  Jeru- 
salem. 

CHE'SED  {gain),  Nahor's  son. 
Gen.  22:22. 

CHE'SIL  {fool,  or  idolatrous),  in 
the  south  of  Judah,  Josh.  15  :  30  ;  proba- 
bly the  same  as  Bethul  and  Bethuel ;  if 
so,  it  may  be  at  Beit  Aula,  7  miles  north- 
west of  Hebron. 

CHEST.  There  are  two  Hebrew 
words  so  translated.    The  first  is  applied, 


Egyptian  Chest  or  Box. 

in  2  Kgs.  12  :  9,  10  ;  2  Chr.  24  :  8,  10,  11, 
to  the  coffer  into  which  the  people  threw 
176 


their  voluntary  contributions  for  the  re- 
pair of  the  temple  under  Joash.  But  the 
original  word  in  every  other  place  ex- 
cept Gen.  50:  26,  where  it  is  applied  to 
Jacob's  coffin,  means  the  ark  of  the  cove- 
nant. A  different  word  altogether  is  used 
for  Noah's  and  Moses's  "  ark."  The  sec- 
ond word  occurs  only  in  Eze.  27  :  24,  and 
means  a  treasure-chest  where  valuables 
are  stored. 

CHESTNUT  TREE.  Gen.  30: 
37.  Doubtless  the  translation  here  should 
be  *' plane  tree"  {Flatanns  orientalis). 
This  tree  closely  resembles  the  well- 
known  American  species  which  we  call 
sycamore  or  buttonwood  {Platanus  oc- 
cidentalis).  The  Oriental  tree  grows 
along  streams  in  the  north  of  Pales- 
tine, and  when  long  spared  attains 
great  size.     Eze.  31 :  8. 

CHESUL'LOTH  {loins,  or 
y?anA-),  a  town  of  Issachar;  possibly  the 
same  as  Chisloth-tabor.  Josh.  19  :  12, 
18;  now  Iksdl,  4  miles  west  of  Tabor. 

CHE'ZIB  {lying),  probably  iden- 
tical with  Achdb,  2.  Gen.  38  :  5.  Con- 
der  places  it  at  'Aia  Kezhch. 

CHI'DON.  1  Chr.  13  :  9.  Called  also 
the  threshing-floor  of  Nachon,  2  Sam.  6  : 
6  ;  it  was  near  Jerusalem. 

CHIEF  OF  A'SIA.  Acts  19  :  31. 
Certain  wealthy  persons  were  appointed 
annually  in  the  Asiatic  provinces  of 
Rome  to  preside  over  the  religious  rites, 
public  games,  etc.,  which  they  maintain- 
ed in  honor  of  the  gods,  and  at  their  own 
expense.  They  received  their  title  from 
the  name  of  the  province ;  as,  the  chief  of 
Caria  was  called  cariarch,  or  of  Lycia, 
lyciarch,  etc.  The  title  is  properly  "  asi- 
arch,"  and  was  borne,  it  would  seem,  af- 
ter the  duties  of  the  office  had  been  dis- 
charged. This  explains  the  reference  in 
the  Acts.  These  asiarchs,  who  advised 
Paul  not  to  expose  himself  needlessly  to 
the  fury  of  the  populace  in  Ephesus,  may 
well  have  been  friendly  to  the  apostle, 
without  being  Christians. 

CHIEF  PRIEST.     See  Priest. 

CHIL'DREN.  The  term  is  used  in 
A.  V.  where  "  sons  "  would  better  repre- 
sent the  Hebrew  or  Greek  ;  as,  "  the  chil- 
dren of  Abraham,"  ''the  children  of 
Israel,"  "the  children  of  God."  It  was 
regarded  among  the  Jews  as  not  only 
a  misfortune,  but  even  a  disgrace,  if  a 
married  woman  was  barren.  The  more 
sons  a  man  had,  the  more  was  he  es- 


CHI 


CHO 


teemed.  The  inheritance  of  the  father 
was  divided  equally  among  all  the  sons, 
except  the  eldest,  who  received  a  double 
portion.  The  daughters  got  nothing 
unless  there  was  no  son,  in  which  case 
they  shared  equally  the  property,  and 
were  forbidden  to  marry  out  of  their 
father's  tribe.  Num.  27  :  V-12  ;  35  :  2,  8. 
Wills  were  needless,  and  therefore  un- 
known. The  authority  of  the  parent 
was  very  great,  and  children  are  com- 
manded to  reverence  their  parents.  The 
law  allowed  children  to  be  sold  into 
bondage  in  payment  of  the  parents' 
debts.  Lev.  25  :  39-41.  We  find  al- 
lusions to  the  practical  working  of  this 
law  in  2  Kgs.  4:1  and  Matt.  18 :  25. 

Child-birth  in  Eastern  countries  is 
usually,  although  not  always,  compara- 
tively easy.  Gen.  35:17;  38:27;  Ex. 
1:19;  1  Sam.  4:19,20.  The  new- 
born Hebrew  child  was  washed,  rubbed 
with  salt,  and  wrapped  in  swaddling- 
clothes,  Luke  2:7;  circumcised  on  the 
eighth  day,  when  the  name  was  given. 
Child-birth  rendered  the  woman  cere- 
monially unclean  for  40  days  in  the  case 
of  a  son,  and  80  in  the  case  of  a  daugh- 
ter. At  the  conclusion  of  the  period 
she  offered  for  her  cleansing  the  sac- 
rifices the  Law  prescribed.  Lev.  12. 
Women  nursed  their  own  children  in 
most  cases,  and  did  not  wean  them  until 
the  lapse  of  30  months,  or  even  3  years. 
The  weaning  was  made  a  festive  occa- 
sion. This  custom  was  very  old.  Gen. 
21 :  8.  Daughters  remained  under  the 
care  of  the  mother  until  the  period  of 
marriage,  but  boys  passed  in  their 
fifth  year  under  the  training  of  the 
father.     See  Education. 

CHIL'EAB  {like  to  Ids  father?), 
a  son  of  Abigail  by  David,  2  Sam.  3:3; 
called  Daniel  in  1  Chr.  3  : 1. 

CHILI'ON  [sickly),  son  of  Naomi, 
and  husband  of  Euth.  Kuth  1 :  2-5  ;  4  : 
9,  10. 

CHIL'MAD,  a  place  or  country, 
Eze.  27  :  23  ;  perhaps  identical  with 
Kalwadha,  near  Bagdad. 

CHIM'HAM.  2  Sam.  19  :  37.  It 
is  possible  he  was  a  son  of  Barzillai,  but 
it  cannot  be  certainly  inferred  from  1 
Kgs.  2 :  7,  which  is  sometimes  cited  to 
prove  it.  Some  have  supposed  that 
David  gave  Chimham  a  parcel  of  land 
which  was  afterward  known  by  his 
name.  Jer.  41 :  17. 
12 


CHIM'NEY.     See  Dwellings. 
CHIN'NERETH,    ou    CHIN'- 

NEROTH.  Josh.  11:2.  A  fenced 
city  of  Naphtali,  on  the  lake,  or  sea, 
of  the  same  name;  afterward  called 
Gennesar,  and  about  3  miles  north-west 
of  Tiberias,  according  to  Fiirst. 

CHIN'NERETH,  SEA  OF. 
See  Galilee,  Sea  of. 

CHI'OS,  an  island  of  the  iEgean 
Sea,  5  miles  from  the  coast  of  Ionia,  in 
Asia  Minor.  It  is  32  miles  long  and 
from  8  to  18  miles  wide,  and  noted  for 
its  wines.  Paul  passed  by  it.  Acts  20  : 
14,  15.  Its  modern  name  is  Scio  or 
Kliio. 

CHIS'LEU.     See  Months. 

CHIS'LON  {covfidence),  the  father 
of  Elidad  the  Benjamite,  who  was  chosen 
to  represent  his  tribe  in  the  division  of 
the  land.  Num.  34:21. 

CHIS'LOTH-TA'BOR,  eithera 
mountain  or  a  place.  Josh.  19  :  12.  If 
the  former,  it  is  probably  identical  with 
Tabor ;  if  the  latter,  it  is  perhaps  to  be 
found  at  Iksal,  2^  miles  west  of  Tabor. 

CHIT'TIM,orKIT'TIM.  Num. 
24 :  24  ;  Isa.  23  : 1,  12  ;  Jer.  2:10;  Eze. 
27  :  6  ;  Dan.  11 :30.  In  these  passages 
the  *' isles,"  "ships,"  "products,"  and 
"people"  of  Chittim  are  mentioned  or 
alluded  to  ;  hence  the  name  has  gener- 
ally been  supposed  to  mean  the  island 
of  Cj'prus,  though  Kitto  thinks  it  a 
general  term  applied  to  islands  and 
coasts  west  of  Palestine.     See  Cyprus. 

CHI'UN.  Am.  6  :  26.  An  idol 
which  the  Israelites  made  and  wor- 
shipped in  the  wilderness.     See   Rem- 

PHAN. 

CHLO'E  [green  herb),  a  Christian 
woman,  some  of  whose  family  told 
Paul  of  the  dissensions  in  the  Corinth- 
ian church.    1  Cor.  1 :  11. 

CHORA'SHAN.  1  Sam.  30:30. 
Probably  the  same  as  Ashan  ['Aseileh). 

CHORA'ZIN,  a  city  named  with 
Capernaum  and  Bethsaida  in  the  woes 
pronounced  by  Christ.  Matt.  11 :  20-23  ; 
Luke  10  :  13.  The  identification  of 
Chorazin  depends  largely,  though  not 
wholly,  upon  that  of  Capernaum.  Rob- 
inson places  it  at  Tell  Hum,  but  others, 
with  greater  probability,  fix  its  site  at 
Kerdzeh,  2h  miles  west  of  Tell  Hum, 
and  west  of  the  valley  of  the  Jordan. 
The  ruins  cover  a  large  area,  and  con- 
sist of  a  synagogue,  the  ornaments  be- 

177 


CHO 


CHR 


ing  cut  in  black  basalt  rock,  walls  of 
dwellings,  columns  which  supported  the 
roofs  and  doorvvajs,  some  of  them  in 
a  tolerably  perfect  condition,  and  a 
paved  roadway  leading  to  the  great 
caravan-route  to   Damascus.      See   Ca- 

PERNAXIM. 

CHOZE'BA.  1  Chr.  4  :  22.  It 
lias  generally  been  regarded  as  iden- 
tical with  Chezib  and  Achzib,  but  Con- 
der  places  Chozeba  at  a  ruin  of  import- 
ance in  Wady  Arnib,  or  valley  of  Bera- 
choth,  and  called  Kueiztbah,  a  name 
which  is  almost  the  exact  equivalent  for 
the  Hebrew  Chozeba. 

CHRIST,  JE'SUS.  Matt.  1:1. 
Christ  is  the  official,  Jesus  the  personal, 
name  of  our  Lord.  It  is  from  the  Greek 
word  Christos,  which  signifies  "anoint- 
ed," corresponding  to  the  word  Messiah  in 
the  Hebrew.  He  is  called  the  Anointed 
in  allusion  to  the  custom  of  anointing 
with  oil  such  as  were  set  apart  to  a  sa- 
cred or  regal  office,  because  by  the  Spirit 
he  was  anointed  to  the  threefold  office 
of  prophet,  priest,  and  king. 

The  word  "Jesus"  is  derived  from  a 
Hebrew  word  signifying  "to  save,"  or 
"sent  to  save."  Matt.  1:21;  Luke  2: 
11,21.  The  word  "Joshua"  has  the 
same  meaning,  and  is  a  very  common 
name  among  the  Hebrews,  and  should 
have  been  used  in  Acts  7 :  45  and  Heb. 
4:  8  instead  of  "  Jesus." 

Jesus  the  Christ  is  a  descriptive 
phrase,  like  John  the  Baptist.  Matt. 
26:63;  Mark  8:29;  14:61;  John  1: 
20,  25,  41;  6:69;  7:41;  10:24;  11: 
27;  20:31.  The  word  "Jesus"  is 
almost  always  used  alone  in  the  Gos- 
pels, while,  in  the  Acts  and  Epistles, 
"  Jesus  Christ  "  or  "Lord  Jesus  Christ" 
is  the  prevailing  expression. 

The  first  promise  of  the  Messiah  was 
given  in  Gen.  3  :  16.  The  Son  of  God 
and  all  true  believers  are  "the  seed  of 
the  woman."  Comp.  Acts  13  :  23  ;  Gal. 
4  :  4,  and  Heb.  2:16  with  John  17  :  21- 
23.  The  devil  and  all  his  servants  rep- 
resent the  serpent  and  his  seed.  John 
8  :  44  ;  1  John  3  :  8.  The  temptations, 
sufferings,  and  ignominious  death  of 
Christ,  and  the  fierce  opposition  and 
persecution  which  his  followers  have 
endured,  are  significantly  described  by 
the  bruising  of  the  heel ;  while  the 
complete  victory  which  our  Redeemer 
has  himself  achieved  over  sin  and 
178 


death,  and  which  his  grace  enables  the 
believer  also  to  obtain,  and  the  still 
more  perfect  and  universal  triumph 
which  he  will  finally  accomplish,  are  all 
strikingly  illustrated  by  the  bruising 
or  crushing  of  the  serpent's  head. 

The  books  of  heathen  mythology 
furnish  curious  allusions  to  this  pas- 
sage of  the  Bible.  In  one  of  them  Thor 
is  represented  as  the  eldest  son  of  Odin, 
a  middle  divinity,  a  mediator  between 
God  and  man,  who  bruised  the  head  of 
the  serpent  and  slew  him.  And  in  one 
of  the  oldest  pagodas  of  India  are 
found  two  sculptured  figures,  repre- 
senting two  incarnations  of  one  of 
their  supreme  divinities,  the  first  to  be 
bitten  by  a  serpent  and  the  second  to 
crush  him. 

The  promise  thus  given  when  man 
fell  was  supplemented  by  so  many  par- 
ticulars in  the  course  of  the  centuries 
that  the  coming  Messiah  was  the  great 
hope  of  Israel.  In  type  and  symbol,  in 
poetry  and  prose,  in  prophecy  and  his- 
tory, the  Jews  had  set  before  them  in 
increasing  prominence  and  clearness 
the  character  and  life  and  death  of 
the  promised  Messiah,  and  yet,  as  a 
nation,  they  grossly  misapprehended 
his  character  and  the  purpose  of  his 
mission.  They  were  accustomed  to  re- 
gard his  coming  as  the  grand  era  in  the 
annals  of  the  world,  for  they  spoke  of 
the  two  great  ages  of  history,  the  one 
as  preceding  and  the  other  as  following 
this  wonderful  event  ;  but  they  per- 
verted the  spiritual  character  of  the 
Messiah  and  his  kingdom  into  that  of 
a  temporal  deliverer  and  ruler. 

AVe  find  that  about  the  time  of  the 
Messiah's  appearance  Simeon,  Anna, 
and  others  of  like  faith,  were  eagerly 
expecting  the  promised  salvation.  Luke 
2 : 25-38. 

At  the  appointed  time  the  Redeemer 
of  the  world  appeared.  He  was  born  in 
the  year  of  the  city  of  Rome  749 — i.  e. 
4  years  before  the  beginning  of  our 
era — at  Bethlehem,  in  Judasa,  of  the  Vir- 
gin Mary,  who  was  espoused  to  Joseph ; 
and  through  them  he  derived  his  descent 
from  David,  according  to  prophecy.  Ps. 
89  :  3,  4  and  110:1.  Comp.  Acts  2 :  25, 
36;  Isa.  11:1-10;  Jer.  23  :  5,  6  ;  Eze. 
34  :  23,  24 ;  37  :  24,  25  ;  John  7  :  42. 

The  story  of  Christ's  life  is  told  with 
so  much  simplicity,  completeness,  and 


CHE 


CHR 


sweetness  in  the  Gospels,  and  is  at  the 
same  time  so  familiar  to  every  Bible- 
reader,  that  it  is  not  necessary  here  to 
repeat  it.  In  one  sentence,  Jesus  Christ 
was  the  incarnate  God,  whose  coming 
was  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy ;  whose 
life  was  the  exemplification  of  absolute 
sinlessness  ;  whose  death  was  the  result 
of  man's  malice,  and  yet  the  execution 
of  God's  design  and  the  atonement  for 
the  sins  of  the  world ;  whose  resurrec- 
tion was  the  crowning  proof  of  his  di- 
vinity ;  whose  ascension  was  a  return 
to  his  abode,  where  he  ever  liveth  to 
make  intercession  for  us.  To  prove  his 
character  we  have  the  unanimous  testi- 
mony of  eighteen  centuries.  "  The  per- 
son of  Christ  is  the  miracle  of  history." 
We  claim  for  him  perfect  humanity  and 
perfect  divinity.  He  was  not  only  the 
Son  of  man,  but  the  Son  of  God  in  one 
undivided  person.  The  term  "Son  of 
man,"  which  Christ  applies  to  himself 
about  eighty  times  in  the  Gospels,  places 
him  on  a  common  level  with  other  men 
as  partaking  of  their  nature  and  consti- 
tution, and  at  the  same  time  above  all 
other  men  as  the  absolute  and  perfect 
Man,  the  representative  Head  of  the 
race,  the  second  Adam.  Comp,  Rom.  5  : 
12  ff. ;  1  Cor.  15  :  27  ;  Heb.  1  :  8.  While 
other  great  men  are  limited  by  national 
prejudice,  Christ  is  the  King  of  men, 
who  draws  all  to  him  ;  he  is  the  uni- 
versal, absolute  Man,  elevated  above 
the  limitations  of  race  and  nationality. 
And  yet  he  is  most  intensely  human. 
The  joys  and  sorrows  of  our  common 
life  are  met  by  his  deep  and  tender  sym- 
pathy. All  love  him  who  know  him. 
His  foes  are  the  cruel,  the  licentious, 
and  the  malicious.  The  records  of  the 
evangelists  are  not  elaborate,  artistic 
pages  with  many  erasures,  as  if  the 
writers  had  toiled  after  consistency. 
They  are  simple,  straight  -  forward, 
guileless  testimonies ;  and  yet  the  im- 
pression they  leave  upon  the  attentive 
reader  is  that  in  Jesus  Christ  the  plant 
of  Humanity  bore  its  rarest  flower,  the 
tree  of  Life  its  most  precious  fruit.  It 
will  be  granted  that  the  question  of  the 
justice  of  this  claim  turns  upon  his  per- 
fect sinlessness.  Some  have  dared  to 
say  that  while  in  the  Gospels  no  sinful 
acts  are  recorded,  there  may  have  been 
sins  which  are  unrecorded.  But  with- 
out fear  he  challenged  his  foes  to  con- 


vict him  of  sin.  John  8 :  46.  He  was 
the  only  man  who  has  made  any  such 
demand.  Christ's  sinlessness  is  con- 
firmed by  his  own  solemn  testimony,  the 
whole  course  of  his  life,  and  the  very 
purpose  for  which  he  appeared.  Self- 
deception  in  this  case  would  border  on 
madness,  falsehood  would  overthrow  the 
whole  moral  foundation  of  Christ's  cha- 
racter. Hypocrites  do  not  maintain 
themselves  under  such  a  strain.  But 
besides  being  sinless,  he  was  perfectly 
holy.  He  did  not  simply  resist  sin  :  he 
blended  and  exercised  actively  all  vir- 
tues. The  grandeur  of  his  character 
removes  him  at  once  from  all  the  sor- 
didness,  pettiness,  and  sinfulness  of  our 
every-day  life.  His  memory  comes  to 
us  with  the  refreshment  of  the  cooling 
breeze  on  a  summer's  day.  We  can 
supplicate  his  help  because  we  have 
seen  him  tried  and  triumphant,  and  we 
know  his  strength  is  great.  All  human 
goodness  loses  on  closer  inspe»tion,  but 
Christ's  character  grows  more  pure,  sa- 
cred, and  lovely  the  better  we  know  him. 

But  Jesus  was  likewise  the  Son  of  God, 
and  so  he  is  usually  called  by  the  apos- 
tles. The  perfection  of  his  humanity  if 
matched  by  the  perfection  of  his  divin- 
ity. His  Godhead  comes  out  in  many 
ways.  He  exercises  a  supernatural  con- 
trol over  Nature.  The  waves  sink  at  hit 
command,  the  fig  tree  withers  away,  the 
water  turns  into  wine.  By  his  touch  or 
word,  without  a  prayer  or  any  recogni- 
tion of  superior  power,  the  lepers  are 
cleansed,  the  blind  see,  and  the  lame 
walk.  Higher  yet  does  Christ  go  :  he 
forgives  sins — not  with  the  ostentation 
of  a  presuming  charlatan,  but  simply, 
decidedly,  gently.  He  takes  from  the 
sinner  his  damning  load  by  the  same 
action  which  brings  back  health.  He 
likewise  intercedes  with  the  Father  for 
men.  He  claims  equality  and  eternity 
with  God.  Twice  God  proclaims  him 
as  his  Son.  Accompanied  by  legions 
of  angels,  sustained  by  divine  strength, 
Jesus  of  Nazareth  lives  as  the  express 
image  of  the  Father,  conquers  the  grave, 
rises  from  the  dead,  and  ascends  to  take 
his  place  as  God,  blessed  for  ever. 

The  Church  has  the  daily  experience 
of  her  Lord,  who  is  present  always  in 
the  hearts  of  all  true  believers.  When 
souls  yearn  for  cheer,  when  mourners 
cry  out   for   comfort,  when   men    need 

179 


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counsel,  they  seek  Jesus ;  and  they  are 
supplied  from  the  inexhaustible  fount 
of  his  humanity.  When  the  sinner  feels 
the  burden  of  his  sin  pressing  heavily 
and  groans  for  release,  when  the  insolv- 
ent debtor  falls  at  the  feet  of  his  Lord, 
crying,  "  Have  mercy  !"  when  the  saint 
is  set  amid  the  perplexities  of  life,  when 
he  enters  the  valley  of  the  shadow  of 
death,  when  he  comes  to  the  brink  of  the 
river, — these  are  times  when  the  perfect 
divinity  of  Jesus  is  proven  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  soul. 

"  Behold  the  God-Man !"  cries  the 
Church ;  and  this  is  the  exultant  ex- 
clamation of  the  soul  left  to  its  deepest 
instincts  and  noblest  aspirations,  the 
soul  which  was  originally  made  for 
Christ,  and  finds  in  him  the  solution  of 
all  moral  problems,  the  satisfaction  of 
all  its  wants,  the  unfailing  fountain  of 
everlasting  life  and  peace. 

Personal  Appearance  of  Jesus  Christ. 
— None  of  the  evangelists — not  even  the 
beloved  disciple  and  bosom-friend  of 
Jesus — has  given  us  the  least  hint  of 
his  countenance  and  stature.  This  was 
wise.  We  ought  to  cling  to  the  Christ  in 
the  spirit  rather  than  to  the  Christ  in 
the  flesh.  Yet  there  must  have  been 
spiritual  beauty  in  his  face.  He  won 
the  hearts  of  his  disciples  by  a  word. 
We  are  indeed  left  to  conjecture  merely, 
but  we  cannot  read  in  the  hints  of  his 
personal  power  any  necessity  for  taking 
Isaiah's  description  of  the  suffering  Mes- 
siah in  all  its  literal  baldness.  There 
was  nothing  repulsive  about  Jesus.  He 
had  not  the  physiognomy  of  a  sinner;  a 
supernatural  purity  and  dignity  must 
have  shone  through  the  veil  of  his  flesh. 

The  first  formal  description  of  his 
looks  dates  from  the  fourth  century — 
is,  indeed, unauthentic,  probably  a  monk- 
ish fabrication,  and  yet,  because  it  is 
curious  and  has  had  a  great  influence 
upon  the  pictorial  representations  of 
Jesus,  we  insert  it  here.  It  is  ascribed 
to  Publius  Lentulus.  a  heathen,  supposed 
contemporary  and  friend  of  Pilate,  in  an 
apocryphal  letter  to  the  Roman  Senate  : 
"In  this  time  appeared  a  man,  who 
lives  till  now — a  man  endowed  with 
great  powers.  Men  call  him  a  great 
prophet;  his  own  disciples  term  him 
the  Son  of  God.  His  name  is  Jesus 
Christ.  He  restores  the  dead  to  life 
and  cures  the  sick  of  all  manner  of  dis- 
180 


eases.  This  man  is  of  noble  and  well- 
proportioned  stature,  with  a  face  full  of 
kindness,  and  yet  firmness,  so  that  be- 
holders both  love  him  and  fear  him.  His 
hair  is  the  color  of  wine,  and  golden  at 
the  root,  straight  and  without  lustre,  but 
from  the  level  of  the  ears  curling  and 
glossy,  and  divided  down  the  centre, 
after  the  fashion  of  the  Nazarenes,  His 
forehead  is  even  and  smooth,  his  face 
without  blemish,  and  enhanced  by  a 
tempered  bloom,  his  countenance  in- 
genuous and  kind.  Nose  and  mouth 
are  in  no  way  faulty.  His  beard  is  full, 
of  the  same  color  as  his  hair,  and  forked 
in  form  ;  his  eyes  blue  and  extremely 
brilliant.  In  reproof  and  rebuke  he  is 
formidable ;  in  exhortation  and  teach- 
ing, gentle  and  amiable  of  tongue. 
None  have  seen  him  to  laugh,  but 
many,  on  the  contrary,  to  weep.  His 
person  is  tall,  his  hands  beautiful  and 
straight.  In  speaking  be  is  deliberate 
and  grave  and  little  given  to  loquacity; 
in  beauty,  surpassing  most  men." 

It  may  be  proper  to  suggest  the  lead- 
ing points  and  principal  references  re- 
specting the  divinity  of  our  Lord. 

I.  The  names  and  titles  of  the  su- 
preme Being  are  applied  to  him,  John 
1:1;  Rom.  9  :  5  ;  1  John  5:20;  Rev.  1 : 
11 ;  comp.  Isa.  6  : 1-10  with  John  12  :  41. 

II.  The  principal  attributes  of  God 
are  ascribed  to  Christ ;  as,  eternity, 
John  1:1;  8  :  58  ;  Rev.  23  :  13  ;  super- 
human knowledge,  Matt.  9:4;  John  16  : 
30;  21:17;  omnipotence,  Phil.  3  :  21 ; 
Col.  2  :  9,  10  ;  omnipresence.  Matt.  18  : 
20  ;  28  :  20  ;  John  3:  13  ;  and  unchange- 
ableness.  Heb.  13  :  8. 

III.  The  works  and  prerogatives  of 
God  are  ascribed  to  him,  such  as  the 
creation  of  all  things,  John  1:1,3;  Col. 
1 :  16,  17,  and  their  preservation,  Heb. 
1:3;  forgiveness  of  sins,  Dan.  8:9; 
comp.  with  Ps.  30  ;  Matt.  9  :  2,  6 ;  Col. 
3:13;  power  to  raise  the  dead  and  to 
judge  the  world.  Matt.  25  :  31-33 ;  John 
5  :  2-29  :  Rom.  14  :  10  ;  2  Cor.  5  :  10. 

IV.  He  is  the  object  of  religious  wor- 
ship. Phil.  2  :  10,  11 ;  Heb.  1:6;  Rev. 
5:11-13. 

We  insert  here,  as  a  help  in  study- 
ing the  harmony  of  the  four  Gospels,  the 
chronological  table  of  the  life  of  Christ, 
from  Schaff"'s  Popular  Commentary  on 
the  New  Testament  (New  York,  1879), 
vol.  i.  p.  18. 


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Outline  of  the   Gospel  History. 


Year  of 
Rome. 

A.  C. 

Matthew. 

Mark. 

Luke. 

John. 

749 

780 

780 
781 

B.  C. 

5 
Dec. 

A.  D. 

27 
Jan. 

27 
28 

I.  Introduction. 

Prefaces 

1  :l-4 
3  :  23-38 

1  : 5-80 

2  : 1-52 

3  :  1-23 

1  :l-5 

1:6- 
2:  12 

2:13- 
6:1 

5:1 

to 

6:14 

6:71 

Genealogies 

1 :  1-17 
1  :  18-25 

2  :  1-23 

3:1- 
4:  11 

Antecedent  Events 

II.  BiRTii  AND  Childhood  of  Jesus. 

III.  Our  Lord's  Introduction  to  his 

Ministry. 
From  appearance  of  the  Baptist ) 
To  wedding  at  Cana  of  Galilee    j 

IV.  First  Year  of  our  Lord's  Min- 

istry. 
{According  to  Andrews,  narrated  by  John 
only.) 
From  the  first  Passover )              f 

1:1-13 

To  the  second  Passover  J \ 

V.  Second  Year  of  our  Lord's  Min- 
istry  

( ^VhoUy  in  Galilee.) 

From  the  beginning  of  the  min-"| 
istry                                                1 

To  the  feeding  of  the  five  thou- 
sand and 

The  discourse  at  Capernaum 

4:12- 
14:36 

1:14- 
6  :56 

4:14- 
9:17 

780 
781 

27 

28 

IV.  First  Year  of  our  Lord's  Min- 
istry. 
{According  to  Robinson.) 

From  the  first  Passover,  includ-") 
ing  tlie  following  events,  nar-  > 
rated  by  the  Synoptists  :           j 

Beginning  of  Galilean  ministry... 

Rejection  at  Nazareth  and  re-) 
moval  to  Capernaum                 J 

Call  of  the  four  fishermen 

2:13 
to 

5:1 

5:1 
6:14 

6:71 

4:17 
4  :  13-16 
4  :  18-22 

1:14 

to 
2:  14 

4:  14 

4  :  16-31 

5  :  1-11 

4  :  31-37 

4  :  38-41 

4  :  42-44 

5  :  12-16 
5  :  17-26 
5  :  27,  28 

Healing  of  a  demoniac  at  Caper-  ) 
naum                                              j 
Healing  of  Peter's  wife's  mother... 

First  circuit  through  Galilee 

Healing  of  a  leper 

8  :  14-17 

4  :  23-25 

8:  2-4 

9:2-8 

9:9 

Healing  of  the  paralytic 

Call  of  Matthew 

Followed  by  second  Passover 

V.  Second  Year  of  our  Lord's  Min- 
istry. 
From  second  Passover  and  the) 
Sabbath  controversy  in  Galilee  V 
To  feeding  of  five  thousand  and  j 
Discourse  at  Capernaum,  including 

Events  narrated  by  Luke  in 

12  :  1- 

14:36 

2  :  23- 
6:56 

6  :  1- 
9:17 

j 11:14- 
113:9 

And  those  narrated  by  Matthew, 
not  cited  under  IV. 

782 
783 

29 

Apr.7, 
30 

VI.  Third  Year  of  our  Lord's  Min-) 

ISTRY.                                                            Y 

Until  arrival  at  Bethany              j 

VII.  From  the  Arrival  at  Bethany  ) 
TO  THE  Burial  of  Jesus             j 

VIII.  Resurrection  and  Ascension 

15  : 1- 

20 :  34 

21:1- 

27  :  66 

28 

7:  1- 

10:52 

11  :  1- 
15:47 

16 

9:18- 
19:28 

19  :  29- 

23:56 

24 

7:1- 
11:57 

12  : 1- 
19:42 

20,21 

181 


I 


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The  life  of  Christ  has  been  of  late 
studied  with  an  eagerness,  a  keenness, 
and  a  wealth  of  illustration  that  argue 
well  for  the  future.  The  question, 
"What  think  ye  of  Christ?"  is  asked 
to-day  with  peculiar  emphasis.  This 
new-born  interest  in  the  earthly  life  of 
the  Founder  of  the  Christian  religion 
will  bear  fruit  in  the  increased  rever- 
ence of  bekevers  and  the  increased  re- 
spect of  his  foes. 

Christs,  False.  Matt.  24  :  24.  Our 
Lord  warned  his  disciples  that  false 
Christs  should  arise.  Not  less  than  24 
different  persons  of  such  pretensions 
have  appeared,  and  the  defence  of  their 
claims  to  the  Messiahship  has  cost  the 
Jews  a  great  expense  of  life  and  treas- 
ure. One  of  them,  Coziba,  or  Barcho- 
cheba,  lived  early  in  the  second  century. 
He  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Jew- 
ish nation  as  their  Messiah ;  they  ad- 
hered to  him.  The  Romans  made  war 
upon  him,  and  the  Jews  themselves 
allow  that  in  their  defence  of  this  false 
Messiah  they  lost  between  500,000  and 
600,000  souls  !  In  the  twelfth  century 
not  less  than  8  or  10  impostors  appeared 
under  the  same  name,  and  were  followed 
by  great  numbers  of  the  Jews.  Most  of 
them  were  punished  for  their  imposture 
with  death,  and  usually  involved  a  mul- 
titude of  their  deluded  followers  in  per- 
secution and  death.  The  last  that 
gained  any  considerable  number  of 
converts  was  Mordecai,  a  Jew  of  Ger- 
many, who  lived  in  1682.  He  fled  for 
bis  life,  and  his  end  is  not  known. 

CHRIS'TIAN.  Acts26:28.  This 
was  a  name  given  to  the  followers  of  our 
Saviour,  and  its  proper  beautiful  mean- 
ing is  "  a  follower  of  Christ."  The  Chris- 
tians called  themselves  first  "  disciples," 
''  believers,"  "  brethren,"  "saints."  The 
name  "  Christian  "  originated  at  Anti- 
och.  Acts  11 :  26,  about  the  year  42  or 
43,  and  probably  (like  the  names  "  Naza- 
renes  "  and  "Galilgeans  ")  as  a  term  of  re- 
proach or  contempt.  The  word  occurs 
in  only  three  places  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment— viz.  in  the  two  passages  before 
cited  and  in  1  Pet.  4  :  16,  where  it  is 
implied  that  the  very  name  was  asso- 
ciated with  reproach  and  suffering. 
Tacitus  (b.  about  a.  d.  54),  a  profane 
historian,  tells  us  of  the  low  or  vulgar 
people  called  the  followers  of  Christ, 
or  Christians. 
182 


The  term  Christian  is  now  employed 
(1)  in  contradistinction  to  pagans,  Jews, 
and  Mohammedans,  and  (2)  to  denote 
the  open  professors  of  religion,  in  con- 
tradistinction from  those  who  are  not 
professors.  In  some  countries  it  is  still  a 
term  of  bitter  reproach,  and  the  assump- 
tion of  it  is  attended  with  persecution, 
cruelty,  and  death. 

The  Christian  religion  is  received  at 
the  present  day  (as  it  is  supposed)  by 
nearly  one-third  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  world — i.  e.  over  400,000,000  among 
1,460,000,000.  But  in  point  of  intelli- 
gence, civilization,  and  influence  on  the 
world  the  Christian  nations  far  surpass 
all  other  nations  combined.  One  of  the 
most  recent  estimates  is  the  following  : 

Jews 7,000,000 

Mohammedans 230,000,000 

Pagans 793,000,000 

Eoman  Catholics 216,000,000 

Protestants 130,000,000 

Eastern  Christians 84,000,000 

1,460,000,000 

CHRON'ICLES.  In  its  general 
signification,  this  term  denotes  a  chron- 
ological history,  or  an  account  of  facts 
and  events  in  the  order  of  time.  The 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  books  of  the 
Old  Testament,  which  among  the  an- 
cient Jews  formed  only  one  book,  are  call- 
ed the  First  and  Second  Book  of  Chron- 
icles, and  are  in  some  sense  supple- 
mental to  the  two  books  of  Kings,  which 
precede  them,  with  this  difference — that 
the  Chronicles  are  written  from  the 
sacerdotal  point  of  view  and  present 
chiefly  the  fortunes  of  Jewish  worship, 
while,  the  Kings  are  written  from  the 
prophetic  view  of  the  history  of  the 
theocracy.  They  appear  to  have  been 
compiled  from  the  national  diaries  or 
journals,  and  the  constant  Jewish  tra- 
dition, which  internal  evidence  sup- 
ports, is  that  they  were  written  by 
Ezra.  These  voluminous  diaries  are 
referred  to  frequently  under  different 
names,  1  Kgs.  14  :  19;  1  Chr.  27  :  24; 
Esth.  2  :  23,  but  are  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  abstract  which  con- 
stitutes the  books  to  which  this  article 
refers. 

The  principal  object  of  the  author  of 
these  books  was  to  point  out,  from  the 
public  records,  the  state  of  the  different 
families  before  the  Captivity   and  the 


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distribution  of  the  lands  among  them, 
that  each  tribe  might,  as  far  as  possible, 
obtain  the  ancient  inheritance  of  its 
fathers  at  its  return.  So  that  this  por- 
tion of  the  Old  Testament  may  be  con- 
sidered as  an  epitome  of  all  the  sacred 
history,  but  more  especially  of  that  from 
the  origin  of  the  Jewish  nation  to  their 
return  from  the  first  captivity,  embra- 
cing a  period  of  nearly  3500  years.  The 
first  book  traces  the  rise  and  propaga- 
tion of  the  children  of  Israel  from 
Adam,  together  with  a  circumstantial 
account  of  the  reign  and  transactions 
of  David ;  the  second  continues  the 
narrative,  and  relates  the  progress  and 
dissolution  of  the  kingdom  of  Judaea 
(apart  from  Israel)  to  the  year  of  the 
return  of  the  people  from  Babylon. 
Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles  should 
be  read  and  compared  together,  as  they 
relate  substantially  the  same  histories, 
though  with  different  degrees  of  par- 
ticularity and  with  difl'erent  means  of 
information,  so  that  the  whole  contains 
but  one  history  :  and  what  is  obscure  or 
defective  in  one  part  may  be  explained 
or  supplied  in  another. 

CHRONOLOGY.  We  present 
here  a  condensation  of  the  article  of 
R.  S.  Poole  on  this  subject  in  Smith's 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 

We  must  seek  a  via  media  between 
putting  absolute  reliance  upon  the  bib- 
lical chronological  data  and  declaring 
them  altogether  vague  and  uncertain. 
The  truth  is,  the  Bible  does  not  give  a 
complete  history  of  the  times  to  which 
it  refers  ;  in  its  historical  portions  it 
deals  with  special  and  detached  periods. 
This  accounts  for  its  scantiness  and  oc- 
casional want  of  continuity.  Hence  there 
is  great  value  in  independent  evidence 
in  the  N.  T.  and  in  incidental  evidence 
in  the  0.  T. 

Scientific  observation  of  the  natu- 
ral changes  of  the  weather  and  the  sea- 
sons was  probably  unknown  to  the 
Jews  until  the  Captivity.  But  still 
these  changes  must  have  been  noted, 
and  from  these  observations  we  are  safe 
in  deducing  their  divisions  of  time. 
An  hoxir  was  the  smallest  division  the 
Jews  recognized.  The  "sun-dial  of 
Ahaz  " — whatever  instrument,  fixed  or 
movable,  it  may  have  been — implies  a 
division  of  the  kind.  The  civil  day 
was  reckoned  from  sunset,  the  natural 


day  from  sunrise.  The  night  was  di- 
vided into  three  watches,  though  the 
first  must  be  inferred.  The  "middle 
watch  "  occurs  in  Jud.  7:19;  the  "  morn- 
ing watch  "  is  mentioned  in  Ex.  14  :  24 
and  1  Sam.  11  :  11.  In  the  N.  T.  four 
watches  are  mentioned — the  Roman 
system ;  all  four  are  mentioned  to- 
gether in  Mark  13  :  35 — the  late  watch, 
midnight,  the  cock-crowing,  and  the 
early  watch.  The  Hebrew  week  was  a 
period  of  seven  days,  ending  with  the 
Sabbath,  which  word  indeed  is  often 
used  for  "  week."  As  the  Egyptians  di- 
vided their  month  of  30  days  into  de- 
cades, the  Hebrews  could  not  have  bor- 
rowed their  week  from  them  ;  probably 
both  it  and  the  Sabbath  were  used  and 
observed  by  the  patriarchs.  The  month 
was  lunar.  The  first  day  of  it  is  called 
the  "  new  moon,"  and  was  observed  as 
a  sacred  festival.  In  the  Pentateuch, 
Joshua,  Judges,  and  Ruth  we  find  but' 
one  month,  the  first,  the  month  Abib, 
mentioned  with  a  special  name,  the  rest 
being  called  according  to  their  order. 
In  1  Kgs.  three  other  names  appear — 
Zif,  the  second,  Ethanim,  the  seventh, 
and  Bui,  the  eighth.  No  other  names 
are  found  in  any  book  prior  to  the  Cap- 
tivity. The  year  was  made  up  of  12 
lunar  months,  beginning  with  the  first 
part  of  our  April.  The  method  of  in- 
tercalation can  only  have  been  that 
which  obtained  after  the  Captivity — the 
addition  of  a  thirteenth  month  when- 
ever the  twelfth  ended  too  long  before 
the  equinox  for  the  first-fruits  of  the 
barley-harvest  to  be  offered  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  month  following,  and  the 
similar  ofi'erings  at  the  time  appointed. 
The  later  Jews  had  two  beginnings  to 
the  year,  the  seventh  month  of  the 
civil  reckoning  being  Abib,  the  first  of 
the  sacred.  The  sabbatical  and  jubilee 
years  began  in  the  seventh  month. 
Agricultural  considerations  probably  led 
to  this  anomaly.  The  seasons  do  not 
appear  to  have  been  fixed  among  the 
ancient  Hebrews.  We  find  mention  of 
the  merely  natural  divisions  of  "sum- 
mer and  winter,"  "  seed-time  and  har- 
vest." Anciently,  their  festivals  and 
holy-days  were  noticeably  few  ;  for  be- 
sides the  Sabbaths  and  new  moons,  there 
were  but  four  great  festivals  and  one  fast 
— the  feasts  of  the  Passover,  of  weeks, 
trumpets,  tabernacles,  and  the  fast  on  the 

183 


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day  of  atonement.  But  after  the  Cap- 
tivity many  holy  days  were  added,  such 
as  the  feast  of  Purim,  of  the  dedication — 
recording  the  cleansing  and  rededication 
of  the  temple  by  Judas  Maccabseus — 
and  fasts  on  the  anniversaries  of  great 
national  misfortunes  connected  with  the 
Babylonish  captivity.  The  sabbatical 
year  was  a  year  of  rest.  It  commenced 
at  the  civil  beginning  of  the  year,  with 
the  seventh  month,  at  the  feast  of  tab- 
ernacles. Deut.  31  :  10.  The  jubilee 
year  began  on  the  day  of  atonement, 
after  the  lapse  of  seven  sabbatical 
periods,  or  49  years.  It  was  similar  to 
the  sabbatical  year  in  its  character, 
although  doubtless  yet  more  important. 
Eras  seem  to  have  been  used  by  the 
ancient  Hebrews,  but  our  information  is 
scanty.  The  Exodus  is  used  as  an  era 
in  1  Kgs.  6:1,  in  giving  the  date  of 
Solomon's  temple.  The  era  of  Jehoi- 
achin's  captivity  is  constantly  used  by 
Ezekiel.  The  earliest  date  is  the  fifth 
year,  1 :  2,  and  the  latest  the  twenty- 
seventh.  29: 17.  The  era  of  the  Seleu- 
oidae  is  used  in  the  First  and  Second 
Maccabees,  and  the  liberation  of  the 
Jews  from  the  Syrian  yoke,  in  the  first 
year  of  Simon  the  Maccabee,  is  stated 
to  have  been  commemorated  by  an  era 
used  in  contracts  and  agreements.  1 
Mace.  13  :41,  42.  Rerjiml  years  seem  to 
have  been  counted  from  the  beginning 
of  the  year,  not  from  the  day  of  the 
king's  accession. 

We  may  distinguish  different  periods 
in  Jewish  history,  although  we  are  not 
able  with  accuracy  to  assign  them  dates. 
1.  From  Adam  to  Abram's  departure 
from  Haran.  This  period  is  the  most 
indefinite  of  all.  We  have  indeed  two 
genealogical  lists — from  Adam  to  Noah 
and  his  sons,  Gen.  5  :  3-32,  and  again  from 
ShemtoAbram.  11:  10-26.  But  the  Ma- 
soretic  Hebrew  text,  the  Septuagint,  and 
the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  greatly  dif- 
fer. The  Septuagint  makes  this  period 
1000  years  longer  than  the  Hebrew. 
The  question  to  which  list  the  prefer- 
ence should  be  given  is  still  unset- 
tled. 2.  The  second  period  is  from 
Abram's  departure  from  Haran  to  the 
Exodus.  The  length  of  this  period  is 
stated  by  Paul  in  Gal.  3  :  17  to  be  430 
years,  and  there  is  no  difficulty  in  the 
way  of  accepting  his  figures  which  can- 
not be  solved.  3.  The  third  period  is 
184 


from  the  Exodus  to  the  foundation  of 
Solomon's  temple.  We  may  consider  this 
period  about  638  years,  but  others  reduce 
it  to  one-half.  4.  The  fourth  period  is 
from  the  foundation  of  Solomon's  tem- 
ple to  its  destruction.  We  come  now 
upon  tolerably  sure  ground ;  from  B.  c. 
1000  on  we  have  contemporary  evi- 
dence. Two  interregnums  have  been 
supposed — one  of  11  years,  between  Jer- 
oboam II.  and  Zachariah,  and  the  other 
of  9  years,  between  Pekah  and  Hoshea. 
We  prefer,  in  both  cases,  to  suppose 
a  longer  reign  of  the  earlier  of  the  two 
kings  between  whom  the  interregnums 
are  conjectured.  The  whole  period 
may  be  held  to  be  of  about  425  years ; 
that  of  the  undivided  kingdom,  120 
years ;  that  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 
about  388  years ;  and  that  of  the  king- 
dom of  Israel,  about  255  years.  5.  The 
fifth  period  is  from  the  destruction  of 
Solomon's  temple  to  the  return  from  the 
Babylonish  captivity.  The  difficulty  in 
calculating  this  period  springs  from  the 
prophesied  number — the  70  years.  Two 
numbers,  held  by  some  to  be  identical, 
must  here  be  considered.  One  is  the 
period  of  70  years,  during  which  the 
tyranny  of  Babylon  over  Palestine  and 
the  East  generally  was  to  last,  Jer.  25 ; 
and  the  other  the  70  years  of  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity.  The  commencement 
of  the  first  is  the  first  year  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar and  the  fourth  of  Jehoi- 
akim,  Jer.  25  :  1,  when  the  successes 
of  the  king  of  Babylon  began,  Jer.  46 : 
2,  and  the  conclusion  is  the  fall  of  Baby- 
lon. The  famous  70  years  of  captivity 
would  seem  to  be  the  same  period,  since 
it  was  to  terminate  with  the  return  of 
the  captives,  Jer.  29  :  10  ;  and  the  order 
for  this  was  published  by  Cyrus,  who 
took  Babylon,  in  the  first  year  of  his 
reign. 

Principal  Systems  of  Biblical  ChrO' 
nology. — There  are  three,  long,  short, 
and  Rabbinical.  The  long  chronology 
takes  the  Septuagint  for  the  patriarchal 
generations,  and  adopts  the  long  interval 
from  the  Exodus  to  the  foundation  of 
Solomon's  temple.  The  short  chronol- 
ogy— that  in  the  margin  of  the  A.  V., 
and  derived  from  Archbishop  Ussher 
(1580-1656)— takes  the  Hebrew  for  the 
patriarchal  generations,  and  makes  the 
second  period  to  be  480  years.  The 
Rabbinical  chronology  accepts  the  bib- 


CHR 


CHU 


lical  numbers,  but  makes  the  most  ar- 
bitrary corrections. 

We   subjoin    a   table    in    which    the 


results  of  some  of  the  more  important 
of  the  various  chronological  schools  are 
contrasted : 


Creation 

Flood 

Abram  leaves  Haran 

Exodus 

Foundation  of  Solomon's  Temple. 
Destruction  of  Solomon's  Temple, 


Hales. 

E.  S.  Poole. 

W.  Palmer. 

USSHER. 

B.C. 

B.C. 

(5361") 

B.C. 

B.C. 

5411 

-(  or  V 
15421  j 
(3100) 

5362 

4004 

3155 

-(  or  V 
(.3160) 

3100 

2348 

2078 

2082 

2084 

1921 

1648 

1652 

1654 

1491 

1027 

1010 

1014 

1012 

586 

586 

687 

588 

CHRYS'OLITE.  Rev.  21  :  20. 
The  word  means  "  golden  stone,"  and  we 
thus  learn  its  color.  It  is  quite  agreed 
that  it  was  the  yellow  topaz  or  the  beryl 
of  the  0.  T. 

CHRYSOP'RASUS.  Rev.  21  : 
20.  A  stone  of  a  "golden  leek"  or 
green  color,  as  its  name  imports.  It 
is  of  a  most  agreeable  hue,  opaque,  and 
extremely  hard. 

CHUB,  a  people,  probably  in  north 
Africa,  and  of  a  land  near  Egypt.  Eze. 
30:5. 

CHUN.  1  Chr.  18  :  8.  Same  as  Ber- 
othai.  2  Sam.  8  :  8. 

CHURCH.  The  English  word  (like 
the  similar  terms  in  the  Teutonic,  Celtic, 
and  Slavonic  languages)  is  derived  from  a 
Greek  word  (KvpiaKov)  meaning  "  belong- 
ing to  the  Lord"  (Christ),  "the  Lord's 
house."  Some  derive  it  from  a  Celtic  root 
meaning  "  round,"  because  the  temples  in 
which  the  first  Christian  congregations 
gathered  were  circular.  In  the  N.  T.  the 
original  word  is  ecclesia,  which  means 
an  assembly,  either  secular,  Acts  19  :  32, 
or  religious.  Acts  2  :  47,  etc.  It  is  ap- 
plied either  to  the  whole  body  of  believ- 
ers in  Christ,  the  Church  universal.  Matt. 
16  :  18  Eph.  1  :  22,  or  to  a  particular 
congregation  in  a  local  sense,  as  "the 
church  at  Jerusalem,"  Acts  15  :  4  ;  "at 
Antioch,"  13  : 1,  "  of  the  Thessalonians," 
2  Thess,  1:1,  "  at  Corinth,"  1  Cor.  1 : 2. 
The  original  word  is  used  only  twice  in 
the  Gospels,  each  time  by  Matthew,  16  : 
18,  where  it  means  the  Church  univer- 
sal, and  18  :  17,  where  it  means  a  local 
congregation.  The  evangelists  usually 
employ  the  term  "  the  kingdom  of  God  " 
or  "the  kingdom  of  heaven"  for   the 


spiritual  substance  of  the  Church  uni- 
versal. 

The  day  of  Pentecost  is  the  birth- 
day of  the  Christian  Church.  From 
small  beginnings  it  has  spread  over  all 
the  earth  and  been  the  one  permanent 
fact  amid  all  temporal  changes.  To-day 
it  is  the  foundation  of  true  civiliza- 
tion, virtue,  and  religion.  What  the 
Christian  Church  condemns  the  world 
must  eventually  give  up,  for  darkness 
cannot  abide  the  entrance  of  light. 

A  distinction  must  be  made  between 
the  real  Church  of  Christ,  the  genuine 
believers,  and  the  outward  organization, 
which  comprises  both  true  and  false 
friends  of  Christ.  To  the  former  only 
do  the  promises  belong. 

In  the  outward  sense  the  Church  is 
divided  into  various  denominations, 
as  the  Baptist,  the  Congregational,  the 
English,  the  Episcopal,  the  Greek,  the 
Lutheran,  the  Methodist,  the  Moravian, 
the  Presbyterian,  the  Reformed,  the 
Roman,  and  other  churches.  But  in 
the  Bible  the  word  is  never  used  in  a 
denominational  or  confessional  sense, 
or  in  the  sense  of  a  church-building. 

CHURCHES,  ROB  BERS 
OF,  is  the  translation  in  Acts  19  :  37, 
instead  of  "robbers  of  temples"  or 
"sacrilegious"  persons. 

CHURN.     See  Butter. 

CHU  SHAN-RISHATHA'IM. 
Jud.  3  :  8-10.  A  king  of  Mesopotamia, 
and  an  oppressor  of  the  Israelites.  0th- 
niel,  Caleb's  nephew,  delivered  them 
from  his  dominion. 

CHU'ZA  {a  seer  ?),  the  steward  of 
Herod  Antipas.  His  wife,  Joanna,  was 
one  of  the   women   who   ministered  to 

185 


CIL 


CIS 


Jesus  in  life  and  in  death.  Luke  8:3; 
24:10. 

CILI'^CIA,  the  south-easterly  prov- 
ince of  Asia  Minor,  having  Cappadocia 
on  the  noi'th,  Syria  on  the  east,  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  south,  and 
Pamphjiia  and  Pisidia  (?)  on  the  west. 
Eastern  Cilicia  was  a  rich  plain  ;  west- 
ern Cilicia  was  rough  and  mountainous, 
lying  on  the  Taurus  range.  Its  capital 
was  Tarsus,  and  many  of  its  people 
were  Jews.  It  is  frequently  mentioned 
in  the  book  of  Acts.  6:9;  15  :  23,  41 ; 
21  :  39  ;  22  :  3  ;  23  :  34  ;  27  :  5  ;  and 
Gal.  1 :  21.     See  Tarsus. 

CIN'IVAMON.  Song  Sol.  4: 14.  A 
well-known  aromatic,  produced  from  the 


Cinnamon.  (C.  zeylanecum.  After  Br.  Birdwood 
inner  bark  of  a  tree  which  grows  chiefly 
in  Ceylon,  and  being  peeled  off  and  cut 
into  strips  curls  up  in  the  form  in  which 
it  is  usually  seen.  The  cinnamon  tree 
belongs  to  the  laurel  family,  and  attains 
the  height  of  30  feet.  Cinnamon  was 
one  of  the  ingredients  of  the  holy  oil, 
Ex.  30:23,  and  was  probably  an  article 
of  commerce  in  ancient  Babylon.  Rev. 
18:13. 

CIN'NEROTH.     1    Kgs.   15  :  20. 
Same  as  Chinnereth. 
186 


CIRCUMCIS'ION  (cutting  round), 
a  rite  or  ceremony  of  the  Jewish  relig- 
ion, which  consisted  in  cutting  oflf  the 
foreskin  of  all  males  on  the  eighth  day 
after  their  birth.  It  was  established  as 
the  token  of  God's  covenant  with  Abra- 
ham, Gen.  17 :  9-14,  who  immediately 
subjected  himself  and  all  his  family  to 
its  observance.  The  precept  of  circum- 
cision was  renewed  to  Moses,  Ex.  12 : 
44 ;  Lev.  12  :  3  ;  John  7  :  22,  23,  requir- 
ing that  all  should  submit  to  it  who 
would  partake  of  the  paschal  sacrifice. 
The  Jews  have  always  been  very  scru- 
pulous in  its  observance,  though  it  was 
omitted  in  their  journey  through  the 
wilderness  for  some  reason.  Many 
other  nations  have  the  rite.  It  existed 
among  the  Egyptians,  the  Ethiopians, 
the  Mexicans,  and  the  West  Indians, 
and  to-day  among  the  Caffres  of  South 
Africa,  the  Abyssinians,  the  islanders 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  the  South 
American  tribes.  It  is  the  chief  cere- 
mony of  initiation  into  the  religion  of 
Mohammed,  though  it  is  regarded  only 
as  a  traditionary  precept,  and  is  not 
performed  till  the  child  is  13  years  old. 
The  instrument  used  for  this  purpose 
was  a  knife,  a  razor,  or  even  a  sharp 
stone.  Ex.  4:25;  Josh.  5:3. 

The  design  of  this  requirement  obvi- 
ously Avas  to  fix  upon  the  persons  of  all 
the  natural  male  descendants  of  Abra- 
ham a  distinguishing  mark,  separating 
them  from  all  the  rest  of  the  world.  As 
this  rite  was  peculiar  to  the  Jews,  they 
are  called  "  the  circumcision,"  and  the 
Gentiles  "the  uncii-cumcision."  Horn. 
4:9. 

The  terms  "  uncircumcised  "  and  "  un- 
circumeision  "  are  also  used  to  denote 
impurity  or  wickedness  generally,  and 
''  to  circumcise  the  heart "  was  to  become 
tractable  and  docile.  Ex.  6  :  12,  30  ;  Jer. 
4:4;  6:  10;  9:26;  Eze.  44:7;  Acts  7: 
51.  Jews  who  renounced  Judaism  some- 
times endeavored  to  erase  the  mark  of 
circumcision  by  a  surgical  operation,  and 
probably  Paul  alludes  to  this.  1  Cor.  7  : 
18.     See  Covenant,  Concision. 

CIS'TERN.  The  face  of  the  coun- 
try and  the  rarity  of  rain  between  May 
and  September  made  cisterns  indispen- 
sable in  Judgea.  They  were  mostly  pri- 
vate property.  Num.  21 :  22.  Some  were 
formed  by  merely  excavating  the  earth ; 
others    were    covered    reservoirs,   into 


CIT 


CIT 


which  the  water  was  conducted ;  and 
others  still  were  lined  with  wood  or  ce- 
ment, or  hewn  out  of  the  rock  with  great 
labor  and  ornamented  with  much  skill. 
When  the  pits  were  empty  there  was  a 
tenacious  mire  at  the  bottom,  and  they 
were  used  as  the  places  of  the  most 
cruel  punishments.  It  was  into  such 
a  pit,  probably,  that  Joseph  and  Jere- 
miah were  cast.  Gen.  37  :  22  ;  Jer.  38  : 
6.  Large  cisterns  are  now  found  in  Pal- 
estine at  intervals  of  15  or  20  miles. 
One  of  them  is  described  by  a  modern 
traveller  to  be  660  feet  long  by  270  broad. 
These  cisterns  were  the  chief  dependence 
of  the  people  for  water  ;  hence  the  force 
of  the  allusion.  Jer.  2: 13.  The  city  of 
Jerusalem  was  remarkably  well  supplied 
with  water,  so  that  during  her  many 
sieges  her  inhabitants  never  suffered 
from  thirst.     See  Conduit. 

Various  illustrations  from  the  cistern 
are  given  in  Scripture.  A  wheel  was 
used  to  draw  up  the  bucket,  and  "  the 
wheel  broken  at  the  cistern,"  in  Eccl. 
12  :  6,  denotes  the  breaking  up  of  the 
vital  powers  of  the  human  body.  An 
exhortation  to  due  restraint  in  pleasure 
is  indicated  by  •'  Drink  waters  out  of 
thine  own  cistern."   Prov.  5  :  15. 

CIT'IZENSHIP.  The  Jew  had 
no  earthly  citizenship  in  the  Roman 
sense  :  his  commonwealth  was  a  congre- 
gation of  believers,  governed  by  the 
Lord  himself.  But  Roman  citizenship 
is  referred  to  in  the  N.  T.  This  was  the 
term  for  the  privileges  enjoyed  by  cer- 
tain subjects  of  the  Roman  empire.  The 
right  was  obtained  by  inheritance  or  by 
purchase,  Acts  22 :  28,  or  by  military 
service,  by  favor,  or  by  manumission. 
Among  the  privileges  of  this  position 
was,  the  possessor  could  not  be  impris- 
oned without  trial.  Acts  22  :  29,  still  less 
be  scourged,  Acts  16  :  37,  or  crucified. 
Since  to  inflict  either  of  these  was  a 
great  indignity  and  severely  punished, 
the  assertion  that  one  was  a  Roman 
citizen  was  a  deterrent.  But  Jews 
who  escaped  on  this  account  were  still 
liable  to  their  own  law.  2  Cor.  11  : 
24.  The  right  of  appeal  unto  Ciesar 
was  one  of  the  privileges  of  Roman 
citizenship.  Acts  25  :  11.  Paul  was  a 
Roman  citizen,  and  repeatedly  availed 
himself  of  his  privileges  against  the 
violence  of  the  mob.  The  words  "  I 
am    a   Roman    citizen "   had    a    magic 


power  all  over  the  civilized  world,  and 
even  among  barbarians. 

CIT'Y.  It  is  not  very  easy  to  de- 
termine by  what  the  Jews  distinguished 
villages  from  towns,  and  towns  from  cit- 
ies. Probably,  at  first,  a  number  of 
tents  and  cottages  formed  a  village. 
They  were  brought  together  by  family 
relationship,  by  local  attraction,  and 
for  mutual  defence  against  more  pow- 
erful clans  or  tribes.  When  their  sit- 
uation became  insecure,  they  began  to 
protect  themselves  by  a  ditch  or  hedge 
or  a  wall.  The  advancement  from  this 
rude  state  to  the  fortified  towns  and  cit- 
ies of  ancient  days  was  easy  and  rapid. 
The  first  city  was  built  by  Cain.  Gen.  4  : 
17.  It  may  be  presumed  that  cities  were 
always  walled.  Num.  13  :  28.  They  were 
often  (if  not  always)  fortified,  and  many 
of  them  were  very  populous.  The  streets 
were  crooked  and  narrow,  so  that  in  some 
of  them  loaded  camels  could  not  pass 
each  other,  as  is  the  case  to-day  in 
Alexandria,  Cairo,  Jerusalem,  and  Da- 
mascus. Sometimes,  in  Asiatic  cities,  a 
broad  street,  or  a  section  of  it,  is  cover- 
ed for  the  accommodation  of  merchants 
or  tradesmen,  and  such  places  are  called 
bazaars  ;  and  the  prominent  branch  of 
business  transacted  there  gives  the  name 
to  the  street ;  as,  the  woollen-drapers', 
coppersmiths',  etc.  Around  the  gates 
of  cities  was  the  principal  concourse  of 
people,  Neh,  8:1;  Job  29 :  7  ;  and  there- 
fore these  stations  were  desirable  for 
booths  or  stalls  for  the  sale  of  merchan- 
dise. 2  Kgs.  7:1.  These  square  or 
open  places  are  probably  intended  in 
2  Chr.  32:6  and  Neh.  3:16;  8 :  1,  3. 
Some  cities  were  adorned  with  open 
squares  and  large  gardens.  One-third 
of  the  city  of  Babylon  was  occupied 
with  gardens.  Csesarea,  Jerusalem, 
Antioch,  and  other  of  the  largest  cit- 
ies, were  paved. 

Fenced  City,  2  Kgs,  10 : 2,  or  De- 
fenced  Cities,  Isa,  36 :  1,  a  fortified 
city.  To  build  a  city  and  to  fortify  or 
fence  it,  in  the  Oriental  idiom,  mean 
the  same  thing.  The  fencing  or  fortifi- 
cation was  usually  with  high  walls,  and 
watch-towers  upon  them.  Deut.  3  :  5. 
The  walls  of  fortified  cities  were  form- 
ed, in  part  at  least,  of  combustible  ma- 
terials, Am.  1 :  7,  10,  14,  the  gates  being 
covered  with  thick  plates  of  iron  or 
brass,    Ps,  107:16;    Isa.  45  :  2  ;    Acts 

187 


CIT 


CIT 


12  :  10.  There  was  also  within  the 
city  a  citadel  or  tower,  to  which  the 
inhabitants  fled  when  the  city  itself 
could  not  be  defended.  Jud.  9 :  46-52. 
These  were  often  upon  elevated  ground, 
and  were  entered  by  a  flight  of  steps. 
See  Gate. 

At  the  time  when  Abraham  came 
into  the  land  of  Canaan  there  were  al- 
ready in  existence  numerous  towns, 
which  are  mentioned  in  the  book  of 
Genesis —  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Zeboim, 
Admah,  Bela,  Hebron,  and  Damascus. 
This  last  is  probably  the  oldest  city  in 
the  world.  The  spies  who  were  sent  to 
Canaan  brought  back  an  account  of  well- 
fortified  cities.  In  the  book  of  Joshua 
we  read  of  no  less  than  600  towns  of 
which  the  Israelites  took  possession. 
When  the  city  of  Ai  was  taken,  its  in- 
habitants, who  were  put  to  the  sword, 
amounted  to  12,000,  Josh.  8  :  16-25,  and 
we  are  told  that  Gibeon  was  a  still  greater 
city.  10  :  2.  It  is  commonly  calculated 
that  in  Europe  one-third  or  one-fourth 
of  a  nation  is  comprised  in  its  cities  and 
towns.  Reckoning  the  Hebrews,  then, 
at  3,000,000,  it  would  give  about  1250 
for  the  average  population  of  the  towns, 
and  it  is  probable  that  half  the  inhab- 
itants dwelt  in  towns  for  greater  safety. 
Now,  in  Gibeah,  Jud.  20  :  15,  there  were 
700  men  who  bore  arms,  and  of  course 
not  less  than  3000  inhabitants.  By  a 
similar  calculation,  we  conclude  that 
the  48  cities  of  the  Levites  contained 
each  about  1000  souls.  In  the  time  of 
David  the  population  of  Palestine  was 
between  5,000,000  and  6,000,000,  and 
we  may  suppose  that  the  towns  and  cit- 
ies were  proportionately  increased.  On 
the  great  annual  festivals  Jerusalem 
presented  a  sublime  spectacle  of  count- 
less multitudes,  when  all  the  males  of 
the  nation  were  required  to  be  there 
assembled.  At  such  times  the  city 
itself  was  insufficient  to  contain  the 
host  of  Israel,  and  thousands  encamp- 
ed around  on  its  outskirts.  After  the  re- 
turn from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  the 
population  of  the  towns  may  have  been 
inconsiderable,  but  the  subsequent  in- 
crease was  most  rapid ;  so  that  in  the 
time  of  Josephus  the  small  villages  of 
Galilee  contained  15,000  inhabitants, 
and  the  larger  towns  50,000.  At  the 
same  period  Jerusalem  was  4  miles  in 
circuit  and  had  a  population  of  150,000. 
188 


The  same  author  tells  us  that  under 
Cestius  the  number  of  paschal  lambs 
was  256,500,  which  would  give  about 
2,700,000  persons  attending  the  Pass- 
over. At  the  time  of  the  fatal  siege  of 
Jerusalem  more  than  1.000,000  of  per- 
sons were  shut  in  by  the  Romans;  so 
that  the  space  included  by  the  4  miles 
must  have  been  remarkably  economized. 
But  the  number  may  be  exaggerated. 

City  op  David,  1  Chr.  11 : 5,  a  sec- 
tion in  the  southern  part  of  Jerusalem, 
embracing  Mount  Zion,  where  a  fortress 
of  the  Jebusites  stood.  David  reduced 
the  fortress  and  built  a  new  palace  and 
city,  to  which  he  gave  his  own  name. 
Bethlehem,  the  native  town  of  David, 
is  also  called,  from  that  circumstance, 
the  city  of  David.  Luke  2  :  11. 

City  op  God,  Ps.  46 : 4,  was  one  of 
the  names  of  ancient  Jerusalem,  and 
its  appropriateness  is  evident  from 
Deut.  12  :  5. 

Holy  City.  Neh.  11 : 1.  The  sacred- 
ness  of  the  temple  extended  itself  in 
some  measure  over  the  city,  and  hence 
Jerusalem  itself  was  called  the  "Holy 
City,"  and  is  so  distinguished  in  the 
East  at  the  present  day. 

CiTiBS  OP  the  Plain.     See  Sobow. 

Cities  op  Repuge,  Deut.  19 : 7,  9 ; 
Josh.  20  :  2,  7,  8,  were  six  of  the  Leviti- 
cal  cities  divinely  appointed  by  the  Jew- 
ish law  as  asylums,  to  which  those  who 
had  been  undesignedly  accessory  to  the 
death  of  a  fellow-creature  were  com- 
manded to  flee  for  safety  and  protec- 
tion. The  kinsmen  of  the  deceased,  or 
other  persons  who  might  pursue  to  kill 
him,  could  not  molest  him  in  one  of 
these  cities  until  his  offence  was  inves- 
tigated and  the  judgment  of  the  congre- 
gation passed.  If  he  were  not  within 
the  provisions  of  the  law,  he  was  deliv- 
ered to  the  avenger  and  slain.  If  he 
was,  then  his  life  was  safe  so  long  as  he 
lived  within  the  city  or  in  the  circuit  of 
1000  yards  beyond.  There  he  must  re- 
main until  the  death  of  the  high  priest 
during  whose  term  of  office  the  homicide 
was  committed.  The  custom  of  blood- 
revenge  was  deeply  rooted  among  the  Is- 
raelites, and  continues  among  the  Arabs 
to  this  day,  and  the  institution  of  cities 
of  refuge  was  wisely  designed  to  check 
the  violence  of  human  passion.  Several 
sections  of  the  Jewish  law  have  relation 
to  this  subject.     For  the  size  and  situa- 


CLA 


CLE; 


tion  of  the  cities,  see  Num.  35  :  4,  5,  14; 
the  description  of  persons  and  the  man- 
ner of  killing  in  cases  which  entitled 
the  slaj'er  to  protection,  Num.  35:  15- 
25;  Deiit.  19  :4-i;?.  For  the  mode  of 
ascertaining  whether  the  offence  was 
worthy  of  death  and  the  consequences 
of  the  judgment,  see  Num.  35  :  24-33  ; 
and  for  the  rules  to  be  observed  by  the 
manslayer  in  order  to  avail  himself  of 
the  benefit  of  the  city  of  refuge,  see 
Num.  35  :  25-28.  It  is  doubtful  wheth- 
er the  trial  of  the  manslayer  was  had  at 
the  city  of  refuge  or  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  place  where  the  offence  occurred. 
Perhaps  there  were  two  processes,  one 
introductory  to  the  other,  as  we  have  a 
preliminary  xamination  to  determine 
if  the  party  accused  shall  be  held  to  an- 
swer for  his  offence.  This  first  process 
might  have  been  at  the  city  of  refuge. 
Jewish  writers  say  that  signs  were  erect- 
ed in  some  conspicuous  place,  pointing 
to  the  cities  of  refuge,  at  every  cross- 
road, on  which  was  inscribed,  "  Refuge, 
Refuge,"  which,  with  many  other  simi- 
lar provisions,  were  designed  to  direct 
and  facilitate  the  flight  of  the  unhapjjy 
man  Avho  was  pursued  by  the  avenger  of 
blood.  There  were  other  sacred  places 
of  refuge,  particularly  the  temple  and 
the  altar  of  burnt-offerings.   Ex.  21 :  14. 

Cities  with  Suburbs.  Josh.  21:41, 
42.  This  expression  is  explained  by 
reference  to  Num.  35  : 1-5.  See  Treas- 
ure-cities, Walls. 

CLAU'DA,  a  small  island,  7 
miles  long  by  3  miles  wide,  in  the  Med- 
iterranean Sea,  south  of  Crete,  Acts 
27  : 1 6  :  now  Gozzo. 

CLAU'DIAj  a  Christian  woman  in 
Rome  who  joins  Paul  in  saluting  Timo- 
thy. 2  Tim.  4:21. 

CLAU'DIUS  {lame),  the  fourth 
Roman    emperor,    successor    of    Caius 


Coiu  of  Claudius.    {BritUh  Muaeuni.) 

Caligula,  A.  d.  41-54.  Acts  11 :  28.     Her- 
od Agrippa  I.  was  mainly  instrument- 


al in  securing  him  the  throne.  Several 
different  famines  took  place  during  his 
reign,  one  of  which,  predicted  by  Aga- 
bus,  was  very  severe,  and  lasted  three 
years.  In  the  ninth  or  twelfth  year  of 
his  reign  he  banished  the  Jews,  proba- 
bly including  the  Christian  converts, 
from  Rome.  Acts  18  :  2, 

CLAIJ'DIUS  LY'SIAS,  the 
chief  captain  or  commander  of  a  band 
of  soldiers  stationed  as  a  public  guard 
over  the  temple,  who  interposed  his  au- 
thority, and  thus  saved  Paul  from  vio- 
lence at  the  hands  of  a  temple-mob,  and 
afterward  sent  him  with  a  strong  guard 
to  the  procurator  Felix  at  Cassarea. 
Acts  21,  22,  and  23. 

CLAY,  The  Hebrew  word  is  used 
in  the  0.  T.  in  the  sense  of  ordinary 
mire  in  the  streets,  Ps.  18  :  42 ;  at  the 
bottom  of  the  sea,  Isa.  57  :  20  ;  in  a  cis- 
tern or  subterranean  prison.  Jer.  38  :  6. 
It  is  also  translated  "clay" — i.  e.  pot- 
ter's clay— Isa.  41 :  25  ;  Nah.  3  :  14.  In 
the  N.  T.  the  word  "  clay  "  is  applied  to  a 
mixture  of  spittle  with  dust.  John  9  :  6, 
11,  15.  For  the  use  of  clay  in  brick- 
making,  see  Brick  ;  and  in  pottery,  see 
Potter.  Clay  was  also  used  for  seal- 
ing. Job  38  :  14.  Wine-jars,  tombs,  and 
doors  were,  and  are,  sealed  with  clay. 
See  Seal. 

CLEAN,  and  UNCLEAN'.  Lev. 
10  :  10.  These  words  are  applied  in 
the  Jewish  law  to  persons,  animals,  and 
things. 

In  order  to  partake  of  the  privileges 
of  the  Jewish  Church,  the  individual 
must  not  only  be  circumcised,  but  be 
ceremonially  clean.  How  the  various 
kinds  of  uncleanness  were  contracted, 
what  time  it  continued,  and  what  was 
the  process  of  purification,  are  partic- 
ularly described  in  Lev.  11-15  ;  Num.  19. 

The  division  of  animals  into  clean 
and  unclean  existed  before  the  Flood, 
Gen.  7  :  2,  and  was  probably  founded 
upon  the  practice  of  animal  sacrifice. 
Those  animals  only  which  divide  the 
hoof  and  chew  the  cud  were  regarded 
as  clean.  Lev.  11 :  3,  4.  The  same  chap- 
ter enumerates  a  variety  of  beasts,  birds, 
reptiles,  fishes,  and  things  which  are  un- 
clean. See  also  Ex.  22  :  31  ;  34: 15,  26; 
Deut.  14:21.  One  object  of  these  dis- 
tinctions was  to  guard  the  Jews  against 
heathen  idolatry.  Eating  with  the  Gen- 
tiles was  regarded  as  a  peculiar  aggra- 

189 


CLE 


CLO 


vation  of  the  offence  of  associating  with 
them.  Matt.  9:11;  Acts  11 :  3.  Some  of 
the  prohibited  animals  were  unwhole- 
some. The  Hebrews  were  taught  by 
these  strict  regulations  to  habitually 
regard  their  relation  to  God,  and  to  ab- 
stain from  everything  that  should  offend 
his  infinite  holiness  or  involve  the  least 
appearance  of  pollution.  The  distinc- 
tion between  clean  and  unclean  ani- 
mals and  nations  was  annulled  by  a 
special  revelation  to  Peter.  Acts  10 : 
9-16. 

CLEM'ENT,  a  fellow-laborer 
of  Paul,  Phil.  4:3;  probably  the  same 
who  was  afterward  bishop  of  Rome  and 
wrote  two  epistles  to  the  Corinthians, 
which  are  still  extant,  and  were  once 
read  in  some  churches, 

CLE'OPAS  {i^ery  renowned),  one 
of  the  two  disciples  who  were  met  by 
Christ  on  the  way  to  Emmaus.  Luke 
24  :  18.  Some  regai'd  him  as  the  same 
with  Cleophas. 

CLE'OPHAS.  John  19: 25.  See 
Alpheus. 

CLERK.     See  Towx-clerk. 

CLOAK.     See  Clothes. 

CLOS'ET.     See  Dwelling. 

CLOTH.  The  art  of  making  cloth 
was  known  very  early.  The  skins  of 
animals  supplied  the  place  of  cloth  at 
first,  but  we  may  suppose  that  spinning 
and  needle-work  were  so  far  perfected 
as  to  furnish  cloth,  of  a  coarse  kind  at 
least,  at  an  early  period.  Ex.  35 :  25 ; 
Jud.  5  :  30.  The  beauty  of  dress  con- 
sisted in  the  fineness  and  color  of  the 
cloth.     See  Sackcloth. 

CLOTHES,  CLOTH'ING.  The 
immobility  of  the  East  is  evinced  in 
nothing  more  than  in  the  absence  of 
any  change  in  dress  from  generation  to 
generation.  The  clothing  of  the  ancient 
Hebrews  may  be  known  from  that  of  the 
modern  Orientals.  The  ordinary  dress 
consisted  of  the  inner  garment,  the  out- 
er garment,  a  girdle,  and  sandals. 

1.  The  inner  garment  originally  was 
a  sort  of  shirt,  sleeveless,  and  reaching 
only  to  the  knees.  Afterward  it  was 
larger  and  lunger,  and  with  sleeves.  A 
girdle  confined  it  around  the  waist.  Jud. 
14 :  13.  A  person  with  only  it  on  was 
said  to  be  naked.  1  Sam.  19:24;  Isa. 
20  :  2-4  ;  John  21 :  7.  Its  material  was 
wool,  cotton,  or  linen,  varying  in  qual- 
ity according  to  the  taste  and  wealth  of 
190 


the  owner.  This  inner  garment  is  com- 
monly translated  in  the  Bible  "coat," 
but  "shirt"  would  be  more  correct. 

2.  llie  girdle. — When  the  garments 
came  to  be  made  long  and  flowing  they 
were  confined  around  the  loins  with  gir- 
dles,   which    served   not   only   to    bind 


A  Modern  Arab. 


A  Modern  Greek. 


them  to  the  body,  but  also  to  hold  them' 
when  tucked  up.  This  increased  the 
gracefulness  of  their  appearance  and 
prevented  them  from  interfering  with 
labor  or  motion.  Hence  "  to  gird  up 
the  loins "  became  a  significant  figu- 
rative expression,  denoting  readiness  for 
service,  activity,  and  watchfulness,  and 
"to  loose  the  girdle"  was  to  give  way 
to  repose  and  indolence.  2  Kgs.  4  :  29  ; 
Job  38  :  3  ;  Isa.  5:27;  Jer.  1:17;  Luke 
12 :  35  ;  John  21 :  7  ;  Acts  12  :  8  ;  1  Pet. 
1 :  13.  This  girdle  was  a  belt  or  band 
of  cord,  cloth,  or  leather,  6  inches  or 
more  in  breadth,  with  a  clasp  affixed  to 
loosen  or  draw  it  closer.  Sometimes 
the  girdle  was  made  of  linen,  Eze.  16 : 
10,  and  was  often  adorned  with  rich 
and  beautiful  ornaments  of  metal,  pre- 
cious stones,  and  embroidery. 

The  girdle  was  used  to  carry  weapons,  2 
Sam.  20 :  8,  money,  and  other  things  usu- 
ally carried  by  us  in  the  pocket.  The 
Arabs  carry  their  daggers  in  it,  point- 
ing to  the  right  side,  and  through  all 
the  East  it  is  the  place  for  the  handker- 
chief, smoking-materials,  and  the  im- 
plements of  one's  profession.  See  Ink- 
HOKN.  The  word  translated  "purses," 
Matt.  10  : 9,  is  in  other  places  trans- 
lated "  girdle."  The  girdle  not  only 
protected  the  body,  but  braced  it  with 
strength   and   firmness.     The  girdle  is 


CLO 


CLO 


supposed  by  some  to  have  been  a  chief 
article  or  appendage  of  the  armor ; 
hence  to  have  it  continually  fastened 
upon  the  person  is  emblematical  of  great 
fidelity  and  vigilance.  And  because  it 
encircled    the    body   very   closely,   the 


Girded  for  Walking. 

perfect  adherence  of  the  people  of  God 
to  his  service  is  figuratively  illustrated 
by  the  cleaving  of  the  girdle  to  a  man's 
loins.  Jer.  13  :  11.  In  the  same  view, 
righteousness  and  faithfulness  are  call- 
ed by  the  prophet,  Isa.  11 :  6,  "  the  gir- 
dle" of  the  promised  Messiah. 

3.  The  outer  or  iipjjer  garment,  Matt. 
21 :  8,  or  cloak,  Matt.  5  :  40,  was  a  square 
or  oblong  strip  of  cloth,  2  or  3  yards  long 
and  2  yards  wide.  Such  a  garment  is 
now  worn  by  the  Arabs.  It  was  simply 
wrapped  around  the  body  as  a  protec- 
tion from  the  weather ;  and  when  oc- 
casion required,  it  might  be  thrown  over 
the  shoulder  and  under  the  arm,  some- 
what like  an  Indian  blanket,  and  be 
fastened  with  clasps  or  buckles,  two 
corners  being  in  front,  which  were  call- 
ed skirts,  and  were  often  used  as  aprons 
sometimes  are  among  us.  Ex.  12  :  34  ; 
2  Kgs.  4  :  29  ;  Luke  6  :  38.  The  Arabs 
throw  this  garment  over  the  left  shoul- 
der and  under  the  right  arm,  and  thus 
cover  the  whole  body,  leaving  only  the 
right  arm  exposed.  This  garment  was 
the  poor  man's  bed-clothing.  Ex.  22  : 
26,  27  ;  Job  22  :  6  ;  24  :  7.  This  was 
probably  the  cloak  and  the  coat  or 
linen  garment  to  which  reference  is  had 
in  Matt.  5  :  40,  and,  in  a  more  ample 
form,  was  called  a  robe,  Luke  23:11, 
or  a  mantle.  2  Kgs.  2:8.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  the  fringes,  with  the  blue 
ribbon.  Num.  15 :  38,  were  placed  on 
the  corners  or  borders  of  this  garment. 


Matt.  23  :  5.  They  are  seen  still  on 
ancient  monuments. 

In  winter  fur  dresses  or  skins  were 
worn,  as  at  the  present  day,  in  Eastern 
countries.  A  dress  of  sheep-  or  goat- 
skins is,  perhaps,  meant  in  2  Kgs.  1  :  8 
and  Zech.  13:4.  The  common  skins 
of  this  kind  were  worn  by  the  poorest 
and  meanest  people,  Heb.  11 :  37,  but  the 
fur  dresses  were  sometimes  very  costly, 
and  constituted  a  part  of  the  royal  ap- 
parel. The  word  translated  "  robe," 
Jou.  3  :  6,  is  supposed  to  mean  a  fur  gar- 
ment. The  sheep's  clothing,  Matt.  7  :  15, 
was  considered  emblematical  of  inno- 
cence and  gentleness,  and  was  the  dis- 
guise of  the  false  prophets,  who  were,  in 
truth,  fierce  and  ravenous  as  wolves  for 
the  blood  of  souls.  The  word  trans- 
lated ''sheets,"  Jud.  14: 12,  13,  is  sup- 
posed to  denote  some  kind  of  garment 
worn  next  to  the  skin,  and  probably 
the  same  which  is  spoken  of  under  the 
general  name  of  "fine  linen"  in  Prov. 
31  :  24  ;  Isa.  3  :  23  ;  and  Mark  15  :  46. 
See  Sheets. 

The  linen  cloth  mentioned  in  Mark 
14  :51  was  probably  an  article  of  bed- 
clothing  caught  up  in  haste  and  thrown 
around  the  body — "  a  wrapper  of  fine 
linen,  which  might  be  used  in  various 
ways,  but  especially  as  a  night-shirt." 
The  Arabs  use  for  a  complete  dress  by 
day  the  same  garment  which  serves 
them  for  a  bed  and  covering  by  night. 
Deut.  24:13.  Such  also  is  the  use  of 
the  Highlander's  plaid. 

The  dress  of  the  women  differed  from 
the  men's  only  in  the  outer  garments. 
A  veil  further  distinguished  them. 
It  was  considered  a  token  of  mod- 
esty in  unmarried  women.  Gen.  24:65, 
and  of  subjection  and  reverence  in 
those  that  were  married.  1  Cor.  11 : 3- 
10.  The  robe  was  often  made  full,  and 
when  tucked  up  the  front  of  it  would 
answer  the  purpose  of  a  large  apron, 
which  is  one  meaning  of  the  word 
translated  "veil."  Ruth  3:15.  The 
Arabs  put  their  hykes  or  cloaks  to  a 
like  use. 

Handkerchiefs.  Acts  19:12. — These 
were  common  among  the  Hebrews.  The 
people  of  Eastern  nsitions  at  this  day 
carry  them  in  their  hands,  and  they 
are  often  wrought  beautifully  with 
the  needle. 

Aprons,   mentioned  in  Acts  19  :  12, 

191 


CLO 


CLO 


were  sweat-cloths  from  the  apostle's 
body. 

4.  Sandals  and  shoes.  Deut.  25  :  9  ; 
Mark  6  :  9. — The  sandal  was  at  first  a 
flat  piece  of  wood  or  leather  suited  to 
the  sole  of  the  foot,  and  bound  upon  it 
by  straps  or  strings.  The  fastening 
was  called  a  latchet.   Gen.  14  :  23. 

The  common  sandal  is  made  of  a 
piece  of  hide  from  the  neck  of  a  camel, 
and  sometimes  of  several  thicknesses 
sewed  together.  It  is  fastened  by  two 
straps,  one  of  which  passes  between  the 
great  and  second  toe,  and  the  other 
around  the  heel  and  over  the  instep. 
Hence  it  appears  that  the  shoe  was 
easily  slipped  off,  and  that  it  afforded 
no  protection  from  the  dust  and  dirt. 
Sandals  were  never  worn  in  the  house. 
The  taking  off  of  the  shoes  was  a  mark 


of  reverence  shown  to  exalted  persons 
and  sacred  places.  At  the  doors  of 
Hindoo  pagodas  and  Mohammedan 
mosques  sandals  are  collected  in  great 
numbers  for  the  use  of  strangers. 

The  necessity  of  washing  the  feet 
after  every  walk  is  obvious,  and  it  was 
the  first  token  of  hospitality  to  supply 
water  for  this  purpose.  Gen.  24:32; 
Luke  7  :  44.  To  unloose  the  straps  or 
latchets  was  the  business  of  a  menial, 
Mark  1 :  7,  as  was  also  the  washing  of 
the  feet.  John  13  : 1-16. 

The  wooden  sandal  is  much  worn 
in  Arabia,  Judaea,  and  Egypt.  Though 
often  expensive  and  neat,  it  was  usually 
a  cheap,  coarse,  and  very  clumsy  article. 

The  following  represent  various  forms 
of  sandals  which  are  still  in  common 
use  in  many  countries  of  the  East. 


Sandals.    (From  Farrar's  "Life  of  Christ.") 


Mitre,  Ex.  39  :  28,  or  bonnet,  Ex.  28  : 
40,  was  a  part  of  the  sacred  dress  only, 
worn  on  the  head.  The  Arab  women 
wear  a  cap  of  folded  cloth  not  unlike 
the  modern  turban,  and  the  Hebrew 
women  wore  head-dresses  of  various 
shapes.    Isa.  3:  20. 

Blue//-i/ir/e«  were  attached  to  the  four 
corners  of  the  outer  garment  to  remind 
the  wearer  of  God's  commandments. 
Num.  15  :  37-39.  It  was  one  of  the 
fringes  of  Jesus's  garment  which  is 
called  the  "  hem  "  touched  by  the  woman. 
Matt.  9:20;  Luke  8  :  44.  For  enlarging 
these  fringes  to  attract  notice  Jesus  re- 
bukes the  Pharisees.  Matt.  23  :  5. 

Change  of  raiment  or  i/arments.  2 
Kgs.  5  :  5,  22. — It  is  customary  in  the 
East  at  this  day  to  make  presents  of 
garments;  and  the  Asiatic  princes  keep 
changes  of  raiment  ready  made  for 
192 


presents  to  persons  of  distinction  whom 
they  wish  particularly  to  honor.  The 
simple  and  unifoi-m  shape  of  the  gar- 
ments makes  this  custom  practicable, 
and  accounts  also  for  the  change  of 
one  person's  dress  for  another's  which 
is  mentioned  in  sacred  history.  Gen. 
27:15;  1  Sam.  18:4.  See  also  Deut. 
22  :  5  ;  Luke  15  :  22. 

Changeable  suits  of  ajjparel,  or  festal 
robes,  Isa.  3  :  22,  are  supposed  to  have 
been  made  of  some  thin  fabric  orna- 
mented with  embroidery  and  worn  over 
garments  of  various  colors;  of  which 
beautiful  representations  are  to  be  seen 
in  Indian  paintings. 

Coat  of  many  colors. — This  was,  prop- 
erly speaking,  a  "  shirt  of  extremities" — • 
a  "  shirt"  which  reached  to  the  feet — prob- 
ably made  of  fine  material.    Gen.  37  :  3. 

Among    the    appendages    to   Jewish 


CLO 


COA 


dress  were  jewels  of  gold  and  silver, 
bracelets,  necklaces,  ear-rings,  etc. 
Nose-  and  ear-rings  arc  very  common 
in  the  East.  The  thread,  G*en.  14  :  23, 
is  supposed  by  some  to  mean  the  thread 


Eastern  Fringed  Garment.     {From  Fanar's 
"Life  of  Christ.'  ) 

on  which  precious  stones  were  hung  for 
neck-chains.  Eze.  16  :  11.  Bracelets  were 
worn  on  the  arms  by  both  sexes,  2  Sam. 
1:10,  and  by  females  upon  the  leg  also. 
Isa.  3:19,  20.  See  Bracelets.  Women 
in  Persia  and  Arabia  wear  rings  full  of 
little  bells  about  the  ankle.  Isa.  3  :  16. 
Hanfl-mirrors,  made  of  molten  brass  and 
finely  polished,  were  also  a  common  ac- 
companiment of  female  dress,  Ex.  38  : 
8;  Isa.  3  :  2?>,  and  were  either  carried 
in  the  hand  or  suspended  from  the  gir- 
dle or  neck.  In  later  times  these  mir- 
rors were  made  of  polished  steel. 

All  the  Grecian  and  Roman  women, 
without  distinction,  wore  their  hair  long. 
On  this  they  lavished  all  their  art,  dis- 
posing it  in  various  forms  and  embellish- 
ing it  with  many  ornaments.  In  an- 
cient medals  and  statues  we  see  the 
plaited  tresses  interwoven  with  expen- 
13 


sive  and  fantastic  decorations  so  point- 
edly condemned  by  the  apostle  as  proofs 
of  a  vain  mind,  and  as  inconsistent  with 
the  modesty  and  decorum  of  Christian 
women.  1  Tim.  2  :  9,  10 ;  1  Pet.  3  :  1,  3, 
4.     See  Phylactekies. 

Rending  Clothes.     See  Rend. 

CLOTH,  LIN'EN.     See  Clothes. 

CLOUD.  The  Hebrew  words  thus 
translated  bring  out  the  ideas  of  a 
"covering"  for  the  sk}^  a  "  darkness," 
or  simply  a  "  vapor."  The  references 
to  clouds  in  the  Bible  will  be  better  un- 
derstood when  the  fact  is  known  that 
from  the  beginning  of  May  to  the  end 
of  September  not  a  cloud  is  usually  seen, 
1  Sam.  12:17,  18;  hence  their  appear- 
ance would  be  phenomenal.  The  on- 
coming of  clouds  marked  the  approach 
of  rain.  1  Kgs.  18:44;  Luke  12:54. 
"A  cloud  without  rain"  was  indeed  a 
proverb  for  a  man  whose  performance 
belied  his  promise.  Prov.  25  :  14. 
Clouds  shield  the  divine  Presence,  Ex. 
16  :  10  ;  33  :  9  ;  Num.  11  :  25  ;  1  Kgs.  8  : 
10  ;  Job  22  :  14  ;  Ps.  18  :  11 ;  and  in  evi- 
dence of  the  divinity  of  Christ  is  the 
fact  that  clouds  play  a  part  in  his  re- 
corded life  and  in  his  future  glory. 
Matt.  17:5;  24:30;  Acts  1:9;  Rev. 
14  :  14.  Clouds  symbolize  transitori- 
ness.  Job  30  :  15;  IIos.  6:4;  armies 
and  multitudes  of  people,  Isa,  60:8; 
Jer.  4  :  13;  Ileb.  12  :  1.  ''A  cloudy 
day  "  is  a  day  of  calamity.  Eze.  30  : 
3;  34:12.  Peter  likens  false  teachers 
to  "clouds  that  are  carried  with  a  tem- 
pest." 2  Pet.  2:17. 

CLOUD,  PILLAR  OF.  When 
the  people  of  Israel  commenced  their 
march  through  the  wilderness,  God 
caused  a  cloud  resembling  a  pillar  to 
pass  before  the  camp.  In  the  day-time 
it  was  like  a  cloud,  dark  and  heavy,  and 
in  the  night  bright  and  shining  like  fire. 
It  also  served  as  a  signal  for  rest  or  mo- 
tion. Num.  9  :  17-23. 

CLOUT'ED.  Josh.  9  :  5.  Worn  out 
and  patched. 

CNI'DUS,  a  Greek  city  at  the  ex- 
treme south-western  corner  of  Asia 
Minor,  now  in  ruins,  on   Caj^e   Crio. 

COAL.  There  is  no  evidence  that 
the  Hebrews  were  acquainted  with  coal. 
They  used  charcoal  for  their  fires.  The 
Hebrew  words  which  are  translated 
"coal"  etymologically  refer  to  heat  in 
general,  usually  to  fuel  of  wood,  and  in 

193 


COA 


COL 


I  Kgs.  19  :  0  and  Isa.  6  :  6  to  hot  stones. 
In  the  N.  T.  the  Greek  words,  Rora.  12 : 
20  and  John  18:18;  21 :  9,  refer  like- 
wise to  charcoal. 

COAST  (from  the  Latin  costa,  "a 
rib")  is  often  used  in  the  English  Bible 
for  "  border,"  and  has  no  reference  to 
the  sea.  Jud.  11  :  20  ;  1  Sam.  5:6;  Matt. 
8 :  U. 

COAT.     See  Clothes. 

COCK.     See  Cock-crowing. 

COCKATRICE.  Jer.  8:17;  Isa. 

II  :  8  ;  14  :  29  ;  69  :  5.  The  word,  in  the 
Scriptures,  evidently  denotes  a  very  ven- 
omous reptile.  The  original  signifies  a 
creature  that  hisses,  douhtless  some  spe- 
cies of  serpent.  Tristram  proposes  the 
great  yellow  viper,  the  largest  of  its 
kind  found  in  Palestine,  and  one  of 
the  most  dangerous.  On  one  occasion 
he  saw  one  of  these  vipers  spring  on  a 
quail  which  was  feeding  :  "It  missed  its 
prey,  and  the  bird  fluttered  on  a  few 
yards,  and  then  fell  in  the  agonies  of 
death.  On  taking  it  up  I  found  that 
the  viper  had  made  the  slightest  possi- 
ble puncture  in  the  flesh  of  one  of  the 
wings  as  it  snapped  at  it,  and  this  had 
caused  death  in  the  course  of  a  few  sec- 
onds." In  the  passage  from  Jeremiah 
above  cited  allusion  is  made  to  the  un- 
yielding cruelty  of  the  Chaldasan  armies 
under  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  were  ap- 
pointed ministers  of  divine  vengeance 
on  the  Jewish  nation  for  their  manifold 
and  aggravated  sins. 

COCK'-  CROWI^fG.  Mark  13  : 
35.  A  name  given  to  the  third  watch 
of  the  night,  from  midnight  to  day- 
break. Some  perplexity  has  been  occa- 
sioned by  the  difference  between  the  ex- 
pressions in  Matt.  26  :  34, ''before  the 
cock  crow,  thou  shalt  deny  me  thrice," 
and  Mark  14  :  30,  ''  before  the  cock  crow 
twice,  thou  shalt  deny  me  thrice."  To 
reconcile  this  seeming  variance,  it  is 
stated  that  there  were  two  cock-crow- 
ings — one  soon  after  midnight,  and  the 
other  about  three  o'clock — and  that  the 
last,  which  was  the  signal  of  approaching 
day,  was  spoken  of  as  the  cock-croivlng. 
To  this  it  has  been  answered  that  only 
one  hour  elapsed  between  the  denials. 
Luke  22  :  59.  This  is  true  of  the  second 
and  third,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  au- 
thority for  saying  it  is  of  the  first  and 
second.  It  seems  most  natural  to  sup- 
pose that  the  phraseology  in  both  cases 
194 


was  substantially  the  same,  and  that  the 
Jews  understood  by  the  phrase  "  before 
the  cock  crow"  the  same  time  which 
was  denoted  by  the  phrase  "  before  the 
cock  crow  twice."  Both  referred  to  that 
cock-crowing  which  especially  and  most 
distinctly  marked  a  watch  or  division 
of  the  night.  There  is  no  reference  to 
poultry  in  the  0.  T.,  and  only  an  inciden- 
tal one  in  the  New.  Matt.  23  :  37  ;  Luke 
13  :  34.  Some  suppose  that  poultry  were 
introduced  into  Judaea  by  the  Romans. 

COCK'LiE  {stinking  like  carrion). 
This  word  may  denote  troublesome  or 
oflfensive  weeds  in  general.  Job  31  :  40. 
But  the  arums,  which  abound  in  Galilee 
and  other  Eastern  regions,  have  pre- 
cisely the  odor  indicated  by  the  orig- 
inal, and  may  be  the  jjlants  meant. 
The  proximity  of  these  offensive  growths 
is  sometimes  scarcely  endurable. 

CCE'LE-SYR'IA  {hollow  St/ria), 
the  great  valley  between  the  Lebanon 
and  Anti-Lebanon  ranges  of  mountains. 
See  Lebanon  and  Syria. 

COF'FER,  "a  movable  box  hang- 
ing from  the  side  of  a  cart."  1  Sam.  6  : 
8,  11.  15. 

COF'FIN.     See  Bury. 

COHORT.     See  War. 

COL-HO'ZEH  {all-seeing),  a  man 
of  Judah.  Neh.  3  :  15:  11:5. 

COL'LEGE.  2  Kgs.  22  :  14.  This 
word  is  the  translation  of  what  was 
probably  the  name  of  one  of  the  di- 
visions of  Jerusalem — viz.  "the  lower 
city."  built  upon  the  hill  Akra. 

COL'LOPS.  Job  15  :  27.  Thick 
pieces  of  flesh. 

COL'ONY.  Acts  16  :  12.  A  city  or 
province  planted  or  occupied  by  Roman 
citizens,  as  Philippi.  Roman  laws  and 
manners  naturally  prevailed,  but  the 
colony  had  an  independent  internal 
government.  The  colonists  were  in 
the  beginning  all  Roman  citizens,  and 
therefore  entitled  to  vote  at  Rome. 

COL'ORS.  Gen.  37:3.  The  art 
of  coloring  cloth  seems  to  have  attain- 
ed to  great  perfection  among  the  Jews, 
though  it  did  not  originate  with  them, 
but  with  their  idolatrous  neighbors,  the 
Phoenicians  and  Egyptians,  the  former 
supplying  the  dyes,  the  latter  the  mode 
of  applying  them.  Four  artificial  col- 
ors are  spoken  of  in  the  Bible. 

1.  Purple,  which  was  derived  from  a 
shell-fish  native  to   the  Mediterranean 


COL 


COM 


Sea.  The  coloring-matter  was  found  in 
a  small  vessel  in  the  lish,  and  the  rest 
of  the  fish  was  useless.  Purple  was 
the  royal  and  noble  color,  indicative  of 
wealth  and  station.  Jud.  8  :  26  j  Esth. 
8:15;  Luke  16:19;   Rev.  17:4. 

2.  Blue,  produced  from  a  similar 
source,  used  in  the  same  way,  and  for 
the  same  purposes.  Ex.  25  :  4  ;  Esth.  1 :  6. 

3.  Scarlet,  and  cn'vison  appear  to  ex- 
press the  same  color.  "  The  dye  was 
produced  from  an  insect  somewhat  re- 
sembling the  cochineal,  which  is  found 
in  considerable  quantities  in  Armenia 
and  other  Eastern  countries  " — Smith. 
The  three  colors  above  mentioned,  to- 
gether with  white,  were  employed  in 
the  tabernacle  curtains  and  in  the  vest- 
ments of  the  priests. 

4.  Vermilion  was  used  in  fresco-paint- 
ing, Eze.  23  :  14,  for  coloring  the  idols 
(themselves,  and  for  decorating  the  walls 
;and  beams  of  houses.  Jer.  22 ;  14. 

The  natural  colors  noticed  in  the  Bi- 
ible  are  white,  black,  red,  yellow,  and 
■green,  yet  only  three  colors  are  sharply 
defined,  v)hite,  black,  and  red.  To  show 
-the  vagueness  of  the  use  of  the  others, 
■the  tint  green  (translated  "yellow"  in 
ithe  A.  V.)  is  applied  in  the  Hebrew  to 
gold,  Ps.  68  :  13,  and  to  the  leprous 
^spot.    Lev.  13  :  49. 

COLOS'SE,  OR  COLOS'S^.,  a 
city  of  Phrygia,  on  the  Lycus.  a  branch 
of  the  Mfeander,  and  12  miles  above 
Laodicea.  Paul  wrote  to  the  church 
there,  Col.  1  :  2,  and  possibly  visited  it 
on  his  third  missionary  journey.  See 
Acts  18:  23;  19:10.  The  "town  is  now 
in  ruins;  there  is  a  little  village  called 
Chronos  3  miles  south  of  the  site  of 
Colosse. 

COLOSSIANS,  EPIS'TLE 
TO  THE,  was  written  by  Paul  while 
he  was  a  prisoner  at  Rome,  A.  D.  62.  It 
is  probable  that  Epaphras,  who  is  spo- 
ken of  as  the  minister  of  Christ  in  that 
place.  Col.  1 :  7,  came  to  Rome  to  con- 
sult Paul  respecting  the  semi-Judaistic 
and  semi-Oriental  opinions  that  had 
been  preached  among  the  Colossians  by 
Jews  who  had  been  tainted  by  Essenic 
Cnosticism.  See  Essenks.  These  no- 
tions would  tend  not  only  to  mar  the 
simplicitv  of  their  belief,  but  to  obscure 
the  glory  of  Christ.  Col.  2  :  8-23.  To 
these  damaging  errors  Paul  writes  a 
refutation.       "  The   occasion,   then,   of 


the  Epistle  being  the  existence  and  in- 
fluence of  false  teachers  in  the  Colos- 
sian  church,  the  object  of  the  apos- 
tle was  to  set  before  them  their  real 
standing  in  Christ,  the  majesty  of  his 
person,  and  the  completeness  of  his  re- 
demption, and  to  exhort  them  to  con- 
formity with  their  risen  Lord,  following 
this  out  into  all  subordinate  duties  and 
occasions  of  common  life." 

The  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians.  written 
at  a  little  later  date,  is  very  similar  to 
it,  but  more  full  on  the  doctrine  of  the 
church.  Both  were  sent  from  Rome  by 
the  same  bearers, Tychicus  andOnesimus. 

COLT.  The  young  of  camels  and 
asses  are  so  called.  Gen.  32  :  15  ;  49  :  11  ; 
Jud.  10  :  4  ;  Job  11 :  12  ;  Matt.  21  :  2,  5, 
7,  and  elsewhere. 

COME  BY.  In  Acts  27:16  this 
phrase  means  "  to  secure  the  boat,  so  as 
to  hoist  it  into  the  ship." 

COMTORTER.  John  14:16. 
This  word  is  the  English  rendering  for 
Paraclete,  and  occurs  only  in  the  Gos- 
pel of  John.  In  four  out  of  the  five 
passages  in  which  it  is  used  it  is  ap- 
plied to  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  should 
be  translated  '' advocate  "  or '' helper." 
For  the  Paraclete  does  not  simply  com- 
fort, but  defends  our  cause  and  inspires 
our  courage.     See  AnvocATE. 

COMMANDMENTS.     See  Law. 

COM'MERCE.  In  some  form  this 
must  have  existed  from  the  time  when 
men  formed  separate  communities,  and 
when  the  dwellers  in  cities  became  de- 
pendent upon  farmers  and  foreign  na- 
tions for  food.  We  find  notices  of  trade 
in  this  way  in  the  time  of  Abraham, 
and  particularly  in  the  history  of  Jo- 
seph and  of  the  Egyptian  famine.  But 
foreign  trade  was  not  much  cultivated 
by  the  Jews.  Indeed,  they  do  not  seem 
to  have  been  in  the  least  a  sea-faring 
people,  for  the  commercial  enterprises 
of  Solomon  and  of  Jehoshaphat  both 
ultimately  failed.  1  Kgs.  22:48,  49. 
But  we  know  that  the  Jews  consum- 
ed foreign  articles,  Neh.  13:16;  Ezr. 
3 : 7,  and  also  supplied  foreign  coun- 
ti'ies,  as  Phoenicia.  1  Kgs.  5:11; 
Eze.  27:17;  Acts  12:20.  Joppa,  the 
modern  Jaffa,  the  port  of  Jerusalem, 
carried  on  a  busy  trade.  From  it  went 
vessels  to  various  ports.  Isa.  2:16;  Jon. 
1  :  3.  The  internal  trade  was  largely 
increased  by  the  festivals.     The  sale  of 

195 


COM 


CON 


animals  for  sacrifice  and  the  exchanging 
of  money  were  carried  on  even  in  the 
temple-enclosure,  and  led  to  our  Lord's 
indignant  rebuke.  John  2:14;  Matt. 
21 :  12. 

COMMUN'ION.  1  Cor.  10  :  16. 
Intimate  fellowship  and  communica- 
tion, such  as  is  expressed  in  John  15  : 
1-r  and  17  :  10,  21-26  :  Rom.  12  :  4,  5  ; 
2  Cor.  13  :  14  ;  1  John  1 :  3.  As  the  or- 
dinance of  the  Lord's  Supper  furnishes 
both  the  opportunity  for  and  the  motive 
to  this  mutual  love  and  confidence,  John 
13  :  34;  15  :  12,  it  is  called,  by  Avay  of 
distinction,  "  the  holy  communion." 

COMPASS,  TO  FETCH  A, 
means  "  to  go  around."  2  Sam.  5  :  23  ; 
2  Kgs.  3:9;  Acts  28  :  13. 

CONANI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  hath 
made),  a  Levite  chief.  2  Chr.  35 :  9. 

CONCIS'ION,  a  term  used  sarcas- 
tically to  denominate  the  Judaizers  who 
insisted  on  circumcision  as  necessary 
for  Gentile  converts.  Phil.  3:2.  They 
thus  perverted  the  rite,  and  therefore, 
instead  of  calling  them  by  the  honora- 
ble name  of  the  "circumcision,"  Paul 
calls  them  the  "  concision,"  the  "  muti- 
lation." 

COX'CUBIXE,  by  the  Jewish 
law,  a  lawful  wife  of  a  secondary  or  in- 
ferior rank,  and  consequently  neither 
regarded  nor  treated  as  the  matron  or 
mistress  of  the  house.  Concubines 
were  either  Hebrew  girls  bought  of 
their  fathers,  or  Gentile  captives  taken 
in  war.  Foreign  slaves  or  Canaanitish 
women  were  also  illegally  concubines. 
Concubines  were  not  betrothed  or  wed- 
ded with  the  usual  solemnities  and  cere- 
monies which  attended  marriage.  They 
had  no  share  in  the  family  government, 
and  the  children  of  the  wife  were  pre- 
ferred to  the  child  of  the  concubine  in 
the  distribution  of  the  inheritance. 
Yet  the  children  of  the  latter  were 
not  counted  as  illegitimate,  but  stood 
upon  the  same  footing  as  those  of  the 
wife  in  the  family,  as  their  names  oc- 
cur in  the  genealogical  lists.  Gen.  22 : 
24;  1  Chr.  1 :  32.  The  custom  among 
the  Jews  originated  in  the  great  de- 
sire for  children,  and  therefore  it  was 
that  barren  wives  gave  their  maid-ser- 
vants to  their  husbands  that  they  might 
have  children  by  them.  Gen.  16  :  3  ;  30  : 
4.  The  law  of  Moses  did  not  stop  the 
practice,  but  modified  it.  Ex.  21 :  7-9  ; 
196 


Deut.  21 :  10-17.  There  was  no  stigma 
upon  the  position.  The  concubine  was 
a  recognized  member  of  the  family; 
when  she  had  been  a  slave  previous  to 
becoming  such  a  one,  she  still  remained 
in  slavery.  Her  distinction  fi-om  the 
wife  was  in  her  lower  social  position, 
and  in  her  far  looser  hold  upon  her 
husband.  She  might  be  dismissed  with- 
out any  formal  divorce.  Her  unfaithful- 
ness was  criminal,  but  not  looked  at  as, 
strictly  speaking,  adultery,  and  hence 
was  not  so  severely  punished.  Jud.  19  : 
2.  In  the  days  of  the  monarchy  the 
kings  imitated  their  heathen  neighbors 
in  the  establishment  of  harems,  and 
multiplied  the  number  of  wives  and 
concubines.  To  seize  on  the  royal  concu- 
bines for  his  own  use  was  thus  a  usurp- 
er's first  act.  Such  was  probably  the 
intent  of  Abner's  act,  2  Sam.  3 :  7,  and 
similarly  the  request  on  behalf  of  Adon- 
ijah  was  construed.  1  Kgs.  2  :  21-24. — 
Smith  :  Dictionary  of  the   Bible. 

AVhere  polygamy  was  tolerated — as  it 
was  among  the  Jews — the  permission  of 
concubinage  would  not  seem  so  much  at 
war  with  the  interests  and  preservation 
of  society  as  we  know  it  to  be.  The 
gospel  restores  the  saci*ed  institution 
of  marriage  to  its  original  character, 
Gen.  2  :  24  ;  Matt.  19  :  5  ;  1  Cor.  7  :  2, 
and  concubinage  is  ranked  with  forni- 
cation and  adulterv. 

CONDEMx\A'TIOi\.  The  term 
refers  to  the  sentence  pronounced  upon 
an  adjudged  criminal.  In  the  sight  of 
God  the  race  lies  under  condemnation 
because  of  Adam's  inherited  sin  and 
their  actual  transgressions.  Rom.  5  : 
16,  18.  The  law  which  convicts  men 
of  sin  is  called  the  "ministration  of 
condemnation."  2  Cor.  3:7,  9.  But 
the  gospel  announces  deliverance  from 
sin.  John  3  :  IS.  Therefore  it  is  truly 
"good  tidings  of  great  joy."  Luke  2 : 
10.  By  faith  in  Christ  are  we  deliver- 
ed from  condemnation,  and  are  brought 
into  the  glorious  liberty  of  the  children 
of  God.  Rom.  8:21. 

CON'DUIT  {te'alah  in  Hebrew). 
2  Kgs.  18  :  17  ;  20  :  20  ;  Isa.  7:3;  36  : 
2.  Used  to  signify  something  for  con- 
veying water,  as  a  "  water-course,"  Job 
38  :  25,  or  a  "  trench."  It  probably  in- 
cluded an  aqueduct,  such  as  must  have 
been  used  to  convey  the  water  from  the 
Pool  of  Solomon  to  Jerusalem.     Pilate 


CON 


CON 


built  a  new  aqueduct  or  tepaired  that 
of  Solomon,  which  still  remains. 

CO'NEY  {the  hider),  a  small  animal 
{Hyrux  Sijriacus)  found  in  Syria  and 
Arabia,  and  much  resembling  the  rab- 
bit in  size,  general  appearance,  and 
habits.  Ps.  104 :  18  ,•  Prov.  30  :  26.  Its 
Hebrew  name  is  appropriate,  from  its 
dwelling  in  the  rocks.  The  coney, 
however,  does  not  burrow,  but,  like  the 
rhinoceros  and  hippopotamus  (with 
which  naturalists  class  it),  has  hoofs 
rather  than  nails  upon  its  toes.  It  is 
almost  tailless,  has  short  ears,  is  clothed 


in  tawny  fur,  and  is  a  very  timid  and 
harmless  creature. 

Solomon  justly  pronounced  the  co- 
neys "  exceeding  wise."  So  great  is 
their  wariness  that  they  have  never 
been  trapped  and  can  but  rarely  be 
shot.  They  are  accustomed  to  feed  in 
small  companies  upon  the  herbage  near 
their  fastnesses,  but  it  is  said  they  al- 
ways first  post  a  sentinel,  and  at  a 
squeak  of  alarm,  on  the  least  indication 
of  danger,  they  all  plunge  into  their 
retreats. 

The  references  to  this  animal  in  the 


Coney.     {Hyrax  Syriacus.     After  Houghton.) 


Law  (Lev.  11 :  5  ;  Deut.  14  :  7)  are  to  be 

understood  in  a  popular  sense.  Though 
not  strictly  a  ruminant  animal,  the 
coney,  like  the  hare  and  rabbit,  has  a 
habit  of  moving  its  jaws  a«  {/'chewing, 
while  it  does  not  completely  divide  the 
hoof,  as  does  the  ox  or  deer. 

The  coney  ''  is  an  exceedingly  active 
creature,  leajiing  from  rock  to  rock  with 
wonderful  rapidity,  its  little  sharp  hoofs 
giving  it  a  firm  hold  of  the  hard  and 
irregular  surface  of  the  stony  ground. 
Even  in  captivity  it  retains  much  of  its 
activity,  and  flies  about  its  cage  with  a 
rapidity  that  seems  more  suitable  to  a 
squirrel  than  to  an  animal  allied  to  the 


rhinoceros  and  hippopotamus.  ...  It 
is  a  tolerably  prolific  animal,  rearing 
four  or  five  young  at  a  birth,  and  keep- 
ing them  in  a  soft  bed  of  hay  and  fur, 
in  which  they  are  almost  hidden.  If 
surprised  in  its  hole  and  seized,  the 
Hyrnx  will  bite  very  sharply,  its  long, 
chisel-edged  teeth  inflicting  severe 
wounds  on  the  hand  that  attempts  to 
grasp  it.  But  it  is  of  a  tolerably  docile 
disposition,  and  in  a  short  time  learns 
to  know  its  owner,  and  to  delight  in 
receiving  his  caresses." — ./.  G .   11  ood. 

CONGREGA  TION,  an  assem- 
bly ;  a  gathering  of  people  for  either 
political  or  religious  purposes. 

197 


CON 


CON 


1.  In  the  0.  T.  (kahal)  it  denotes 
the  Hebrew  people  in  its  collective 
capacity,  under  its  peculiar  aspect 
as  a  holy  community,  held  together  by 
religious  rather  than  political  bonds. 
Deut.  31 :  30  ;  Josh.  8  :  35  ;  1  Chr.  29  :  1, 
etc.  ''  Sometimes  it  is  used  in  a  broad 
sense,  as  inclusive  of  foreign  settlers, 
Ex.  12  :  19,  but  more  properly  as  ex- 
clusively appropriate  to  the  Hebrew 
element  of  the  population.  Num.  15 : 
15."  The  congregation  was  governed 
by  the  chief  of  the  tribes  and  families, 
but  from  these  was  selected  a  council 
of  70  elders.  Num.  16  :  2  ;  11 :  16.  This 
was  a  permanent  institution,  for  these 
representatives  of  the  people — who  at 
first  met  at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle 
at  the  call  of  one  silver  trumpet,  while 
the  congregation  came  at  sound  of  the 
two,  Num.  10  :  3,  4,  7 — became  in  post- 
exilic  days  the  Sanhedrin.  Doubtless 
these  meetings  of  the  elders  are  often 
meant  when  the  term  *'  congregation " 
is  used.  Thus  they  meet  to  elect  a 
king.  1  Sam.  10  :  17.  Their  decisions 
bound  the  nation.  Josh.  9  :  15,  18. 

2.  In  the  N.  T.  it  means  the  Christian 
Church  at  large  or  a  local  congregation, 
but  in  King  James's  Version  the  corre- 
sponding Greek  word  {ecdesia),  when 
used  of  a  religious  assembly,  is  always 
rendered  "  church,"  even  in  Acts  7  :  38, 
where  it  means  the  Jewish  congregation 
in  the  wilderness.  King  James  ex- 
pressly commanded  the  revisers  to  do 
this,  in  opposition  to  the  Geneva  Ver- 
sion, which  uses  the  more  literal  render- 
ing "  congregation."  In  Acts  19  :  32, 
39,  40  it  means  simply  a  popular  assem- 
bly.    See  Church. 

'CONI'AH.     See  Jehoiachin. 

CONONI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  hath 
set),  a  chief  among  the  Levites.  2  Chr. 
31  :  12,  13. 

CON'SCIENCE  is  the  inborn  sense 
of  right  and  wrong,  the  moral  law  written 
on  our  hearts  which  judges  of  the  moral 
character  of  our  motives  and  actions, 
and  approves  or  censures,  condemns  or 
justifies  us  accordingly.  Rom.  2:15. 
This  universal  tribunal  is  established  in 
the  breast  of  every  man,  even  the  hea- 
then. It  may  be  weakened,  perverted, 
stupefied,  defiled,  and  hardened  in  vari- 
ous ways,  and  its  decisions  are  more  or 
less  clear,  just,  and  imperative  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  moral  culture,  John 
198 


8:9;  Acts  23  : 1 ;  24  :  16  ;  Rom.  9:1; 
and  1  Tim.  1:5. 

CON'SECRATE,  CONSE- 
CRA'TION.    Ex.    32  :  29  ;    Lev.  7  : 

37.  The  word  means  "  to  set  apart  for 
holy  uses."  It  is  applied  in  the  Bible  to 
both  persons  and  things.  The  tribe  of 
Levi  was  consecrated  to  the  priesthood 
with  the  most  solemn  and  imposing 
ceremonies.  Vessels,  Josh.  6:19,  prof- 
its, Mic.  4 :  13,  fields,  Lev.  27  :  28,  cat- 
tle, 2  Chr.  29  :  33,  individuals.  Num.  6  : 
9-13;  1  Sam.  1  :  11,  28,  and  nations, 
Ex.  19  :  6,  were  anciently  consecrated 
or  set  apart  to  sacred  purposes.  See 
Priest. 

CONVEN'IENT  signifies  "becom- 
ing," "  fitting,"  "  appropriate,"  in  sev- 
eral passages  ;  e.  if.  Prov.  30  :  8  ;  Jer. 
40  :  4  :  Rom.  1  :  28  ;  Eph.  5:4;  Phile. 
8.  This  is  the  old  Latin  sense  of  the 
word. 

CONVERSA'TION  is  never  used 
in  the  A.  V.  in  its  ordinary  sense,  but 
always  denotes  ''course  of  life,"  ''con- 
duct." Phil.  3  :  20  reads  *'  our  conver- 
sation is  in  heaven,"  but  the  Greek  is 
properly  translated  by  "citizenship." 
What  is  now  called  "  conversation  "  is 
expressed  in  the  A.  V.  by  "  communica- 
tion." 2  Kgs.  9:11;  Matt.  5  :  37  ;  Eph. 
4 :  29   etc. 

COIVVER'SION,  or  turning  from 
one  state,  pursuit,  inclination,  or  direc- 
tion to  another.  Acts  15  :  3.  The  corre- 
sponding Greek  term  in  the  N.  T.  de- 
notes a  change  of  mind  or  heart  which 
takes  place  in  the  sinner  Avhen  the  Holy 
Spirit  convinces  him  of  his  sinfulness, 
persuades  him  to  hate  sin  and  to  for- 
sake it,  and  to  lead  a  life  of  holy  obe- 
dience to  Christ.  Matt.  3:8;  Luke  3  : 
3  ;  15  :  7  ;  24  :  47  ;  Acts  5  :  31  ;  11  :  18; 
20 :  21  :  2  Cor.  7  :  9,  1 0  ;  2  Tim.  2  :  25  ; 
Heb.  6  :  16  ;  12  :  17  ;  2  Pet.  3  :  9.  Con- 
version is  an  act  of  man,  while  regenera- 
tion, or  the  new  birth,  is  an  act  of  God, 
but  both  are  produced  by  the  agency 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  usually  coincide, 
though  not  always  ;  for  very  young  chil- 
dren may  be  regenerated,  but  cannot, 
strictly  speaking,  be  said  to  be  converted. 
TheScriptures  describemankindas  alien- 
ated from  God,  as  having  the  understand- 
ing darkened,  and  as  dead  in  trespasses 
and  sins.  Hence  the  corresponding  force 
and  pertinency  of  the  terms  by  which  the 
change  is  described  ;  such  as  created,  re- 


CON 


COR 


newed,  Eph.  4  :  23,  24,  restored  to  sight, 
Eph,  1:18;  Rev.  3  :  18,  and  raised  from 
the  dead.  John  5  :  21,  24  ;  Eph.  2 :  1. 

CONVOCA'TION,  sometimes 
used  with  the  adjective  "holy,"  denotes 
a  meeting  of  a  i-eligious  character.  Ex. 
12  :  16 ;  Lev.  23  :  2  ;  Num.  28  :  18. 

COOK'ING  was  not  carried  by  the 
Jews  to  any  perfection,  because  meat 
did  not  form  part  of  their  ordinary 
diet.  It  was  done  in  early  times  ex- 
clusively, and  in  all  periods  of  their 
history  usually,  by  the  matron  of  the 
family,  apparently  irrespective  of  her 
social  condition,  Gen.  18  :  6  ,•  although 
professional  cooks  were  sometimes  em- 
ployed in  later  times.  1  Sam.  8:13; 
9  :  23.  As  is  evident  from  the  expedi- 
tious way  in  which  meals  were  gotten 
up,  the  animal,  usually  a  kid,  a  lamb, 
or  a  calf,  was  cooked  immediately  after 
killing.  For  roasting,  a  fire  of  wood 
or  else  an  oven,  which  was  merely  a 
hole  dug  in  the  ground,  heated  by  ashes, 
and  then  covered  up,  was  employed. 
When  the  animal  was  boiled,  which  was 
the  usual  way,  both  in  the  case  of  sacrifice 
other  than  the  paschal  lamb.  Lev.  8  : 
31,  and  for  domestic  use,  it  was  cut  up, 
the  flesh  separated  from  the  bones  and 
minced,  and  the  bones  themselves 
broken  up,  and  the  whole  mass  thrown 
into  a  caldron  filled  with  water,  Eze. 
24 :  4,  5,  and  boiled  over  a  wood-fire,  and 
the  salt  or  spices  thrown  in  to  season  it. 
The  meat  and  broth  were  served  up  sep- 
arately, the  latter  being  used  as  a  sauce 
to  dip  bread  into.  Gen.  18  :  8  ;  Jud.  6  : 
19.  Vegetables  were  usually  boiled  and 
served  as  pottage.  Gen.  25  :  29  ;  2  Kgs. 
4  :  38.  Fish  was  probably  boiled.  Luke 
24  :  42.— Smith  :  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

CO'OS,  OR  COS,  a  small  island 
north-west  of  Rhodes,  Acts  21  :  1,  in 
the  ^Egean  Sea  ;  now  called  Stanclrio. 

COPING.  1  Kgs.  7:9.  The  top 
course  or  finish  of  a  wall.  It  is  usually 
of  flat  or  semi-circular  bricks  or  hewn 
stone,  projecting  beyond  the  face  of  the 
wall,  and  forming  an  ornament  similar 
in  effect  to  the  capital  of  a  column. 

COPTER,  a  well-known  metal, 
once  as  "  precious  as  gold.'-'  Ezr.  8  : 
27 ;  2  Tim.  4  :  14.  The  word  translated 
"copper"  in  Ezra  is  elsewhere  improp- 
erly rendered  Brass,  which  see. 

COR,     See  MEASURES. 

COR'AL,    E/A'.  27:16,    was   an 


article  of  Tyrian  merchandise,  and  is 
well  known  as  a  marine  production, 
found  in  almost  every  variety  of  shape 
and  size,  and  sometimes  increasing  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  form  the  basis  of 
islands,  or  to  stretch  out  in  dangerous 
reefs  for  many  miles.  It  is  capable  of 
being  worked  up  into  beads  and  other 
ornaments  ;  for  which  use  the  red  spe- 
cies is  the  most  valuable.  Job  mentions 
it  in  connection  with  pearls.  Job  28  : 
18. 

COR'BAN  {offering)  signifies  a 
gift  or  thing  consecrated  to  God  or  his 
service,  particularly  in  fulfilment  of  a 
vow.  Mark  7  :  11.  The  Jews  permitted 
such  an  abuse  to  be  made  of  this  con- 
secration that  a  child  was  sufi"ered  to 
deny  the  request  of  his  parents,  or 
withhold  assistance  from  them  in  their 
distress,  merely  on  the  pretence  that 
what  they  asked  or  needed  was  conse- 
crated to  God. 

CORDS.     See  Ropes. 

CO'RE,  the  Greek  form  of  Korah  ; 
used  in  Jude  11. 

CORIANDER  SEED.  Ex.  16  : 
31,  The  coriander  plant  ( Coriandnnu 
sativvm)  grows  wild  in  Palestine  and 
neighboring  countries,  and  is  often  cul- 
tivated in  the  United  States.  The  seeds 
are  globular,  and  when  dry  are  pleasant 
to  the  taste  and  smell,  and,  incrusted 
with  sugar,  are  often  sold  by  confec- 
tioners. We  are  told  that  the  particles 
of  manna  were  shaped  like  coriander 
seed. 

COR'INTH,  the  capital  of  Achaia, 
and  a  renowned  and  voluptuous  city  of 
Greece,  about  40  miles  west  of  Athens,  on 
an  isthmus  about  10  miles  wide  at  that 
point.  It  had  two  sea-ports,  Cenchrea, 
on  the  east,  about  9  miles  distant,  and 
Lecluieum,  on  the  west,  only  about  2  miles 
away.  Corinth  was  about  5  miles  in  cir- 
cuit, and  on  the  south  an  immense  rocky 
mountain  called  Acrocorinthus  rises  ab- 
ruptly to  the  height  of  2000  feet,  upon  the 
summit  of  which  was  a  temple  of  Venus. 
It  had  an  extensive  commerce,  like  all 
the  large  towns  on  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  and  became  celebrated  for  its 
wealth,  magnificence,  and  learning.  It 
was  esteemed  as  the  light  and  ornament 
of  all  Greece.  It  was,  however,  no  less 
remarkable  for  its  corruption  and  licen- 
tiousness. "  To  live  as  at  Corinth  "  was 
a    proverb    meaning    profligate    indul- 

199 


COE 


COR 


gence,  and  the  name  "  Corinthian  "  ap- 
plied to  a  woman  was  infamous. 

Paul  preached  at  Corinth,  about  A.  D. 
53,  a  year  and  six  months,  Acts  18  :  11  ; 
paid  it,  A.  D.  64-57,  a  short  second  visit 
("  by  the  way  "),  not  mentioned  in  the 
Acts,  but  implied  in  1  Cor.  16  :  7 :  2  Cor, 
12:13,  14;  13:1,  where   he   sj)eaks  of 


Coiiiith  and  Acuicuinithu^ 

an  intended  third  journey  to  Corinth, 
which  coincides  with  that  in  Acts  20 : 
2 ;  and  spent  there  the  three  winter 
months,  from  57  to  58,  during  which  he 
wrote  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  Acts 
20  :  2,  3  ;  comp,  1  Cor.  16  :  6 ;  Rom.  16  : 
1.  lie  wrote  two  letters  to  the  Chris- 
tians in  that  city,  rebuking  their  sins, 
and  refers  to  the  Isthmian  games  cele- 
brated at  Corinth  every  Olympiad.  The 
city  is  now  desolate,  the  little  miserable 
village  of  Oortho  occupying  its  site, 

Corinthians;    paul's 

EPISTLES  TO  THE.  They  ex- 
hibit the  trials  and  temptations,  the  vir- 
tues and  vices,  of  a  Greek  congregation 
in  apostolic  times,  and  the  wisdom  and 
love,  the  trials  and  patience,  of  Paul 
in  dealing  with  some  of  the  most  diffi- 
cult practical  and  doctrinal  questions 
which  arise  again  and  again  in  the  his- 
tory of  every  church.  They  are  so  full 
of  individuality  and  local  adaptation 
that  their  Pauline  origin  has  never 
been  disputed, 

1.  The  First  Epistle  was  written  at 
Ephesus,  toward  the  close  of  the  apos- 
tle's three  years'  residence  there,  in 
the  spring  of  a.  d,  57.  It  was  sent  to 
the  church  by  Stephanas,  Fortunatus, 
Achaicus,  and  Timotheus,  according 
to  the  superscription.  Its  immediate 
cause  was  the  painful  news  which 
had  reached  Paul  that  there  were 
201) 


dissensions  in  the  church  between  the 
different  elements  —  converted  Jews, 
proselytes,  and  Gentiles — which  com- 
posed it.  Some  of  the  members  de- 
clared themselves  Pauline,  while  others 
were  Petrine  ;  others  were  of  Apollos, 
and  others  of  Christ — Christians  in  a 
sectarian  and  exclusive  sense,  chs.  1-4. 
This  state  of  things  is  explic- 
able. The  Corinthian  church 
was  founded  by  the  apostle 
while  upon  his  second  mis- 
sionary journey.  Acts  18  :  1, 
sq.,  during  his  eighteen 
months'  residence  in  Cor- 
inth. Not  long  after  he  left, 
Apollos  came.  Acts  19  : 1,  who 
by  his  eloquence  won  follow- 
ers. Judaizers  also  from  Je- 
rusalem came  to  the  city,  who 
misrepresented  Paul  as  a  dan- 
^S  gerous  radical,  denied  his 
^^=^=  apostolic  authority,  and 
obliged  him  to  defend  him- 
self. Thus  the  church  was  sadly  rent. 
Those  who  styled  themselves  "  of 
Christ"  may  have  at  first  attempted 
reconciliation  by  going  back  of  all  hu- 
man authority  to  Christ,  but  would  seem 
finally  to  have  added  a  fourth  to  the  ex- 
isting factions.  Another  trouble  which 
demanded  decisive  action  was  a  lax  state 
of  sexual  morals.  This  gives  Paul  op- 
portunity to  express  his  views  upon 
marriage  and  the  relation  of  the  sexes 
generally,  chs.  5-7.  From  these  spe- 
cific cases  of  overt  act  he  passes  to  the 
consideration  of  several  matters  of 
Christian  practice — eating  meats  offer- 
ed to  idols,  chs.  8,  9  :  the  proper  observ- 
ance of  the  Lord's  Supper  and  its  true 
nature,  ch.  10  :  the  proprieties  of  wor- 
ship, eh.  11;  the  gifts  of  the  Spirit,  chs. 
12,  13,  14,  In  ch.  15  he  treats  of  the 
resurrection  in  a  strain  of  marvellous 
eloquence. 

2.  The  Second  Epistle  was  written 
from  Macedonia,  7:5;  8:1;  9 :  2,  in  the 
same  year,  a  few  months  later  than  the 
First — ('.  e.  in  the  summer  or  autumn  of 
A,  D.  57.  The  contents  seem  to  have 
been  determined  by  the  accounts  the 
apostle  had  received  from  Titus,  and 
perhaps,  also,  from  Timothy,  of  the  ef- 
fect of  his  previous  Epistle.  This  was 
upon  the  whole  favorable;  still,  many 
denied  Paul's  right  to  the  apostleship. 
Accordingly,  in  this  Epistle  he  first  of 


COR 


COR 


all  gives  an  account  of  his  ministry 
and  opens  his  heart  toward  his  con- 
verts, chs.  1-7 ;  next,  exhorts  them  to 
give  liberally  to  the  support  of  the 
church  in  Jerusalem,  probably  because 
this  proof  of  Christian  brotherhood 
would  cure  their  local  jealousies,  chs. 
8,  9  ;  and  lastly,  he  defends  his  apos- 
tolical character,  chs.  10-13. 

It  has  been  generally  supposed,  from 
1  Cor.  5  :  y,  that  there  were  more  epis- 
tles to  this  church  than  these  two,  but 
how  many  cannot  be  determined.  The 
two  Epistles  are  singularly  affectionate, 
although  this  church  was  sadly  removed 
from  the  ideal. 

CORIN'THUS,  the  Latin  form  of 
Corinth,  which  see.  It  occurs  in  the  sub- 
scription to  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 

COR'MORANT  {the  phmgey),  a 
bird  mentioned  as  unclean  in  Lev.  11  : 
17  ;  Deut.  14: 17.  In  two  other  passages 
a  word  meaning  the  Pelican,  which 
see,  is  translated  '^  cormorant."  The 
true  cormorant  is  found  along  the  salt 
and  fresh  waters  of  Syria,  and  is  cer- 
tainly a  "plunger,"  so  that  there  is  no 
reason  for  a  change  in  the  passages  of 
the  Pentateuch,  as  some  have  suggest- 
ed. These  birds  are  as  large  as  the 
raven,  of  a  dark  color,  with  long  necks, 
webbed  feet,  feed  upon  fish,  and  are  pro- 
verbial for  their  voracity.  See  cut  on  p. 
203. 

CORN.  Mark  4:  28.  This  word  is 
generally  applied  in  the  United  States 
to  maize  or  Indian-corn,  which  it  never 
means  in  the  Bible,  for  that  grain,  like 
the  Western  continent,  was,  in  scriptural 
times,  as  yet  undiscovered.  The  English 
Bible  uses  the  word  as  the  general  name 
for  all  sorts  of  cereals,  such  as  wheat, 
barley,  millet,  and  fitches,  and  of  such 
cortijields  only  n;ust  we  think.  Oats 
are  not  known  in  Palestine,  and  rye  is 
rarely,  if  ever,  grown. 

A  "  corn  of  wheat "  is  a  kernel  of 
wheat.  The  figurative  use  of  the  word 
''  corn,"  usually  in  connection  with  wine 
and  oil,  is  vei-y  frequent,  as  grain  and 
wine  and  olives  were  the  leading  pro- 
ductions of  the  country.  Deut.  11 :  14  ; 
18:4;  28:51;  2  Chr.  32:28;  Hos.  2  : 
22;  Joel  2:19. 

It  is  probable  that  grain  was  commonly 
used  in  its  crude  state  in  the  early  ages 
of  the  world.  It  was  sometimes  done  in 
later  times,  Matt.  12 : 1 ;  and  even  now 


it  is  no  uncommon  thing,  in  passing  a 
field  of  wheat,  to  pluck  an  ear,  and,  af- 
ter rubbing  the  husk  or  beard  off  by 
rolling  it  between  the  hands,  to  eat  the 
grain,  which  is  very  palatable,  even  in 
that  state.  The  Jewish  law  permitted 
standing  corn  to  be  j)lucked  by  any  one 
passing  through  it,  Deut.  23  :  25  ;  and 
this  custom,  or  right,  is  still  respected 
in  some  parts  of  the  East.     See  Mills. 

The  "  parched  corn  "  of  the  Bible,  Lev. 
23  :  14  ;  Ruth  2  :  14  ;  1  Sam.  17  :  17,  etc., 
'•  corresponds  to  the  kali/  of  the  Arabs, 
and  is  obtained  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  When  wheat  is  being  harvested, 
some  of  the  green  ears  are  thrown  upon 
the  coals  of  fire  and  roasted;  they  are 
but  partially  divested  of  the  hull  by 
rubbing  between  the  hands,  and  are 
very  much  relished." — Van  Lennep. 

CORNE'LIUS,  a  Roman  centu- 
rion of  the  Italian  cohort  stationed  at 
Caesarea,  and  the  first  heathen  convert 
to  Christianity.  He  was  a  Gentile  by 
birth,  but  a  God-fearing  man,  a  half 
proselyte — i.  e.  leaning  to  the  Jewish 
religion,  yet  uncircumcised,  and  hence 
considered  unclean.  Acts  10  :  1.  His 
prayers,  being  offered  in  the  faith  of  a 
promised  Messiah,  were  heard,  and  God 
sent  Peter  to  make  known  to  him  the 
plan  of  salvation  through  a  crucified 
and  risen  Redeemer.  Thus  the  door  of 
faith  was  opened  to  the  Gentiles.  Cor- 
nelius and  his  family  were  baptized  in 
the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus.  Acts  10 
and  11. 

COR'NER.  According  to  the  Mo- 
saic law,  it  was  forbidden  to  reap  the 
corners  of  the  field,  so  that  there  might 
be  gleanings  for  the  poor.  Lev.  19  :  9 ; 
23  :22.  The  "corner  of  the  house-top," 
Prov.  21 :  9,  is  a  narrow  place  exposed  to 
sun  and  rain,  contrasted  with  the  wide 
room  or  house  below.  The  word  "  cor- 
ner" in  the  phrase  "corners  of  Moab," 
or  of  any  other  country.  Num.  24  :  17  ; 
Jer.  48  :  45,  means  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  country,  and  also  of 
the  world.  "  Corner  of  a  bed,"  Am. 
3  :  12,  the  corner  of  a  room,  was  on 
the  elevated  part  (used  by  night  for  a 
bed  or  couch),  and  contained  the  most 
honorable  seat.  See  Bed.  In  the  pas- 
sage last  cited  it  figuratively  denotes 
the  most  proud  and  luxurious  of  the  Is- 
raelites in  Samaria.  In  Zech.  10  :  4  the 
word  "corner"  is  used  to  denote  either 

20X 


COR 


COW 


the  corner-stone  or  the  most  conspicuous 
part  of  a  building,  and  evidently  refers 
to  Christ,  Matt.  21 :  42,  where  he  is  men- 
tioned as  "  the  head  "  (or  chief )  "  of  the 
corner,"  though  the  Jews,  in  erecting  the 
temple  of  their  faith,  rejected  him  as  un- 
fit for  so  important  a  place. 

Corner-stone.  Job  38:  6.  A  massive 
stone  placed  at  the  foundation  in  the  cor- 
ner of  a  building,  and  binding  the  two 
walls  together.  Christ  is  called  "  the 
Corner-stone  of  the  Church "  because 
he  gives  strength  and  unity  to  the  whole 
structure  of  God's  house.  Comp.  Eph. 
2:20;  1  Pet.  2:6;  Matt.  21  :  42 ;  Eom. 
9  :  32,  33  ;  1  Cor.  1 :  23. 

COR'NET.  IChr.  15:28.  An  in- 
strument of  music  about  18  inches  long, 
used  by  the  priests,  and  giving  a  loud, 
smooth  sound. 

CORRUP'TION,  MOUNT  OF. 
See  Olives,  Mount  of. 

COS.     See  Coos. 

CO'SAM  (a  diviner),  one  of  Christ's 
ancestors.  Luke  3  :  28. 

COT'TAGE.  Isa.  24  :  20.  The 
same  with  tent  or  garden-hut. 

COT^TON  is  now  grown  in  Syria 
and  Palestine,  and  is  preferred  to  linen 
for  turbans  and  shirts.  But  there  is  no 
proof  that  the  ancient  Hebrews  knew 
anything  about  it.  The  word  occurs 
only  in  Esth.  1 :  6,  where  the  A.  V.  ren- 
ders "  green." 

COUCH.     See  Bed. 

COUN'CIL.  There  are  three  legal 
bodies  called  ''councils"  in  the  English 
N.  T. 

1.  The  Sanhedrin,  the  supreme  court 
of  the  Jews,  the  fountain  of  their  gov- 
ernment, which  sat  at  Jerusalem.  By 
this  body  Jesus  was  tried.  Matt.  26  :  59. 
See  Sanhedrin. 

2.  The  lesser  courts.  Matt.  10:17; 
Mark  13  :  9.  One  was  in  each  town,  but 
two  in  the  capital.  Josephus  states  that 
each  court  consisted  of  seven  judges, 
with  two  Levites  as  assessors.  The 
"judgment,"  Matt.  5  :  21,  probably  ap- 
plies to  them. 

3.  The  "council"  spoken  of  in  Acts 
25:12  was  a  kind  of  jurj^  "composed 
of  councillors  appointed  to  assist  and 
advise  the  Roman  governors." 

COUN'SELLOR.     Luke  23  :  50. 
An    ofiicer    connected    with    the    royal 
camp  of  the  Jews ;  supposed  to  be  re- 
ferred to  in  1  Kgs.  12  :  (5-12, 
202 


COURSE.     See  Abia. 

COURT.    See  Temple,  Dwellings. 

COVENANT,  an  agreement  or  mu- 
tual obligation  contracted  deliberately 
and  with  solemnity.  God's  covenant 
with  men  signifies  his  solemn  promise 
or  engagement.  Gen.  17:14;  Ex.34: 
10;  Deut.  4:13;   Isa.  59:21. 

The  Hebrew  word  for  "  making  a 
covenant "  signifies  "  a  cutting,"  be- 
cause covenants  were  often  made  by 
cutting  animals  in  two  and  passing  be- 
tween their  parts.  Gen.  15  :  10,  17  :  Jer. 
34:18. 

The  term  "the  covenants,"  Rom.  9  : 
4,  refers  to  the  various  promises  made 
to  Abraham.  God  made  a  covenant 
with  Noah  and  with  Abraham. 

The  chief  and  most  important  use  of 
the  word,  however,  is  in  relation  to  the 
two  great  dispensations  which  are  dis- 
tinguished as  the  old  and  new,  or  as  the 
covenant  of  the  law  and  the  covenant  of 
the  gospel.  The  former  was  made  with 
the  children  of  Israel  through  Moses, 
and  rested  much  in  the  outward  cere- 
monies and  observances  which  the  law 
enjoined  (meats  and  drinks,  and  divers 
washings  and  carnal  ordinances).  The 
new  covenant  was  made  through  Christ, 
sealed  by  his  own  blood,  and  secures  to 
every  believer  the  blessings  of  salvation 
and  eternal  life.  Comp.  Ex.  20  :  24 ; 
Gal.  3  ;  Heb.  8.  The  titles  "  Old  and 
New  Testaments"  arose  from  the  inac- 
curate rendering  of  the  word  "cove- 
nant" by  testamentum  in  the  Latin  Vul- 
gate. 

Covenant  op  Salt.  Num.  18  :  19  ;  2 
Chr.  13  :  5.  This  term  denotes  a  cove- 
nant in  the  sealing  or  ratiiication  of 
which  salt  was  used,  which  made  it 
inviolable.    Lev.  2  :  13.      See  Salt. 

COVET,  Ex.  20:17,  COV'ET- 
OUSNESS.  Ex.  18:  21.  To  covet  is 
to  desire  strongly.  1  Cor.  12  :  31.  When 
such  a  desire  is  felt  for  that  which  we 
cannot  lawfully  possess,  it  is  sinful  and 
becomes  covetousness,  which  is  idolatrj'. 
Col.  3  :  5,  for  it  is  placing  the  heart  and 
affections  on  the  creature  rather  than  on 
the  Creator.  Covetousness  has  relation 
commonly  to  riches,  and,  in  the  scrip- 
tural sense,  includes  the  desire  of  accu- 
mulating, whatever  may  be  the  means. 
Prov.  28  :  16  ;  Eccl.  5  :  10  ;  Luke  12  :  15- 
34:   1  Tim.  6:9,  10. 

COW,   Isa.  7  :  21.     In  this  remark- 


Cormorant.     {After  Tristram.) 


Gruuf.     i^Ajicr  Iriatram.) 


coz 


CEE 


able  prophecy  the  event  foretold  is  that 
the  face  of  the  land  of  Judah  should  be 
so  completely  changed,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants so  greatly  reduced  in  number,  that, 
with  only  a  single  young  cow  and  two 
sheep,  a  family  should  be  supplied  with 
an  abundance  of  milk  and  butter,  and 
vineyards  which  before  commanded  a 
high  rent  should  be  overgrown  with 
briers  and  thorns. 

By  the  Levitical  law,  Lev.  22  :  28,  a 
cow  and  her  calf  were  not  to  be  killed 
on  the  same  day.  A  similar  precept  is 
found  in  Ex.  23  :  19,  and  another  in 
Deut.  22  :  6,  7.  Whether  they  were  de- 
signed to  prevent  inhumanity  or  referred 
to  some  heathen  custom  is  uncertain. 
The  cow  is  esteemed  holy  by  the  Hin- 
doos. 

COZ  {thorn),  a  descendant  of  Judah. 
1  Chr.  4:8. 

COZ'BI  (lying),  the  daughter  of  a 
Midianite  chief.  She  was  slain  by 
Phineas.    jSTum.  25  :  15,  18. 

CRACK'NELS  denotes  crumb- 
cakes,  so  called  because  of  the  "  sharp 
noise  made  when  bi-eaking."  1  Kgs. 
14 :  3. 

CRANE,  next  to  the  ostrich,  the 
largest  bird  found  in  the  Holy  Land, 
measuring  4  feet  in  height  and  7  feet 
from  tip  to  tijj  of  its  extended  wings. 
The  crane  {Grus  cinerea)  feeds  upon 
frogs,  fish,  worms,  insects,  and  some- 
times vegetable  substances.  When 
upon  the  wing  it  is  always  noisy,  and 
its  cry  is  hoarse  and  melancholy  ;  hence 
the  allusion  of  Isa.  38  :  14.  These  birds 
return  in  the  spring  with  great  regu- 
larity from  their  migrations,  and  flocks 
of  thousands  pass  over  Palestine.  Jer. 
8:7. 

CREATE',  Ps.  61:10,  CREA'- 
TOR,  Eccl.  12  :  1,  CREATION. 
Mark  10  :  6.  The  word  "  creation  "  some- 
times denotes  all  living  things,  and  at 
others  the  act  of  creation.  To  create  is 
to  cause  anything  to  exist  that  never  ex- 
isted in  any  form  or  manner  before.  Gen. 
1:1,-  Col.  1:16.  It  is  to  make  without 
materials  to  make  of.  Thus,  "  God  said, 
Let  there  be  light,  and  there  was  light." 
Gen.  1:3. 

The  panorama  of  creation  in  the  first 
two  chapters  of  Genesis  is  the  sublimest 
that  can  be  found  or  conceived,  and  em- 
inently worthy  of  God,  and  man  as  made 
in  the  image  of  God.  Neither  poetry 
204 


nor  science  has  been  able,  or  will  ever 
be  able,  to  produce  anything  better. 
God  must  have  revealed  it  to  the  writer 
in  a  retrospective  vision.  The  Bible 
gives  two  accounts.  Gen.  1:1  to  2 :  3, 
and  2  :  4-25.  They  supplement  each 
other,  and  they  differ  as  the  names  of 
God  Elohim  (used  in  the  first)  and  Je- 
hovah (used  in  the  second)  differ.  The 
first  refers  to  the  creation  of  the  whole 
universe,  the  second  looks  particularly 
to  the  creation  of  man  and  to  the  subse- 
quent history  of  the  fall  and  of  redemp- 
tion. The  great  object  of  the  inspired 
writer  in  both  was  to  show  that  God  is 
the  Author  of  all  existence,  that  he  made 
all  things  in  beautiful  order,  and  that  he 
made  them  for  his  glory  and  for  the  use 
and  dominion  of  man  as  the  crowning 
work  of  his  hands;  that  the  God  who 
created  the  universe  is  the  same  as  the 
Jehovah  of  the  history  of  the  redemption 
of  fallen  man.  The  six  days  represent 
six  indescribaole  divine  works  in  six 
divine  periods,  ending  in  a  divine  rest. 
Gen.  2  :  2,  3. 

The  first  work  was  the  creation  of 
light — i.  e.  the  diff'used  cosmic  light; 
the  second,  the  organization  of  the 
physical  heavens  and  the  separation  of 
the  firmament  from  the  earth  ;  the  third, 
the  formation  of  the  earth  and  the  divis- 
ion of  sea  and  land,  with  the  creation  of 
vegetable  life;  the  fourth,  the  creation 
of  the  sun — i.  e.  the  concentrated  solar 
light — and  the  planetary  system  ;  the 
fifth,  the  creation  of  lower  animal  life  in 
water  and  air ;  the  sixth,  the  creation 
of  higher  animals  on  land,  and  the  cre- 
ation of  man  in  the  image  of  God.  On 
the  seventh  day  God  rested  from  his 
creative  work  and  entered  upon  his  ac- 
tivity as  the  Preserver  of  all  things, 
blessing  his  creatures  and  instituting 
the  weekly  day  of  rest  for  the  benefit  of 
body  and  soul.  The  first  three  days 
represent  the  era  of  matter,  the  next 
three  days  the  era  of  life;  the  seventh 
day  introduces  the  period  of  history,  or 
of  the  moral  world  as  distinct  from  the 
physical. 

The  six  days  of  creation  are  not  ne- 
cessarily six  literal  days,  but  may  be, 
and  are  probablj',  periods  of  indefinite 
length.  The  question  is  not  what  God 
could  do  (for  one  hour  or  one  minute 
would  suffice  for  his  omnipotence),  but 
in  what  manner  he  usually  works.    That 


CRE 


CRE 


the  word  '^  daj'  "  is  often  used  in  a  wider 
sense  is  evident  from  such  expressions 
as  the  '*  day  of  the  wicked,"  the  *'  day 
of  grace,"  the  "day  of  judgment."  To 
(iod  a  thousand  years  are  as  one  day. 
Ps.  90  :  4  ;  2  Pet.  3  :  8.  The  narrative 
itself  indicates  such  a  wider  use  of  the 
word  ;  for  the  sun,  that  huninary  wliich 
determines  the  solar  day,  was  not  created 
before  the  fourth  day,  and  the  seventh 
day,  which  represents  the  period  of  di- 
vine rest  or  preservation,  has  no  evening. 
(Jen. 2:4.  For  aprofound  scholarly  hand- 
ling of  this  matter  see  Tayler  Lewis's, 
"  Special  Introduction  to  the  First  Chap- 
ter of  Genesis,"  part  ii.  pp.  131-135,  in 
Lange's  Commentary  on  Genesis  (and  his 
Six  Days  of  Creation).  He  says:  "It 
is  not  any  duration,  but  the  phenomenon, 
the  appearing  itself,  that  is  called  day." 
The  Bible  and  science,  nature  and 
revelation,  being  the  products  of  one 
and  the  same  God,  cannot  contradict 
each  other ;  and  various  attempts  have 
been  made  to  harmonize  the  Mosaic 
cosmogony  with  modern  geology  and 
astronomy  by  able  Christian  scientists 
(such  as  Prof.  Guyot,  Principal  Daw- 
son, and  others).  But  it  should  be  kept 
in  mind  that  the  Bible  does  not  intend 
to  teach  science,  but  religion  and  the 
way  of  salvation.  The  great  truths 
taught  by  Moses  in  the  first  two  chap- 
ters of  Genesis  are  obvious  and  inde- 
pendent of  all  science,  as  Guyot  says : 
"  A  personal  God  calling  into  existence 
by  his/ree,  ahnifjhty  icill,  manifested  by 
his  ii-ord,  executed  by  his  Spirit,  things 
which  had  no  being;  a  Creator  distinct 
from  his  creation ;  a  universe,  not  eter- 
nal, but  which  had  a  beginning  in  time  ; 
a  creation  successire — the  six  days — and 
progressive — beginning  with  the  lowest 
element,  matter,  continuing  by  the  plant 
and  animal  life,  terminating  by  man, 
made  in  God's  image;  thus  marking 
the  great  steps  through  which  God,  in 
the  course  of  ages,  has  gradually  real- 
ized the  vast  organic  plan  of  the  cosmos 
we  now  behold  in  its  completeness,  and 
which  he  declared  to  be  very  fjood, — 
these  are  the  fundamental  spiritual 
truths  which  have  enlightened  men  of 
all  ages  on  the  true  relations  of  God  to 
his  creation  and  to  man.  To  under- 
stand them  fully,  to  be  comforted  by 
them,  requires  no  astronomy  or  geology. 
To  depart  from  them  is  to  relapse  into 


the  cold,  unintelligent  fatalism  of  the 
old  ])antheistic  religions  and  modern 
philoso])hies,  or  to  fall  from  the  up])er 
regions  of  light  and  love  infinite  into 
the  dark  abysses  of  an  unavoidable 
scepticism." 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  with  the 
Mosaic  cosmogony  the  old  Ass^'rian 
tradition  of  the  Creation,  which  has 
been  brought  to  light  by  modern  dis- 
covery. 

These  Chaldfean  or  Assyrian  legends 
of  the  Creation  have  been  discovered  in 
a  mutilated  form,  written  upon  twelve 
tablets,  and  are  printed  by  the  late  Mr. 
George  Smith  in  his  Chaldiean  Account 
of  Genesis  (London,  1876).  He  thus 
translates  the  fragments  which  contain 
the  first  part  of  the  story :  "  When 
above  were  not  raised  the  heavens,  and 
below  on  the  earth  a  plant  had  not 
grown  up;  the  abyss  also  had  not 
broken  up  their  boundaries :  the  chaos 
(or  water)  Tiamat  (the  sea)  was  the 
producing  mother  of  the  whole  of  them. 
Those  waters  at  the  beginning  were 
ordained;  but  a  tree  had  not  grown,  a 
flower  had  not  unfolded.  AVhen  the 
gods  had  not  sprung  up,  any  one  of 
them ;  a  plant  had  not  grown,  and 
order  did  not  exist ;  were  made  also  the 
great  gods,  the  gods  Lahmu  and  Laha- 
mu  they  caused  to  come  .  .  .  and  they 
grew  .  .  .  the  gods  Sar  and  Kisar  were 
made  ...  a  course  of  days  and  a  long 
time  passed"  (pp.  62,  63).  Compare 
Gen.  1:1,  2. 

The  succeeding  tablets  are  so  broken 
that  no  connected  stor^'  can  be  read  from 
them  until  we  come  to  the  fifth,  which 
gives  an  account  of  the  fourth  day  of 
creation :  "  It  was  delightful,  all  that 
was  fixed  by  the  great  gods.  Stars, 
their  appearance  [in  figures]  of  animals 
he  arranged.  To  fix  the  year  through 
the  observation  of  their  constellations, 
twelve  months  (or  signs),  of  stars  in 
three  rows  he  arranged,  from  the  day 
when  the  year  commences  unto  the 
close.  He  marked  the  position  of  the 
wandering  stars  [planets]  to  shine  in 
their  courses,  that  they  may  not  do  in- 
jury, and  may  not  trouble  any  one;  the 
positions  of  the  gods  Bel  and  Ilea  he 
fixed  with  him.  And  he  opened  the 
great  gates  in  the  darkness  shrouded — 
the  fastenings  were  strong  on  the  left 
and  right.     In  its  mass  [i.  e.  the  lower 

205 


CUE 


ciiE 


chaos]  he  made  a  boiling,  the  god  Urn 
[the  moon]  he  caused  to  rise  out,  the 
night  he  overshadowed,  to  fix  it  also 
for  the  light  of  the  night,  until  the 
shining  of  the  dnj,  that  the  month 
might  not  be  broken,  and  in  its  amount 
be  regular.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
month,  at  the  rising  of  the  night,  his 
horns  are  breaking  through  to  shine  on 
the  heaven.  On  the  seventh  day  to  a 
circle  he  begins  to  swell,  and  stretches 
toward  the  dawn  further"  (pp.  69-71). 
Comp.  Gen.  1 :  14-19. 

The  seventh  tablet  is  very  imperfect, 
but  the  translation  gives  some  interest- 
ing coincidences  with  Genesis  :  "  When 
the  gods  in  their  assembly  had  created 
.  .  .  were  delightful  the  strong  mon- 
sters .  •  .  they  caused  to  be  living  crea- 
tures .  .  .  cattle  of  the  field,  beasts  of 
the  field,  and  creeping  things  of  the 
field  .  .  .  they  fixed  for  the  living  crea- 
tures .  .  ,  cattle  and  creeping  things  of 
the  city  they  fixed  .  .  .  the  assembly  of 
the  creeping  things  the  whole  which 
were  created  .  .  ,  which  in  the  assem- 
bly of  my  family  .  .  .  and  the  god  Nin- 
si-ku  (the  lord  of  noble  face)  caused  to 
be  two  .  .  .  the  assembly  of  the  creep- 
ing things  he  caused  to  go  ...  "  (pp. 
76,77).     Comp.  Gen.  1 :  24,  25. 

The  tablets  which  relate  the  creation 
of  man  are  unhappily  so  mutilated  that 
the  sense  is  totally  uncertain,  but  the 
first  fragment  appears  to  give  the  speech 
of  the  Deity  to  the  newly-created  pair, 
and  on  the  reverse  a  particular  address 
to  the  woman.  Then  follow  more  tab- 
lets relating  the  Fall. 

Prof.  Oppert  read  before  the  congress 
of  Orientalists  in  Florence  (1878)  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Assyrian  tablets  relating  to 
the  Creation  and  the  Fall,  which  differs 
greatly  from  the  above- given  translation 
of  Mr.  George  Smith.  The  mutilated 
condition  of  the  tablets,  together  with 
the  uncertainty  of  many  of  the  mean- 
ings, easily  accounts  for  the  differences. 
We  give,  by  way  of  comparison,  Prof. 
Oppert's  translation  of  the  tablet  on 
which  the  fourth  creative  day  is  de- 
scribed : 

"1.  He  distributed  the  stations  of  the 
great  gods,  seven  in  number, 
2.  And  fixed  the  stars,  the  mansions  of 
the  seven  litmari  {i.e.  fixed  stars 
regulating  the  celestial  move- 
ments). 
206 


3.  He  created  the  perpetual  renewal  of 

the  year  and  divided  it  into  thirty- 
six  decades. 

4.  For  each  of  the  twelve  months  he 

fixed  three  stars. 

5.  From  the  day  of  the  beginning  of 

the  year  until  its  close 

6.  He  fixed  the  station  of  the  god  Nib- 

iru   that  their  circles    (of  days) 
might  be  perpetually  renewed. 

7.  In  order  to  prevent  either  shorten- 

ing  or  interruption 

8.  The  stations  of  Bel  and  Hea  he  fixed 

with  it, 

9.  And  he  spread  the  three  gates  on  the 

limbs  of  the  angles. 

10.  He  made  a  aiyar  on  the  right  and  on 

the  left : 

11.  At  the  four  exteriors  he  established 

staircases. 

12.  The  moon  was'  appointed  to  betray 

the  night, 

13.  And  he  made  it  renew  itself  to  hide 

the  night  and  make  day  perpetual; 

14.  (Saying):  '  Every  month  with  day- 

break accomplis^h  thy  circle. 

15.  In  the  beginning  of  the  month  the 

night  will  reign  : 

16.  Thy  horns  will  be  invisible,  for  the 

heaven  is  renewed. 

17.  The  seventh  day  thy  disk  will  be 

filled  up  on  the  left, 

18.  But  open   in  darkness  will   remain 

the  half  on  the  right. 

19.  (In   the  middle  of  the  month)  the 

sun  will  be  on  the  horizon  of  the 
sky  at  thy  rising. 

20.  (In    splendor  may  thy  form    reign 

and  make  .  .  . 

21.  (Hence  go  back)  and  turn  thyself 

toward  the  way  of  the  sun. 

22.  (Then  will  change)  the  darkness  :  to 

the  sun  return, 

23.  .  .  .  seek  her  ways  .  .  . 

24.  (Rise  and)  set  according  to  the  eter- 

nal laws.'" 

The  account  of  the  Creation  upon 
these  tablets  is  manifestly  confused. 
How  different  the  account  in  Genesis,^ 
which  bears  throughout  the  impress  of 
truth  !  The  Bible  contains  the  revealed 
order  of  events ;  the  tablets  have  only 
the  traditional,  and  in  part  purely  fan- 
ciful, storv  to  tell. 

CREDITOR.     See  Loan. 

CRES'CENS  djrotving),  a  Christian 
of  whom  Paul  speaks  in  2  Tim.  4  :  10. 

CRETE,  now  Candia,  a  large  island 


CRI 


CRO 


in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  midway  be- 
tween Syria  and  Italy.  It  is  about  140 
miles  long  by  35  miles  wide.  Its  sur- 
face is  mountainous,  the  classic  Mount 
Ida  being  one  of  its  peaks,  but  there 
are  fertile  valleys.  It  was  formerly 
possessed  by  a  rich  and  powerful  peo- 
ple ;  Virgil  speaks  of  its  hundred  cities. 
But  the  people  were  proverbially  liars, 
Tit.  1:12 — a  character  they  are  said 
still  to  bear.  "  Homer  dates  all  the 
fictions  of  Ulysses  from  Crete,  as  if  he 
meant  to  pass  a  similar  censure  on  the 
Cretans  to  that  quoted  b}^  Paul — Kp^re? 
ael  \jjev(Trai." — CoWPER  :  Odynsey,  b.  xiii. 
Cretans  were  at  Jerusalem  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost,  Acts  2:11;  Paul  was  ship- 
wrecked near  the  island,  and  he  left  Titus 
there  as  the  first  pastor  and  superintend- 
ent, who  was  "  to  ordain  elders  in  every 
city  "  of  the  island.  Tit.  1:5.  It  is  now 
under  the  tyranny  of  the  Turks,  but 
thoroughly  Greek  in  nationality  and 
sympathy,  and  will  probably  ere  long 
be  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Greece. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  first  set- 
tled by  the  Philistines.    See  Gaphtorim. 

CRIB,  a  stall  for  cattle  or  fodder, 
Prov.  14  :  4 ;  Job  39  :  9  ;  Isa.  1:3;  or 
perhaps  simply  the  manger  out  of  which 
the  cattle  were  to  eat. 

CRIM'SON.  Jer.  4  :  30.  See 
Colors. 

CRISP'ING-PINS.  The  word  is 
not  properly  translated  in  Isa.  3  :  22, 
for  it  denotes  a  reticule,  probably  richly 
ornamented. 

CRIS'PUS.  Acts  18:  8.  An  officer 
of  the  Jewish  synagogue  at  Corinth. 
He  and  his  family  were  converted  un- 
der Paul's  preaching,  and  he  received 
the  ordinance  of  baptism  at  the  apos- 
tle's hands.     1  Cor.  1 :  14. 

CROSS,  CRUCIFY.  Matt.  23  : 
34;  27:32.  Crucifixion  is  a  mode  of 
execution  of  great  antiquity,  and  still 
prevails  among  the  Hindoos  and  Chi- 
nese. It  was  regarded  by  the  Romans 
as  the  basest  and  most  ignominious 
death,  deserved  only  by  traitors  and 
slaves.  Luke  23  :  32.  It  was  an  accursed 
death.  Deut.  21 :  23  ;  Gal.  3:13.  Hence 
the  force  of  the  expressions  1  Cor.  1  : 
23  ;  Phil.  2:8;  Heb.  12  :  2.  As  soon  as 
the  sentence  was  pronounced,  "■  Thou 
shalt  be  crucified,"  the  person  was 
stripped  and  fastened  to  a  post  about  as 
high  as  the  waist,  and  was  then  scourged 


with  rods  or  whij)s  made  of  leather 
strips  armed  with  small  bits  of  lead  or 
bone,  and  often  so  severely  as  to  occasion 
death.  After  the  scourging  the  person 
was  compelled  to  bear  his  own  cross  to 
the  place  of  execution.  This  was  usu- 
ally an  elevated  place  without  the  city, 
and  near  the  highway. 

There  are  three  forms  of  the  cross — 
one  in  which  the  two  pieces  of  wood 
cross  below  the  top,  one  in  which  they 
are  placed  one  on  the  top  of  the  other, 
and  one  in  which  they  are  placed  diago- 
nally : 


Three  Forms  of  the  Cross. 

The  first  is  the  usual  form  ;  the  second' 
is  probably  the  oldest. 

The  monogram  of  Christ  used  by  the 
early  Christians  and  by  Constantine 
represents  the  cross  with  the  initials 
of  the  name  of  Christ  (the  X  and  the- 
P),  thus  : 


The  cross  was  so  fixed  into  the  earth 
that  the  feet  of  the  sulferer  were  usu- 
all}'  about  2  feet  from  the  ground.  In 
or  near  the  middle  of  the  upright  post 
there  was  a  projection,  to  which  he  was 
raised  by  cords  ;  and  being  previously 
divested  of  his  clothing,  he  was  first 
bound  to  the  cross-beam,  and  then  nailed 
by  his  hands,  with  strong  iron  spikes, 
to  its  extremities.  There  is  conclusive 
evidence  from  profane  history  that  the 
hands  were  pierced  in  this  way,  and 
that  it  was  peculiar  to  the  punishment 
of  crucifixion,  but  whether  the  feet  were 

207 


CEO 


CEO 


nailed  separately,  or  whether  a  single 
nail  transfixed  them  both,  or  whether 
they  were  merely  tied  to  the  beam  by 
a  cord,  is  doubtful.  In  order  to  lessen 
the  pain,  it  was  customary  to  give  the 
sufferer  wine  medicated  with  myrrh, 
etc.  Our  Redeemer  rejected  this  draught, 
Mark  15  :  23,  choosing  to  suff"er  to  the 
full  extent  the  pains  of  death.  Vinegar, 
too,  was  a  refreshing  and  sustaining 
drink,  and  was  off'ered  to  him.  Matt. 
27  :  48.  The  criminal  was  fastened  to 
the  cross  by  four  soldiers  appointed  for 
the  purpose,  who  were  allowed  the  ap- 
parel of  the  suff"erer  as  the  perquisite  of 
their  office.  Matt.  27  :  35. 

Over  the  cross  was  commonly  placed 
a  writing  or  superscription,  indicating 
the  off"ence  for  which  the'  individual 
was  put  to  death.  It  was  called  by 
the  Romans  titulus,  or  the  title.  John 
19  :  19-22. 

Among  the  Romans  the  prisoner  often 
remained  upon  the  cross  till  his  body 
fell  to  the  earth  by  its  own  weight,  but 
the  Jews  were  permitted,  in  obedience 
to  the  prece])t  of  their  law,  Deut.  21 : 
22,  23,  to  terminate  the  suff'erings  of  the 
malefactor  before  sundown.  This  was 
eff"ected  in  various  ways — sometimes  by 
setting  fire  to  the  foot  of  the  cross,  and 
at  others  by  breaking  the  limbs  with  a 
hammer  or  piercing  the  body  with  a 
lance.  John  19  :  31-37.  The  agonies  of 
this  death  were  extreme.  Cicero  says  : 
"The  executioner,  the  covering  of  the 
head,  the  very  name  of  the  cross,  should 
be  removed  afar,  not  only  from  the 
body,  but  from  the  thoughts,  the  eyes, 
the  ears,  of  Roman  citizens;  for  of  all 
these  things,  not  only  the  actual  oc- 
currence and  endurance,  but  the  very 
contingency  and  expectation — nay,  the 
mention  itself — is  unworthy  of  a  Roman 
citizen  and  a  freeman."  The  judges 
denominated  it  "  the  utmost  torment, 
the  extremest  punishment." 

The  extension  of  the  limbs  just  after 
so  sevei'e  a  scourging,  and  the  impossi- 
bility of  making  the  slightest  motion 
without  occasioning  suff'ering.  the  j^ier- 
cing  of  the  hands  and  feet  in  the  parts 
most  susceptible  of  acute  and  agonizing 
pain,  the  exposure  of  the  wounded  antl 
lacerated  flesh  to  the  action  of  the  sun 
and  air  hour  after  hour,  the  loss  of  blood, 
and  the  sense  of  the  indignity  and  con- 
tempt, which,  as  shown  to  our  Saviour, 
208 


was  the  most  bitter,  malicious,  and  un- 
sparing that  can  be  conceived, — all  con- 
spired to  make  it,  to  the  very  last  de- 
gree, a  death  of  pain.  Often  the 
strength  of  the  malefactor  lingered  for 
three  days,  and  even  longer.  Hence 
the  surprise  of  Pilate.  Mark  15:44. 

The  figure  of  a  cross  has  often  been 
represented  on  the  banners  of  contend- 
ing armies,  thus  : 


With  the   conversion   of  the  Roman 

empire,  the  cross,  from  a  sign  of  shame, 

became  a  sign  of  honor.     It  reminds  us 

I  of  the  great  price  of  our  salvation,  and 

I  points  the  true  way  to  immortality  and 

;  glory  :  "  No  cross,  no  crown." 

The  cross  is  often  used  figuratively  for 
i  those  reproaches,  self-denials,  and  sac- 
I  rifices  which  the  true  followers  of  Christ 
I  must  be  expected  to  endure  if  they  faith- 
fully maintain  their  profession.  Matt. 
1  16  :  24. 

!       The  classic  work  upon  the  cross  and  the 
1  crucifixion  of  Jesus  is  Justus  Lipsius's 
(d.  1606)  Be   Crucc,  1595.     But  in  1878, 
Herman  Fulda,  pastor  near  Halle,  Ger- 
many, issued  a  work  entitled  Das  Kreuz 
I  nnddie  Kreuzigung,  which  maintains  that 
i  Lipsius  and  all  his  followers  are  wrong. 
j  This  statement  he    fortifies  by  a  fresh 
examination  of  the  sources.     According 
to  Fulda,  the  cross  of  Jesus  was  a  post. 
His  hands  were  nailed  on  either  side  of 
it ;  his  feet,  the  knees  being  much  bent, 
were  fastened  by  a   stout  cord   to  this 
post,  but  not  nailed,  and  they,  together 
with    the  nailed   hands,   supported   the 


CRO 


CRY 


body.  Owing  to  haste,  he  deems  it  prob- 
able that  the  customary  ''  seat  "  fasten- 
ed to  the  cross  as  a  partial  support  was 
wanting.  Fulda  finds  in  this  extreme- 
ly painful  position  one  reason  for  the 
speedy  death  of  Jesus,  which  occasioned 
Pilate's  incredulity. 

CROWN.  2  Kgs«  11  :  12.  Anciently 
the  crown  or  diadem  was  only  a  head- 
band, Eze.  16  :  12,  or  a  ribbon  or  fillet, 
made  of  silk  or  linen,  surrounding  the 
head,  and  probably  connected  behind. 
Crowns  arose  probably  from  the  natu- 
ral custom  of  wearing  wreaths  of  flow- 
ers on  occasions  of  joy  and  festivity,  or 
else  from  the  custom  of  binding  the  hair 
to  prevent  its  dishevelment  by  the  wind. 
Ex.  28  :  36,  37  ;  29  :  6.  We  find  it  rep- 
resented on  ancient  medals.  Newly- 
married  persons  of  both  sexes  wore 
crowns.  Comp.  Song  Sol.  3:11  with 
Eze.  16 :  12.  It  was  usually  a  badge 
of  royalty  or  princely  distinction.  It 
was  sometimes  of  pure  gold,  and  was 
worn  by  kings,  2  Chr.  23:11,-  Matt. 
27  :  29,  and  sometimes  in  battle.  2  Sam. 
1:10;  12  :  30.  The  weight,  in  the  last 
passage,  denotes  the  value,  and  not  the 


Crowns.     (After  Ayre.) 
1.  Crown  of  Upper  Egj-pt.     2.  Crown  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Egypt  United,     3.  Assyriiiii  Crown,  from  Nine- 
veh Marbles.     4.  Laurel  Crown.     5.  Crown  of  Herod 
the  Great.    6.  Crown  of  Aretas,  King  of  .\rabia. 

gravity,  of  the  crown.  Afterward  the 
shape  and  size  were  changed,  and  cost- 
ly ornaments  appended  to  it.  2  Sam. 
12:30.  It  was  worn  by  queens.  Esth. 
2:17.  It  was  customary  for  a  king  to 
wear  as  many  crowns  as  he  had  king- 
doms. Rev.  19  :  12.  The  word  is  figu- 
14 


ratively  used  by  the  sacred  writers  to 
denote  honor,  Prov.  12  :  4,  prosperity, 
Lam.  5:16,  eternal  life,  and  blessed- 
ness. 1  Pet.  5  :  4.  The  inscription  on 
the  crown  of  the  high  priest,  Ex.  39  :30, 
was  significant  of  his  sacred  office  and 
functions.  Such  inscriptions  have  some- 
times been  placed  on  the  crowns  of 
princes  and  heroes  to  indicate  some 
splendid  action  or  service.  Paul  uses  the 
custom  of  giving  crowns  of  laurel  or  pars- 
ley to  the  victors  in  the  (irrcek  games  to 
furnish  an  illustration  of  the  difference 
between  the  honor  of  earthly  distinction 
and  that  which  comes  from  following 
Christ.  In  Rev.  17  :  5  allusion  seems 
to  be  made  to  the  crown  of  the  .Jewish 
high  priest,  whose  raiment  is  described 
as  having  the  colors  and  ornaments  of 
the  sacred  vestments.  It  is  said  that 
the  word  mystcrium  ("mystery")  was 
formerly  engraven  on  the  papal  crown, 
and  was  erased  in  the  time  of  Julius  III. 

The  ''crown  of  thorns"  worn  by 
Christ,  Matt.  27  :  29,  was  probably  made 
of  a  common  Arabian  plant,  called  »abk, 
which  has  "  many  small  and  sharp  spines, 
soft,  round,  pliant  branches,  leaves  much 
resembling  ivy,  of  a  very  deep  green, 
as  if  in  designed  mockery  of  a  victor's 
wreath." — Hasselqidst,  quoted  in  Ayre: 
Treasury  of  Bible  Kiwtcledge.  The  sol- 
diers plaited  the  wreath  for  Christ 
rather  as  an  insult  than  to  cause  him 
suflfering. 

CRU'CIFY.     See  Cross. 

CRUSE.  1  Kgs.  17  :  12.  A  small 
vessel  for  liquids,  used  by  the  Jews. 

CRYS'TAL.  Job28:17.  The  word 
here  rendered  "  crj'stal  "  is  used  nowhere 
else,  and  is  believed  to  mean  '•  glass," 
which  was  made  by  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians and  highly  valued.  Elsewhere  the 
subject  of  this  paragraph  usually  denotes 
ice  or  frost,  and  the  original  term  is  often 
so  translated,  as  ''frost,"  Gen.  31:40; 
Job  37  :  10;  Jer.  36  :  30;  and  "ice." 
Job  6:16;  38  :  29  ;  Ps.  147 :  17.  In  Eze. 
1  :  22,  rock-crystal,  a  stone  perfectly 
transparent  and  resembling  the  purest 
glass,  was  plainly  meant,  and  there  may 
be  reference  to  the  peculiarly  dazzling 
eff"ect  of  light  reflected  from  its  surface. 
The  ancients  supposed  that  this  mineral 
was  only  "ice  congealed  by  intense 
cold,"  and  valued  it  highly  for  its  great 
beauty.  Its  transparency  is  alluded  to 
in  Rev.  4:  6 ;  21  :  11  ;  22  :  1. 

209 


CUB 


CUP 


CU'BIT.     See  Measures. 

CUCK'OO.  Lev.  11:16.  Doubtless 
a  mistranslation.  It  is  thought  most 
probable  that  *'  the  slender  bird  "  here 
referred  to  may  have  been  a  species  of 
shearwater  {Pii(^ mis),  several  kinds  of 
which  are  common  on  the  coast  of  Pal- 
estine, are  sold  in  the  markets  of  mari- 
time towns,  and,  as  living  on  fish,  would 
be  forbidden  food  to  the  Jews. 

CU'CUMBER.  Num.  11 :  5.  A  gar- 
den-vegetable well  known  in  this  coun- 


Squirting  Cucumber. 
c.  Sectiou  of  the  Fruifc. 


(From  Eiehm.) 
.  Plant.     6.  Fruit. 


try.  Cucumbers,  melons,  and  onions  are 
now  among  the  leading  productions  of 
Egypt,  and  are  also  commonly  cultiva- 
ted in  Palestine.  Besides  our  own  kind, 
another  (Ciicumis  chafe)  is  cultivated, 
having  a  fruit  with  less  flavor,  but 
larger. 

"  Cucumbers  form  an  important  item 
in  the  summer  food  of  the  poor,  and  are 
eaten  with  the  rind  on,  without  any  con- 
diment. In  the  oppressive  heat  of  sum- 
mer they  form  a  most  grateful  vegetable. 
I  remember  seeing  dinner  served  out  to 
an  Arab  school  in  Jerusalem,  which  con- 
sisted of  a  thin  barley-cake  and  a  raw 
cucumber  to  each  boy." — Tristram. 

The  "lodge  in  the  garden  of  cucum- 
bers," Isa.  1  :  8,  rudely  constructed  of 
poles  and  boughs,  may  still  be  seen  in 
many  fields.  It  is  intended  to  shelter  a 
watchman  set  to  protect  the  fruit  from 
jackals  and  other  animals,  as  well  as 
from  thievish  men.  When  the  crop  is 
over  and  the  lodge  forsaken  by  the 
keeper,  "  the  poles  fall  down,  or  lean 
every  which  way,  and  those  green 
210 


boughs  with  which  it  is  shaded  will 
have  been  scattered  by  the  wind,  leav- 
ing only  a  ragged,  sprawling  wreck,  a 
most  att'ecting  type  of  utter  desolation." 
—  Thoinson.  Job  seems  to  have  had 
such  ruins  in  mind.  27  :  IS. 

CUM'MIN.  Matt.  23  :  2.3.  A  low 
herb  [Cnminum  sativum)  of  the  fennel 
kind,  which  produces  aromatic  seeds 
and  is  found  in  Syria.  In  Isa.  28:25, 
27  reference  is  made  to  the  manner  of 
sowing  and  threshing  it.  The  same 
method  is  observed  in  Malta  at  this  day. 
It  was  one  of  the  things  of  less  conse- 
quence which  the  Pharisees  strictly 
tithed.     See  Mint. 

CUN'NING  is  used  in  the  Bible  in 
its  original  sense  of  "  knowing,"  "  skil- 
ful." Gen.  25  :  27;  1  Sam.  16  :  16,  etc 
In  2  Pet.  1:16  the  word  "  cunningly  "  if 
used  in  a  similar  sense. 

CUP.  1  Kgs.  7:26.  The  horns  of 
animals  were  anciently  used  by  some 
nations  as  drinking-vessels,  but  the 
Jews  had  cups  and  goblets  at  a  wevy 
early  period,  Gen.  44 : 2,  though  they 
used  horns  for  anointing-oil.  1  Sam. 
16  :  13.  Some  of  their  cups  were  highly 
ornamented,  1  Kgs.  7 :  26,  and  in  shape 
were  probably  not  unlike  those  now 
used  for  culinary  purposes  by  the  Egyp- 
tians. Cups  of  this  kind,  made  of  gold, 
silver,  copper,  etc.,  according  to  the 
owner's  wealth,  are  in  use  in  Persia  at 
this  day. 


Assyrian  King  and  Cup-bearer. 

The  figurative  use  of  this  word  in  the 
Scriptures  is  frequent.    Generally,  how- 


CUP 


CYP 


ever,  it  represents  the  blessings  or  the 
judgments  of  Ileivven,  or  the  allotments 
of  God's  providence.  Ps,  23  :  5  ;  75  : 
8  :  116  :  13  ;  Isa.  51  :  17-22.  Comp.  Jer. 
25  :  15  and  51  :  7  with  Rev.  14  :  10  and 
16  :  10.  The  sufferings  of  our  Saviour 
are  also  represented  bv  a  similar  figure. 
Matt.  20:22  and  26:39. 

CUP'-BEAUER.     See  Butler. 

CUP  OF  BLESSING.  See 
Blessing. 

CURSE.  Gen.  27  :  12.  In  the 
scriptural  use  it  is  the  opposite  of  bless. 

To  curse  is  to  imjjrecate  evil  upon  any 
one.  Gen.  9  :  25  ;  comp.  Gen.  27  :  12  ; 
Neh.  13  :  2  ;  Matt.  5  :  44  ;  John  7  :  49  : 
James  3  :  9.  The  curses  which  are  re- 
corded in  the  Bible  as  being  pronounced 
b}'  Noah,  Moses,  Joshua,  and  others,  are 
not  to  be  regarded  as  the  effects  of  pas- 
sion or  revenge.  They  were  either  pro- 
nounced under  the  immediate  influence 
of  God's  Spirit,  or  are  to  be  viewed  as 
only  predictions  of  evil  uttered  in  the 
form  of  imprecation. 

The  words  "curse"  and  "cursed" 
are  the  opposite  of  ''  bless "  and 
"  blessed,"  and  are  often  so  contrasted. 
Deut.  28.  See  Bless.  The  curse  of 
the  ground  and  of  the  serpent.  Gen. 
3  :  14,  17,  is  to  be  regarded  as  the 
doom  or  jvidgment  of  God  upon  them. 

The  curse  of  the  Law  is  the  sentence 
of  condemnation  which  it  pronounces 
on  the  transgressor,  Gal.  3  :  10,  and 
from  which  Christ  redeems  us  by  "be- 
ing made  a  curse  for  us."  Gal.  3  :  13  ; 
comp.  Rom.  8:1  and  Gal.  3:13  with 
Rom.  5:16  and  2  Cor.  3  :  7-9. 

To  curse,  in  an  evil  or  blasphemous 
sense,  is  to  affirm  or  deny  anything 
with  thoughtless  or  rash  imprecations 
of  divine  vengeance.    Matt.  26  :  74. 

CUSH  [hhickf).  1.  The  oldest  son 
of  Ham,  and  father  of  Nimrod.  Gen. 
10  :  6,  7,  8  ;  1  Chr.  1 :  8,  9,  1 0. 

2.  A  Benjamite  in  the  time  of  Saul. 
Ps.  7,  title. 

CUSH.  1.  A  country  near  the  Gi- 
hon,  Gen.  2  :  13,  marg.,  north  of  Assyria. 

2.  The  country  peo])led  by  Cush  or 
the  Ethiopians,  Gen.  10:6,  lying  to  the 
south  of  Egypt,  on  the  upper  Nile,  and 
possible'  extending  its  rule  into  south- 
ern Arabia.     See  Ethiopia. 

CU'SHAN.  Hab.  3  :  7.  Perhaps 
the  same  as  Cush,  though  some  think  it 
refers  to  the  king  Chushan-rishathaim. 


CU'SHI  [the  Ethio]}lmi).  1.  One  to 
whom  Joab  intrusted  the  news  of  the 
defeat  and  death  of  Absalom.  2  Sam. 
18:21-23,  31,  32. 

2.  An  ancestor  of  Jehudi.  Jer.  36  : 
14. 

3.  The  father  of  Zephaniah  the  proph- 
et. Zeph.  1:1. 

CUSH'ITE.     See  Cusn. 

CUS'TOM,  RECEIPT  OF.  See 
Publican. 

CUTH,  AND  CU'TIIAH.  2  Kgs. 
17:24,  30.  A  city  of  Assyria,  15  miles 
north-east  of  Bab3'lon,  where  the  name 
Cutha  is  inscribed  upon  bricks  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's age.  At  Cutha  was  the 
great  university  from  whence  the  origi- 
nals of  the  tablets  giving  an  Assyrian 
account  of  the  Creation  were  brought 
by  Assurbanipal.  II.  Rassam,  a  distin- 
guished Assyrian  scholar,  in  1879  at- 
tempted to  discover  the  site  of  the  roj^al 
record-office  and  to  re-explore  these 
ruins  of  Cutha. 

CUT'TINGS  IN  THE  FLESH. 
This  repulsive  practice,  common  among 
idolaters,  ancient  and  modern,  originates 
in  the  notion  that  pain  and  blood  please 
the  angry  deity.  Cutting  with  a  knife 
also  formed  a  part  of  a  funeral  ceremony. 
It  would  seem  that  the  Syrians  were 
particularly  addicted  to  the  custom  ; 
accordingly,  the  Israelites  were  strongly 
forbidden  thus  to  mutilate  themselves. 
Comp.  Lev.  19  :  28  ;  Deut.  14  :  1  ;  1  Kgs. 
18  :  28  :  Jer.  16  :  6. 

CYM'BALS.  There  are  two  kinds 
of  cymbals,  both  of  which  we  find  men- 
tioned in  Ps.  150  :  5.  The  frst  kind, 
called  the  "  loud  cymbals,"  like  casta- 
nets, consisted  of  small  round  plates, 
two  of  which  are  held  in  each  hand,  one 
upon  the  thumb  and  the  other  upon  the 
middle  finger,  and  being  struck  together 
skilfully  make  an  agreeable  sound.  The 
second  kind,  called  the  "  high-sounding 
cymbals,"  were  two  broad  convex  plates 
of  brass,  the  concussion  of  which  pro- 
duced a  shrill,  piercing  sound,  like  clat- 
tering rather  than  tiukh'ug.  1  Cor.  13  : 1. 
The  cymbals  were  used  in  connection 
with  other  instruments,  not  onl}'  in  the 
temple  or  on  sacred  occasions,  but  in 
times  of  war  and  as  a  musical  accom- 
paniment to  Hebrew  women  in  dan- 
cing. Both  kinds  are  in  common  use 
to-day  in  the  East. 

CY'PRESS.      Isa.   44  :  14.      The 

211 


CYP 


CYP 


Hebrew  word  indicates  a  tree  with  hard- 
grained  wood,  but  there  are  objections 
to  the  true  cypress,  and  there  is  no  cer- 
tainty what  it  was.  It  may  have  been 
the  Syrian  juniper,  which  grows  wild 
upon  Lebanon,  as  the  cypress  never 
does  in  the  Holy  Land.  The  latter  tree 
{Onprefifixs  senipervirom)  is  a  tall  ever- 
green, the  wood  of  which  is  heavy,  aro- 
matic, and  remarkably  durable.  Its  foli- 
age is  dark  and  gloomy,  its  form  close 
and  pyramidal,  and  it  is  usually  planted 
in  the  cemeteries  of  the  East.  Coffins 
were  made  of  it  in  the  East,  and  the 
mummy-cases  of  Egypt  are  found  at 
this  day  of  the  cypress-wood.  The  tim- 
ber has  been  known  to  suffer  no  decay 
by  the  lapse  of  1100  years. 

CY'PRUS,  a  large,  fertile  island 
of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  triangular  in 
form,  150  miles  long,  and  from  50  to  60 
miles  broad.  Venus  was  its  chief  god- 
dess ;  hence  her  name  Cypria.     It  con- 


tained two  prominent  cities,  Salamis  and 
Paphos,  and  17  towns.  Salamis  was  at 
the  east  and  Paphos  at  the  west  end  of 
the  island.  Acts  13  :  5.  Barnabas  was 
a  native  of  Cyprus,  and  its  people  are 
noticed  in  apostolic  history.  Acts  4  : 
36  ;  13  :  4  :  15  :  39.  Sergius  Paulus, 
proconsul  of  Cyprus,  was  converted  by 
Paul  on  his  first  missionary-tour,  Acts 
13  :  7  ff.,  and  thus  became  the  first 
Christian  ruler  on  record. 

History. — Cyprus  was  colonized  by  the 
Phoenicians  at  a  very  early  date.  It  was 
the  Chittim,  or  Kittim,  of  the  0.  T. 
Num.  24  :  24.  Through  Greek  colonists 
it  received  the  name  of  Kypros,  perhaps 
from  the  plant  ci/prus  (henna — Lnwsonia 
alba.  See  Camphire).  Copper-mining 
and  the  production  of  swords,  armor,  and 
other  articles  in  bronze  were  its  princi- 
pal industries.  There  was  also  an  ex- 
tensive commerce.  In  literature,  Cyprus 
boastedof  very  early  distinction.    Thoth- 


A  U  L    O    N 


I   ^ 


CrontBrjrdn.Piij  u  narmakitL )  ^q^^ 


\5 


S 


■^ -'*.  •    /Llaca  JSZxsfa') 


"^•J    c  s.Anirets) 
,  CaLpaaiael- 


Aphi'odisiuTr 

.     ,    ,  ^   .t^vaHT.«*,f<?'       ^Jj'aUcapolis 

'1 


{jBafTo) 
(C.Bott»)  ZepltyriiimE 


iimPj;    ,>^- 


Map  of  Cyprus. 


mes  III.  of  Egypt  conquered  the  island. 
At  a  later  period  Belus,  king  of  Tyre,  de- 
stroyed most  of  its  cities.  Sargon  made 
it  tributary  to  Assyria,  B.  c.  707  :  Apries, 
king  of  Egypt  (the  Pharaoh  of  Scripture), 
plundered  it.  Later,  it  was  tributary  to 
Darius.  The  Athenians  and  Lacede- 
monians conquered  part  of  Cj'prus  from 
the  Persians,  b.  c.  477.  Alexander  the 
Great  was  aided  by  120  ships  from  this 
island  in  his  siege  of  Tyre,  b.  c.  335.  In 
B.  c.  294  the  island  was  a  dependency  of 
Egypt.  Cato  took  possession  of  it  for 
the  Romans.  Cicero  was  proconsul 
212 


there,  B.  c.  52.  The  Byzantine  empe- 
rors and  the  Arabs  successively  held 
sway.  Cyprus  was  a  frequent  halting- 
place  of  the  Crusaders.  Richard  I,  of 
England  captured  it  in  A.  n.  1191,  and 
sold  it  to  the  Knights  Templars.  Later, 
the  Genoese  and  Venetians  held  the 
island.  The  Turks  dispossessed  the 
Venetians  a.  d.  1570,  and  have  retained 
their  mastery  for  more  than  300  years. 

The  control  of  Cyprus  was  secured 
in  1S78  by  the  English  government  as  a 
naval  station  and  base  of  operation  for 
the  protection  of  Asiatic  Turkey  and  the 


CYR 


CYR 


Indian  government.  The  recent  exca- 
vations and  discoveries  of  General  Ces- 
nola  have  brought  to  light  a  vast  num- 
ber of  antiquities  and  works  of  art  of 
Phoenician,  Egyptian,  Greek,  and  spe- 
cific Cypriotic  characters,  which  are  de- 
posited in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
New  York.  See  Cesnola  :  Cyprus,  its 
Ancient  Cities,  Tombs,  and  Temples,  New 
York.  1878. 

CYRE'NE,  the  capital  of  a  small 
province,  and  the  chief  city  of  Libya, 
in  northern  Africa.  It  was  the  cen- 
tre of  a  wide  district  between  Car- 
thage andEgypt,  and  corresponding 
to  modern  Trlpnli.  It  was  a  Grecian 
city,  founded  about  B.  c.  631.  Under 
Alexander  the  Great  the  Jews  were 
about  one-fourth  of  the  population, 
and  were  granted  citizenship  on  the 
same  terms  as  Greeks.  At  Alexan- 
der's death  it  was  attached  to  Egypt . 
became  a  Roman  province  in  b.  c 
75  ;  Simon,  who  bore  our  Saviour's 
cross,  was  of  that  city,  Matt.  27  • 
32  ;  its  people  were  at  Jerusalem 
during  the  Pentecost,  and  they  had 
a  synagogue  there,  Acts  2  :  10;  6  : 
9,  and  some  of  them  became  preach- 
ers of  the  gospel.  11 :  20  ;  13  :  1.  Cy- 
rene  was  destroyed  by  the  Saracens  in 
the  fourth  centurv,  and  is  now  desolate, 

CYRE'NIANS.     See  Cyrene. 

CYRE'NIUS  (A>emos),the  Greek 
form  of  the  Roman  name  Quirinius. 
Luke  2  :  2.  He  was  probably  twice 
governor  of  Syria — the  first  time  from 
B.  c.  4  (the  year  of  our  Lord's  birth)  to 
B.C.  1,  and  again  from  a.  d.  6  to  11.  It 
was  during  his  first  governorship  that 
the  "  first  taxing  "  or  enrolment  occurred, 
which  necessitated  the  visit  of  Joseph 
and  Mary  to  Bethlehem.  The  second 
census  took  place  A.  d.  6,  and  is  men- 
tioned by  Luke  in  Acts  5  :  37  and  by 
Josephus.  His  full  name  was  Publius 
Sulpicius  Quirinius.    See  Taxing,  Days 

OF    THE. 

CY'RUS  {the  sun;  in  Hebrew,  Ko- 
resh),  founder  of  the  Persian  empire, 
a  prince,  statesman,  and  conqueror  of 
great  renown,  and   an   instrument  em- 


ployed by  Jehovah  in  the  execution  of 
his  designs  of  mercy  toward  the  Jew.s, 
as  foretold  by  Isaiah.  44  :  28  ;  45  :  1-7  ; 
comp.  2  Chr.  36  :  22,  23  ;  Ezr.  1:1-4; 
Dan.  6  :  28.  He  was  the  son  of  Cam- 
byses,  king  of  Persia,  and  a  nephew  of 
Darius  the  Mede  (Cyaxares),  and  united 
the  crowns  of  Persia  and  Media.  His 
chief  biographers  (Xenophon  and  He- 
rodotus) present  his  history  and  ex- 
ploits in  very  difi'erent  aspects.  His 
conquests    extended    over    all    western 


Keputed  Tomb  of  Cyrus. 

Asia,  but  the  most  brilliant  of  them 
was  that  of  Babylon,  B.  c.  538.  After 
this  event  he  ordered  a  return  of  the 
Jews,  who  had  been  70  years  in  cap- 
tivity, to  their  own  land,  and  furnished 
them  very  liberally  with  the  means  of 
rebuilding  their  temple.  Daniel  lived 
at  his  court,  and  was  his  favorite 
minister  and  adviser.  Dan.  6  :  28.  His 
edict  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple 
may  be  said  to  mark  the  beginning  of 
strict  Judaism,  for  the  Jews  from  that 
time  became  consolidated  ecclesiastically 
under  the  government  of  the  Sanhedrin. 
Cyrus  died  from  a  wound  received  in 
battle,  B.  c.  529.  His  reputed  tomb  still 
exists,  near  Murgab,  the  ancient  Pasarga- 
dae. — Rawlinson  :  Ancient  Monarchies, 
vol.  iii.  p.  318.  The  captivity  of  the  Jews, 
which  was  ended  by  the  decease  of  Cy- 
rus, ended  also  the  sin  of  idolatry  in  th^ 
nation. 

213 


DAB 


DAM 


D. 


DAB'AREH.  Josh.  21  :  28.  An 
incorrect  form  for  Daberath. 

DAB'BASHETH  {hump  of  a 
camel),  a  town  of  Zebulon.  Josh.  19  :  11. 

DAB'ERATH  {jjco^ture),  a  town  of 
Zebulon  and  Issachar,  Josh.  19  :  12  ;  21 : 
28  :  now  Deburieh,  west  of  Mount  Tabor. 

DAG'GER,  a  short  sword,  usually 
made  with  a  double  edge,  and  suspended 
from  the  girdle.  Jud.  3  :  16,  21,  22.  See 
Arms. 

DA'GON  (diminutive,  to  express 
endearment,  of  fish),  the  national  god 
of  the  Philistines.  His  corresponding 
goddess  was  Atargatis  or  Derceto,  and 
they  were  at  times  worshipped  in  a 
common  temple.  Atargatis  is  man- 
ifestly related  to  Astarte.  There  were 
temples  of  Dagon  at  Gaza,  where  Sam- 
son performed  his  final  feat  of  strength 
in  pulling  down  the  pillars,  Jud.  16  :  23  ; 
at  Anhdod,  where  the  idol  miraculously 
fell  down  before  the  ark  of  the  covenant, 
1  Sam.  5  :  1-4  (this  temple  was  de- 
stroyed by  Jonathan  in  the  Maecabgean 
war,  1  Maec.  10  :  83,  84 ;  11 :  4 ;  Joseph., 
Ant.,  13, 4,  ^  5)  J  at  Beth-dagon,  in  Judah, 
Josh.  15  :  41,  and  in  Asher,  Josh.  19 : 
27  ,•  and  elsewhere.  Dagon  was  repre- 
sented with  the  face  and  hands  of  a  man 
and  the  body  of  a  fish,  the  fish  part  sig- 
nifying fecundity. 

The  worship  of  a  fish-god  was  not 
original    with    the    Philistines    or    the 


The  Fish-God.     (From  a  bas-relief  from 
Khorsabad.  Botia.) 

Phoenicians,  who  also  wei'e  Dagon's 
worshippers,  but  with  the  Assyrian 
Babylonians,  upon  whose  monuments 
are  representations  of  such  a  god.  under 
the  name  Odakon,  sporting  in  the  sea 
214 


surrounded  by  fishes  and  marine  ani- 
mals. He  was  said  to  have  emerged 
from  the  sea  and  to  have  been  "  one  of 
the  great  benefactors  of  men,"  because 
he  taught  them  the  use  of  letters,  the 
arts,  religion,  and  agriculture. 

DALiAI'AH  {tohom  Jehovah  hath 
freed),  a  man  of  David's  posterity.  1 
Chr.  3  :  24. 

DALE,  THE  KING'S.  Gen.  14: 
17  :  2  Sam.  18  :  18.  Probably  in  the  val- 
lev  of  Jehoshaphat,  near  Jerusalem. 

'DALMANU'THA,  a  town  on  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  near  Magdala,  Mark  8  : 
10;  Matt.  15:39;  probably  at  'Aiii-el- 
Bdn'deh,  on  the  west  side  of  the  sea,  2 
miles  from  Tiberias,  where  are  ruins. 

DALMA'TIA,  a  mountainous  dis- 
trict on  the  east  of  the  Adriatic  Sea; 
visited  bv  Titus.   2  Tim.  4  :  10. 

DAL'PHON  {sunft  ?),  the  second 
of  the  ten  sons  of  Haman.    Esth.  9 :  7. 

DAM^ARIS  (a  heifer),  a  woman, 
probably  of  distinction,  who  was  con- 
verted under  Paul's  preaching  in  Athens. 
Because  she  is  mentioned,  Acts  17  :  34, 
immediately  after  Dionysius  the  Areop- 
agite,  Chrysostom  and  others  maintained 
she  was  the  latter's  wife.  But  the  very 
mode  of  mentioning — "  a  woman  named" 
— is  against  the  conjecture. 

DAMAS'CUS,  the  most  ancient  and 
famous  city  of  Syria,  133  miles  north-east 
of  Jerusalem,  at  the  base  of  Anti-Leb- 
anon mountains.  It  is  on  a  fertile  plain 
30  miles  in  diameter,  with  mountains  on 
three  sides.  The  plain  is  well  watered 
by  the  Barada,  the  Chrysorrhoas  (or 
"Golden  Stream")  of  the  Greeks,  the 
Abana  of  Scripture ;  and  El  A'waj  {"  the 
crooked"),  the  Pharpar  of  Scripture.  2 
Kgs.  5  :  12.  These  streams  flow  into 
meadow-lakes  18  miles  east  of  the  city. 
Damascus  lies  2260  feet  above  the  sea- 
level.  The  climate  is  delightful ;  frost 
is  not  uncommon  in  winter,  but  fire- 
places are  unknown :  in  summer  the 
thermometer  marks  100°  to  104°,  but  the 
nights  are  cool  and  the  dews  heavy;  yet 
the  people  sleep  on  the  flat  roofs  of  their 
houses.  Damascus  is  called  by  the  Arabs 
"  the  Eye  of  the  Desert"  and  the  "Pearl 


DAM 


DAN 


of  the  East."  It  is  to  the  Mohammedan 
tire  earthly  reflection  of  paradise.  The 
chief  cause  of  its  beauty  and  fertility  is 
the  abundance  of  water,  which  calls  forth 
a  most  luxuriant  vegetation  round  about 
the  city,  and  makes  it  a  blooming  oasis 
in  the  midst  of  a  vast  desert. 

History. — Damascus  is  called  the  old- 
est city  in  the  world  ;  said  by  Josephus 
to  have  been  founded  by  Uz,  a  grandson 
of  Shem  ;  Abraham  visited  it,  Gen.  14 : 

15  :  15  :  2;  it  was  conquered  by  David,  2 
Sam.  8  :  5,  6  ;  was  allied  with  Israel  and 
against  Israel,  1  Kgs.  15  :  18,  20;  2  Chr. 

16  :  3  :  was  taken  by  Tiglath-pileser ;  de- 


Wall  of  Damascus. 


{From,  Conybeare  and  Howson's 
'St.  Paul.") 


nounced  by  Jeremiah.  Jer.  49  :  27  ;  and 
afterward  seldom  noticed  in  0.  T.  his- 
tory. It  was  surrendered  to  Alexander 
the  Great  after  the  battle  of  Issus,  b.  c. 
3.3.3.  In  the  N.  T.  it  is  noticed  as  the 
place  of  the  scene  of  Paul's  conversion, 
Acts  9  :  1-25 :  later  it  became  the  resi- 
dence of  a  Christian  bishop  ;  was  con- 
quered by  the  Arabs,  a.  d.  635  ;  attacked 
by  the  Crusaders,  A.  i).  1126:  several 
times  besieged :  was  taken  by  the  Mon- 
gols, 1260 ;  plundered  by  the  Tartars, 
1300  ;  attacked  by  Timour,  1399,  to  whom 
it  paid  a  million  pieces  of  gold  ;  became 
A  provincial  capital  of  the  Turkish  em- 
216 


pire,  1516;  and  is  now  the  residence  of 
a  Turkish  governor.  It  is  the  hot-bed 
of  Mohammedan  fanaticism.  In  1860, 
6000  Christians  were  massacred  by  the 
Moslems  in  cold  blood,  in  the  city  and 
adjoining  districts. 

Prenent  Condition.  —  Though  twelve 
times  pillaged  and  burned,  it  now  ex- 
tends on  both  sides  of  the  Barada,  and 
has  a  population  of  from  110,000  to 
150,000.  The  most  remarkable  building 
is  the  Great  Mosque,  which  was  once  a 
Byzantine  church  dedicated  to  John  the 
Baptist.  The  principal  street,  known 
as  Sultany,  or  Queen's  street,  runs  in 
nearly  a  straight  line  from  east  to 
west,  and  is  supposed  to  be  the  same 
as  the  street  called  "Straight"  in 
Acts 9  :  11.  The  traditional  sites  of 
the  houses  of  Naaman  and  Ananias 
and  the  place  in  the  wall  where  Paul 
was  let  down  in  a  basket  are  still 
pointed  out.  No  less  than  four 
])laces  near  the  city  have  been 
claimed  as  the  scene  of  Paul's  con- 
■version. 

The  Presbyterian  Church  of  Ire- 
land maintains  a  Protestant  mis- 
«!ion  there,  which  has  several  sub- 
stantial buildings  and  labors  among 
1;he  Greeks  and  the  Jews.  There  is 
also  an  Episcopal  mission  and 
chapel  in  Damascus. 

DAMNA'TION.  This  term, 
in  common  use,  denotes  the  endless 
perdition  of  the  ungodly.  Matt.  23  : 
3  :  Mark  3:29;  John  5  :  28,  29  ;  2 
Pet.  2  :  3.  But  when  the  Bible  was 
translated  the  word  was  used  where 
"condemnation"  or  "judgment" 
would  more  properly  express  the 
sense,  so  that,  while  generally  ap- 
plying to  the  eternal  state  of  the 
soul,  it  is  sometimes  to  be  taken  in  its 
milder  meaning.  Ignorance  of  this 
fact  has  led  to  deplorable  consequences. 
Saints  have  been  made  despondent  and 
sinners  driven  to  despair.  1  Cor.  11 : 
29  ought  to  be  translated  "eateth  and 
drinketh  judgment  to  himself."  So  in 
Rom.  13:2  and  14:23. 

DAN  {jnd(je),  the  fifth  son  of  Jacob, 
and  the  first  of  Bilhah,  Rachel's  maid. 
Gen.  30  :  6.  Nothing  is  known  person- 
ally' of  the  patriarch.  The  prediction 
uttered  by  Jacob  respecting  him,  Gen. 
49  :  16,  17,  is  variously  interpreted.  It 
is   probable  that  the   elevation   of  bis 


DAN 


DAN 


tribe  to  an  equal  rank  with  the  others, 
notwithstanding  that  he  was  born  of  a 
concubine,  was  foretohl  in  v.  16,  and  the 
residue  of  the  prediction  may  allude  to 
the  subtle  and  crafty  disposition  of  his 
descendants.  Indeed,  we  know  that 
Samson,  who  was  among  the  most  noted 
of  them,  was  remarkably  successful  in 
stratagem,  Jud.  14 ;  15  ;  and  perhaps 
the  same  trait  was  characteristic  of 
their  tribe.  Jud.  18  :  26,  27. 

It  is  noticeable  that  the  tribe  of  Dan 
is  omitted  from  the  numbering  in  Rev. 
7.  Because  of  this,  and  because  Dan 
first  introduced  idolatry  into  Israel, 
Jud.  18,  many  of  the  fathers  maintained 
that  Antichrist  would  come  from  Dan. 

DAN.  1.  The  territory  in  Canaan 
allotted  to  Dan  was  on  the  sea-coast, 
west  of  Benjamin  and  between  Ephraim 
and  Judah.  It  embraced  a  broad  plain, 
14  miles  long,  near  the  sea.  The  Am- 
orites  kept  them  from  the  plain  and 
forced  them  into  the  mountains.  Hence 
they  had  another  portion  granted  them, 
near  Mount  Hermon,  Jud.  18,  where 
they  set  up  a  graven  image  stolen  from 
Micah. 

2.  Dan,  City  of,  the  chief  city  of  the 
northern  district  held  by  this  tribe. 
Jud.  20  :  1.  It  was  originally  called 
Laish,  Jud.  18  :  29  ;  noted  for  idolatry, 
Jud.  18  :  30  ;  now  called  Tel-el-Kcidy,  or 
"  mound  of  the  judge,"  3  miles  from  Ba- 
nias,  north  of  the  waters  of  Merom. 

3.  The  Dan  of  Eze.  27  :  19  is  possibly 
the  same  as  No.  2,  but  some  identify  it 
with  Dedar,  others  with  Aden,  in  Arabia. 

DANCE.  The  Jewish  dances  were 
generally  expressions  of  joy  and  grati- 
tude, sometimes  in  honor  of  a  conquer- 
or, Jud.  11 :  34  :  1  Sam.  18  :  6,  7,  and 
sometimes  on  domestic  occasions.  Jer. 
31 :  4,  13  ;  Luke  15  :  25.  The  dance  was 
also  introduced  into  the  religious  ser- 
vice, and  the  timbrel  (tambourine)  was 
employed  to  direct  it.  Some  individ- 
ual led,  and  the  rest  followed  with 
measured  steps  and  devotional  songs. 
Thus,  David  and  Miriam  led  such  a 
band.  2  Sam.  6  :  14  ;  Ex.  15  :  20.  In- 
dividuals often  expressed  feelings  of 
joy  in  the  same  way.  Luke  6  :  23  ; 
Acts  3 :  8. 

Dancing  was  practised  from  a  very 
early  period  as  a  natural  exercise  and 
aTnusement.  Job  21 :  11 ;  Mark  6  :  22. 
But  the  mingling  of  males  and  females 


which  is  so  common  in  modern  dances 
was  unknown  to  the  Jews.  Indeed,  the 
dancing  was  mostly  done  by  the  women 
alone,  as  is  still  the  case  in  Egypt. 

A  Hebrew  word,  mahhol,  which  oc- 
curs in  some  passages — e.  g.  Ps.  150  : 
4 — and  is  rendered  "  dance  "  in  our  ver- 
sion, is  supposed  by  some  scholars  to 
mean  a  musical  instrument. 

DANIEL  {God  is  my  judge).  1.  One 
of  the  four  greater  prophets.  He  was  of 
noble,  perhaps  of  royal,  descent,  and 
probably  born  at  Jerusalem.  Dan.  1  : 
3;  9:24;  comp.  Josephus's  J.?i<("2.  In 
his  early  youth  he  was  carried  captive 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  to  Babylon,  together 
with  three  other  Hebrew  youths  of  rank, 
Hananiah,  Mishael,  and  Azariah,  b.  c. 
604.  He  was  there  instructed  in  the 
language  and  arts  of  the  Chaldieans, 
and,  with  his  three  companions,  trained 
for  the  royal  service  in  the  palace.  Dan. 
1 :  1-4.  The  prince  of  the  eunuchs 
changed  all  their  names,  calling  them 
respectively  Belteshazzar  (?".  e. '' prince 
of  Bel"),  Shadrach,  Meshach,  and  Abed- 
nego.  These  four  refused  to  eat  of  the 
king's  meat  and  to  drink  his  wine,  but 
chose  "pulse  and  water."  Notwith- 
standing this  diet,  they  were  in  better 
condition  than  the  heathen  courtiers. 

After  three  years'  training,  God  gave 
Daniel  an  opportunity  to  display  his 
learning  and  wisdom.  He  interpreted 
a  dream  which  Nebuchadnezzar  had 
forgotten.  Dan.  2.  In  reward,  he  was 
made  *' ruler  over  the  whole  province 
of  Babylon,  and  chief  of  the  governors 
over  all  the  wise  men  of  Babylon,"  and 
in  this  position  so  distinguished  himself 
that  he  won  great  fame  and  was  men- 
tioned as  a  model  man  even  by  his  con- 
temporaries. Eze.  14  :  14,  20  ;  28  :  3.  On 
another  occasion  he  faithfully  explained 
to  his  monarch  the  intention  of  God  to 
punish  him  for  his  pride.  Dan.  4.  For 
Belshazzar,  a  grandson  and  successor 
of  Nebuchadnezzar,  he  performed  a 
similar  service,  reading  the  handwrit- 
ing upon  the  wall,  Mene,  Mene,  Tekel, 
Upharsin.   Dan.  5. 

Under  Darius  the  Mede,  Daniel  was 
made  the  first  of  the  "  three  presidents  " 
of  the  empire.  His  enemies  obtained  a 
command  from  Darius  forbidding  all 
prayer  save  unto  the  king  for  30  days. 
But  Daniel  did  not  stop  praying;  and 
this  fact  being  discovered,  he  was  cast 

217 


DAN 


DAN 


into  the  den  of  lions,  which  was  the 
punishment  for  a  violation  of  the  king's 
order.  But  God  delivered  him,  and  he 
was  kept  in  his  office.  In  the  reign  of 
Cyrus  he  likewise  prospered,  but  seems 
to  have  left  Babylon,  as  his  latest  re- 
corded vision,  10 : 1,  4,  was  by  the  Hid- 
dekel,  in  the  third  j'ear  of  Cyrus,  b.  c. 
534.  When  he  died,  and  where,  are 
uncertain.  His  reputed  tomb  is  shown 
at  Sitsa,  on  the  Tigris. 

Daniel  at  the  court  of  Babylon  resem- 
bles Joseph  at  the  court  of  Pharaoh. 
Both  were  involuntary  exiles  from  their 
country  and  people ;  both  were  great 
statesmen  ;  both  maintained  the  purity 
of  their  religion  and  their  personal  cha- 
racter, though  surrounded  by  idolatry 
and  corruption  ;  both  rose  by  their  wis- 
dom and  integrity  from  slavery  to  the 
highest  dignity  in  a  heathen  empire ; 
both  are  shining  examples  of  loyalty 
to  God  and  to  virtue. 

2.  Daniel  is  the  name  of  two.  or  per- 
haps three,  other  persons  mentioned  in 
the  Bible. 

(a)  The  second  son  of  David  by  Abi- 
gail the  Carmelitess.  1  Chr.  3:1.  He  is, 
however,  called  Chileab  in  2  Sam.  3  : 3. 

(6) 'A  priest  of  the  family  of  Itha- 
mar,  mentioned,  Ezr.  8:2,  as  having  re- 
turned with  Ezra.  He  is  probably  again 
spoken  of  in  Neh.  10 :  6  among  those 
who  sealed  the  covenant  di'awn  up  by 
Nehemiah,  b.  c.  445. 

DANIEL,  BOOK  OF.  It  con- 
sists of  two  distinct  parts.  1.  Histori- 
cal, chs.  1-6,  containing  the  interesting 
narrative  given  in  the  preceding  section, 
and  with  it  an  account  of  the  attempt- 
ed burning  of  Shadrach,  Meshach,  and 
Abed-nego  in  a  fiery  furnace  because 
they  would  not  worship  the  golden  im- 
age which  Nebuchadnezzar  set  up  on 
the  plain  of  Dura.  2.  Apocalyptic,  chs. 
7-12,  or  the  record  of  Daniel's  visions. 
Ch.  1  contains  the  introduction,-  chs. 
2-6  present  a  general  view  of  the 
progressive  history  of  the  powers  of 
the  world,  and  of  the  principles  of  the 
divine  government,  as  seen  in  events 
in  the  life  of  Daniel ;  and  chs.  7-12,  the 
prophecy  of  the  future  of  the  people  of 
God.  The  book  is  written  in  prose,  but 
not  in  the  same  language  throughout. 
The  introduction,  chs.  1-2  :  4,  first  clause, 
is  written  in  Hebrew,  but  from  the  sec- 
ond clause  of  the  fourth  verse  of  the 
218 


second  chapter  to  the  end  of  ch.  7  it 
is  in  Aramaic,  called  Syriac  in  that 
verse.  From  the  beginning  of  ch.  8  to 
the  end,  in  which  part  the  visions  are 
related  in  the  first  person,  the  language 
is  Hebrew. 

The  interpretation  of  Daniel  requires 
profound  knowledge  of  ancient  history. 
The  book  is,  in  fact,  a  sort  of  religious 
philosophy  of  history.  Its  fundamen- 
tal idea  is  that  all  the  kingdoms  of  the 
world,  which  pass  away,  are  ruled  and 
overruled  by  divine  Providence  for  the 
kingdom  of  Christ,  which  will  last  for 
ever.  The  book  of  Daniel  occupies  in 
the  0.  T.  the  same  position  which  the 
Revelation  of  John  occupies  in  the 
New.  It  views  the  kingdom  of  God 
in  its  contact  and  conflicts  with  the  em- 
pires of  the  world,  and  looks  forward 
to  the  universal  reign  of  Christ,  the 
resvirrection  of  the  dead,  and  the  final 
judgment.  The  empires  of  the  world 
appear  first  in  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream, 
ch.  2,  under  the  figure  of  a  colossal  im- 
age with  a  head  of  gold,  a  breast  and 
arms  of  silver,  a  belly  of  brass,  and 
legs  and  feet  of  iron  and  clay.  These 
represent  respectively  (according  to  the 
usual  orthodox  interpretation)  the  Baby- 
lonian, the  Medo-Persian,  the  Macedo- 
Greek,  and  the  Roman  empires ;  they 
are  overthrown  at  last  by  a  stone  cut 
out  of  the  mountain  without  hands  and 
becoming  a  great  mountain,  which  rep- 
resents the  reign  of  the  Messiah.  The 
indestructible  rock  of  God's  own  work- 
manship breaks  to  pieces  the  metal 
colossus  of  man's  hand.  The  same  suc- 
cession of  monarchies  is  presented  in 
the  seventh  chapter,  under  the  form  of 
a  vision  of  four  beasts  seen  by  the 
prophet  himself.  The  fourth  beast  has 
ten  horns,  denoting  ten  kingdoms,  grow- 
ing out  of  it,  and  a  little  horn  (7  :  8,  24) 
springing  up  among  the  four  fractured 
horns  of  the  Greek  empire.  Interpret- 
ers agree  as  to  the  first  empire,  which 
must  be  Babylonia,  but  differ  as  to  the 
other  three.  Some  combine  the  Medes 
and  Persians  in  one  empire ;  others  di- 
vide them,  and  regard  the  Greeks  (Alex- 
ander the  Great  and  his  successors)  as 
representing  the  fourth  empire,  and  re- 
fer the  "  little  horn  "  to  Antiochus 
Epiphanes.  Still  others  give  the  proph- 
ecy of  Daniel  a  more  comprehensive 
sweep  over  all  the  world-empires  before 


DAN 


DAR 


and  after  Christ,  as  preparing  the  way 
for  the  ultimate  and  everlasting  reign 
of  Christ.  This  prophecy  of  Christ, 
the  most  important  in  the  book,  is 
constantly  fuUilliug  before  our  eyes,  and 
cannot  be  set  aside  by  any  negative  crit- 
icism. 

The  book  of  Daniel  has  been  much 
attacked,  but  also  successfully  vindica- 
ted by  biblical  scholars.  In  the  second 
part  Daniel  speaks  in  the  first  person  as 
the  receiver  of  the  divine  revelations  re- 
corded therein,  so  that  the  only  alterna- 
tive here  is  between  truth  and  fraud. 
The  very  fact  that  two  languages  are 
used  renders  it  extremely  unlikely  that 
it  should  have  been  forged  or  written 
in  any  later  period,  but  to  Daniel, 
familiar  as  he  was  with  both  Hebrew 
and  Aramaic,  it  was  natural.  The 
book  displa3^s  familiar  acquaintance 
with  Babylonian  life  and  royal  man- 
ners, and  suits  throughout  the  period 
of  the  Babylonian  exile  and  the  pecu- 
liar position  of  Daniel  at  the  Babylo- 
nian court.  The  genuineness  is  sanc- 
tioned by  the  highest  authority — that 
of  Christ,  Matt.  24  :  15,  from  which 
there  is  no  appesil  for  believers. 

The  attacks  upon  the  book  have  been 
in  three  lines:  (1)  Its  extraordinary 
events — the  golden  image,  the  burning 
fiery  furnace,  the  dreams,  the  lions'  den, 
etc.;  (2)  its  minute  prophecies ;  (3)  its 
foreign  (Greek)  words  ;  (4)  its  narrative. 
To  these  objections  it  is  sufficient  to  re- 
ply :  (1)  The  characteristics  of  Babylon," 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  East,  am- 
ply justify  the  language  and  prove  that 
the  book  is  genuinely  Oriental  and  Baby- 
lonian. (2)  The  peculiar  position  of  Dan- 
iel required  an  exceptional  and  startling 
character  for  his  revelations  ;  his  proph- 
ecies have  been  in  great  part  fulfilled.  (3) 
The  Greek  words  are  only  four  in  num- 
ber, and  are  the  names  of  musical  in- 
struments which  may  have  been  import- 
ed from  Greece  as  early  as  B.  c.  600. 
(4)  Its  historical  difficulties.  Belshaz- 
zar  is  represented  as  the  last  king  of 
Babylon,  while  the  authority  there  known 
gave  Nabonnedus  as  the  last  king.  This 
difficulty  was  solved  by  Sir  Henry  Raw- 
linson's  decipherment  of  a  cylinder 
among  the  ruins  of  Ur  in  Chaldaea  in 
1854.  Nabonnedus  had  his  eldest  son, 
Belshazzar,  as  co-regent,  and  therefore 
it  might  well  be   that  while  he  met  the 


Persians  in  the  field  his  son  ruled  in  the 
capital.  Thus  is  explained  how  Daniel 
was  made  the  third  ruler  in  the  king- 
dom. Dan.  5:16,  29. 

Apocryphal  Additions  to  Daniel. — 
These  exist  in  the  Greek  version,  and 
are :  The  8ong  of  the  Three  Holy  Chil- 
dren, the  History  of  Susanna,  and  the 
Story  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon.  They 
passed  into  the  Vulgate,  and  so  into 
modern  translations.  They  embody 
popular  ti'aditions,  but  never  formed 
part  of  the  Hebrew  Bible. 

1.  The  Song  of  the  Three  Holy  Chil- 
dren purports  to  be  the  triumphal  song 
of  the  three  confessors  in  the  furnace, 
Dan.  3  :  23,  in  praise  of  their  miraculous 
deliverance.  The  chief  part  has  been 
used  as  a  hymn  (Benedicite)  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church  since  the  fourth  century. 

2.  The  History  of  Susanna,  who  was 
cleared  from  a  charge  of  adultery  by  the 
shrewdness  of  Daniel.  Probably  based 
upon  a  fact. 

3.  The  History  of  Bel  and  the  Drag- 
on, a  strange  exaggeration  of  the  rec- 
ord of  the  divine  deliverance  of  Daniel, 
ch.  6. 

DAN-JA'AN.  2  Sam.24:6.  Prob- 
ably Danian,  a  ruin  north  of  Achzib. 

UAN'NAH,  a  city  in  the  mountains 
of  Judah.  Josh.  15  :  49.  Conder  identi- 
fies it  with  modern  Idhnd,  about  8  miles 
north-west  of  Hebron. 

DA'RA,  contr.  form  of  DAR'DA 
(pearl  of  wisdom),  one  whom  Solomon 
outrivalled  in  wisdom.  1  Kgs.  4 :  31  j  1 
Chr.  2  :  6. 

DAR'IC,  the  name  of  a  Persian 
gold  coin,  which  is  translated  ''dram" 
in  1  Chr.  29  :  7  :  Ezr.  2  :  69  ;  8  :  27  ;  Neh. 
7  :  70,  71,  72.  The  name  comes  from  the 
Persian  word  dam,  "  a  king."  like  the 
English  sovereif/n.  It  was  the  common 
gold-piece  of  the  Persian  empire.  It 
was  current  in  Palestine  under  Cyrus, 
and  Artaxerxes  Longimanus.  It  weigh- 
ed about  128  grains  Troy,  nnd  was  worth 
about  five  dollars.  Besides  the  gold  there 
was  a  silver  daric,  worth  about  fifty  cents. 
There  is  no  mention  of  this  latter  coin 
in  the  Bible.     See  Measures. 

DARI'US  {restrainer),  the  name  of 
several  kings  of  Media  and  Persia  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible. 

1.  Darius  the  Median,  Dan.  5  :  31,  was 
the  son  of  Ahasuerus ;  he  took  Babylon 
from  Belshazzar  the  Chaldaean,  being  at 

219 


DAE 


DAV 


that  time  about  62  years  old.  The  best 
identification  is  that  which  makes  him 
Astyages,  the  last  king  of  the  Medes. 
"  Only  one  year  of  the  reign  of  Darius 
is  mentioned,  Dan.  9:1;  11  : 1 ;  and  if, 
as  seems  probable,  Darius  (Astyages) 
occupied  the  throne  of  Babylon  as  su- 
preme sovereign,  with  Nerigalsarasser 
as  vassal-prince,  after  the  murder  of 
Evil-merodaeh  (Belshazzar),  b.  c.  559, 
one  year  only  remains  for  this  Median 
supremacy  before  its  overthrow  by  Cyrus, 
B.  c.  558,  in  exact  accordance  with  the 
notices  in  Daniel."  Under  him  Daniel 
was  advanced  to  the  highest  dignity, 
which  exposed  him  to  the  malice  of 
enemies  and  led  to  his  being  cast  into 
the  den  of  lions,  but  by  a  miracle  he 
escaped  injury.     See  Daniel. 

2.  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  the 
founder  of  the  Perso- Aryan  dynasty, 
and  ruler,  b.  c.  521-486.  Ezr.  4  :  5,  24; 
Hag.  1:1,  15;  Zech.  1 : 1,  7  ;  7:1.  He 
found  in  the  palace  at  Achmetha  or 
Ecbatana,  the  capital  of  Cyrus,  a  decree 
of  that  king  concerning  the  temple  in 
Jerusalem.  This  he  confirmed,  and  the 
temple  was  finished  in  4  years,  b.  c. 
516.  Ezr.  6  :  15.  It  may,  however,  have 
been  used  before  it  was  entirely  com- 
pleted, as  is  inferred  from  Zech.  7  :  2,  3. 

3.  Darius  the  Persian,  mentioned  in 
Neh.  12  :  22,  is  generally  identified  with 
Darius  Codomannus,  the  antagonist  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  who  ascended  the 
throne  B.  c.  336,  and  reigned  until 
B.  c.  330.  He  was  the  last  Persian 
monarch,  and  was  killed  by  his  own 
generals.  Alexander  defeated  him,  and 
thus  the  prophecy  of  Daniel,  ch.  8,  was 
fulfilled. 

DARK'NESS.  The  darkness  which 
constituted  one  of  the  plagues  of  Egypt 
might  "  be  felt."  Ex.  10:21.  This  may 
have  been  occasioned  by  a  thick,  heavy 
vapor,  or  other  sensible  change  in  the  at- 
mosphere, which  caused  an  entire  inter- 
ception of  the  sun's  rays.  It  was  evident- 
ly miraculous,  and  the  dread  and  ter- 
ror it  inspired  are  vividly  described.  Ex. 
10  :  22,  23.  So  of  the  darkness  that 
shrouded  the  earth  when  our  Saviour 
was  put  to  death,  Luke  23  :  44,  45  ;  it 
was  manifestly  miraculous,  as  no  natu- 
ral eclipse  of  the  sun  could  take  place 
at  that  period  of  the  moon.  "  Dark- 
ness" is  used  in  a  metaphorical  sense 
for  ignorance  or  sin,  John  1:5;  Rom. 
220 


13  :  12  ;  Eph.  5:11;  for  misery,  Isa.  5  : 
30  ;  59  :  9,  10  ;  for  the  final  doom.  Matt. 
8  :  12.  God  is  said  to  dwell  in  the  thick 
darkness.  Ex.  20  :  21 ;  1  Kgs.  8:12. 

DAR'KON  {scatterer),  one  whose 
posteritv  returned  from  Babylon.  Ezr. 
2  :  56  ;  *Neh.  7  :  58. 

DARLi'ING.  The  word  occurs  in 
Ps.  22  :  20  and  35  :  17  as  the  translation 
of  a  Hebrew  word  which  correctly  means 
"  my  only  one,"  as  it  is  applied  to 
*'  something  which  exists  singly  and 
cannot  be  replaced  if  lost,  as  an  only 
son.  Gen.  22  :  2,  or  daughter."  Jud. 
11 :  34. 

DA'THAN  {belongiuf/  to  a  fonn- 
tain),  a  Reubenite  chieftain  who  joined 
in  Korah's  rebellion.  Num.  16  ;  26  :  9  ; 
Deut.  11:6:  Ps.  106:17. 

DAUGH'TER  is  used  in  the  Bi- 
ble in  several  other  senses  than  the 
literal  one.  It  describes  a  female  de- 
scendant. Gen.  27  :  46,  the  women  of  a 
city  or  country.  Gen.  36  :  2,  or  women 
in  general,  Prov.  31  :  29 ;  the  female 
worshippers  of  an  idol,  Mai.  2:11; 
cities  and  their  dependent  towns.  In 
Eccl.  12  :  4  "  daughters  of  music  "  are 
singing-women. 

DA'VID  {beloved),  the  youngest  of 
the  eight  sons  of  Jesse,  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  was  born  in  Bethlehem,  b.  c. 
1085,  and  was  both  in  his  prophetical 
and  regal  character  an  eminent  type  of 
the  Messiah.  1  Sam.  16 :  13.  While  he 
was  employed  as  a  shepherd  in  his 
father's  fields  God  sent  Samuel  to  Beth- 
lehem, on  the  occasion  of  the  annual 
sacrificial  feast,  with  instructions  to 
anoint  David  as  king  of  Israel  in  the 
place  of  Saul,  who  had  incurred  the  di- 
vine displeasure,  and  was  therefore  to 
be  deposed.  Dean  Stanley  thus  de- 
scribes David's  appearance  and  phys- 
ique as  he  stood  before  Samuel :  "  He 
was  short  of  stature,  had  red  hair  and 
bright  eyes.  He  was  remarkable  for 
the  grace  of  his  figure  and  countenance, 
well  made,  and  of  immense  strength 
and  agility.  In  swiftness  and  activity 
he  could  only  be  compared  to  a  wild 
gazelle,  with  feet  like  harts'  feet,  with 
arms  strong  enough  to  break  a  bow  of 
steel.  Ps.  18  :  33,  Si."— History  of  the 
Jewish  Church,  2d  series,  Lect.  22. 
Probably  neither  David  nor  any  one 
else  understood  the  real  meaning  of  this 
anointing.     At  all  events,  David  went 


DAV 


DAY 


back  to  the  shepherd-life.  We  next 
hear  of  him  as  chosen  by  Saul,  upon 
the  suggestion  of  one  of  the  body- 
guard, to  play  upon  a  harp,  and  thus 
soothe  the  troubled  spirit  of  the 
king.  In  this  he  was  eminently  suc- 
cessful. Saul  made  him  one  of  his  ar- 
mor-bearers, and  requested  permission 
of  Jesse  to  allow  him  to  remain  at  his 
court.  1  Sam.  16:21-23.  But  it  seems 
that  David  after  a  time  returned  home. 
It  was  then  perhaps  that  his  adventure 
with  the  lion  and  the  bear  took  place. 
After  an  interval  of  uncertain  length — 
Josephus  says  ''after  a  few  j'ears" — 
David  had  his  famous  fight  with  Go- 
liath. But  he  had  so  altered  that  Saul 
did  not  recognize  in  the  grown  man 
flushed  by  triumph  the  lad  who  had 
played  the  harp  in  his  hours  of  men- 
tal distress ;  hence  his  question  of  Ab- 
ner — ''  Whose  son  is  this  youth  ?" — was 
natural.  1  Sam.  17  :  55.  The  superiority 
in  military  glory  which  the  women  gave 
David  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  king, 
and  so,  although  David  was  made  a 
chieftain,  lived  at  court,  and  enjoyed 
the  friendship  of  the  king's  son,  yet 
he  was  constantly  exposed  to  the  wrath 
of  Saul. 

Agreeably  to  the  terms  of  the  king's 
promise  to  him  who  slew  the  giant, 
David  became  the  king's  son-in-law, 
marrying  Michal,  whom  he  loved,  but 
only  on  condition  that  he  slew  a  hun- 
dred Philistines — an  exaction  made  in 
hope  that  the  attempt  would  end  fatall3^ 
But  David  and  his  men  slew  two  hun- 
dred. David  found  his  position  full  of 
danger.  His  very  presence  seemed  to 
arouse  the  envy  of  Saul,  so  that  the  lat- 
ter determined  to  kill  him,  and  several 
times  cast  his  javelin  at  him  as  he  stood 
playing  before  him.  By  a  stratagem 
Michal  saved  David's  life  and  enabled 
him  to  flee  to  Samuel  at  Ramah.  1  Sam. 
19  :  13,  18.  David  then  became  con- 
vinced that  a  further  residence  at  court 
was  impossible,  and  accordingly'  an 
affecting  parting  with  Jonathan  took 
place,  1  Sam.  20,  and  David  became  a 
fugitive  from  the  hand  of  Saul.  Armed 
with  the  sword  of  Goliath  and  anointed 
with  the  sacred  oil,  the  future  king 
sought  a  home  among  the  Philistines. 
But  his  fame  had  preceded  him,  and 
his  assumed  madness  scarcely  saved 
him.    1   Sam.  21.      Therefore    he    went 


to  the  cave  of  Adullam  and  gathered 
gradually  a  motley  crowd,  composed  of 
insolvent  debtors  and  malcontents.  1 
Sam.  22  :  1,  2.  But  David  })roved  his 
fitness  to  rule  a  kingdom  by  controlling 
these  men  and  bringing  them  to  accede 
to  his   wishes. 

The  history  of  David's  life  for  the 
next  few  years  is  filled  with  the  details 
of  alternate  defeats  and  victories,  of 
his  flight,  of  his  magnanimous  refusal 
to  lay  hands  on  the  Lord's  anointed, 
1  Sam.  24:  16,  of  his  residence  among 
neighboring  tribes,  of  the  episode  of  Abi- 
gail, 1  Sam.  25,  and  finally  of  the  battle 
of  Gilboa,  in  which  Jonathan  fell  and 
Saul  slew  himself,  unable  to  bear  defeat. 
1  Sam.  31.  The  lament  which  he  then 
composed  is  one  of  the  noblest  odes  of 
friendship,  and  a  monument  of  his  gen- 
erosity to  a  fallen  foe  and  of  devotion  to 
a  fallen  friend.  2  Sam.  1  :  19-27. 

Then  David,  by  divine  direction,  re- 
moved to  Hebron,  where  the  chief  men  of 
Judah  met  him  and  ofl'ered  him  the  gov- 
ernment of  their  tribe,  which  he  accepted. 
Accordingl}',  he  was  anointed  for  the  sec- 
ond time.  2  Sam.  2  :  -4.  In  Hebron,  as 
king  of  Judah,  he  reigned  seven  years 
and  a  half.  During  this  time  Ishbo- 
sheth,  the  son  of  Saul,  by  means  of 
the  skilful  general  Abner,  maintained  a 
decreasing  semblance  of  authority  over 
Israel.  But  at  length  he  and  Abner 
were  killed,  and  thus  the  way  prepared 
for  the  execution  of  God's  plan  to  set 
David  on  the  throne  of  united  Israel. 

David  was  solemnly  anointed  for  the 
third  time.  2  Sam.  5  :  3.  Soon  after  he 
assumed  the  govei'nmcnt  he  obtained 
possession  of  Jerusalem,  reduced  the 
fortress  which  the  Jebusites  had  main- 
tained, and  established  the  seat  of  his 
government  there.  Under  his  wise  and 
liberal  policy  the  place  was  greatly  en- 
larged ,•  magnificent  edifices  rose  up  on 
every  side,  fortifications  were  erected, 
and  the  ark,  which  had  been  before 
without  a  fixed  abode,  was  brought  into 
the  new  city  with  religious  ceremonies 
peculiarly  joyful  and  solemn.  2  Sam.  6  : 
12-19.  Thenceforward,  Jerusalem  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  the  res- 
idence of  the  royal  family,  and,  more 
than  all,  the  city  of  God.  Ps.  48  :  2  ; 
Matt.  6  :  35.  To  it  the  tribes  repaired 
from  every  quarter  of  the  land  to  cel- 
ebrate   their    annual    festivals,   and    its 

221 


DAV 


DAV 


growth  in  population,  wealth,  and  splen- 
dor was  very  rapid. 

David  now  formed  the  design  of 
building  a  magnificent  temple  for  the 
worship  of  Jehovah,  to  take  the  place 
of  the  tabernacle,  which  was  but  a 
temporary  and  movable  structure.  He 
was  informed,  however,  by  God's  di- 
lection,  that  this  service  would  be 
reserved  for  his  son  Solomon.  2  Sam.  7. 

After  several  contests  with  the  nations 
that  bordered  on  Israel,  in  which  David 
was  uniformly  victorious,  there  broke 
out  a  war  with  the  Ammonites  (see 
Ammonites),  during  the  progress  of 
which  David  fell  into  those  most  a2;s;ra- 


vated  sins  of  murder  and  adultery  which 
brought  disgrace  and  distress  on  his 
family  and  government  and  involved 
him  in  trouble  during  the  remnant  of 
his  days.  2  Sam.  12  :  9.  His  domestic 
peace  was  destroyed  by  the  outrage 
committed  upon  Tamar  by  Amnon,  re- 
venged, "  after  two  full  years,"  by  Absa- 
lom, who  slew  Amnon  at  a  feast.  2  Sam. 
13  :  14,  29.  This  murder  occasioned 
Absalom's  flight  to  his  father-in-law's 
court  at  Geshur.  Being  recalled,  he 
started  a  rebellion  Avhich  compelled  the 
king  to  flee  from  his  capital  and  exile 
himself  to  avoid  being  cut  off  by  a 
parricidal   hand.    2  Sam.  15-18.      The 


Tomb  of  David.     {After 


death  of  Absalom,  though  it  brought 
relief  to  the  kingdom,  inflicted  a  deep 
wound  on  the  father's  heart.  The  in- 
surrection under  Sheba  and  the  mur- 
der of  Amasa  by  Joab  followed  in  quick 
succession.  And  to  close  the  melan- 
choly catalogue  was  the  terrible  judg- 
ment which  he  brougl)(t  upon  himself 
and  the  nation  by  numbering  the  people 
for  some  purpose  which  was  sinful  in 
the  sight  of  God,  though  not  explained 
to  us.  2  Sam.  24. 

David  was  now  70  years  old,  and 
had  reigned  seven  and"  a  half  years 
over  the  tribe  of  Judah  and  thirty- 
three  over  the  whole  kingdom  of 
Israel.  Just  before  his  death  his  son 
222 


a  Photograph  by  Good.) 

Adonijah  made  a  bold  attempt  to 
usurp  the  throne,-  and  to  secure  the  king- 
dom against  any  pretender,  David  re- 
signed the  crown  to  Solomon,  put  into 
his  hands  the  plan  and  model  of  the 
temple  and  the  treasure  accumulated 
for  it,  summoned  the  influential  men  of 
the  nation,  and  delivered  his  farewell 
address.  He  died  B.  c.  1015,  and  was 
buried  in  the  ''city  of  David."  1  Kgs. 
2  :  10.  His  tomb  became  the  sepulchre 
of  subsequent  kings,  and  one  of  the  sa- 
cred places  of  the  kingdom.  It  is  point- 
ed out  on  Mount  Zion,  at  Jerusalem, 
outside  the  city  wall.  See  cut,  above. 
David  was  a  type  of  Christ.  They 
both    inherited    their    kingdoms    after 


DAY 


DAY 


suffering.  And  David,  as  the  ruler  over 
temporal  Israel,  was  a  forerunner  of  the 
Son  of  David,  who  was  to  reign  over 
the  spiritual  Israel  for  ever.  Matt.  1:1; 
9:27;  12  :  2:5,  etc. 

When  David  is  spoken  of  as  a  man 
after  God's  ''own  heart,"  1  Sam.  13: 
14-;  Acts  13  :  22,  reference  is  obviously 
intended  to  his  general  character  an<l 
conduct,  and  not  to  every  particular  in- 
stance of  it.  As  he  was  human,  he 
was  imperfect ;  and  when  he  sinned, 
God  punished  him,  and  that  with  great 
severity.  But  he  was  remarkable  for 
his  devotion  to  God's  service,  and  he 
kept  himself  from  idols.  He  established 
the  government  of  Israel,  and  extended 
its  dominions  to  the  full  extent  of  the 
promise  to  Abraham,  and  left  a  com- 
pact and  united  empire,  stretching  from 
Egypt  to  Lebanon,  and  from  the  Eu- 
phrates to  the  Mediterranean. 

The  life  and  character  of  David  shine 
in  his  poetry — the  life  of  action,  ad- 
venture, war;  the  character  of  manly 
strength  and  womanly  tenderness. 
Thus  his  Psalms  supply  biographical 
material.  By  means  of  them  his  heart 
is  read.  The  man  who  could  kill  a 
giant  is  fovind  to  have  a  delicate  appre- 
ciation of  friendship.  He  whose  pas- 
sion led  him  into  sin,  whose  hate  into 
words  of  cursing,  was  able  to  mourn 
with  deepest  humility  and  bless  with 
heartiest  assent.     It  is  to  the    Psalms 


of  David,  albeit  he  did  not  write  the 
entire  collection,  that  the  Church  of 
God  has  appealed  for  comfort  in  ad- 
versity and  sanctification  in  prosperity. 
In  regard  to  them  Canon  Perowne 
truthfully  and  eloquently  says  :  "  The 
very  excellence  of  these  Psalms  is  their 
universality.  They  spring  from  the 
deep  fountains  of  the  human  heart, 
and  God,  in  his  providence  and  by  his 
Spirit,  has  so  ordered  it  that  they  should 
be  for  his  Church  an  everlasting  heri- 
tage. Hence  they  express  the  sorrows, 
the  joys,  the  aspirations,  the  struggles, 
the  victories,  not  of  one  man,  but  of 
all.  And  if  we  ask.  How  comes  this  to 
pass  ?  the  answer  is  not  far  to  seek. 
One  object  is  ever  before  the  eyes  and 
the  heart  of  the  Psalmist.  All  enemies, 
all  distresses,  all  persecutions,  all  sins, 
are  seen  in  the  light  of  God,  It  is  to 
him  that  the  cry  goes  up ;  it  is  to  him 
that  the  heart  is  laid  bare  ;  it  is  to  him 
that  the  thanksgiving  is  uttered.  This 
it  is  which  make?  them  so  true,  so  pre- 
cious, so  universal.  No  surer  proof 
of  their  inspiration  can  be  given  than 
this — that  they  are  not  of  an  age,  but 
for  all  time  ;  that  the  ripest  Christian 
can  use  them  in  the  fulness  of  his 
Christian  manhood,  though  the  words 
are  the  words  of  one  who  lived  cen- 
turies before  the  coming  of  Christ  in 
the  flesh." — The  Psalms,  3d  ed.,  vol.  i. 
p.  21. 


Genealogical    Table. 

Elimelech=Naorai.  Ruth  1:1. 


Salmon  or  Salmah 
Ruth  4  :  21 ;  1  Chr.  2 


:11. 


Boaz=Ruth=MahIon. 


Obed. 
Ruth  4 :  17. 


Chilion^Orpah. 


2  Sam.  17  :  25,  Nahash^unknown=Jesse. 


Jonathan.  1  Clir.  27  :  32. 


Zeruiah. 
1  Chr.  2  :  16. 


Abigail= Jether=Ira  ?  7 
I  Chr.  1  Chr. 
2:17.     11:40. 


I  I                  I 

Eliab,  Abin-    Shammah, 

Rlihu.  adab.     Shimmah, 

1  Chr.  Shimeah. 

27 :  2  Sam. 

18.  21:21. 

I  I 


Netha-    Raddai    Ozem 
neel.      (Rael).  (Asam) 


(one  DAVID 
is  not 
given, 
unless 
Elihu. 
1  Chr.  2:15). 


Abishai.     Joab.     Asahel.     Amasa.     A))ihaiI=Rehoboara.     Jonathan.        Jonadab 


~1 
Joel? 


2  Chr.  11:  18. 


1  Chr.  27:7. 


David,  City  of,  applied  to  Zion,  2 
Sam.  5:7;  to  Jerusalem,  1  Kgs.  2:10; 
3:1;  to  Bethlehem,  Luke  2  : 4,  1 1. 


2  Sam.  21 :  21  ;     2  .Sam.        1  Chr. 
1  Chr.  27:32.      13:3.        11:38. 

Nathan?? 
1  Sam    16:  12. 

DAY.  The  natural  day  consists  of 
24  hours,  or  one  revolution  of  the  earth 
upon  its  axis.     The  artificial  day  is  the 

223 


BEA 


DEA 


time  during  which  the  sun  is  above  the 
horizon.  The  civil  day  is  reckoned 
ditFerently  by  different  nations — some 
from  sunrise  to  sunrise  ;  others  from 
sunset  to  sunset ;  others  still  from  noon 
to  noon,  or  from  midnight  to  midnight. 
The  Jewish  day  was  reckoned  from 
evening  to  evening,  adopted,  as  some 
think,  from  Gen.  1  :  5,  or,  as  others 
with  more  probability  hold,  from  the 
"  use  of  the  lunar  calendar  in  regulating 
days  of  religious  observance."  Lev.  23  : 
32.  Their  Sabbath,  or  seventh  day, 
which  was  the  only  day  named — the 
others  were  numbered  merely — began  on 
what  we  call  Friday,  at  sunset,  and 
ended  on  what  we  call  Saturday,  at 
sunset.  Ex.  12  :  18.  This  mode  of  reck- 
oning days  was  not  uncommon  in  other 
Eastern  nations.  The  day  was  origi- 
nally divided  into  morning,  noon,  and 
night.  Ps.  55  :  17.  But  besides,  the 
Jews  distinguished  six  unequal  parts, 
which  were  again  subdivided.  1.  Dawn, 
subdivided  into  gray  dau-n  and  rosy 
dawn.  2.  Sunrise.  Some  supposed  that 
the  Hebrews,  prior  to  leaving  Egypt, 
began  the  day  at  that  time,  but  discon- 
tinued it  by  divine  command,  and  began 
at  even  in  order  to  be  difi'erent  from  those 
nations  which  worshipped  the  rising 
sun.  3.  The  heat  of  the  day,  about  nine 
o'clock.  1  Sam.  11:11;  Neh.  7  :  3,  etc. 
4.  The  two  noons.  Gen.  43  :  16  ;  Deut. 
28  :  29.  5.  The  cool  (lit.  tcind)  of  the 
day,  before  sunset.  Gen.  3:8.  6.  Even- 
ing. In  Ex.  12  :  6  ;  30  : 8,  margins,  occurs 
the  phrase  "  between  the  two  evenings," 
which  probably  is  correctly  taken  to 
mean  "  between  the  beginning  and  end 
of  sunset." 

The  mention  of  hours  in  the  Bible 
dates  from  the  Captivity,  Dan.  3  :  6, 
and  it  is  therefore  reasonably  presumed 
that  this  division  of  time  is  of  Baby- 
lonish origin.  Before  the  Captivity  the 
Jews  divided  the  night  into  three 
watches  —  from  sunset  to  midnight, 
from  midnight  to  cock-crow,  Jud.  7  : 
19  ;  from  cock-crow  to  sunrise.  Ex.  14  : 
24.  In  the  N.  T.  mention  is  made  of 
four  watches,  because  the  Greek  and 
Roman  division  Avas  then  adopted.  In 
our  Lord's  time  the  division  of  the  day 
into  12  hours  was  common.  John  11  :  9. 
The  word  "  day  "  is  used  of  a  festal  day, 
Hos.  7:5;  a  birthday.  Job  3  : 1  ;  a  dav 
of  ruin,  Hos.  1:11 ';  Job  18  :  20  ,•  the 
224 


judgment-day,  Joel  1 :  15  ;  1  Thess.  5  : 
2  ;  Acts  17  :  31 ;  and  the  kingdom  of 
Christ.  John  8  :  56  ;  Rom.  13  :  12.  It 
is  also  often  used  to  denote  an  indefi- 
nite time.  Gen.  2:4;  Isa.  22  :  5.  The 
term  "three  days  and  three  nights," 
in  Matt.  12  :  40,  denotes  the  same  space 
of  time  as  ''  three  days."  Matt.  27 : 
63,  64. 

Day's  Journey,  a  distance  mentioned 
Gen.  31  :  23  ;  Ex.  3  :  18,  etc.  It  is  quite 
evident  that  this  phrase  does  not  mean 
any  particular  distance,  but  rather  the 
space  travelled  during  one  day,  and  this 
would  of  course  vary  with  the  circum- 
stances of  the  traveller.  But  unless 
there  is  special  reason  for  believing  the 
contrary,  we  may  interpret  it  as  mean- 
ing a  stretch  of  25  to  30  miles,  since 
this  is  the  usual  length  of  a  day's  jour- 
ney in  the  East,  on  camel  or  horseback, 
performed  in  6  to  8  hours.  See  also 
Sabbath  Day's  Journey. 

Day,  Lord's.     See  Sabbath. 

Daysman.  Job  9  :  33.  The  word  is 
derived  by  Webster  from  "  him  who 
fixes  the  day  upon  which  he  will  decide 
as  judge  or  arbitrator."  It  was  in  com- 
mon use,  when  the  Bible  was  transla- 
ted, in  the  sense  of  ''umpire." 

Dayspring.  Job  38:  12;  Luke  1 :  78. 
The  first  dawning  of  light.  Comp.  Isa. 
60:1,  2  and  Rev.  22:16. 

Day-star,  or  Morning-star,  2  Pet. 
1 :  19,  in  the  figurative  language  of  the 
apostle,  is  supposed  to  mean  the  light 
which  shines  on  the  soul  of  the  believer, 
and  cheers  him  with  the  expectation 
of  a  perfect  day  of  holiness  and  joy. 

DEA'CON  [servant).  This  name, 
as  a  title  of  office,  has  been  applied  to  the 
'•  seven  men  of  honest  report,  full  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  and  wisdom,"  who  were 
appointed  over  the  business  of  serving 
tables,  in  order  that  the  apostles  might 
be  at  liberty  to  give  themselves  contin- 
ually to  prayer  and  the  ministrj^  of  the 
word.  They  were  set  apart  by  prayer 
and  the  laying  on  of  the  apostles'  hands. 
Acts  6  :  1-6.  Very  likel}^  these  seven  men 
held  a  higher  position  than  those  after- 
ward appointed,  as,  in  addition  to  rou- 
tine and  more  or  less  servile  duties,  they 
preached  and  did  the  work  of  evan- 
gelists; e.  ^.  Stephen  and  Philip.  The 
idea  that  a  man  must  be  a  deacon  be- 
fore he  can  be  an  elder  or  bishop  is  not 
found  in  the  N.  T.     The  qualifications 


DEA 


DEB 


and  duties  of  deacons  are  particularly 
set  forth  in  Acts  6 : 1  -G  and  1  Tim.  3  : 
8—12 

DJEA'CONESS.  Such  was  Phoebe, 
and  in  all  jjrobability  Tryphena,  Try- 
phosa,  and  Persis  occupied  the  same 
office  in  the  church  in  Rome.  Rom.  16  : 
1,  12.  It  is  therefore  probable  that 
there  was  in  the  different  churches  an 
order  of  pious  women  employed  in  at- 
tending upon  those  of  their  own  sex  in 
some  of  the  same  offices  and  duties 
which  the  deacons  performed  for  their 
brethren.  Among  these  we  reckon  the 
care  of  the  sick,  of  the  poor  and  the 
widows,  the  education  of  orphans,  at- 
tention to  strangers,  the  practice  of 
hospitality,  comp.  1  Tim.  5  :  10,  and  the 
assistance  needed  at  the  baptism  of  fe- 
males. The  question  whether  the  ''  wid- 
ows" in  1  Tim.  5:  9-16  are  proper  dea- 
conesses may  be  answered  in  the  affirm- 
ative, because  the  word  translated '*  to 
take  into  the  number"  or  "to  enroll" 
applies  not  to  widows  in  general,  but  to 
the  deaconesses,  for  the  following  rea- 
sons : 

1.  If  understood  of  any  insertion 
merely  in  the  list  of  those  supported 
from  the  congregational  fund,  it  implies 
an  injustice  to  widows  under  60  years 
old  or  to  those  twice  married,  who  might 
easily  be  even  more  destitute. 

2.  The  opposite  interpretation  con- 
flicts with  the  context,  for  Paul  ad- 
vises, in  V.  14,  the  younger  widows  to 
remarry ;  but  this  would  be  to  cut  them 
off  from  all  help  in  case  they  were  wid- 
ows again. 

3.  This  interpretation  leaves  it  inex- 
plicable why  a  special  vow  was  required 
of  these  widows,  v.  12. 

4.  But  by  understanding  the  word  to 
apply,  not  to  widows  in  general,  but  to 
those  who  were  specially  elected  and 
ordained  to  the  particular  office  of  dea- 
coness, all  these  objections  vanish. 

DEAD,  DEATH.  Death  is  the 
destruction  or  extinction  of  life.  By 
the  transgression  of  God's  command- 
ment our  first  parents  became  liable  to 
death.  The  threatening  was  ,  "  In  the 
day  that  thou  eatest  thereof  thou  shalt 
surely  die."  Gen.  2  :  17  (comp.  Rom.  5  : 
12-14 ;  1  Cor.  15  :  21,  22  :  Ileb.  9  :  27).  This 
expression  does  not  mean  to  define  the 
time  of  actual  dissolution,  but  rather 
to  denote  an  inevitable  liability  or 
15 


exposure  to  death,  which,  in  that  day 
and  by  that  act,  they  should  surely 
incur. 

The  sacred  writers  speak  of  a  death 
which  affects  the  body  only.  Gen.  25  : 
11;  of  another,  which  describes  the 
condition  of  the  soul  under  the  power 
of  sin,  Eph.  2:1;  and  a  third,  whic'u 
denotes  the  everlasting  perdition  of  the 
wicked.  James  5  :  20.  In  each  of  these 
senses  our  divine  Redeemer  may  be  re- 
garded as  having  virtually  destroyed 
death  and  delivered  them  who,  through 
fear  of  death,  were  all  their  lifetime 
subject  to  bondage.  Heb.  2  :  14,  15.  To 
avail  ourselves,  however,  of  the  benefits 
of  his  perfect  triumph,  we  must  believe, 
trust,  love,  and  obey  him.  See  Bunv, 
Resurrection,  Christ. 

DEAD  SEA,  a  name  not  found  in 
Scripture.     See  Salt  Sea. 

DE'BIR  {sanctuary),  the  name  of 
three  places.  1.  In  the  highlands  of 
Judah,  near  Hebron;  captured  by  Josh- 
ua, Josh.  10  :  38,  39  ;  was  first  called 
Kirjath-sepher,  Josh.  15:15,  and  Kir- 
jath-sannah,  15:49;  was  allotted  to 
the  priests.  21  :  15.  It  has  been  placed 
at  Dewir-ban,  3  miles  west  of  Hebron, 
and  at  Dilbeh,  6  miles  south-west. 
Conder,  however,  rejects  these,  and  sug- 
gests Dlidheriyeh,  north  of  which  are 
copious  springs,  which  he  identifies 
with  "the  upper  springs  and  the  nether 
springs"  of  Jud.  1:15. 

2.  A  place  near  the  valley  of  Achor, 
Josh.  15  :  7  ;  perhaps  Wady  Dabir,  be- 
tween Jericho  and  Jerusalem. 

3.  A  place  on  the  boundary  of  Gad, 
east  of  the  Jordan,  Josh.  13  :  26;  possi- 
bly the  same  as  Lo-bebar,  which  see. 

"DE'BIR,  king  of  Eglon,  one  of  the 
five  kings  who  warred  against  Gibeon. 
He,  with  his  companions,  was  slain  by 
Joshua  and  hanged  on  a  tree.  Josh.  10  : 
3,  23,  26. 

DEB'ORAH  (n  bee).  1.  The  nurse 
of  Rebekah,  and  her  companion  into  Ca- 
naan. Gen.  24:59.  She  was  buried  at 
Bethel,  under  the  "oak  of  weeping." 
35  :  8.  "  Nurses  held  a  high  and  hon- 
orable place  in  ancient  times,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  East,  where  they  were  of- 
ten the  principal  members  of  the  fam- 
ily. 2  Kgs.  11:2:  2  Chr.  22:11." 

2.  A  woman  of  eminent  wisdom  and 
holiness  (called  a  prophetess),  and  a 
judge  of  the  people  of  Israel.  Jud.  4: 

225 


DEC 


DEC 


4.  She  was  the  wife  of  Lapidoth  ^al- 
though some  think  the  passage  should 
read  "a  woman  of  Lapidoth"),  and 
had  her  judgment-seat  under  a  palm 
tree,  which  from  this  circumstance,  and 
from  the  rarity  of  the  tree,  is  spoken 
of  as  '*  the  [well-known]  palm  tree  of 
Deborah."  Jud.  4  :  5.  Israel  was  suffer- 
ing at  that  time  a  most  oppressive  bond- 
age under  Jabin,  a  Canaanitish  king, 
to  which  it  was  doomed  in  consequence 
of  its  sin.  Deborah,  by  divine  direc- 
tion, called  upon  Barak,  who  had  proba- 
bly signalized  himself  in  some  way,  and 
commanded  him  to  station  himself  upon 
Mount  Tabor  with  a  prescribed  number 
of  men,  and  she  would  see  to  it  that 
Sisera,  the  commander  of  the  tyrant's 
army,  should  be  there,  and  should  fall 
into  Barak's  hands.  Barak  engaged  to 
undertake  the  enterprise  if  Deborah 
would  accompany  him.  To  this  she 
consented,  prophesying,  however,  that 
if  she  went  the  honor  of  the  victory 
would  be  hers  and  not  his,  and  that 
Sisera  would  be  regarded  as  having 
fallen  by  the  hands  of  a  woman.  Jud. 
4:9.  The  two  armies  met,  and  the 
event  was  as  Deborah  predicted.  Sis- 
era fled,  and  died  by  the  hand  of  Jael ; 


his   army   was    cut  off  and   every   man 
slain.  Jud.  4  :  21. 

The  triumphal  song  composed  or  dic- 
tated by  Deborah  on  that  occasion  is  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of 
Oriental  poetry.  Jud.  5.  We  give  a  few 
verses  from  a  revised  version  : 

'Lord,  when   thou  wentest  forth  out   of 

Seir, 
When  thou  marchedst  out  of  the  field  of 

Edom, 
The    earth    trembled,    the    heavens    also 

dropped, 
Yea,  the  clouds  dropped  water. 
Tlie  mountains  flowed  down  at  the  presence 

of  the  Lord, 
Even  that  Sinai  at  the  presence  of  the  Lord 

the  God  of  Israel. 

The  kings  came,  they  fought ; 

Then  fought  the  kings  of  Canaan 

In  Taaiiach  by  the  waters  of  Megiddo; 

They  took  no  gain  of  silver. 

They  fought  from  heaven  ; 

The  stars  from  their  courses  fought  against 

Sisera. 
The  river  Kishon  swept  them  away. 
That  ancient  river,  the  river  Kishon. 
March  on,  my  soul,  with  strength." 

See  Barak.  Jael. 

DEBTOR.     See  Loax. 

DECAP'OLIS  {ten  cities),  &  region 
noticed  three  times  in  the  Bible.  Matt. 


32. 


Map  of  Decapolis.     {From  Schaff's  "New  Testament  Commentary.") 

4:25;  Mark  5  :  20 ;  7  :  3L     It  lay  near  1  sides  of   the  Jordan.     The  cities  were 
the    Sea   of   Galilee,  probably  on  both  |  rebuilt  by  the  Romans  about  B.  c.  65  ; 
226 


DEC 


BEM 


but  as  other  cities  grew  up,  writers  are 
not  agreed  as  to  the  names  of  the  ten 
cities.  Pliny  gives  them  as  follows: 
Scythopolis,  Hippos,  (ladara,  Pella, 
Philadelphia,  Gerasa,  Dion,  Canatha, 
Raphana,  Damascus.  Six  are  deserted, 
and  none  have  many  inhabitants  except 
Damascus. 

DECISION,  VALLEY  OF. 
J  )el  3  :  14.     See  Jehosiiaphat. 

DK'DA^  {low  (/round).  1.  The  name 
of  a  descendant  of  Ham.  Gen.  10:7; 
1  Chr.  1 :  9. 

2.  A  son  of  Jokshan,  son  of  Abra- 
ham by  Keturah.  Gen.  25  :  3  :  1  Chr. 
1 :  32. 

DEDaCATE,DEDICA'TION, 
a  religious  ceremony  by  which  any  per- 
son, place,  or  thing  is  set  apart  for  the 
service  of  God  or  to  some  sacred  use. 
Num.  7;  2  Sam.  8  :  11 ;  1  Kgs.  8.  Cities, 
walls,  gates,  and  private  houses  were 
thus  dedicated.  Neh.  12  :  27.  The  prac- 
tice of  consecration  was  very  common 
among  the  Jews,  and  was  suited  to  the 
peculiar  dispensation  under  which  they 
lived. 

Dedicatiox,  Feast  of  the,  mentioned 
only  once  in  the  canonical  Scriptures, 
John  10  :  22,  was  instituted  to  commem- 
orate the  purging  of  the  temple  and  the 
rebuilding  of  the  altar  after  Judas  Mac- 
cabaeus  had  driven  out  the  Syrians,  1 
Mace.  4  :  52-59,  b.  c.  164.  Like  the 
other  Jewish  feasts,  it  lasted  eight  days, 
but,  unlike  them,  attendance  at  Jerusa- 
lem was  not  obligatory.  In  general,  it 
was  kept  like  the  feast  of  tabernacles. 
The  Hallel  was  sung  every  day.  It  was 
a  time  of  rejoicing.  It  began  upon  the 
25th  day  of  Chisleu  (December),  the  an- 
niversary of  the  pollution  of  the  tem- 
ple bv  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  B.  c.  167. 

DEEP,  THE,  in  Luke  8:  31  and 
Rom.  10  :  7,  does  not  refer  to  the  sea, 
but  to  the  abyss,  the  place  where  lost 
spirits  await  their  final  doom.  The 
same  word  is  rendered  the  '*  bottomless 
pit"  in  Rev.  9  :  1,  2,  11:  11:7;  20:13. 

DEFILE'.  Under  the  Jewish  law, 
many  blemishes  of  person  and  conduct 
were  regarded  as  defilements  or  pollu- 
tions, rendering  those  upon  whom  they 
were  found  unclean,  and  subjecting 
them,  for  the  time  being,  to  many  civil 
and  religious  disabilities.  Mark  7  :  2. 
The  term  is  most  frequently  used  by 
the  sacred  writers  in  a  figurative  sense. 


DEGUEE'.  This  word  is  used  to 
signify  rank  or  station.  Ps.  62  :  9;  1 
Tim.  3  :  13.  The  phrase  "song,  or 
psalm  of  degrees,"  which  forms  the 
title  to  Psalms  120  to  134  inclusive,  has 
been  variously  interpreted ;  some  sup- 
pose it  has  reference  to  the  elevated 
voice  in  which  they  were  sung,  others 
to  the  time  when  they  were  sung — viz. 
at  the  annual  festivals,  when  the  Jews 
went  up  to  Jerusalem,  and  that  in  this 
sense  they  were  called  "  odes  of  ascen- 
sion." The  Rabbins  suppose  tliey  were 
sung  by  the  Levites  as  they  ascended 
the  15  steps  which  separated  the  men's 
court  from  the  women's  in  the  temple  ; 
and  others  again  suppose  that  the  word 
"  degree  "  denotes  the  peculiarly  climac- 
teric style  of  these  Psalms — viz.  that  the 
thought  or  expression  of  one  verse  is 
resumed  and  carried  forward  in  the  next 
succeeding  verse,  as  in  Psalm  121 ;  but 
this  is  improbable. 

DEHA'VITES, supposed  by  Herod- 
otus to  be  a  Persian  tribe,  and,  as  some 
think,  the  same  who  are  mentioned  as 
from  Ava.  Ezr.  4:9;  2  Kgs.  17  :  24. 

DE'KAR  {n  lancer),  the  father  of 
one  of  Solomon's  commissariat  officers. 
1  Kgs.  4  :  9. 

DELAI'AH  (7chom  Jehovah  hath 
freed).  1.  The  head  of  the  twenty- 
third  temple-course  of  priests.  1  Chr. 
24:18. 

2.  "  Children  of  Delaiah  "  are  spoken 
of  in  Ezr.  2  :  60  :  Neh.  7  :  62. 

3.  The  father  of  a  man  who  tried  to 
terrify  Nehemiah.  Neh.  6:10. 

4.  A  prince  in  the  time  of  Jeremiah. 
Jer.  36  :  12,  25. 

DEL'ILAH  (pininrf  with  desire), 
a  harlot  of  the  valley  of  Sorek,  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  and  near  the  borders  of 
the  Philistines,  with  whom  Samson  as- 
sociated, and  who  was  the  instrument 
of  betraying  him  to  his  enemies.  Jud. 
16:4-18.     See  Samson. 

DE'MAS,  a  zealous  disciple  and 
fellow-laborer  of  Paul,  Phile.  24 ;  Col. 
4:14,  who  afterward  left  him  through 
inordinate  love  of  the  world,  2  Tim.  4  : 
10.  The  name  is  most  probably  a  con- 
traction from  "  Demetrius "  or  from 
"  Demarchus." 

DEMF/TRIUS.  1.  A  silversmith 
who  resided  at  Ephesus  and  manufac- 
tured silver  shrines  or  small  portable 
temples  and  images  of  Diana.     See  Di- 

227 


DEN 


DEU 


AXA.  Acts  19  :  24.  These  were  pur- 
chased by  foreigners,  who  either  could 
not  come  to  Ephesus,  or  else  desired  a 
memento  of  the  city  and  a  model  of  its 
famous  temple.  This  was  a  very  lucra- 
tive business  in  that  city,  where  the 
worship  of  Diana  was  chiefly  main- 
tained ;  and  hence,  when  the  gospel 
began  to  make  an  impression,  and  the 
people  to  forsake  their  vain  idols  for  the 
service  of  the  living  God.  Demetrius  saw 
that  he  should  lose  his  business  unless 
he  could  still  keep  the  people  in  sin.  So 
he  called  a  meeting  of  those  who  worked 
at  that  trade,  and  made  a  speech  to  them. 
By  this  harangue  he  inflamed  the  pas- 
sions of  his  fellow-craftsmen,  and  they 
excited  the  multitude,  until  the  whole 
city  of  Ephesus  was  thrown  into  an  up- 
roar, which  was  finally  quelled  by  the 
politic  and  seasonable  advice  of  the 
town-clerk.  Acts  19. 

2.  A  disciple  of  high  reputation,  and, 
as  some  suppose  (though  without  war- 
rant), the  Demetrius  of  Ephesus  con- 
verted to  the  faith  of  the  gospel.  3 
John   12. 

DENA'RIUS,  a  Roman  silver  coin 
nearly  equivalent  to  the  Greek  drachma, 
and  worth  about  15  cents;  translated  in 


Koman  Denarius.     {From  Eielwi.) 

the  A.  V.  "penny,"  which  makes  the 
impression  of  a  very  small  sum ;  it  was 
really  the  amount  of  a  day's  wages. 
Matt.  20  :  2  ;  comp.  Luke  10  :  35.  "Shil- 
ling "  would  be  a  much  nearer  equiva- 
lent ;  but  the  better  way  would  have  been 
to  transfer  the  Greek  term  into  English 
(denar),  as  the  evangelists  retained  the 
Latin  term  in  the  Greek.     See  Penny. 

DEP'UT  Y.  The  ofiice  was  that  of 
proconsul,  or  governor  of  a  senatorial 
province.  Acts  13  :  7,  8,  12  ;  19  :  38. 

D£R'BE,  a  city  of  Lvcaonia,  Acts 
14:  16,  20;  16:  1,  about  .20  miles  from 
Lystra.  Kiepei't  places  it  near  L((ke  Ak- 
Ghieul,  but  Hamilton  at  Divle,  several 
miles  farther  south. 

DES'ERT.  The  popular  concep- 
tion of  the  term  must  not  be  applied 
228 


[  to  all  passages  in  the  English  Bible,  in 
i  which  the  woi'd  is  the  translation  of 
I  four   Hebrew    words    denoting    definite 

localities. 
I       1.  It  is  applied  to  the  Arahah,  Eze. 
47  :  8,  the  name  of  the  remarkable  de- 
pression which   runs   through  the  land 
I  of  Palestine;  but  this  is  a  waste  merely 
j  because  of  the  depopulated  and  neglect- 
ed  state  of  the  country.     It  is  capable 
of  cultivation.     See  Arabah. 
'       2.     It    is    used    to    translate    midhar, 
1  "  pasture-ground,"  in    Ex.  3:1;  5:3; 
j  19:2;  Num.  33:15,  16. 

3.  Horhah.  Ps.  102  :  6  ;  Isa.  48  :  21 ; 
Eze.  13  :  4.  But  the  term  commonly 
employed  is  "waste  places  "  or  "  deso- 
lation." 
I  4.  JesJu'mon.  With  the  definite  arti- 
cle, it  is  treated  as  a  proper  name.  See 
Jeshimon.  Without  the  article,  it  oc- 
curs in  a  few  passages  of  poetry.  In 
the  following  verses  it  is  translated 
"desert:"  Ps.  78  :  40  ;  106:14;  Isa. 
43  :  19,  2%. 

The  "  detert,"  as  an  illimitable  stretch 
of  heavy  srnid,  does  not  exist  in  Bible 
lands.  The  "desert  of  Sinai"  is  a  wild 
and  desolate  region  of  country,  but  in 
many  parts,  especially  from  Elim  (  Wadi/ 
Ghurundel)  to  Mount  Sinai,  and  the  re- 
gion toward  the  southei-n  border  of  Pales- 
tine, are  traces  of  previous  fertility  ;  and 
when  the  Israelites  guided  their  flocks 
through  it,  they  found  pasture  in  many  of 
the  little  valleys,  and  perhaps  upon  some 
of  its  plains.  The  different  tracts  men- 
tioned under  this  name  in  the  Bible,  as 
Shur,  Sin,  Paran,  etc.,  will  be  found  par- 
ticularly noticed  in  their  proper  places. 
DESOLATION,  ABOMINA- 
TION OF.     See  Abominable. 

DEU'EL  {imwcdtion  of  God),  the 
father  of  the  prince  of  Gad  in  the  wil- 
derness. Num.  1:14;  7  :  42  ;  10  :  20. 
But  in  2:14  he  is  called  Reuel. 

DEU'TER-ON'OMY,  or  THE 
SECOND  1.AW  (so  called  from  its 
repeating  the  Law),  is  the  fifth  book  of 
the  Bible,  and  (except  the  last  chapter) 
was  evidently  written  by  Moses.  Deut. 
1:5,  comp.  with  Deut.  34:1:  2  Chr. 
25  :  4 ;  Dan.  9:13;  Mark  12  :  19  ;  Acts 
3  :  22.  This  book  contains  three  ad- 
dresses of  Moses  to  the  Israelites  in  the 
plain  of  Moab  in  the  eleventh  month  of 
the  fortieth  year  of  their  journeyings, 
,  expounding,    supplementing,    and    en- 


DEV 


DEV 


forcing  the  Law,  the  delivery  of  the 
book  of  the  Law  to  the  Levites,  and  the 
song  of  Moses.     The  JirHt  address,  1 :  1- 

4  :  40,  is  a  brief  rehearsal  of  the  history 
of  the  "  Wandering,"  particularly  of 
those  events  which  conditioned  their 
entry  into  the  Promised  Land.  Upon 
this  resume  Moses  grounds  an  exhorta- 
tion to  obedience.     The  second  address, 

5  :  1-26  :  I'.t,  follows  almost  immedi- 
ately after  the  first,  being  separated 
from  it  only  by  three  verses,  giving  a 
brief  notice  of  the  three  cities  of  refuge 
which  Moses  severed  on  the  east  side  of 
the  Jordan.  This  address,  like  the  first, 
has  a  formal  historical  setting,  4  :  44—49, 
by  way  of  introduction.  It  contains  a 
recapitulation,  with  a  few  additions  and 
alterations,  of  the  Law  given  on  Sinai. 
Particularly  noticeable  is  the  slightly- 
different  version  of  the  ten  command- 
ments. But  this  long  address  is  not  the 
least  like  a  dry  legal  recital.  Through- 
out, the  spiritual  earnestness  of  Moses  is 
shown,  and,  as  has  been  well  said,  "  It 
is  the  father  no  less  than  the  legislator 
who  speaks.  And  whilst  obedience  and 
life  are  bound  up  together,  it  is  the  obe- 
dience of  a  loving  heart,  not  a  service  of 
formal  constraint,  which  is  the  burden 
of  his  exhortations."  The  third  part  of 
Deuteronomy,  27  :  1-30  :  20,  opens  with 
the  joint  command  of  Moses  and  the 
elders  to  keep  all  the  commandments, 
and,  when  they  had  crossed  the  Jordan, 
to  write  them  upon  the  great  plastered 
stones  they  were  ordered  to  set  up  with 
appropriate  ceremonies.  Then  follows 
the  third  address,  27  :  11-30  :  20,  whose 
topic  is  "  The  blessing  and  the  curse." 

After  these  three  addresses,  in  ch.  31 
there  follows  the  delivery  of  the  Law  to 
Joshua  and  Moses's  speech  on  the  oc- 
casion, containing  a  command  to  read 
the  Law  every  seven  yeiirs.  In  ch.  32 
we  have  the  song  of  Moses ;  in  ch.  33, 
Moses's  blessing  of  the  twelve  tribes. 
These  were  the  last  written  words  of 
Moses,  and  most  beautifully  do  they  set 
forth  the  majesty  of  God  and  the  excel- 
lency of  Israel.  The  final  verses  of  the 
book  give  an  account  of  the  death  of 
Moses,  and  were,  of  course,  written  by 
another  hand.  The  date  of  the  book 
may  be  set  down  as  about  b.  c.  1277. 
See  also  Pentateuch. 

DEVaL  (RhnHlerer).  This  word  (from 
the  Greek  dinholos)  is  sometimes  applied 


to  very  wicked  men  or  women,  John 
6  :  70  (Judas  Iscariot)  ;  Acts  13  :  10  ; 
2  Tim.  3:3;  Tit.  2  :  .3,  and  translated 
*'  devil  "  or  "  false  accusers,"  but  usually 
it  denotes  the  one  most  subtle  and  ma- 
lignant of  the  evil  spirits,  and  the  great 
enemy  of  God  and  man.  It  corresponds 
to  the  Hebrew  Sntun  (''adversary"), 
which  is  also  used  in  the  N.  T.  Matt. 
16  :  23 ;  Mark  8  :  33  ;  Luke  22  :  3. 
Satan  can  assume  a  character  quite 
opposite  to  his  real  one,  and  hence  he 
is  said  by  Paul  to  transform  himself 
into  an  "  angel  of  light,"  2  Cor.  11  :  14. 
Although  there  is  only  one  devil,  our 
English  version  often  speaks  of  "  cast- 
ing out  devils"  and  of  persons  ''pos- 
sessed with  devils  " — e.  <j.  Matt.  4  :  24. 
The  word  is  not  the  same  as  that  applied 
to  Satan,  but  means  "  demons"  or  "  evil 
spirits."  It  is  common  to  call  these  af- 
flicted people  demoniacs.  Three  views 
are  held  upon  the  demoniacal  posses- 
sions : 

1.  That  the  possession  of  the  devil 
symbolizes  the  prevalence  of  evil  in  the 
world,  the  casting  out  of  the  devils  by 
our  Lord,  his  conquest  over  that  evil 
power  by  his  doctrine  and  his  life. 
This  theory  of  course  gives  up  the 
historic  character  of  the  narratives. 

2.  That  the  demoniacs  were  not  really 
under  the  power  of  demons  ;  but  inas- 
much as  it  was  commonly  believed  they 
were,  our  Lord  and  the  evangelists  spoke 
to  them  and  of  them  in  this  fashion. 
They  were  merely  persons  suffering 
unusual  diseases  of  body  and  mind,  es- 
pecially epilepsy,  melancholy,  insanity. 
The  advocates  of  this  view  present  three 
arguments  :  (1)  The  symptoms  of  the 
"  possessed "  were  frequently  those  of 
bodily  disease — dumbness.  Matt.  9  :  32  ; 
blindness.  Matt.  12  :  22  ;  epilepsy,  Mark 
9  :  17-27 — or  those  seen  in  cases  of  or- 
dinary insanity.  Matt.  8  :  28.  (2)  "  To 
have  a  devil"  seems  to  be  equivalent 
to  to  be  "  mad,"  John  7  :  20  :  8  :  48  ;  10  : 
20.  (3)  There  is  no  such  thing  to-day 
as  "  demoniacal  possession,"  but  there 
are  frequent  cases  similar  to  those  re- 
corded. Hence  the  language  is  popular, 
and  not  exact. 

3.  That  there  were  persons  actually 
possessed  bj'  demons — such  possession 
manifesting  itself  in  the  forms  of  bod- 
ily and  mental  disease.  Our  Lord  really 
cast  out  demons.     This  theorv  has  in  its 

229 


DEV 


DIA 


support :  (1)  The  plain  meaning  of  the 
text.  It  is  the  most  natural  interpreta- 
tion. The  demons  are  plainly  distin- 
guished from  the  persons  whom  they 
possess :  they  have  a  separate  con- 
sciousness; they  know  Jesus,  and  look 
forward  with  trembling  to  the  judg- 
ment-day ;  they  pass  from  one  person 
to  another,  or  even  into  a  herd  of  swine. 
(2)  It  accords  with  the  Scripture  notion 
of  the  malignity  of  Satan  that  he  should 
make  a  special  exhibition  of  his  jjower 
against  Jesus.  (3)  It  explains  the  con- 
fessions of  our  Lord's  divinity  which 
imply  superhuman  knowledge.  (4)  It 
renders  intelligible  the  crucial  narrative 
of  the  man  among  the  tombs,  Mark  5 : 1- 
20.  The  other  theories  either  deny  the 
fact  or  give  a  forced  interpretation.  (5) 
It  vindicates  the  truthfulness  of  Jesus, 
which  the  other  theories  impugn.  He 
not  only  addressed  the  patients  as 
"possessed,"  Luke  4  :  35,  but  distinct- 
ly linked  demoniacal  possession  with 
the  evil  one.  Matt.  12  :  25-30  ;  Luke 
10:18. 

DEVO'TIONS.  In  Acts  17:  23  we 
should  read  ''  your  objects  of  devotion  " 
instead  of  ''your  devotions,''  because  in 
King  James's  day  the  word  denoted 
the  objects,  and  not  the  acts,  of  wor- 
ship. 

DEW,  a  dense  vapor  which  falls  on 
the  earth  during  the  night,  and  which 
in  Judaea  was  so  copious  as  in  a  great 
measure  to  supply  the  absence  of  show- 
ers. It  thus  became  a  beautiful  em- 
blem of  spiritual  blessings,  Deut.  32  : 
2  ;  Hos.  14  :  5-7,  as  well  as  of  temporal 
prosperity,  because  without  the  appar- 
ent effort  of  rain  it  gently  accomplished 
the  same  result.  But  then  it  vanished 
so  quickly  on  exposure  to  the  sun  that 
it  was  likewise  an  emblem  of  transient 
desires  and  relinquished  efforts  in  God's 
service.  Job  29  :  19.  The  heat  and  dry- 
ness of  the  air  in  the  Holy  Land  are  such 
that  if  it  were  not  for  the  dews  the  earth 
would  be  parched  and  all  its  fruits  with- 
ered. The  same  fact  mav  be  inferred  from 
Jud.  6  :  37-40  ;  2  Sam.'  17  :  12  :  Job  29  : 
19  ;  Song  Sol.  5  :  2.  The  Psalmist,  Ps. 
133  :  3,  mentions  particularly  the  dew  of 
Hermon  as  emblematical  of  the  rich  and 
abundant  blessings  of  spiritual  com- 
munion.    So  Hos.  14  :  5-7. 

DI'ADEM.     See  Crown. 

DI'AL,  an  instrument  employed  to 
230 


measure  time,  or  to  determine  the  ap- 
parent progress  of  the  sun  by  the  shad- 
ow which  the  gnomon,  or  point  in  the 
centre  of  a  graduated  arc,  casts. 

The  ''dial  of  Ahaz"  is  the  only  one 
mentioned  in  the  Bible.  2  Kgs.  20  :  11 ; 
Isa.  38  :  8.  The  sign  of  Hezekiah's 
recovery  was  that  the  shadow  of  the 
sun  went  ten  degrees  backward  upon 
it.  The  best  interpretation  of  the  pas- 
sage is  to  suppose  that  the  dial,  liko 
those  discovered  in  Babj-lonia,  "  was  a 
series  of  Steps  or  terraces  on  which  an 
upright  pole  cast  its  shadow."  It  was 
therefore  probably  modelled  after  those 
in  familiar  use  with  the  ally  of  Ahaz, 
Tiglath-pileser.  The  fact  that  ambas- 
sadors came  from  Babylon  to  inquire 
of  the  wonder  proves  that  the  fame 
thereof  had  reached  that  city.  It  is  a 
question  of  considerable  importance 
whether  this  miracle  was  wrought  upon 
the  rays  of  the  sun,  by  which  they  were 
deflected  in  an  extraordinary  manner,  so 
as  to  produce  this  retrograde  motion  of 
the  shadow,  while  the  sun  itself  seemed 
to  go  on  its  way,  or  whether  the  motion 
of  the  earth  or  the  position  of  the  sun 
was  so  changed  as  to  produce  this  result. 
It  was  this  miracle  to  which  reference 
is  made  in  2  Chr.  32  :  31. 

DI'AMOND.  Ex.  28  :  18  ;  Eze. 
28  :  13.  "  There  is  no  trace  of  evidence 
that  the  ancients  ever  acquired  the  skill 
to  engrave  on  the  diamond,  or  even  that 
they  were  acquainted  with  the  stone." — 
Canon  Cook.  The  claims  of  jasper, 
onyx,  chalcedony,  emerald,  and  rock- 
crjstal  to  be  the  diamond  of  the  Bible 
have  all  been  urged.  Its  diversity  from 
any  other  stone  in  the  high  priest's 
breast-plate  will  incline  some  minds 
to  advocate  rock-crystal.  For  Jer.  17  : 
1,  see  Adamant. 

DIA'NA,  a  heathen  goddess  of  great 
celebrity,  whose  worship  was  attended 
with  peculiar  splendor  and  magnificence 
at  Ephesus,  her  guardian  city.  Acts 
19  :  28.  Her  magnificent  temple  in  that 
city  was  ranked  among  the  Seven  AVon- 
ders  of  the  world.  It  was  220  years  in 
building.  Pliny  tells  us  that  it  was 
425  feet  long  and  220  in  breadth,  and 
that  it  was  adorned  with  127  columns, 
each  60  feet  high,  27  of  which  were 
curiousl}'  carved  and  the  rest  polished. 
Little  silver  models  of  the  temple,  with 
the  image  of  the  goddess  enshrined  in 


DIB 


DIB 


them  (see  the  opposite  cut),  were  made 
for  sale,  and  were  disposed  of  in  such 
quantities  as  to  afford  profitable  work 
for  many  hands.  Acts  19  :  24,  25.  See 
Demetrius. 

In  this  temple  there  was  "the  image 


Diana  of  Ephesus.  (From  Lewin's  "St.  Paul.") 
(This  figure  was  taken  from  an  alabaster  image  in 
the  museum  of  Naples,  but  it  is  in  great  measure 
ideal.  A  more  accurate  representation  is  on  the  coin, 
following.) 

which  fell  down  from  Jupiter,"  a  rude 
wooden  image  having  a  head  decorated 
with  a  mural  crown  ;  ''  each  hand  held  a 
bar  of  metal,  and  the  lower  part  ended 
in  a  rude  block  cgv^red  with  figures  of 


Temple  of  Diana.    (i-Vowi  a  Coin  in  the  Pem- 
broke Collection.) 

animals  and  mystic  inscriptions."  Later 
figures  had  many  breasts,  evidently 
symbolical  of  the  reproductive  powers 
of  Nature,  and  therefore  it  was  a  sort 
of  companion-idol  to  Ashtoreth.  No 
bloody  sacrifices  were  offered  in  her 
worship.  Her  temple  in  Ephesus  was 
the  treasury  in  which  immense  quanti- 
ties of  wealth  were  stored  up,  and  was 
also  a  place  of  safety.  It  was  beloved 
with  singular  passion,  and  hence  the 
insinuation  that  Paul's  preaching  tend- 
ed to  lower  the  regard  for  it  led  to  the 
uproar  so  graphically  described  in  Acts 
19.     See  Ephesus,  Paul. 

DIB'LAIM  {double  cake),  one  whose 
daughter  the  prophet  Hosea  married. 
Hos.  1:3. 

DIB'LATH.  Eze.  6  :  14.  It  has 
been  identified  with  the  modern  ruin 
Bibl.    See  Riblah. 

DIBLATHA'IM.       See    Almon- 

DIBLATHAIM. 

DI'BON  (wasting),  the  name  of 
two  towns. 

1.  Dibon  in  Moab.  Num.  21 :  30  ; 
15  :  2.  It  was  built  by  Gad,  Num. 
34,  and  hence  called  Dibon-gad  : 
assigned  to  Reuben,  Josh.  13  :  9 
was  also  called  Dimon.  Isa.  15  :  9 
afterward  returned  to  Moab,  Isa.  15  :  -: 
Jer.  48  :  18,  22  ;  now  called  Dlnhau, 
about  12  miles  east  of  the  Dead  Sea  and 
3  miles  north  of  the  Amon.  Its  ruins 
are  extensive,  covering  the  tops  of  two 
adjacent  hills. 

The  famous  Moabite  Stone,  bear- 
ing an  inscription  of  Mesha,  a  king 
of" Moab,  about  900  b.  c,  was  found 
here  within  the  gateway  by  Rev.  F.  A. 
Klein  (a  German  missionary  at  Jerusa- 
lem) in  1868.  The  stone  is  of  black 
'  231 


Isa. 
32: 

was 

17: 

It 


DIB 


DIB 


basalt,  3  feet  Si  inches  high,  2  feet  3^ 
inches  wide,  and  1  foot  1.78  inches 
thick.  It  has  34  lines  of  Hebrew-Phoe- 
nician writing,  and  contains  a  most  re- 
markable corroboration  of  the  Scripture 
history  in  2  Kgs.  3.     Translations  have 


/6  >'/y  I  fe  ^.<  ^  /« fi><;  #  ^  i  *+>  ?  f  3 
■f  yif  \j2;  ^ 

The  Moabite  Stone. 

been  made  by  Dr.  Ginsburg,  M.  Gan- 
neau,  and  Prof,  v^chlottmann.  The  lat- 
ter's  translation  is  as  follows: 

I  Mesa,  son  of  Chamos-nadab,  the 
king  of  Moab  [son  of]  Yabni.  My 
father  ruled  over  Moab  [  .  .  years], 
and  I  ruled  after  my  father.  And  I 
made  this  high  place  of  sacrifice  to 
Chamos  in  Korcha,  a  high  place  of 
deliverance,  for  he  saved  me  from  all 
[who  fought  against  Moab]. 

Omri,  king  of  Israel,  allied  himself 
with  all  his  (Moab's)  haters,  and  they 
oppressed  Moab  [many  days]  :  then 
Chamos  was  irritated  [against  him  and 
against]  his  land,  and  let  it  go  over 
232 


[into  the  hand  of  his  haters],  and  they 

oppressed  Moab  very  sore. 

In   mj'   days  spoke  Ch[amos],  I  will 

therefore  look  upon  him  and  his  house, 

and  Israel  shall  perish  in  eternal  ruin. 

And  Omri  took  possession  of  the  town 
of  Medeba,  and  sat  therein  [and  they 
oppressed  Moab,  he  and]  his  son,  forty 
years.  [Then]  Chamos  looked  upon 
Moab  in  my  days. 

And  I  built  Baal  Meon,  and  made 
therein  walls  and  mounds.  And  I  went 
to  take  the  town  of  Kirjathaim,  and  the 
men  of  Gad  [lived]  in  the  district  [of 
Kirjathaim]  from  days  of  their  grand- 
fathers, and  the  king  of  Israel  built 
Kirjathaim.  And  I  fought  against 
the  town  and  took  it,  and  I  strangled 
all  the  people  that  were  in  the  city  [as 
a  sacrifice]  to  Chamos,  the  god  of  Moab. 

(Here  follows  a  lacuna:  at  the  end  of 
it  the  words  'before  the  face  of  Chamos 
in  Kirjathaim.'  Probably  stood  here,  just 
as  in  lines  17,  18,  a  notice  of  the  change 
of  an  Israelitish  to  a  Moabite  sanctuary.) 

And  I  destroyed  the  High  Place  of 
Jehovah,  and  dedicated  it  before  the 
face  of  Chamos  in  Kirjathaim.  And  I 
allowed  to  dwell  therein  the  men  of 
....  and  the  men  of  ...  . 

And  Chamos  said  to  me,  '  Go  up. 
Take  [the  town  of]  Nebo  against  Is- 
rael •  .  .'  and  I  went  up  during  the 
night,  and  fought  against  it  from  the 
dawn  to  midday,  and  I  took  it  .  .  .  and 
I  saw  it  quite  .  .  . 

(In  the  rest  of  this  part — more  than 
two  lines — there  are,  besides  isolated  let- 
ters, only  legible  through  the  gaps  the 
names  of  God  separated  from  each  other.) 

to  Astar  Chamos  .  .  .  Jehovah  .... 
before  the  face  of  Chamos. 

(It  may  safely  be  presumed  that  mention 
was  made  here  of  the  restoration  of  heathen 
in  the  room  of  the  Israelitish  worship.) 

And  the  king  of  Israel  built  Jahaz, 
and  sat  therein,  while  he  fought  against 
me,  and  Chamos  drove  him  before  my 
sight.  And  I  took  from  Moab  two  hun- 
dred men,  fully  told.  And  I  beleaguer- 
ed Jahaz  and  took  it,  in  addition  to 
Dibon. 

I  built  Korcha,  the  wall  toward  the 
forest,  and  the  wall  .  .  .  and  I  built 
her  gates,  and  I  built  her  towers,  and 
I  built  the  king's  house;  and  I  made 
store-places  for  the  mountain  water  in 
the  midst  of  the  town.     And  there  were 


DIB 


DIS 


no  cisterns  within  the  town,  in  Korcha. 
and  I  said  to  all  the  peoj)le, '  Make  (you) 
every  man  a  cistern  in  his  house.' 

(Here  follows  a  sentence  with  difficult 
expressions  at  the  beginning  and  a  gap  in 
the  middle.    The  following  is  conjectural :) 

And  I  hung  up  the  prohibition  for 
Korcha  [against  association  with  the] 
people  of  Israel. 

I  built  Aroer,  and  I  made  the  streets 
in  Arnon.  I  built  Beth  Bamoth,  for  [it 
was  destroyed].  I  built  Bezer,  for  men 
of  Dibon  compelled  it,  fifty  of  them,  for 
all  Dibon  was  subject;  and  I  filled  [with 
inhabitants]  Bikran,  which  I  added  to 
the  land.  And  I  built  .  .  .  the  temple 
of  Diblathaim,  and  the  temple  of  Baal 
Meon,  and  brought  thither  Ch[amos]. 

(After  a  hiatus  are  the  words :) 

.  .  the  land  .  .  .  And  Horonaim  .  . 
dwelt  therein  .  .  . 

(Probably  there  followed  the  name  of 
an  Edomite  parent  tribe  or  clan.  Then 
again  after  a  gap:) 

Chamos  said  to  me,  '  Come.  Fight 
against  Horonaim  and  [take  it].' 

In  the  last  gap,  out  of  more  than  two 
lines,  it  is  only  possible,  besides  separated 
letters,  to  read  the  word  of  Chamos.  With- 
out doubt  it  was  here  related  how  the  king, 
by  the  help  of  Cheniosh,  took  the  town. 

Prof.  Schlottmann  divides  the  inscrip- 
tion into  three  parts  :  the  first  to  the  sixth 
section,  inclusive,  of  the  victories  of  Mesa 
over  Israel ;  the  second,  sections  seven  and 
eight,  of  the  buildings  and  erections  of  the 
king ;  and  the  third,  of  a  battle  in  the  south, 
toward  Edom.  (See  The  Recovery  of  Jerusa- 
lem, pp.  396-399.) 

2.  A  town  in  the  south  of  Judah, 
Neh.  11  :  25  ;  the  same  as  Dimonah, 
Josh.  16  :  22,  and  probably  modern  eh- 
Bheih. 

DI'BON-GAD.  Num.  33  :  45,  40. 
See  Dibon,  1. 

DIB'RI  (elnquent),  a  Danite,  father 
of  Shelomith,  wife  of  an  Esryptian. 
Lev.  24:11.  "^ 

DID'YMUS.     See  Thomas. 

DIK'LAH  {palm  tree),  a  son  of 
Joktan,  Gen.  10  :  27  ;  1  Chr.  1  :  21,  who 
settled  a  district  in  Arabia  abounding 
in  palm  trees ;  probably  Yemen,  in 
southern  Arabia. 

DIL'EAN  (f/ourd,  or  cncumher),  a 
city  in  the  lowlands  of  Judah,  near 
Mizpeh.    Josh.  15  :  38.     Van  de  Velde 


places  it  at  Tina,  south  of  Ekron  (Rob- 
inson's lieit-Tima),  Warren  at  li'abin. 

DIM'NAH,  a  Levitical  city  in  Zeb- 
ulon,  Josh.  21  :  35  ;  same  as  Ilimmon. 
1  Chr.  6:77;   now  Mummdnch. 

DIMO'NAH.  Josh.  15  :  22.  See 
Dibon,  2. 

DI'MON,  WA'TERS  OF.  Isa. 
15:  9.     See  DiBO.v,  1. 

DI'NAH  {judged,  or  avenged),  the 
only  daughter  of  Jacob  and  Leah,  Gen. 
30  :  21,  mentioned  in  Scripture,  al- 
though there  were  probably  others. 
The  daughters  were  less  likely  to  be 
spoken  of  than  the  sons.  Jacob,  on  his 
return  from  Padan-aram  to  Canaan, 
halted  at  Shechem :  here  Dinah  was 
wronged  by  Shechem,  son  of  the  prince 
Hainor.  His  offer  of  marriage  was  ac- 
cepted on  condition  that  he  and  all  the 
other  men  in  the  town  were  circumcised. 
But  while  they  were  recovering,  Simeon 
and  Levi,  Dinah's  own  brothers,  led  an 
attack  upon  them  and  killed  them  all, 
completely  pillaged  the  place,  and  made 
prisoners  of  the  women  and  children. 
Jacob's  words  to  his  sons  after  the  act 
betray  more  fear  of  the  anger  aroused 
among  their  neighbors  and  its  bad  con- 
sequences than  offence  at  their  treach- 
ery. Gen.  34:30.  Dinah  is  mentioned 
with  the  rest  of  the  family  who  went 
into  Egypt.    Gen.  46  :  8,  15. 

DI'NAITES,  the  name  of  some  of 
the  Cuthcean  colonists  placed  in  Samaria 
by  the  Assyrians  after  the  conquest  of 
the  ten  tribes.   Ezr.  4:  9. 

DIN'HABAH.  Gen.  36  :  32  ;  1 
Chr.  1:43.  A  capital  city  of  Edom; 
site  unknown. 

DIN'NER.     See  Meals. 

DIONY'SIUS  {votary  nf  Dionysus  ; 
i.  e.  Bacchus),  a  member  of  the  court  of 
the  Areopagus ;  converted  under  the 
preaching  of  Paul  at  Athens.  Acts  17  : 
34.  Tradition  says  he  became  the  bish- 
op of  Athens,  where  he  suffered  martyr- 
dom, A.  D.  95.  The  writings  which  bear 
his  name  are  of  much  later  date. 

DIOT'REPHES  (Joi;e-no»n8^erf), 
the  head  of  the  church,  situation  un- 
known, in  Asia  Minor  to  which  Gaius 
belonged.  3  John  9.  John  rebukes  him 
for  his  arbitrary  use  of  authority  and 
resistance  to  the  higher  powers.  See 
John'.  Epistles  of. 

DISCERNING  OF  SPIRITS 
was  one  of  the  miraculous  gifts  of  the 

233 


DIS 


DIS 


Holy  Ghost,  by  virtue  of  which  the 
spirits  of  men  were  tried  whether  they 
were  of  God.  1  Cor.  12  :  10  ;  1  John  4  : 1. 
It  was  a  most  desirable  gift  in  the  first 
ages  of  the  Cliurch,  when  false  prophets 
and  wicked  spirits  abounded  on  every 
side.     Comp.  Acts  5  :  1-10  ;  13  :  6-12. 

DISCI'PLE,  one  who  receives,  or 
professes  to  receive,  instruction  from 
another.  In  the  N.  T.,  it  denotes  the 
professed  followers  of  our  Saviour,  but 
not  always  his  true  followers.  Matt.  10  : 
24  ;  11  :  2  ;  Luke  14  :  26,  27,  33  j  John 
6  :  66  ;  9  :  28.     See  School. 

DISCOVER  (from  dis,  negative, 
and  cover)  is  used  in  the  English  Ver- 
sion for  "  uncover,"  "  lay  bare."  Ps.  29  : 
9  ;  Isa.  22:8;  Mic.  1:6.  "  The  voice  of 
the  Lord  .  .  .  discovereth  the  forests  " — 
i.  €.  strippeth  off  the  leaves. 

DISEAS'ES.  The  multiplied  forms 
in  which  sickness  and  suffering  appear 
among  men  are  so  many  signs  of  the 
evil  of  sin.  Reference  is  made  to  the 
interposition  of  God  in  sending  and  re- 
moving diseases.  Ps.39  :9-ll:  90:3-12. 

The  plagues,  pestilences,  and  other 
instrumentalities  by  which,  in  former 
ages,  a  multitude  of  lives  were  de- 
stroyed at  once  were  often  miraculous 
— that  is,  the  natural  causes  and  prog- 
ress of  disease  were  not  employed,  or 
were  not  visible.  Ex.  12  :  23,  29  -2  Kgs. 
19  :  35  ;  1  Chr.  21  :  12-15  ;  Acts  12  :  23. 

The  simple  diets  and  habits  of  the 
Jews  would  keep  them  from  many  dis- 
eases, but  the  Bible  proves  that  they  en- 
joyed no  miraculous  protection.  The 
diseases  of  the  East  of  to-day  were 
known  to  them  ;  such  are  ophthalmia, 
leprosy,  brain-fever,  pestilential  fevers, 
lung-disorders.  There  was  also  a  special 
form  of  disease,  known  as  "  having  an 
evil  spirit,"  very  common  in  our  Lord's 
dav.     See  Devil,  Medicine. 

DISH.     See  Table. 

DI'SHAN  (anfehpe),  a  son  of  Seir 
the  Horite.  Gen.  36:  21,  28,  30;  1  Chr. 
1 :  38,  42. 

DI'SHON  {antelope).  1.  Another 
son  of  the  same.  Gen.  36  :  21,  26,  30  ; 
1  Chr.  1:38,  41. 

2.  A  son  of  Anah,  and  a  grandchild 
of  Seir.   Gen.  36  :  25  :  1  Chr.  1 :  40. 

DISPENSA'TION.  This  word, 
in  its  scriptural  use,  generally  denotes 
a  plan  or  scheme,  or  a  system  of  pre- 
cepts and  principles  prescribed  and  re- 
234 


vealed  by  God  for  his  own  glory,  and 
for  the  advantage  and  happiness  of  his 
creatures.  1  Cor.  9  :  17  ;  Eph.  1 :  10  ;  3  : 
2  ;  Col.  1 :  25.  In  the  passages  above 
cited  it  is  supposed  to  mean  an  author- 
ity or  commission  to  preach  the  gospel. 
The  dispensation  of  the  Law  by  Moses 
and  of  the  gospel  by  Jesus  Christ  are 
examples  of  the  use  of  the  word  in  its 
former  meaning. 

DISPERSED',  DISPER- 
SION. These  terms  are  usually  ap- 
plied to  the  Jews  who  after  their  cap- 
tivity, and  during  the  time  of  the  second 
temple,werescatteredabroad  through  the 
earth.  Jas.  1 : 1 ;  1  Pet.  1:1.  In  the  time 
of  Christ  they  were  divided  into  three 
g'-eat  sections — the  Babylonian,  the  Syr- 
ian, and  the  Egyptian.  The  Epistles  of 
James  and  Peter  were  addressed  to  them. 
Apostolic  preaching  followed  the  line  of 
these  Jewish  settlements. 

The  settlement  of  the  Jews  in  Rome 
dates  from  the  conquest  of  Palestine  by 
Pompey,  B.  c.  63.  But  long  ere  this 
Jews  became  residents  in  other  lands. 
Naturally,  they  gave  up  some  of  their 
distinctive  customs.  The  thrice-a-year 
visitation  of  the  temple  was  impossible. 
The  temple  in  Jerusalem,  although 
their  national  centre,  was  no  longer 
their  religious  home.  The  synagogue 
became  their  usual  place  of  meeting. 
Thus  the  loosening  of  the  stiff  hold  of 
original  Judaism  prepared  them  for  the 
change  to  the  freedom  of  Christianity. 

DIS'TAFF,  a  staff  around  which 
the  tow  is  wound  for  spinning.  Prov. 
31 :  19.  The  spindle  is  mentioned  in 
connection  with  the  distaff  as  an  instru- 
ment of  employment  on  the  part  of  the 
virtuous  woman.  In  early  ages,  spin- 
ning (hence,  the  law-term  "spinster" 
for  an  unmarried  female)  was  a  part  of 
the  household  duties  of  women,  even  in 
rich  and  distinguished  families;  and  it 
was  a  maxim  that  a  young  woman 
should  never  be  married  until  she  had 
spun  herself  a  set  of  body-,  bed-,  and 
table-linen.  At  the  present  day  the 
Egyptian  women  spend  their  leisure- 
hours  in  working  with  the  needle,  par- 
ticularly in  embroidering  veils,  hand- 
kerchiefs, etc.,  with  colored  silk  and 
gold,  in  which  they  carry  on  a  sort  of 
traffic  through  the  channel  of  a  female 
broker.  In  ancient  Egypt  the  yarn 
seems  all  to  have  been  spun  with  the 


DIV 


DIZ 


hand,  and  the  spindle  is  seen  in  all  the 
pictures  representing  the  manufacture  of 
cloth,  as  well  as  both  men  and  women 
employed  in  the  manufacture.  See 
Spixhle. 

DI'VES.     See  Lazarus. 

DIVINA'TION  is  the  practice  of 
divining  or  foretelling  future  events. 
Deut.  18  :  10.  In  the  passage  cited  it  is 
put  in  connection  with  witchcraft,  nec- 
romanc}',  and  other  abominations  of  the 
heathen  which  the  Jews  were  to  avoid. 
Divination  prevailed  among  the  Israel- 
ites and  many  of  the  Eastern  nations. 
The  modes  or  means  of  divining  were 
by  consulting  or  being  familiar  with 
spirits,  by  the  motions  of  the  stars, 
clouds,  etc.,  and  by  lots,  rods  or  wands, 
dreams,  the  flight  of  birds,  the  entrails 
of  animals,  etc.,  etc.  It  is  said  of  Jo- 
seph's cup.  Gen.  44:5,  that  he  divined 
by  it.  It  is  not  to  be  inferred,  however, 
that  he  practised  divination,  but  rather 
that  he  uses  the  words  in  his  supposed 
character  of  a  native  Egyptian.  His 
brethren  would  therefore  believe  that 
by  the  cup  he  did  actually  divine,  as  was 
the  custom  of  the  land.  In  so  speaking, 
Joseph  practised  deception;  we  are  not, 
however,  called  upon  to  believe  he  was 
perfect.  The  Egyptian  magicians  were 
diviners,  so  were  the  wise  men,  the 
Chaldfeans  of  Babylon.  There  are 
many  words  used  in  Scripture  to  de- 
note them.  Some  diviners  were  learn- 
ed, others  very  ignorant.  Ventriloquism 
and  illusion  formed  part  of  their  busi- 
ness, although  many  believed  in  the 
reality  of  their  revelations.  In  divin- 
ing with  the  cup,  a  small  piece  of  gold 
or  silver,  or  a  jewel,  was  thrown  into 
a  spherical  goblet,  an  incantation  was 
pronounced,  the  number  of  waves  were 
counted  and  the  appearance  of  the  ob- 
ject studied.  Or  else  the  goblet  was 
simply  filled  with  pure  water  and  ex- 
posed to  the  sunlight :  whatever  it  re- 
flected was  suppose  to  give  an  answer. 
In  the  case  of  the  witch  of  Endor,  she 
began  to  practise  her  art,  but,  to  her 
amazement,  no  less  than  to  Saul's,  the 
vision  or  spirit  of  Samuel  actually  arose, 
and  announced  the  imminent  defeat  and 
death  of  the  king.  The  root  of  the  He- 
brew word  translated  "witch"  means 
"  a  bottle."  The  term  arose  from  the 
supposed  injiation  of  these  persons  by 
the  spirit. 


The  Jews  were  familar  with  four 
genuine  ways  adopted  by  God  to  make 
known  the  future.  These  were  (1)  by 
visions,  as  in  the  case  of  the  patri- 
archs; (2)  dreams  interpreted,  as  by 
Joseph  and  Daniel;  (3)  by  the  Urim 
and  Thummim  ;  (4)  and  by  the  proph- 
ets, 1  Sam.  28  :  (5.  The  practice  of 
divination  in  all  its  forms  is  severely 
reprobated  by  Moses  and  other  sacred 
writers,  Lev.  20  :  27  ;  Deut.  18  :  9-14; 
Jer.  14:14;  Eze.  13:8,9,  because  "a 
prying  into  the  future  clouds  the  mind 
with  superstition  and  is  *an  incentive 
to  idolatry,"  as  is  the  case  with  the 
pagans.  In  whatever  form  it  is  prac- 
tised or  regarded,  it  is  reproachful  to 
Christianity,  and  argues  great  folly, 
ignorance,  and  sin.  2  Pet.  1 :  19. 

DIVORCE',  the  dissolution  of  the 
marriage  relation.  This  was  permit- 
ted by  the  law  of  Moses  because  already 
existent,  but  so  regulated  as  to  miti- 
gate its  injustice  and  cruelty  to  the 
wife,  Deut.  24 ;  1-4,  and  in  certain  cases 
forbidden,  Deut.  22  :  19,  29.  Although 
divorce  was  common  in  the  later  days 
of  the  Hebrew  nation,  Mai.  2  :  16,  and 
men  put  away  their  wives  for  trivial 
causes,  Matt.  19  :  3 — and  many  of  the 
Jewish  doctors  contended  that  this  was 
the  spirit  of  the  Law — there  is  no  dis- 
tinct case  of  divorce  mentioned  in  the 
0.  T.  Our  Saviour  was  questioned  upon 
this  matter,  but  he  defeated  the  purpose 
of  his  inquisitors  to  entangle  him  in 
his  talk,  and  took  the  opportunity  to 
rebuke  the  lax  morals  of  the  day  and 
set  forth  adultei'y  as  the  only  proper 
ground  of  divorce.  Matt.  5:32;  19:9; 
Mark  10:11;  Luke  16: 18. 

According  to  Jewish  customs,  the 
husband  was  required  to  give  his  wife 
a  writing  or  bill  of  divorcement,  in 
which  was  set  forth  the  date,  place, 
and  cause  of  her  repudiation,  and  a 
permission  was  given  by  it  to  marry 
whom  she  pleased.  It  was  provided, 
however,  that  she  might  be  restored  to 
the  relation  at  any  future  time  if  she 
did  not  meanwhile  marry  any  other 
man.  The  woman  also  seems  to  have 
had  power — at  least  in  a  later  period 
of  the  Jewish  state — to  put  away  her 
husband — i.  e.  without  a  formal  divorce 
to  forsake  him.  Mark  10  :  12. 

D  I  Z  ''  A  H  A  B  {region  of  gold),  a 
place  in  the  Arabian  desert,  near  which 

235 


DOC 


DOG 


Moses  rehearsed  to  Israel  God's  dealings 
Avith  them,  Deut.  1:1;   possibly  Dehab. 

DOCTOR.  Doctors  or  teach- 
ers of  the  law  Avere  those  who  made  it 
their  business  or  profession  to  teach  the 
Law  of  Moses,  and  they  were  in  great 
repute  among  the  Jews.  Luke  2 :  46. 
Some  have  distinguished  the  scribes 
from  the  doctors  by  supposing  that  the 
former  wrote  their  opinions,  while  the 
latter  taught  extemporaneously.  The 
doctors  were  generally  of  the  sect  of  the 
Pharisees,  perhaps  alwa3's.  Luke  5:17. 
The  word  "  teachers  "  came  into  early  use 
among  Christians  as  a  title  to  those  who 
taught  the  doctrines  of  the  faith,  1  Cor. 
12  :  28,  and  hence  was  afterward  applied 
to  those  who  became  eminent  for  their 
learning  and  aptness  in  teaching. 

DOD'AI  {loving),  one  of  David's 
captains.  1  Chr.  27:4. 

DOD'ANIM  {leaders  r),  a  family  or 
race  descended  from  Javan,  son  of  Japh- 
eth.   Gen.  10:4;  1  Chr.  1:7. 

DOD'AVAH  {love  of  JehovaJi),  a 
man  of  Mareshah,  father  of  the  Eliezer 
who  prophesied  against  Jehoshaphat.  2 
Chr.  20:37. 

DO'DO  {amatory).  1.  The  father 
of  Eleazar,  one  of  David's  mighty  men. 
2  Sam.  23:9:   1  Chr.  11:12. 

2.  The  father  of  Elhanan.  another 
mighty  man,  2  Sam.  23  :  24  :  1  Chr.  11 : 
26. 

DO'EG  {/earful).     See  Ahimelech. 

DOG.  Ex.  11:7.  The  dog  was  not 
only  an  unclean  animal  by  the  Jewish 
Law,  but  was  regarded  with  peculiar 
contempt,  E.x.  22  :  31 ;  Deut.  23  :  18  ;  1 
Sam.  17:43;  24:14;  2  Sam.  9:  8;  2 
Kgs.  8  :  13:  Phil.  3:2;  Rev.  22  :  15; 
and  he  is  so  regarded  at  the  present 
day  by  the  Turks,  who  can  find  no  more 
abusive  and  contemptuous  language  to 
apply  to  a  Christian  than  to  call  him 
a  dog.  In  Eastern  countries  dogs  are 
more  like  wolves  than  our  dogs,  and 
live  wild  in  the  open  air. 

Solomon  puts  a  living  dog  in  contrast 
with  a  dead  lion  to  show  that  the  mean- 
est thing  alive  is  of  more  importance 
than  the  noblest  that  is  dead.  Eccl.  9 : 
4.  Abner's  exclamation,  "Am  1  a  dog's 
head?"  2  Sam.  3  :  8,  has  a  signification 
of  the  same  kind.  Isaiah  expresses  the 
necessity  of  repentance  and  sincerity  to 
make  a  sacrifice  acceptable  to  God  by  de- 
claring that  without  them  ''he  thatsac- 
236 


rificesalamb"  does  nothing  better  than 
"as  i/he  cut  off  a  dog's  neck."  Isa.  66  :  3. 
The  only  useful  purpose  to  which  dogs 
appear  to  have  been  put  was  to  guard 
the  flocks.  Job  30  :  1,  and  even  in  that 
passage  they  are  spoken  of  with  con- 
tempt. Isaiah  may  be  understood  to  al- 
lude to  this  manner  of  employing  them  in 
his  description  of  the  spiritual  watchmen 
of  Israel.   Isa.  56:10,  11. 

Although  dogs  were  numerous  in  the 
Jewish  cities,  they  were  not  kept  in 
the  houses,  but  wandered  through  the 
streets  (as  thej'  do  to  this  day  in  Con- 
stantinople), picking  up  whatever  was 


Dog  modelled  in  Clay.     {From  Kouywijik.     After 
liawUnson.) 

thrown  out  of  the  remains  of  the  table 
after  the  family  had  eaten.  So  David 
speaks  of  his  wicked  enemies.  Ps.  59  : 
6,  14,  15.  The  Mosaic  law  directed  the 
people  to  throw  to  the  dogs  the  flesh 
that  was  torn  by  beasts.  Ex.  22:31. 

This  manner  of  living  accounts  for 
the  savageness  of  dogs  in  the  East. 
They  preyed  upon  human  flesh,  licked 
the  blood  of  the  slain,  and  sometimes 
were  wild  enough  to  attack  men  as 
bloodhounds  do.  1  Kgs.  14  :  11 ;  16  :  4; 
21  :  19,  23  ;  22  :  38  ;  2  Kgs.  9  :  10,  36  ; 
Ps.  22  :  16,  20  ;  68  :  23;  Jer.  15  :  3. 
Their  habits  made  them  dangerous  to 
touch.    Prov.  26  :  17. 

The  Eastern  people  were  in  the  prac- 
tice of  applying  the  names  of  animals 
to  men  who  resemble  them  in  their  dis- 
position, as  we  call  a  cunning  man  a 
fox,  a  brave  man  a  lion,  etc.  So  our 
Saviour  told  his  disciples,  "  Give  not 
that  which  is  holy  unto  the  dogs,"  lest 
they  turn  upon  you  and  tear  you  after 
they  have  eaten  it.  Matt.  Y  :  6,  meaning 
that  they  should  not  off"er  the  sacred 
truths   of  the  gospel  to   those  insolent 


BOO 


DOV 


and  abominable  men  who  would  only 
heap  abuse  on  them  for  it,  having  ref- 
erence, also,  to  the  practice  of  the  priests 
at  the  altar,  who  would  not  throw  to  the 
dogs  any  of  the  meat  used  in  sacrifice. 
He  told  also  the  Syro-Phoenician  woman 
that  it  was  not  proper  to  give  the  chil- 
dren's meat  to  dogs.  Matt.  15  :  20 — that 
is,  the  gospel  was  sent  first  to  the  Jews, 
who  are  called  the  children,  and  was  not 
yet  to  be  given  to  one  of  the  Gentiles, 
as  she  was,  whom  the  Jews  called  dogs 
—  for  the  children  must  first  be  fed 
before  the  meat  was  thrown  into  the 
street.  Those  who  are  shut  out  of  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  are  dogs,  sorcerers, 
etc..  Rev.  22 :  15,  where  the  word  is  ap- 
plied to  all  kinds  of  vile  persons,  as  it 
is  to  a  particular  class  in  Deut.  23  :  18. 
The  comparison  of  Solomon  illustrat- 
ing the  return  of  a  fool  to  his  folly, 
Prov.  26  :  11,  cited  in  2  Pet.  2  :  22,  'is 
taken  from  a  natural  fact.  Persecu- 
tors are  called  dog.    Ps.  22  :  16. 

DOOR.     See  Dwellings. 

DOPH'KAH  {cattle-drivimj),  an 
encampment  of  Israel  in  the  wilderness. 
Num.  33  :  12,  13  ;  somewhere  in  Wady 
Fet'ran. 

DOR  {dwelling),  a  royal  city  of  the 
Canaanites,  Josh.  11  :  2  ;  12  :  23,  within 
the  territory  of  Asshur,  but  allotted  to 
Manasseh,  Josh.  17  :  11  ;  Jud.  1  :  27  ;  1 
Chr.  7  :  29,  and  was  one  of  Solomon's 
provision-districts,  1  Kgs.  4:11;  now 
Tantura,  8  miles  nortli  of  Cassarea, 
where  there  are  considerable  ruins. 

DOR'CAS  {fiazelle).    See  Tabitha. 

DO'THAN  {two  cisterns),  where  Jo- 
seph found  his  brethren,  Gen.  37  :  17, 
and  Elisha  resided.  2  Kgs.  6  :  13.  It 
was  on  the  south  side  of  the  plain  of 
Jezreel,  12  miles  north  of  Samaria  ;  now 
called  Tell-Dothdii,  5  miles  south-west 
of  Jenin.  Numerous  bottle-shaped  cis- 
terns hewn  in  the  rock  are  still  found, 
which  are  supposed  to  resemble  the 
"pit"  of  Gen.  37:24.  Caravans  still 
pass  this  place,  as  of  old,  on  their  way 
from  Damascus  to  Egypt. 

DO  TO  WIT  means  to  make  known. 
2  Cor.  8:1. 

DOUGH.     See  Brkad. 

DOVE.  Gen.  8:9.  A  bird  clean 
by  the  Mosaic  law,  and  often  mentioned 
by  the  sacred  writers.  In  their  wild 
state  doves  dwell  principally  in  holes  in 
the  rocks.  Song  Sol.  2  :  14= ;  Jer.  48  :  28. 


They  are  innocent  in  tiieir  dispositions, 
and  make  no  resistance  to  their  enemies. 
Matt.  10  :  16.  They  are  very  much  at- 
tached to  their  mates  ;  and  when  one  is 
absent  or  dies,  the  other,  or  survivor, 
laments  its  loneliness.  Isa.  38  :  14 ; 
59  :  11;  Eze.  7  :  16  ;  Nah.  2  :  7. 

There  are  various  allusions  to  the 
mildness,  peacefulness,  and  affection  of 
doves.  The  Church  is  called  a  "  turtle- 
dove "  and  a  "  dove,"  or  compared  to  it. 
Ps.  74:19;  Song  Sol.  1:15;  2:14;  4: 
1  ;  5  :  2  ;  6:9.  Where  "  doves'  eyes  " 
are  spoken  of  in  these  passages,  allusion 
is  made  to  the  meekness  of  their  ex- 
pression. Lange's  CowtmeH^or?/ translates 
Song  Sol.  5  :  12  thus  :  "His  eyes  [are] 
like  doves  by  brooks  of  water,  bathing 
in  milk,  sitting  on  fulness."  Thus  un- 
derstood, the  passage  compares  the  iris 
nestling  in  the  white  of  the  eye  to  a 
blue  pigeon  bathing  in  a  brook  of  milk. 
It  was  in  the  manner  of  a  dove  that 
the  Holy  Spirit  descended  upon  our  Sa- 
viour at  his  baptism.  Matt.  3:16;  Mark 
1:10;  Luke  3  :  22  ;  John  1 :  32.  Hosea 
compares  timid  Ephraim  to  "  a  silly 
dove  without  heart,"  7  :  11,  and  says 
that  when  the  Jews  shall  be  called  to 
their  own  land  they  shall  "  tremble,"  or 
fly,  "as  a  dove  out  of  the  land  of  As- 
syria." 11  :  11.  David  in  his  distress 
wished  that  he  could  fly  from  his  trou- 
bles as  the  doves  do  to  warmer  climates 
on  the  approach  of  winter.  Ps.  55  :  6-8. 
The  appearance  of  the  dove  is  spoken 
of  as  an  emblem  of  spring.  Song  Sol. 
2:12. 

The  dove  is  mentioned  in  an  inter- 
esting part  of  the  early  history  of 
the  world  as  being  sent  out  by  Noah 
from  the  ark  to  discover  whether  the 
dry  land  had  appeared.     Gen.  8:6-12. 

The  dove  was  used  in  sacrifices.  It 
was,  among  other  animals,  prepared  by 
Abram  when  God  manifested  his  inten- 
tion to  bless  him,  as  narrated  in  Gen. 
15  :  9.  When  a  child  was  born  the 
mother  was  required  within  a  certain 
time  to  bring  a  lamb  and  a  young  pig- 
eon, or  turtle-dove,  for  offering;  but  if 
she  were  too  poor  to  afford  a  lamb,  she 
might  bring  two  turtle-doves,  or  two 
young  pigeons.  Lev.  12  :  6-8.  Thus  we 
may  judge  of  the  poverty  of  Mary,  the 
mother  of  .Jesus,  when  upon  his  birth 
she  brought  to  the  temple  at  Jerusalem 
the  two  birds  instead  of  a  lamb.  Luke 

237 


DOV 


DOV 


2  :  24.  It  was  to  supply  applicants 
with  animals  for  sacrifice  that  certain 
persons  sat  in  the  temple  with  doves  to 
sell,  whom  our  Lord  forced  to  leave  it 
because  *' the  house  of  prayer"  was  not 
a  fit  place  for  buying  and  selling.  Mark 
11:  15;  John  2  :U-16. 

David,  Ps.  68:13,  "refers  to  a  kind" 
'  f  dove  "  found  at  Damascus,  whose 
leathers,  all  except  the  wings,  are  lit- 


erally as  yellow  as  gold  ;  they  are  very 
small  and  kept  in  cages.  I  have  often 
had  them  in  my  house,  but  their  note  is 
so  very  sad  that  I  could  not  endure  it." 
—  Thomson. 

In  all  Eastern  towns  homes  are  pro- 
vided for  the  jjigeons  ;  sometimes  spe- 
cial towers  are  erected  for  them  ;  some- 
times the  upper  stories  of  the  houses 
are  fitted  with  openings  or  "  windows," 


Turtle  Dove.     {After  Houghton.) 


and  are  sacred  to  their  use.  The  im- 
mense compact  masses  of  these  birds  as 
they  are  seen  flying  to  their  houses  or 
places  of  resort  "can  never  be  forgotten 
by  Eastern  travellers.  They  sometimes 
resemble  a  distant  cloud,  and  are  so 
dense  as  to  obscure  the  rays  of  the 
sun.  Hence  the  allusion  in  Isa.  60  :  8. 
Tristram  says  that  the  pigeon  tribe 
abound  in  Palestine  to  a  degree  un- 
known in  other  countries.  The  great 
238 


abundance  of  plants  of  the  clover  and 
vetch  family  accounts  for  their  num- 
bers. Rock-doves,  in  myriads  beyond 
computation,  inhabit  the  caves  and  fis- 
sures which  honeycomb  the  limestone 
cliffs  of  Palestine."  The  wild  rock-pig- 
eon {Columba  livia),  the  ancestor  of 
the  domestic  races,  is  found  here,  as 
well  as  other  species.  See  Turtle- 
dove. 

Dove's  Dung.     There  are  two  views 


0OW 


DRI 


concerning  the  material  to  which  there 
is  reference  in  2  Kgs.  6  :  25.  Some  sup- 
pose that  this  substance  was  in  great 
demand  as  a  quick  manure  for  those 
vegetables  which  might  be  soonest 
raised  for  the  famishing  Samaritans ; 
others  believe  that  so  terrible  was  the 
extremity  that  the  people  were  glad  to 
get  even  so  disgusting  a  substauce  as 
this  for  food.  The  great  price  at  which 
it  was  held — about  a  dollar  and  a  half  a 
pint — militates  against  either  form  of 
this  view.  The  other  view  is  that  the 
produceof  some  plant  not  commonly  used 
for  food  is  intended.  The  seeds  of  a  kind 
of  millet  formerly  called  by  the  Hebrews 
"  doves'  seed,"  and  of  other  plants,  have 
been  proposed.  The  root  of  the  star- 
of-Bethlehem  (Ornithogalum — i.e.  hi'rd- 
7nilk)  meets  with  much  favor.  The 
bulb  of  this  plant  has  often  been  eaten, 
and  it  is  abundant  in  Palestine. 

DOWRY,  in  the  Eastern  accepta- 
tion of  the  word,  means  that  which  the 
husband  pays  for  his  wife,  instead  of 
that  which  the  wife  receives  from  her 
father  and  brings  to  her  husband.  Gen. 
29  :  18  ;  34  :  12 ;  1  Sam.  18  :  25.  So,  Ex. 
22  :  16,  17  ,•  Josh.  15  :  IS,  a  man  was  re- 
quired to  pay  a  certain  sum  as  dowry  or 
a  nuptial-present,  and  this  was  to  be 
according  to  the  rank  the  woman  sus- 
tained, and  such  as  the  fathers  of  vir- 
gins of  the  same  rank  were  accustomed 
to  receive  for  their  daughters.  Hos.  3  : 
2.     See  Marriage. 

DRACH'MA,  a  Greek  silver  coin, 
translated  '*  a  piece  of  silver"  in  Luke 
15 :  8,  9,  equal  in  value  to  a  Roman 
denarius,  or  about  fifteen  and  a  half 
cents  (wrongly  translated  "penny"). 
See  Denarius. 

DRAG'ON.  This  word,  in  the  Bible, 
has  at  least  three  meanings.  Very  com- 
monly, where  it  occurs  in  connection 
with  ostriches,  owls,  deserts,  and  ruins, 
it  denotes  the  jackal,  whose  characteris- 
tics are  unmistakably  indicated,  such  as 
his  "wailing"  and  "snuffing  up  the 
wind."  So  in  Job  30  :  29  ;  Vs.  44  :  19  ; 
Jer.  9:11,  in  all  which  passages  soli- 
tude and  desolation  are  illustrated.  Mic. 
1:8.  In  some  passages  it  denotes  mon- 
sters of  the  deep  or  huge  land-reptiles, 
as  in  Deut.  32  :  33  ;  Ps.  91 :  13.  The 
figurative  use  of  this  term,  as  in  Ps. 
74  :  13  ;  Eze.  29  :  3  ;  Rev.  12  :  3  and 
20  :  2,  is  sufficiently  obvious. 


DRAMS.     See  Measures. 

DRAUGHT.  Matt.  15  :  17.  A  vault 
or  drain  for  the  recei)tion  of  filth.  In 
this  sense  it  is  probably  used  in  2  Kgs. 
10  :  27.  When  applied  to  fishes  it  means 
those  which  are  caught  by  one  sweep  or 
drawing  of  the  net. 

DREAM.  From  a  very  early  peri- 
od dreams  have  been  observed  with  su- 
perstitious regard.  God  was  pleased  to 
make  use  of  them  to  reveal  his  purposes 
or  requirements  to  individuals,  and  he 
also  gave  power  to  interpret  them.  Gen. 
20 :  3-6  ;  28  :  12-14  ;  1  Sam.  28 :  6  ;  Ban. 
2 ;  Joel  2  :  28.  And  if  any  person 
dreamed  a  dream  which  was  peculiarly 
striking  and  significant,  he  was  permit- 
ted to  go  to  the  high  priest  in  a  partic- 
ular way  and  see  if  it  had  any  special 
import.  But  the  observance  of  ordinary 
dreams  and  the  consulting  of  those  who 
pretend  to  skill  in  their  interpretation 
are  repeatedly  forbidden.  Deut.  13  : 1- 
5;  18:9-14. 

The  words  dreams  and  visions  are  some- 
times used  indiscriminately.  Gen.  46  :  2  ; 
Num.  12  :  6  ;  Job  20  :  8  ;  33  :  14, 15  ;  Dan. 
2  :  28  ;  7  : 1,  though  elsewhere  they  would 
seem  to  be  distinguished.  Joel  2  :  28.  In 
the  vision  the  subject  may  be  awake  even 
though  it  take  place  at  night.  2  Kgs.  6  : 
17  ;  Acts  18  :  9  ;  23  : 1 1  ;  27  :  23.  Paul's 
vision,  2  Cor.  12  :  1,  2,  4,  was  an  ecstasy. 
To  his  mind  heaven  was  open,  yet  so  real 
was  the  vision  that  he  could  not  tell 
whether  he  were  in  the  body  or  out  of 
it.  Some  commentators  place  this  vis- 
ion while  Paul  lay  on  the  ground  at 
Lystra  as  if  dead  from  the  stoning. 

Sometimes  miraculous  revelations  of 
God's  will  are  called  visions.  Luke  1  : 
22  ;  1  Sam.  3:15.     See  Vision,  Trance. 

The  power  of  interpreting  dreams  was, 
of  course,  a  supernatural  gift,  so  far  as 
the  dreams  had  reference  to  future 
events;  for  these  are  necessarily  un- 
known, except  to  the  supreme  Disposer 
of  them.  Gen.  40:5,  8;  41:16.  Since 
the  fuller  revelation  of  God's  will  has 
been  made  to  us  in  the  gospel,  all  confi- 
dence in  dreams  as  indicative  of  future 
events  is  presumptuous  and  delusive, 
and  all  pretension  to  the  power  of  inter- 
preting them  must  be  regardecj  as  in  the 
highest  degree  impious  and  absurd. 
DRESS.  See  Clothes. 
DRINK-OFFERING.     See  Of- 

FERING. 

239 


DEI 


DUR 


DRINK,  STRONG.     The  use  of 

strong  drink,  even  to  excess,  was  not 
uncommon  among  the  Israelites.  This 
is  inferred  from  the  striking  figures  by 
which  the  use  and  efiects  of  it  are  de- 
scribed, Ps.  107  :  27  ;  Isa.  24  :  20  ;  49  : 
26 ;  51  :  17-22,  and  also  from  various 
express  prohibitions  and  penalties. 
Prov.  20  :  1 :  Isa.  5:11.  A  variety  of 
intoxicating  drinks  are  comprised  un- 
der the  term.  Isa.  28  :  7.  Although  the 
Bible  sheds  little  light  upon  the  nature 
of  the  mixtures  described,  it  doubtless  al- 
ludes to  drink  brewed  from  grain  or  made 
of  honeycombs,  dates,  or  boiled  fruits, 
and  the  beer  of  Egypt.  Date-wine  was 
in  great  request  among  the  Parthians, 
Indians,  and  other  Orientals,  and  is  said 
by  Xenophon  to  have  produced  severe 
headaches. 

The  Jews  carefully  strained  their  wine 
and  other  beverages,  from  fear  of  vio- 
lating Lev.  11 :  20,  23,  41,  42,  as  do  now 
the  Buddhists  in  Ceylon  and  Hindostan. 
This  fact  explains  our  Lord's  remark 
to  the  Pharisees  in  Matt.  23  :  24:  ''Ye 
blind  guides,  who  strain  out "  ( not  at)  ''  a 
gnat  and  swallow  a  camel."  See  Wine, 
Vinegar. 

DROM'EDARY.  Isa.  60  :  6.  A 
breed  of  the  camel  remarkable  for  its 
speed.  Jer.  2  :  2o.  It  can  travel  from  60 
to  90  miles  or  more  in  a  day.  The  drom- 
edary- is  taller  and  has  longer  limbs  than 
other  varieties  of  camel,  and  cannot  as 
well  bear  heat  or  cold.     See  Camel. 

DROPPING,  A  CONTIN'- 
XJAIj.  The  force  of  the  comparison  used 
in  Prov.  27  :  15  will  be  understood  when 
it  is  borne  in  mind  that  Oriental  houses 
have  flat  roofs  made  of  mud.  These 
naturally  crack  under  the  heat,  and  so 
in  a  shower  the  water  often  comes 
through  the  large  crack. 

DROUGHT.  From  the  end  of 
Aprilto  September  in  the  land  of  Ju- 
da;a  is  "the  drought  of  summer."  The 
grass  is  sometimes  completely  withered, 
Ps.  102  :  4,  and  all  the  land  and  the 
creatures  upon  it  suffer,  and  nothing 
but  the  copious  dew  of  the  night  pre- 
serves the  life  of  an}'  living  thing.  Hag. 
1  :  11.  The  heat  is  at  times  excessive. 
Near  Cana,  in  Galilee,  in  July,  the  ther- 
mometer, in  a  gloomy  recess  under 
ground,  perfectly  shaded,  stood  at  100° 
Fahrenheit  at  noon.  For  a  more  full 
account  of  the  climate,  see  Palestine. 
240 


DRUNK'ENNESS.  See  Duink, 
Wine. 

DRUSIL'L  A,  third  daughter  of  the 
Herod  who  is  mentioned  in  Acts  12  :  1- 
4,  20-23.  She  first  married  Azizus,  king 
of  Emesa,  whp  professed  Judaism  for 
her  sake.  Bu|  by  means  of  a  sorcerer, 
Simon  of  Cyjjcus,  she  was  induced  to 
forsake  her  h^eband  and  marry  Felix, 
the  Roman  governor,  and  was  present 
at  the  hearing  of  the  apostle  Paul  before 
her  husband  at  Cassarea.  She  was  noted 
for  great  personal  beauty.    Acts  24  :  24. 

DUKE,  in  the  English  Bible,  means 
only  a  chief  or  leader  (an  Oriental 
Sheikh),  and  must  not  be  understood, 
in  the  modern  sense,  as  a  title  of  he- 
reditary nobility.    Gen.  36:15-19. 

DUL'CIMER.  The  instrument 
denoted  by  this  word  was,  in  the  opin- 
ion of  the  best  Bible  scholars,  as  well  as 
of  the  Rabbins,  a  bag-pipe  like  that  in 
use  at  the  present  day  among  the  peas- 
ants of  north-western  Asia  and  southern 
Europe,  and  called  by  them  zampagna, 
which  is  a  word  of  similar  sound  to  the 
word  here  used,  sumpJwniah.  Dan.  3  :  5, 
10,  15.  It  was  composed  of  two  pipes 
with  a  leathern  sack,  and  produced  a 
harsh,  screaming  sound.  It  has  no  re- 
semblance at  all  to  the  modern  dulcimer, 

DU'MAH  {silence),  a  son  of  Ishmael. 
Gen.  25:  14:   1  Chr.  1:30. 

DV'MAH  {silence).  l.AtowninJu- 
dah,  near  Hebron,  Josh.  15  :  52  :  now  ecl- 
Bomeh,  10  miles  south-west  of  Hebron. 

2.  A  region,  perhaps  near  Mount  Seir. 
Isa.  21:11. 

DUNG.  In  many  countries  of  the 
East  wood  is  so  scarce  and  dear  as  to 
be  sold  by  weight.  Hence  animal  ex- 
crements are  used  as  fuel.  Eze.  4:  12. 
It  is  a  very  common  material  for  heat- 
ing ovens,  even  among  people  of  com- 
fortable circumstances.  In  Arabia  the 
excrements  of  asses  and  camels  are  col- 
lected in  the  streets  by  children,  mixed 
with  cut  straw,  put  in  the  sun  to  dry, 
and  thus  fitted  for  use  as  fuel.  The  ef- 
fluvia arising  from  the  use  of  it  are  very 
offensive,  and  penetrate  the  food. 

Dove's  Ding,     See  Dove, 

DUNG- GATE.      See   Jerusalem 

{Gates    <}/). 

DU'RA,  the  plain  near  Babylon 
where  Nebuchadnezzar  set  up  a  golden 
image.  Dan.  3  :  1.  Oppert  identifies  it 
with  BHair,  a  little  south-east  of  Baby- 


DUB 


DWE 


Ion,  where  the  pedestal  of  a  huge  statue 
was  discovered. 

DURE,  Matt.  13  :  21,  for  "endure," 

"last."  ''During,"  which  is  still  com- 
mon, is  the  participle  of  the  same  verb. 

DUST.  "  To  shake  off  the  dust  of 
one's  feet"  against  another,  Matt.  10  : 
U  ;  Mark  6:11;  Acts  13  :  51,  was  ex- 
pressive of  entire  renunciation,  because 
it  conveyed  the  idea  that  "  those  against 
whom  it  was  directed  were  so  unworthy 
that  it  was  defiling  to  one  to  allow  so  much 
as  a  particle  of  the  soil  to  cleave  to  his 
garments."  The  custom  is  supposed  to 
have  been  common  among  the  Jews, 
when  they  had  set  a  foot  on  heathen 
ground,  to  shake  otf  the  dust,  so  as  to 
carry  nothing  unclean  or  polluting  into 
their  own  land.  Dust  thrown  into  the 
air,  2  Sam.  16  :  13  ;  Acts  22  :23,  was  an 
expression  of  rage  and  threatening, 
while  the  very  act  probably  increased 
the  passionate  hatred.  *'  Dust  and 
ashes  "  are  coupled  together  as  a  phrase 
describing  man's  feebleness  as  con- 
trasted with  divine  strength.  Gen.  18  : 
27;  Job  30: 19. 

Dust,  Rain  op.  Deut.  28  :  24.  In  Ju- 
diea  or  its  immediate  vicinity  are 
plains  or  deserts  of  fine  sand,  which 
when  agitated  by  a  violent  wind  makes 
most  terrific  and  desolating  storms. 
Eastern  travellers  describe  them  par- 
ticularly, and  think  them  much  more 
dreadful  than  storms  at  sea.  This  fact 
affords  us  a  striking  illustration  of  the 
nature  and  horrors  of  the  plague  men- 
tioned in  Ex.  8:16. 

DWELL'INGS.  The  most  com- 
mon dwellings  in  the  earlier  ages  of  the 
world  were  tents,  formed  by  setting 
poles  in  the  ground  and  stretching  over 
them  a  covering  of  cloth  or  skin,  which 
Avas  fastened  to  stakes  by  means  of 
cords.  Isa.  54  :  2.  Sometimes  they  were 
divided  into  apartments  by  means  of 
curtains,  and  the  ground  was  covered 
with  mats  or  carpets.  The  door  was 
formed  of  a  fold  of  cloth,  which  was 
dropped  or  raised.  The  fire  was  kin- 
dled in  an  excavation  in  the  middle  of 
the  tent-ground,  and  the  cooking-uten- 
sils, which  were  very  few  and  simple, 
were  easily  moved  from  place  to  place. 
Isa.  38  :  12. 

When  the  habits  of  mankind  changed 
and  their  pursuits  fixed  them  to  one 
spot,  their  dwellings  were  built  with  a 
16 


view  to  permanency,  and  we  may  sup- 
pose that  the  science  of  building  was 
well  understood  at  a  very  early  period. 
But  while  the  Canaanites  and  Assyrians 
built  cities,  the  Hebrews  dwelt  in  tents; 
and  it  was  not  until  they  went  down  to 
Egypt,  or  more  likely  not  until  the  eon- 
quest  of  the  Promised  Land,  that  they 
abandoned  their  simple  habits;  then 
they  entered  the  houses  the  Canaanites 
left.  It  thus  appears  that  the  science 
of  architecture  first  developed  itself 
among  the  idolatrous  peoples. 

That  large  and  costly  houses  were 
often  built  in  Judiea  we  have  scriptural 
evidence,  Jer.  22  :  U  ;  Am.  3:15;  Hag. 
1  :  4,  though  doubtless  those  which  were 
occupied  by  the  mass  of  the  people  were 
rude  and  inconvenient. 


z 

DIVAN               z 

A 

Q 

A              > 

A 

^-      ■     D  ■         ■        .^ 

D         OPEN 

COURT        D 

A               ^ 

e                  lllllll! 

Al' 

B 

Plan  of  an  Eastern  House. 

c,  Entrance.  A,  Family-room.  E,  Walls,  or  gal- 
leries, between  the  open  court  and  the  rooms.  G, 
Stairs  to  the  upper  stories  and  roof.  h,  PrivaM 
staircase. 

The  above  cut  represents  the  ground- 
plan  of  an  Eastern  house  of  the  better 
class.  The  house  is  built  in  the  form 
of  a  cloister,  surrounding  the  area  or 
open  court.  The  entrance  is  by  a  door, 
which  was  commonly  locke<l,  and  at- 
tended by  some  one  who  acted  as  por- 
ter. Acts  12  :  13.  This  door  opens  into 
a  porch,  which  is  furnished  with  the 
conveniences  of  sitting,  and  through 
which  we  pass,  both  to  the  flight  of 
stairs  which  leads  up  to  the  chambers 
and  also  to  the  open  quadrangular 
court. 

We  will  first  examine  the  court  and 
its  uses.  It  is  called  the  middle  of  the 
house,  or  "  midst,"  Luke  5  :  19,  and   ia 

241 


DWE 


DWE 


designed  to  admit  light  and  air  to  the 
apartments    around   it.     It   is   covered 
with  a  pavement  more  or  less  costly, 
which  receives  and  sheds  rain,  and  is 
often  supplied  with  fountains   or  wells 
of  water.  2  Sam.  17  :  18.     In  Damascus 
every  house  has   a  court  of  this   kind, 
and    often    several,    and    the    wealthier 
citizens    spare   no    expense   in  making 
them  places  of  delightful  resort  in  the 
hot   season.      A    veranda   or  colonnade 
such  as  is  often  seen  in  modern  houses 
surrounds  the  court  and  supports  a  gal- 
lery or  piazza  above.    In  this  court  large 
companies  assemble  on  festive  and  oth- 
er occasions,  Esth.  1:5;  and  it  is  then 
furnished  with  carpets,  mats,  and  set- 
tees or  sofas,  and  an  awning  or  roof  of 
some  suitable  material  is  stretched  over 
the  whole  area.     It  is  alluded  to  in  the 
beautiful  figure  of  the  Psalmist.      Ps. 
104 :  2.      Around   the   court,  over   the 
doors  and  windows  of  the  house, 
each  apartment  has  a  door  open- 
ing into  the  court  or  gallery,  and 
the  communication  with  each  is 
only  on  the  outside,  so  that  to  go 
from  room  to  room  it  is  necessary 
to  come  out  into  the  court  or  gal- 
lery.    These  galleries  are  guaid- 
ed    by   a   balustrade   or   lattice- 
work  in  front,  to  prevent  acci- 
dents. 

"The  stairs  are  frequently 
placed  in  the  corner  of  the  couit, 
and  sometimes  at  the  entrance 
In  large  houses  there  are  often 
two  or  more  sets  of  steps  from 

the   court,  but   there    is    seldom  Upper  Room  or  Guest-Chamber. 
more  than  one  from  the  gallery 
to  the  roof.     They  are  usually  of  simple 
structure,  and  of  stone  or  wood,"     The 
kind  of  stairs  mentioned  in  1  Kgs,  6  :  8 
was  more  complicated. 

On  the  side  of  the  court  which  faces 
the  entrance  is  the  reception-room  of 
the  master  of  the  house.  It  is  generally 
fitted  up  handsomely,  has  a  raised  plat- 
form and  a  divan  on  three  sides,  which 
is  a  bed  by  night  and  a  seat  by  day.  The 
guests  on  entering  take  off  their  sandals 
before  stepping  upon  the  raised  portion. 

The  rooms  assigned  to  the  women  are 
up  stairs  if  the  house  has  only  one  court, 
but  if  there  are  two  they  are  around  the 
inner  one.  These  apartments,  known 
as  "  the  harem,"  are  never  entered  by 
any  man  save  the  master.  The  rooms 
242 


of  the  ground  floor  often  include  a  whole 
side  of  the  court,  and  are  entered  by 
spacious  doors  from  the  piazza.  The 
rooms  on  the  farther  side  of  the  court, 
both  above  and  below,  are  assigned  to 
the  females  of  the  family,  and  upon 
them  is  bestowed  the  greatest  expense. 
Hence,  as  some  suppose,  these  rooms 
are  sometimes  called  "palaces,"  1  Kgs. 
16  :  18  ;  2  Kgs.  15  :  25 ;  Isa,  32  :  14. 
The  "house  of  the  women,"  Esth,  2:  3, 
was  what  is  now  so  well  known  as  the 
"  harem,"  a  part  of  the  royal  residence, 
and  like  that  referred  to  in  1  Kgs,  7  : 
8-12.  It  is  supposed  that  in  the  houses 
of  Judtea,  as  in  those  of  the  East  at  the 
present  day,  the  ground  floor  was  ap- 
propriated principally  to  domestic  uses, 
such  as  storing  provisions,  oil,  baggage, 
lodgings  for  servants,  etc.,  etc. 

If  we  ascend  to  the  second  story  by 
the  stairs  before  mentioned,  we  find  the 


(From  Schaff's  "Popular 
Commentary.") 

chambers  are  large  and  airy,  and  often 
finished  and  furnished,  with  much  ex- 
pense and  elegance,  with  mats,  curtains, 
and  divans,  Mark  14  :  15,  This  room 
or  story  is  higher  and  larger  than  those 
below,  projecting  over  the  lower  part 
of  the  building,  so  that  the  window  of 
the  apartment,  if  there  is  one,  consid- 
erably overhangs  the  street.  Secluded, 
S])acious,  and  commodious  as  such  a 
room  must  have  been,  Paul  would  be 
likely  to  preach  his  farewell  sermon 
there.  And  in  a  large  company  it  is 
common  to  have  two  circles  or  ranks, 
the  outer  circle  being  next  to  the  wall 
and  elevated  on  cushions,  so  as  to  be 
on  a  level  with  the  lower  part  of  the 
window -casement.      In   this    situation 


DWE 


DWE 


we  may  suppose  Eutychus  fell  asleep, 
and  was  thence  precipitated  to  the 
street.  Acts  20  :  9. 

A  structure  called  an  allii/ch  is  some- 
times built  over  the  porch  or  gateway. 
It  usually  consists  only  of  one  or  two 
rooms,  and  rises  one  story  above  the 
main  house.  It  is  used  to  enter- 
tain strangers,  also  for  wardrobes  and 
magazines,  or  for  jdaces  of  retire- 
ment, repose,  and  meditation.  Matt.  6  : 
6.  There  is  an  entrance  to  it  from  the 
street  without  going  into  the  house,  but 
there  is  also  a  communication  with  the 
gallery  of  the  house  when  it  is  needed. 
It  is  observed  that  its  terrace  afforded  a 
much  more  retired  place  for  devotional 
exercises  than  the  roof  of  the  main  house, 
which  was  liable  to  be  occupied  at  all 
times  and  for  various  purposes  by  the 
whole  family.  The  ''little  chamber" 
for  Elisha,  2  Kgs.  4  :  10,  the  "summer 
chamber"  of  Eglon,  from  which  Ehud 
escaped  by  a  private  stairway,  Jud.  3  : 
20-23,  the  "chamber  over  the  gate," 
2  Sam.  18  :  33,  the  "upper  chamber,"  2 
Kgs.  23  :  12,  the  "  inner  chamber,"  1 
Kgs.  20  :  30  (see  Cmamber),  may  des- 
ignate this  part  of  the  house. 

But  the  roof  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant parts  of  an  Eastern  house.     We 


An  Eastern  Housetop. 

ascend  to  it  by  a  jflight  of  steps,  as  al- 
ready mentioned,  which  are  entirely 
unconnected  with   the    interior   of  the 


house.  Matt.  24  :  17.  It  is  made  in 
most  cases  flat,  but  sometimes  with 
domes  over  some  of  the  rooms,  and  is 
surrounded  by  a  parapet,  battlement,  or 
balustrade,  lest  one  should  heedlessly  or 
unwittingly  fall  from  it.  This  was  a 
matter  of  divine  command.  I)eut.  22 : 
8.  A  wall  on  the  roof  designates  the 
limits  of  contiguous  houses,  but  it  is  so 
low  that  a  whole  range  of  buildings,  and 
even  a  street,  may  be  passed  over  with- 
out coming  down.  The  roof  is  covered 
with  a  kind  of  cement,  which  hardens 
by  exposure  to  the  weather,  and  forms 
a  clean,  smooth,  and  very  agreeable 
floor.  If  the  cement  be  not  put  on  at 
the  proper  season,  it  will  crack  under 
the  sun,  and  hence  must  be  rolled;  and 
rollers  are  found  on  many  roofs.  On 
ill-packed  roofs  grass  is  often  seen,  and 
hence  the  frequent  allusion  to  "•  grass 
upon  the  housetops."  2  Kgs.  19  :  26  ;  Ps. 
129  :  6.  Sometimes  tiles  or  broad  bricks 
were  used.  The  roof  was  a  place  of  re- 
pose, Neh.  8:16,  and  of  resort.  2  Sam. 
11 :  2  ;  Isa.  15  :  3  ;  22:1;  Jer.  48  :  38 ; 
Luke  12  :  3.  It  was  also  used  for  dry- 
ing linen  and  flax,  corn  and  figs.  Josh. 
2  :  6.  Sometimes  a  tent  was  spread  to 
protect  the  sleeper  from  the  cold  and 
damp  of  the  night.  2  Sam.  16  :  22.  It 
was  a  place  of  conference, 

1  Sam.  9  :  25,  and  worship, 
also  of  public  wailing,  Isa. 
15:3;  Jer.  19: 13;  48:38; 

2  Kgs.  23  :  12 ;  Zeph.  1:5; 
Acts  10  :  9. 

The  windows  of  Eastern 
houses,  as  already  intima- 
ted, open  into  the  court. 
Hence  the  appearance  of 
Eastern  cities,  in  passing 
through  the  streets,  is  very 
i;;loomy  and  inhospitable. 
Sometimes  latticed  win- 
dows or  balconies  are  open 
upon  the  streets,  but  they 
were  used  only  on  some 
])ublic  day.  2  Kgs.  9:30. 
See  Window. 

The    doors    of    Eastern 
houses  are  not  hung  with 
hinges.     The  jamb,  or  in- 
ner side-piece  of  the  door, 
projects,  in  the  form  of  a 
circular  shaft,  at  the  top  and   bottom. 
The  upper  projection  is  received  into  a 
socket  in  the  lintel  or  head-piece,  and 

243 


DYE 


DYE 


the  lower  projection  falls  into  a  socket 
in  the  threshold  or  sill. 

Chinniri/s  were  unknown,  though  the 
word  occurs  in  Hos.  13  :  3.  AVhat  we 
call  chinincj's  were  not  invented  till 
the  fourteenth  century.  The  smoke  of 
ancient  houses  escaped  through  aper- 
tures in  the  wall. 

The  hearth,  Jer.  36  :  22,  was  a  fire-place 
or  portable  furnace,  such  as  is  still  used 
in  Eastern  countries. 

The  materials  for  building  were  abun- 
dant. Stone  and  brick  and  the  best  spe- 
cies of  timber,  for  the  strong  and  heavy 
as  well  as  the  light  and  ornamental  work, 
were  easily  obtained.  Hewn  stone  was 
often  used,  Am.  5:  11,  and  marble  of 
the  richest  vein  and  polish.  1  Chr.  29  : 
2  ;  Esth.  1  :  6.  Cedar  was  used  for 
wainscots  and  ceilings,  Jer.  22  :  14; 
Hag.  1  :4,  which  were  of  carved  panel- 
work,  with  mouldings  of  gold,  silver,  or 
ivory.  Perhaps  the  profusion  of  ivory 
in  them  may  account  for  the  expressions 
1  Kgs.  22  :'39  :  Ps.  45  :  8  :  Am.  3:15. 

The  houses  of  the  class  described  are 
entirely  different  from  those  inhabited 
by  the  common  people,  which  are  mere 
hovels  of  only  one  room,  built  with  mud 
walls,  reeds,  and  rushes,  and  sometimes 
only  stakes  plastered  with  clay.  Hence 
they  wore  very  insecure,  Matt.  6:19,  20, 
and  afforded  place  for  serpents  and  ver- 
min. Family  and  animals  occupy  the 
same  room,  although  the  former  some- 
times were  raised  over  the  latter  b.y  a 
platform.  The  windows  were  mere  holes 
high  in  the  wall,  perhaps  barred.  Am. 
5:19. 

In  addition  to  what  we  have  before 
said  in  treating  of  the  allii/eh,  it  may  be 
remarked  that  the  winter-  and  summer- 
houses  or  parlovH,  Am.  3  :  15,  were  con- 
structed with  particular  reference  to  the 
season.  The  sinnmer-houses  were  built 
partly  under  ground  and  paved  with 
marble.  The  fountains  which  gush  out 
in  the  courts,  and  the  various  contri- 
vances to  exclude  heat  and  secure  a  cur- 
rent of  fresh  air,  render  them  exceed- 
ingly refreshing  amid  the  torrid  heats  of 
summer.  The  winter-houses  might  have 
had  accommodations  corresponding  to 
the  season. 

"We  are  told  that  it  was  customary 
among  the  Hebrewe  to  dedicate  the 
244 


house  when  it  was  finished  and  ready 
to  be  inhabited.  The  event  was  celebra- 
ted with  joy,  and  the  divine  blessing  and 
protection  implored.   Deut.  20  :  6. 

The  doors  of  Eastern  houses  are  made 
low,  especially  when  they  are  in  an  ex- 
posed situation,  and  one  must  stoop,  or 
even  creep,  to  enter  them.  This  is  done 
to  keep  out  wild  beasts  or  enemies,  or 
as  some  saj-,  to  prevent  the  wandering 
Arabs  from  riding  into  them. 

The  Eastern  mode  of  building  is 
brought  to  our  view  in  the  case  of  the 
destruction  of  the  temple  of  Dagon 
by  Samson.  It  is  probable  that  the 
place  where  Samson  made  sport  for 
many  thousand  spectators,  Jud.  16  :  27, 
was  a  court  or  area  consecrated  to  the 
worship  of  Dagon ;  that  this  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  range  of  galleries,  Eze. 
41:  15,  16,  or  cloisters,  which  were  sup- 
ported chiefly  by  one  or  two  columns  in 
front  or  at  the  centre.  The  palace  of  the 
dey  of  Algiers  has  such  a  structure.  It 
is  an  advanced  or  projecting  cloister 
over  against  the  gate  of  the  palace, 
Esth.  5:1,  where  the  officers  of  state 
assemble  and  transact  public  business, 
and  where  public  entertainments  are 
given.  The  removal  of  one  or  two 
contiguous  pillars  would  involve  the 
building  and  all  that  were  upon  it  in 
one  common  destruction. 

Leprosy  in  the  House  was  probably 
a  niti'ous  efflorescence  on  the  walls  which 
was  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  house- 
hold, and  therefore  it  was  imperatively 
ordered  to  be  removed.  Lev.  14  :  34-58. 

DYE'ING  was  a  familiar  art  in 
Bible-times.  The  Phoenicians  and 
Egyptians  were  skilful  in  it.  From 
Ex'.  26:1,  14;  35:25  it  is  evident 
that  at  the  Exodus  the  Israelites  un- 
derstood the  art,  and  we  are  the  better 
able  to  picture  the  process  because  we 
find  so  minute  an  account  of  it  on  the 
Egyptian  monuments.  There  is,  how- 
ever, no  precise  mention  of  dyers  in  the 
0.  T.  In  the  N.  T.,  Lydia  is  spoken  of 
as  "  a  seller  of  purple  of  the  city  of 
Thyatira."  Acts  16  :  14.  This  city  was 
famed  for  its  dyers  ;  inscriptions  testify 
to  the  existence  of  a  guild  of  them,  and 
Lydia  probably  dealt  in  the  cloth  thus 
colored,  or  possibly  in  the  dye  itself, 
which  is  procured  from  a  shell-fish. 


EAG 


EAG 


E. 


EA'GLE  (Hebrew  nesher ;  i.  e.  a 
tenrer  with  the  beak).  There  can  be 
little  question  that  the  eagle  of  Scrip- 
ture is  the  griifon  [Gyps  fulvus),  or  great 
vulture,  a  bird  very  abundant  in  Pales- 
rine  and  adjacent  countries.      In  spite 


Griffon  Vulture,  tlie  Eagle  of  Scripture.     {Gyps  fuivus.     After  Tris- 
tram.) 

of  its  name,  it  is  a  much  nobler  bird 
than  a  common  vulture,  and  is  little 
more  a  carrion-feeder  than  are  all  eagles. 
Indeed,  the  griffon  is  used  by  the  Ori- 
entals as  the  type  of  the  lordly  and  the 
great. 


This  well-known  bird  of  prey  was  un- 
clean by  the  Levitical  law.  Lev.  11  :  1.3  ; 
Deut.  14:12.  The  habits  of  the  eagle 
are  described  in  Num.  24:21  ;  Job  9  • 
26  ;  39  :  27-30  ;  Pro  v.  23  :  5  ;  30  :  17, 19; 
Jer.  49  :  16  ;  Eze.  17  :^  ;  Ob.  4  ;  Hab.  1 : 
8  ;  2  :  9  ;  Matt.  24  :  28 ; 
Luke  17  :  37. 

In  these  last  pas- 
sages the  Jewish  na- 
tion is  compared  to  a 
decaying  body  expos- 
ed in  the  open  field, 
and  inviting  the  Ro- 
man army,  whose 
standard  was  an 
eagle,  to  come  to- 
gether and  devour  it. 
The  eagle  was  also  on 
the  Persian  standard. 
The  tenderness  of  the 
eagle  toward  its  young 
is  characteristic,  and 
is  beautifully  and  ac- 
curately described  in 
Ex.  19:4;  Deut.  32  : 
11.  The  rapidity  of 
the  eagle's  flight  is  al- 
luded to  in  Deut.  28  : 
49;  2  Sam.  1:23;  Jer. 
4: 13;  48: 40;  Lam.  4: 
19;  its  destructive 
power  in  Isa.  46  :  11 ; 
IIos.  8:1;  and  its  great 
age,  and  the  popular 
opinion  that  it  renews 
its  plumage  in  ad- 
vanced life,  are  inti- 
mated in  Ps.  103  :  5 
and  Isa.  40:31. 

Many  Scripture  ref- 
erences are  much  more 
clear    and   forcible   if 
by  "eagle"  we  under- 
stand the  griffon.    The 
head  and  neck  of  this 
bird   are   bald.   Mic.  1  :  16.      Although 
eagles  are  attracted  by  carcasses,  it  is 
the    griffons    which,    from    their    great 
numbers    and    superior     strength,    are 
pre-eminently    the    scavengers    of    the 
East.  Matt.  24  :  28.      Of  all  rapacious 

245 


EAR 


EAR 


birds,  these  select  the  loftiest  and  most 
inaccessible  cliffs.  Jer.  49  :  16. 

'*  The  griffon  is  found  in  all  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  Old  World,  from 
the  liiniahiya  to  Spain  and  Morocco, 
and  throughout  Africa  to  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  It  measures  about  4  feet 
8  inches  in  length,  and  8  feet  in  ex- 
panse of  wing.  The  nest  is  sometimes 
large,  but  frequently  scanty,  formed  of 
sticks  and  turf,  and  it  lays  one  egg  in 
February  or  Mai^h.  Its  plumage  is  a 
uniform  brown,  with  a  line  ruff  of  whit- 
ish down  round  the  lower  part  of  its 
neck,  at  the  termination  of  the  bare  por- 
tion. Its  beak  is  hooked  and  of  great 
power,  but  its  claws  and  feet  are  much 
weaker  than  those  of  the  eagle,  and  are. 
not  adapted  for  killing  prey." — Tris- 
tram. 

The  pains  which  such  birds  take  in 
teaching  their  young  to  fly,  as  well  as 
such  passages  as  Isa.  40:31,  are  illus- 
trated by  the  following  narrative :  "  I 
once  saw  a  very  interesting  sight  above 
the  crags  of  Ben  Nevis.  Two  parent 
eagles  were  teaching  their  offspring,  two 
young  birds,  the  manoeuvres  of  flight. 
They  began  by  rising  from  the  top  of 
the  mountain  in  the  eye  of  the  sun.  It 
was  about  midday,  and  bright  for  the 
climate.  They  at  first  made  small  cir- 
cles, and  the  young  birds  imitated  them. 
They  paused  on  their  wings,  waiting 
till  they  had  made  their  flight,  and  then 
took  a  second  and  larger  gyration,  al- 
ways rising  toward  the  sun,  and  enlarg- 
ing their  circle  of  flight  so  as  to  make  a 
gradually-ascending  spiral.  The  young 
ones  still  and  slowly  followed,  apparent- 
ly flying  better  as  they  mounted ;  and 
they  continued  this  sublime  exercise, 
always  rising,  till  they  became  mere 
points  in  the  air,  and  the  young  ones 
were  lost,  and  afterward  their  parents, 
to  our  aching  sight."  —  Sir  Humphry 
Da  vy. 

EARNING  is  an  old  English  word 
for  plouqliuy.  Gen.  45  :  6  ;  Ex.  34:  21  j 
Dent.  21:4:  1  Sam.  8:12. 

EAR'NEST.  This  is  something 
going  before  or  given  in  advance 
as  a  pledge  of  more  in  reserve :  thus. 
earnest,  or  earnest-money,  is  a  sum  paid 
in  advance  as  a  pledge  of  full  payment 
at  a  future  time.  In  a  spiritual  sense, 
it  denotes  those  gifts  and  graces  which 
the  Christian  receives  as  a  pledge  or 
246 


earnest  of  perfect  holiness  and  happi- 
ness in  the  future  world.  2  Cor.  1 :  22  ; 
Eph.  1:14. 

EAR'-RINGS.  The  ordinary  He- 
brew word  for  "ear-ring"  means  also 
"  nose-ring,"  and  the  context  must 
decide  between  these  intei'pretations. 
There  are  two  other  words  which  mean 
more  specifically  an  ear-ring.  The  one 
occurs  Num.  31 :  50  ;  Eze.  16  :  12.  This 
word  describes  a  circle  of  gold,  such  as 
is  found  portrayed  upon  the  sculptures 
of  Egypt  and  Persepolis ;  the  other 
word,  though  literally  translated  a 
"  charm,"  seems  to  indicate  ear-rings, 
which  were  worn  as  amulets.  They 
were  given  up  to  Jacob  at  his  request, 
along  with  the  "  strange  gods,"  when, 
at  the  divine  command,  he  went  to 
Bethel  from  Shechem.  Gen.  35  :  4.  This 
fact  proves  their  superstitious  use.  Such 
ear-rings,  bearing  talismanic  characters 
and  figures,  are  found  to-day  in  the 
East.  Ear-rings  were  made  of  gold, 
were  usually,  though  by  no  means  al- 
ways, circular,  sometimes  had  jewels 
hanging  from  them,  and  were  larger 
and  heavier  than  those  worn  with  us. 
In  Bible-times  ear-rings  were  orna- 
ments for  both  sexes.  Ex.  32  :  2.  The 
same  is  true  to  some  extent  to-day. 
See  Amulet. 

EARTH.  The  word  first  occurs 
Gen.  1  :  2.  The  Hebrews  made  the 
usual  distinction  between  the  earth  as 
the  planet  which  we  inhabit  and  the 
earth  as  the  soil  which  we  cultivate,  by 
employing  altogether  dift'erent  words 
for  these  different  ideas.  But  like  other 
ancient  nations,  they  had  vague  and  in- 
accurate ideas  in  regard  to  the  size  of 
the  earth.  The  phrases  "  the  ends  of 
the  earth,"  all  the  "kingdoms  of  the 
earth,"  "  the  whole  world,"  really  took 
in  only  a  limited  extent.  Geographical 
terms  were  loosely  used.  For  example, 
the  same  word  (yom,  which  means 
"sea")  is  applied  to  the  Mediterranean, 
to  the  lakes  of  Palestine,  and  to  great 
rivers  such  as  the  Nile.  But  they  were 
much  more  definite  when  describing  lo- 
calities with  which  they  were  intimately 
acquainted,  and  these  descriptive  words 
for  the  minor  features  of  the  country  are 
often  singularly  correct,  and  at  the  same 
time  poetical.  We  can  mark  a  progres- 
sion in  geographical  knowledge  from 
the  days  of  the  patriarchs  to  those  of 


EAR 


EAT 


the  N.  T.  Jews.  As  nation  after  nation 
was  brought  into  contact  with  them 
their  notions  of  the  character  and  ex- 
tent of  the  workl  enlarged. 

Owing  to  the  highly'  poetic  nature  of 
the  language  in  which  descriptions  of 
the  earth  as  a  whole  are  given,  it  is  im- 
possible to  decide  upon  the  ordinary 
ideas  on  this  subject.  Like  other  na- 
tions of  antiquity,  and  like  most  people 
in  all  ages,  the  Hebrews  viewed  the 
world  from  a  geocentric  standpoint,  as 
if  the  earth  were  the  centre  of  the  uni- 
verse, every  other  heavenly  body  being 
formed  for  it  and  playing  a  subsidiary 
part.  The  heavens  were  conceived  of 
as  an  inverted  bowl,  which  rested  on  the 
flat  earth  at  its  edges,  holding  up  the 
snow  and  rain,  which  came  through 
when  a  window  was  opened.  Gen.  7 : 
11 ;  Isa.  24 :  18.  All  natural  phenomena 
are  traced  directly  to  the  almighty  will 
of  God,  without  taking  into  account 
(yet  without  denying)  secondary  causes. 
The  thunder  is  his  voice,  the  lightning 
his  arrows,  the  storm  and  the  wind  his 
messengers.  Job  37  :  5 ;  Ps.  77  :  17 ; 
148  :  8.  When  he  drew  near,  the  earth- 
quake, the  eclipse,  and  the  comet  were 
the  signs  of  his  presence.  Joel  2: 10; 
Matt.  24  :  29  ;  Luke  21 :  25.  We  should 
remember  that  this  is  to  this  day  the 
language  of  poetry  and  religion,  and 
that  it  represents  one  and  the  most  im- 
portant aspect  of  truth,  the  primary 
cause ;  while  prose  and  science  view  the 
other  aspect,  the  secondary  and  finite 
causes — that  is,  the  laws  of  nature, 
which  are  the  agencies  of  the  almighty 
will  of  God. 

If  all  things  in  heaven  above  and 
earth  beneath  were  created  by  the  word 
of  God,  they  were  as  certainly  created 
for  the  sons  of  God — for  man.  To  the 
Hebrew  nothing  existed  independent  of 
some  effect,  good  or  bad,  upon  man.  Ps. 
104  :  14,  23  expresses  in  poetry  his  sober 
opinion. 

The  earth  spoke  to  him  likewise  of 
orderly  and  preconcerted  progress. 
From  one  day  to  the  other,  as  he  read 
the  account  in  Genesis,  there  was  devel- 
opment of  higher  from  lower  forms, 
until,  as  the  crown  and  lord  of  all  cre- 
ation, man  stood  in  Eden. 

EARTHQUAKE.  Korah  and 
his  companions  were  destroyed  by  the 
rending  asunder  of  the  ground  where 


they  stood,  thus  engulfing  them  in  the 
cavity,  Num.  16  :  32  ,•  in  other  words,  by 
an  earthquake.  The  earthquake  men- 
tioned in  Am.  1 :  1  j  Zech.  14  :  5  is  also 
mentioned  by  Josephus,  who  adds  that 
it  divided  a  mountain  near  Jerusalem, 
and  was  so  violent  as  to  separate  one 
part  some  distance  from  the  other.  The 
earthquake  was  among  the  fearful  signs 
which  attended  the  crucifixion  of  our 
Saviour.  Matt.  27  :  51-54. 

Earthquakes  are  mentioned  among 
the  calamities  which  should,  and  did, 
precede  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 
Matt.  24:  7.  Earthquakes,  in  prophet- 
ical language,  denote  revolutions  and 
commotions  in  states  and  empires. 

An  earthquake,  '^  conveying  the  idea 
of  some  universal  and  unlimited  dan- 
ger," as  Humboldt  says,  was  an  appro- 
priate illustration  of  the  awe  which 
strikes  the  soul  when  God  seems  to 
draw  nigh.  It  is  therefore  a  fitting 
token  of  his  presence,  IKgs.  19:11, 
and  is  used  in  Scripture,  poetry,  and 
prophecy  in  descriptions  of  the  coming 
of  Jehovah.  Jud.  5:4;  2  Sam.  22  :  8  ; 
Ps.  77:18;  97:4;  104:32;  Am.  8:8; 
Hab.  3:10. 

EAST,  EAST  COUIV'TRY. 
Gen.  11 :  2  ;  Job  1 :  3  ;  Eze.  47  :  8  ;  Matt. 
2:1.  The  Hebrews  used  the  word  kedem, 
or  "  east,"  to  describe  any  country  which 
was  before  or  in  front  of  another — that 
is,  to  the  east  of  it ;  and  it  generally  re- 
fers to  the  region  around  and  beyond 
the  rivers  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  includ- 
ing portions  of  Arabia,  Mesopotamia, 
and  Babylonia. 

EAST'ER  (originally  the  festival 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  goddess  Eostre),  a 
mistranslation  for  ''  Passover,"  the  Jew- 
ish feast.  Acts  12  : 4.     See  Fkast. 

EAST  SEA.  Eze.  47:18;  Joel  2  : 
20.     See  Salt  Sea. 

EAST  WIND.     See  Wind. 

EAT,  EAT'ING.  The  Hebrews 
were  scrupulous  about  eating  and  drink- 
ing with  those  of  another  religion  or 
another  nationality.  They  would  not 
eat  with  the  Egyptians,  any  more  than 
the  Egyptians  would  with  them,  Gen. 
43  :  32,  nor  with  the  Samaritans,  John 
4  :  9,  nor  with  "  publicans  and  sinners," 
Matt.  9  :  ll,andtherefusal  toeat  withone 
implied  an  entire  separation.  1  Cor.  5:11. 

Anciently,  the  Jews  sat  at  table;  but 
when  they  encountered  the  practice  of 

247 


EBA 


EBA 


reclining  upon  couches  during  meals, 
resting  the  body  on  the  left  elbow  and 
using  chiefly  the  right  hand,  they  ap- 
pear to  have  adopted  it.  This  peculiar 
position  makes  the  scene  described  in 
Luke  7 : 3(3-50  perfectly  natural,  and 
also  shows  how  one  of  the  guests  could 
repose   his   head   on   another's   bosom. 


Bomau  Triclinium,  illustrating  Jewish  Method  of  Eatin 

John  13  :  23.     Women  were  never  pres- 
ent at  Jewish  meals  as  guests. 

The  Jews,  in  0.  T.  times,  appear  to 
have  taken  their  principal  meal  at 
night,  after  the  heat  of  the  day  was 
over.  This,  to  be  sure,  is  largely  con- 
jecture, since  we  have  no  detailed  in- 
formation given  us  in  the  Bible.  See 
Ruth  3:7;  Ex.  16  :  12  :  18  :  12,  13.  The 
institution  of  the  paschal  feast  in  the 
evening  likewise  helps  to  confirm  the 
opinion.  Ex.  12  :  6,  18.  They  made 
their  other  meal  in  the  morning.  In 
N.  T.  times  they  did  not  ordinarily 
breakfast  until  9  o'clock,  Acts  2:15, 
and  on  the  Sabbath,  as  Josephus  says, 
not  before  noon,  because  not  till  then 
was  the  service  of  the  synagogue  com- 
pleted. In  the  evening  the  more  sub- 
stantial meal  took  place.  In  general, 
the  Jews  led  the  simple,  abstemious 
life  of  the  modern  Oriental,  eating  the 
fruits  of  the  earth  in  the  morning,  and 
meat  only  once  a  day,  if  at  all.  But 
besides  this  occasional  reference  to  the 
ordinary  life  of  the  Jews,  the  Bible  con- 
tains notices  of  numerous  feasts  in  hon- 
or of  all  the  events  which  broke  the  mo- 
notony of  their  existence.  Leaving  out 
of  account  the  religious  festivals  and 
the  formal  banquets  at  the  ratification 
248 


of  treaties  and  on  other  public  occa- 
sions, we  read  of  feasts  given  at  mar- 
riages, Gen.  29:22;  Jud.  14:10,  etc., 
on  birthdays,  Gen.  40  :  20  ;  Job  1 :  4, 
etc.,  burials,  2  Sam.  3  :  35  ;  Jer.  16  :  7, 
sheep-shearing,  1  Sam.  25  :  2,  36  ;  2  Sam. 
13  :  23,  and  at  other  times.  According 
to  the  means  of  the  host,  an  elaborate 
meal  was  prepared.  The 
guests  were  formally  in- 
vited, and  when  the  day 
came  they  were  invited  a 
second  time.  Prov.  9:23; 
Matt.  22  :  3.  The  guests 
were  received  with  a  kiss, 
their  feet  and  hands  were 
waslied,  their  person  was 
perfumed  with  ointment. 
Luke  7  :  44-46.  The  par- 
able of  the  Man  without 
the  Wedding-garment  has 
led  to  the  conjecture  that 
it  was  customary,  or  at 
least  usual,  in  certain 
cases  for  the  host  to  pro- 
vide robes.  Matt.  22:12. 
The  present  mode  of 
eating  among  Eastern  nations  illustrates 
some  passages  of  the  N.  T.  In  Syria  the 
guests  use  their  fingers, a  knife,  spoon, and 
plate  being  used  only  by  foreigners,  and 
that  as  a  special  privilege.  The  bread, 
which  is  very  thin,  is  dipped  in  the 
vegetable  soup  ;  and  if  there  is  a 
dainty  morsel  on  the  table,  the  master 
of  the  house  takes  it  in  his  fingers  and 
presents  it  to  the  mouth  of  his  guest. 
From  Matt.  26 :  23  we  presume  that 
Judas  was  near  enough  to  our  Lord  to 
use  the  same  dish  and  receive  the  sop 
from  our  Lord's  hand,  according  to  the 
custom  above  described.  John  13 :  26, 
27.     See  Feast. 

To  eat  a  meal  together  is  regarded  in 
the  East  as  a  pledge  of  mutual  confi- 
dence and  friendship  ;  hence  the  force 
of  the   expression  Ps.  41 :  9. 

The  expression  John  6  :  53-58  is  evi- 
dently metaphorical.  ''Eating  and 
drinking "  here  means  believing,  or 
appropriating  the  life  of  our  Lord  by 
faith.  He  is  the  Bread  of  life  for  our 
souls. 

E'BAL  (sfoue).  1.  A  descendant 
of  Seir  the  Horite.  Gen.  36:23;  1  Chr. 
1:40. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Eber,  1  Chr.  1 :  22', 
called  Obal  in  Gen.  10 :  28, 


EBA 


ECC 


£'IIAIj  (stone,  stony),  one  of  the  two 
mountains  upon  which  Israel  stood  pro- 
nouncing blessings  and  cursings.  Deut. 
11:29;  Josh.  8:30-35.  Ebal  and  Ger- 
izim  are  opposite  each  other,  nearly  meet- 
ing at  their  bases,  but  are  a  mile  and  a 
half  apart  at  their  summits.  Mount 
Ebal,  the  northern  peak,  is  rocky  and 
bare :  it  rises  3070  feet  above  the  sea 
and  1200  feet  above  the  level  of  the  val- 
ley, which  forms  a  natural  amphitheatre. 
From  repeated  experiments  it  has  been 
found  that  the  voice  can  be  heard  dis- 
tinctly from  the  top  of  one  mountain 
to  the  other  and  in  the  valley  between. 
In  the  valley  lay  ancient  Shechem,  now 
Nablus.  The  summit  of  Ebal  is  a  pla- 
teau of  some  extent,  reaching  its  great- 
est height  toward  the  west,  from  which 
there  is  an  extensive  view  of  the  coun- 
try from  Ilermon  on  the  north  to  the 
heights  of  Bethel  on  the  south,  and 
from  the  plain  of  the  sea  on  the  west  to 
the  Hauran  plateau  on  the  east.  Con- 
der  suggests  that  the  site  of  Joshua's 
altar  may  be  represented  by  the  modern 
sacred  place  called  Amdd  ed-Din,  "mon- 
ument of  the  faith,"  on  the  top  of  Ebal. 
See  Gkrizim  and  Shechem. 

E'BED  [slave).  1.  The  father  of 
Gaal,  Avho  conspired  with  the  Shechem- 
ites  against  Abimelech.  Jud.  9  :  26,  28, 
30,  31,  35. 

2.  A  companion  of  Ezra  on  the  Re- 
turn. Ezr.  8  :  6. 

E'BED-ME'LECH  {^lave  of  the 
king),  an  Ethiopian  eunuch  of  Zedekiah, 
king  of  Judah,  who  was  instrumental  in 
saving  the  prophet  Jeremiah  from  death 
by  famine,  and  who  for  his  kindness  in 
his  behalf  was  promised  deliverance 
when  the  city  should  fall  into  the  ene- 
my's hands,  Jer.  38  :  7  ;  39  :  15-18.  His 
name  seems  to  have  been  an  official  title. 

EB'EN-E'ZER  [stone  of  help),  set 
up  as  a  memorial  by  Samuel,  1  Sam.  4  : 
1  ;  5  :  1 ;  7 :  12,  between  Mizpeh  and  Shen. 
The  curious  fact  that  the  name  of  this 
place  occurs  twice,  1  Sam.  4:1;  5:1,  be- 
fore theaccountof  the  naming  of  it,  is  ex- 
plained by  the  familiarity  of  the  place  to 
the  writer  of  the  narrative,  who  of  course 
lived  sometime  subsequent  to  the  battle. 
While  the  Israelites  were  worshipping 
God  at  Mizpeh  they  received  intelli- 
gence that  the  Philistines  were  ap- 
proaching them  with  a  formidable 
army.     In  this  emergency  they  betook 


themselves  to  sacrifice  and  prayer,  and 
God  interposed  in  a  most  signal  manner 
for  their  deliverance.  1  Sam.  7  :  5-12. 
In  commemoration  of  this  event,  Sam- 
uel erected  a  monument  near  the  field 
of  battle,  and  called  it  "  Eben-ezer,"  or 
the  stone  of  help,  saying,  "  Hitherto  hath 
Jehovah  helped  us."  Hence  it  is  often 
said,  "Here  we  will  set  up  our  Eben- 
ezer."  Conder  places  Ebenezcr  at  Deir 
Abdn,  3  miles  east  of  'Ain  Shems.  Birch 
disputes  this,  and  proposes  Khurbet 
Sa)nwil. 

E'BER  [beyond).  1.  The  great- 
grandson  of  Shem,  Gen.  10  :  21,  21 ;  11  : 
14-17 ;  1  Chr.  1  :  19,  and  the  ancestor 
of  Abraham  in  the  seventh  generation. 
See  Hebrews,  Heber. 

2.  Son  of  Elpaal,  and  one  of  the  build- 
ers of  Ono  and  Lod,  with  the  adjacent 
villages.  1  Chr.  8  :  12. 

3.  A  priest  of  the  days  of  Joiakim. 
Neh.  12  :  20.     See  also  Heber. 

EBI'ASAPH  [father  of  qathering), 
a  Levite.  1  Chr.  6:23,  37  j  9:19.  See 
Abiasaph  and  Asaph. 

EB'ONY.  Eze.  27  :  15.  A  black, 
heavy,  and  very  hard  wood,  which  was 
brought  to  ancient  Tyre  from  India.  It 
is  susceptible  of  a  fine  polish,  and  is 
used  for  musical  instruments  and  orna- 
mental work.  Ebony  is  the  heart-wood 
of  a  tree  [Diosjjyros  ebenus)  of  the  same 
genus  with  the  persimmon  of  our  warm- 
er States,  and,  like  that  tree,  bears  an 
edible  fruit. 

EBRO'NAH  [passage),  a  station  of 
the  Israelites  near  Ezion-geber,  Num. 
33  :  34,  35  ;  site  not  known. 

ECBAT'ANA.  Ezr.  6:2,  margin. 
The  name  of  two  cities. 

1.  The  capital  of  northern  Media,  now 
known  as  the  ruins  Takht-'i-Sule'imajt, 
about  75  miles  south-west  of  the  Caspian 
Sea. 

2.  The  larger  city  was  the  metropolis 
of  lower  Media,  now  called  Hamadnn, 
one  of  the  most  important  cities  of  Per- 
sia, having  from  30,000  to  40,000  in- 
habitants. Both  cities  are  referred  to 
in  the  Apocrvphal  books. 

ECCLESIAS'TES  (Koheleth), 
OR  (as  the  name  signifies)  THE 
PREACHER,  was  written  by  Sol- 
omon toward  the  close  of  his  splendid 
and  eventful  career  as  monarch  of  Is- 
rael, or  by  a  later  author,  who  imper- 
sonates Solomon  and  gives  us  the  prac- 

249 


ECC 


EDE 


tical  lesson  of  his  sad  experience.  It 
corresponds  to  the  old  age  of  Solomon, 
as  the  Canticles  to  his  youth  and  the 
Proverbs  to  his  mature  manhood.  The 
design  of  the  author  evidently  is,  (1) 
To  demonstrate  the  folly  and  mad- 
ness of  making  this  world,  its  pleas- 
ures, or  its  pursuits  the  objects  of  af- 
fection or  hope ;  (2)  To  show  the  cha- 
racter, influence,  and  advantages  of  true 
wisdom  or  religion.  The  key-note  is 
struck  in  the  opening  lines,  repeated 
at  the  close,  12  :  8  : 

"O  vanity  of  vanities  !  the  Preacher  saith; 
O  vanity  of  vanities  !  all  is  vanity." 

The  practical  lesson   of  the  book   is 

summed   up  in   the   concluding  words, 

12  :  13,   14,    which,    literally    rendered, 

read  thus : 

'*  Fear  God  and  keep  his  commandments. 
For  this  is  all  of  man." 

The  writer  looks  from  the  vanity  be- 
neath the  sun  to  the  eternal  realities 
above  the  sun,  and  from  the  shifting 
scenes  of  this  life  to  the  judgment-seat 
of  God,  who  will  judge  ''every  work, 
yea,  every  secret  deed,  both  good  and 
evil."  The  book  represents  Hebrew 
scepticism  subdued  and  checked  by  the 
Hebrew  fear  of  God  and  reaping  lessons 
of  wisdom  from  the  follies  of  life.  It  is 
an  ethical  or  philosophical  treatise  in 
prose,  with  regular  logical  divisions, 
but  full  of  poetic  inspiration,  and  in 
part  also  poetic  in  form,  with  enough 
of  rhythmical  flow  to  awaken  a  deep 
and  emotional  interest  in  these  sad  so- 
liloquies of  the  author. 

ECCLESIAS'TICUS,  the  title, 
in  the  Latin  Vulgate,  of  the  Apocryphal 
book  called  in  the  Septuagint  ''  The  Wis- 
dom of  Jesus  the  Son  of  Sirach."  Both 
titles  are  given  in  the  English  transla- 
tion. The  Latin  title,  "  The  Ecdesias- 
^'crrZ  Book,"  designates  it  as  a  book  that 
was  read  for  edification  in  the  churches. 
The  original  Hebrew  is  not  now  extant, 
although  Jerome  asserts  he  saw  a  copy 
of  it.  The  Hebrew  text  was  composed 
by  Jesus,  the  son  of  Sirach,  between  b.  c. 
190-170.  His  grandson  translated  it 
into  Greek  about  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century. 

In  general,  its  contents  resemble  the 
Proverbs  of  Solomon,  only  with  much 
greater  particularity  of  detail,  extend- 
ing to  all  spheres  of  religious,  civil,  and 
domestic  life,  and  giving  rules  for  the 
250 


conduct  of  the  same.  Along  with  the 
maxims  are  discussions  and  prayers. 
The  book  closes  with  two  discourses, 
one,  chs.  42  :  15-43,  etc.,  "  the  praise 
of  God  for  his  works  j"  the  other,  chs. 
44-50,  "  the  praise  of  famous  holy 
men,"  from  Enoch  to  Simon  the  high 
priest,  the  son  of  Onias.  The  final 
chapter  is  a  thanksgiving  and  a  prayer. 
The  book  is  of  great  value  as  an  indica- 
tion of  the  current  Jewish  theology  and 
ethics  at  the  time  of  its  composition. 

ED  {witness).  This  word  printed  in 
italics,  is  inserted  in  Josh.  22  :  34  as  the 
name  given  to  the  altar  set  up  by  the 
trans-Jordanic  tribes,  but  it  does  not 
occur  in  the  received  Hebrew  text, 
which,  literally  translated,  reads,  "And 
the  children  of  Reuben  and  the  children 
of  Gad  named  the  altar :  '  It  [i.  e.  the 
altar]  is  a  witness  between  us  that  Je- 
hovah is  God.'"  Some  place  the  altar 
on  the  east  or  Moab  side  of  the  Jordan. 
Conder  put  it  on  the  west  side,  at  Kurn 
Surtaheh,  11  miles  north-east  of  Shiloh, 
but  this  identification  is  disputed. 

E'DAR  {tower  of  the  flock).  Gen.  36  : 
21.  Conder  would  place  it  on  the  Shep- 
herds' plain,  about  1  mile  east  of  Beth- 
lehem ;  Jerome  states  that  it  was  1000 
paces  from  that  city. 

E'DEN"  (2ileasa»tness).  1.  The  home 
of  Adam  and  Eve  before  their  fall.  Gen. 
2  :  15.  Its  site  has  not  been  fixed.  Two 
of  its  rivers  are  identified,  the  Euphra- 
tes, and  the  Hiddekel  or  Tigris ;  the 
others  are  disputed.  Some  say  Gihon 
was  the  Nile  and  Pison  the  Indus.  The 
best  authorities  agree  that  the  "  garden 
of  Eden  eastward  "  was  in  the  highlands 
of  Armenia,  or  in  the  valley  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, but  its  precise  location  cannot 
be  determined.  The  Bible,  after  the 
history  of  the  fall  of  our  first  parents, 
withdraws  paradise  lost  from  our  view, 
and  directs  our  hope  to  thB  more  glori- 
ous paradise  of  the  future,  with  its  river 
of  life  and  tree  of  life.  Rev.  22  :  2. 

2.  A  region  conquered  by  the  Assyri- 
ans, 2  Kgs.  19  :  12  :  Isa.  37  :  12  :  prob- 
ably in  Mesopotamia,  near  modern  Ba- 
lis, and  same  as  the  Eden  of  Eze.  27  :  23. 

3.  The  house  of  Eden.  Am.  1 :  5.  See 
Beth-kden. 

E'DEN  (pleasantness),  a  Levite  in 
the  days  of  Hezekiah.  2  Chr.  29:12; 
31:15. 

E'DER  {flock),  a  Merarite  Levite  in 


EDE 


EDU 


the  days  of  David.   1  Chr.  23 :  23 ;  24  : 
30. 

E'DER  (flock),  a  town  of  Judah 
near  Edom.  Josh.  15:  21.  Not  the  same 
as  Arad ;  modern  site  is  'Addr. 

E'DOM  (red),  called  also  Idumsea 
and  Mount  Seir.  The  country  extended 
from  the  Dead  Sea  southward  to  the 
Gulf  of  Akabah,  and  from  the  valley  of 
the   Arabah   eastward  to  the   desert  of 


Arabia,  being  about  125  miles  long  and 
30  miles  wide. 

Physical  Features. — A  mountain-range 
of  porphyritic  rock  forms  the  backbone 
of  the  country ;  above  this  rises  sand- 
stone, assuming  fantastic  forms,  while  on 
either  side  of  these  formations  are  lime- 
stone hills.  On  the  west,  along  the  val- 
ley of  the  Arabah,  the  hills  are  low  ;  on 
the  east  the  mountains  attain  their  hig-h- 


Tlie  Approach  to  Edom  fiom  the  E 

est  elevation,  and  border  on  the  great 
plateau  of  Arabia.  The  country  is  well 
watered,  rich  in  pasturage,  abounding 
with  trees  and  flowers,  reminding  us  of 
Isaac's  prophecy  :  "  Thy  dwelling  shall  be 
the  fatness  of  the  earth."  Gen.  27  :  39. 

Cities. — Its  principal  towns  were  Boz- 
ra,  Elath,  Maon,  Ezion-geber,  Selah,  or 
Petra.  A  description  of  them  will  be 
found  under  their  proper  titles.  For 
a  history  of  the  people  see  Esau  and 
Idum^ans. 

ED'REI  (strength,  stronghold).  1. 
A  capital  city  of  Bashan.  Num.  21 :  33  ; 
Deut.  3:1-10.  It  was  in  the  territory 
of  Manasseh  beyond  (east  of)  Jordan. 
Num.  32  :33.  It  is  not  noticed  in  later 
Bible  history,  although  it  was  an  im- 
portant city  until  the  seventh  century 
of  the  Christian  era.  Its  ruins,  called 
Edhra,  cover  a  circuit  of  3  miles. 
Without  a  spring,  river,  or  stream,  with- 
out access  except  over  rocks  and  through 
nearly  impassable  defiles,  without  tree 
or  garden,  it  is  a  place  of  security  and 


ast.     {After  a  Photograph  hy  Frith.) 

strength.  Among  the  ruins  are  remains 
of  churches,  temples,  and  mosques. 
The  place  has  now  about  500  popu- 
lation. 

2.  A  town  of  Naphtali.  Num.  19  :  37. 
Porter  identifies  it  with  Tell  Khuraiheh, 
near  Kedesh ;  Conder  with  Yater. 

EDUCA'TION.  Of  secular  edu- 
cation, in  our  sense  of  the  word,  the 
Jews  knew  little,  but  they  enjoined  the 
duty  and  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  relig- 
ious and  moral  training  at  home  and 
in  public  worship  far  more  than  any 
nation  of  antiquity.  They  learned 
from  their  parents  and  their  public 
teachers,  the  Levites,  and  later  the  Rab- 
bins, to  read  and  write  and  commit  the 
Law.  During  the  Captivity  they  were 
brought  into  contact  with  the  extensive 
learning  of  the  Chaldasans.  Moses  de- 
rived his  knowledge  from  Egyptian 
priests,  and  Solomon  was  both  a  schol- 
ar and  a  wise  man,  to  whose  open  mind 
the  gathered  treasures  of  instruction 
and   the  books   of  nature   and   human 

251 


EGL 


EGY 


life  brought  lessons  of  priceless  wisdom. 
The  people  at  large  must  have  been  ig- 
norant of  things  outside  of  religion,  and 
their  religious  exclusiveness  would 
tend  to  keep  them  so,  but  there  were 
men  among  them  acquainted  with  men- 
suration, Josh,  18:8,  9,  and  with  for- 
eign languages,  2  Kgs.  18  :  26,  and  who 
were  skilled  in  writing,  like  the  chron- 
ialers  of  the  various  kings,  and  in  keep- 
ing accounts,  like  the  scribes  who  are 
often  mentioned.  In  the  days  of  the 
monarchy  the  advantages  of  education 
were  secured  by  many  in  the  so-called 
"schools  of  the  prophets."  After  the 
Captivity  the  Rabbins  regularly  gave 
instruction  in  the  synagogues  upon  the 
Bible  and  the  Talmud.  In  the  entire 
history  it  holds  good  that  boys  remain- 
ed up  to  their  fifth  year  in  the  women's 
apartments  and  then  their  fathers  began 
to  instruct  them  in  the  Law.  Later,  the 
boys  began  at  this  age  the  Rabbinical 
books.  The  Captivity  was  in  many  re- 
spects an  incalculable  blessing  to  the 
Jews.  It  taught  them  that  there  was 
something  worth  learning  outside  of  the 
Mosaic  books.  Hence,  after  their  re- 
turn, they  were  a  greatly-improved  peo- 
ple. It  was  then  that  sj'nagogues  sprang 
up,  furnishing  practical  instruction. 
After  Jerusalem  fell  the  Jews  kept  up 
these  schools,  and  they  exist  even  in 
this  day.  One  valuable  custom  was  the 
learning  of  a  trade  on  the  part  of  each 
one.  Well  known  is  the  instance  of 
Paul,  who,  although  well  trained,  a  pu- 
pil of  Gamaliel,  still  could,  and  did, 
make  tents.    Acts  18  :  .3  ;  22  :  3. 

Girls  were  generally  without  much 
more  education  than  the  rudiments,  3'et 
they  could  attend  the  schools  and  learn 
more  than  to  do  needle-work,  keep 
house,  and  care  for  the  children.  Wo- 
men were  far  higher  in  the  social  scale 
among  the  Jews  than  at  present  among 
the  Orientals. 

The  sect  of  the  Essenes,  by  preference 
celibates,  took  great  pains  to  instruct 
children,  but  confined  their  attention 
chiefly  to  morality  and  the  Law.  The 
Rabbins  taught  the  physical  sciences. 
In  these  schools  the  teachers  sat  on 
raised  seats  :  hence  Paul  could  say  lit- 
erally that  he  was  brought  up  at  the 
feet  of  Gamaliel.  Luke  2  :  46  ;  Acts  22  : 
3.  Unmarried  men  and  women  were 
forbidden  to  teach  boys. 
252 


The  ancient  Jews  enjoyed  more  ad- 
vantages in  mental  training  than  other 
contemporary  nations.  And  if  they 
knew  little  about  matters  of  common 
information  among  us,  they  knew  more 
than  did  the  great  mass  of  people  living 
outside  of  Judaea. 

EG'LAH  {n  heifer),  one  of  David's 
wives.  2  Sam.  3  :  5. 

E CLAIM  {two  2ionds),  a  place  on 
the  border  of  Moab,  Isa.  15  :  8  ;  prob- 
ably the  same  as  En-eglaim. 

EG'LON  (calf-like),  king  of  the 
Moabites,  who  held  the  Israelites  in 
bondage  18  years.  Jud.  3  :  14.  He  form- 
ed an  alliance  with  the  Ammonites  and 
Amalekites,  and  took  possession  of  Jer- 
icho, where  he  resided,  and  where  he 
was  afterward  assassinated  by  Ehud. 
See  Ehud. 

EG'LON  (calf),  an  Amorite  town  in 
Judah,  Josh.  10  :  3-5  ;  15  :  39  ;  now 
'Ajlan,  a  hill  of  ruins,  10  miles  north- 
east of  Gaza. 

E'GYPT,  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  in 
the  north-eastern  part  of  Africa,  and  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  countries  in  an- 
cient history,  famous  for  its  pyramids, 
sphinxes,  obelisks,  and  wonderful  ruins 
of  temples  and  tombs.  It  figures  large- 
ly in  the  Bible  as  the  cradle  of  the  peo- 
ple of  Israel,  and  the  training-school  of 
its  great  leader  and  legislator. 

Names. — In  Hebrew,  Egyjit  is  called 
Mizraim,  a  dual  form  of  the  word,  indi- 
cating the  two  divisions,  Upper  and 
Lower  Egypt,  or  (as  Tayler  Lewis  sug- 
gests) the  two  strips  on  the  two  sides  of 
the  Nile.  It  is  also  known  as  the  Land 
of  Ham,  Ps.  105:23.  27,  and  Rahah, 
("the  proud  one").  Ps.  89:10;  87:4; 
Isa.  51  :  9.  The  Coptic  and  older  title 
is  Kemi,  or  Chemi,  meaning  "black," 
from  the  dark  color  of  the  soil.  The 
name  "  Egypt"  first  occurs  in  its  Greek 
form  in  Homer,  and  is  applied  to  the 
Nile  and  to  the  country,  but  afterward 
it  is  used  for  the  country  only. 

Situation  and  Extent. — Egypt  lies  on 
both  sides  of  the  Nile,  and  in  ancient 
times  included  the  land  watered  by  it, 
as  far  as  the  First  Cataract,  the  deserts 
on  either  side  being  included  in  Arabia 
and  Libya.  Ezekiel  indicates  that  it 
reached  from  Migdol  (now  Tell  es-Semut, 
east  of  the  Suez  Canal)  to  Syene  (now 
Asican  or  Ansouan),  on  the  border  of 
Nubia,  near  the  First  Cataract  of  the 


EGY 


EGY 


Nile.  Eze.  29  :  10,  margin.  The  Delta 
and  the  valley  of  the  Nile  are  estimated 
to  have  an  area  of  about  9600  square 
miles  (or  a  little  more  than  the  State 
of  New  Hampshire),  of  which  only  5626 
miles  are  fit  for  cultivation.  In  the  more 
extended  sense  of  later  times,  Egypt  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean, on  the  east  by  the  Red  Sea  and 
Arabia,  on  the  south  by  Nubia,  and  on 
the  west  by  the  Great  Desert.  The 
length  of  the  country  in  a  straight  line 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  First 
Cataract  is  about  520  miles  ;  its  breadth 
is  from  300  to  450  miles,  and  its  entire 
area  is  about  212,000  square  miles. 
Nubia,  Ethiopia,  and  other  smaller  dis- 
tricts bordering  on  the  Nile  to  the  south 
of  Egypt,  have  been  brought  under  its 
sway. 

The  following  statement  of  the  area 
and  population  of  Egypt  and  dependen- 
cies is  from  the  official  report  of  1876  : 


Divisions. 

Area. 

Population. 

gg^Pt 

Nubia 

Ethiopia... 

Darfur,  etc 

Total 

Square  Square 
kilometres.             miles. 

550,630  =     212,543 

864,500  =  333,697 
2,918,000  =  1,146,348 

444,700=     171,674 

4,777,830  =  1,864,262 

5,252,000 
1,000,000 
5,000,000 
5,700,000 

16,952,000 

Egypt  proper  has  thus  an  area  almost 
as  large  as  that  of  New  York.  Pennsyl- 
vania, Illinois,  Ohio,  and  Indiana  com- 
bined, and  the  present  ruler  of  Egypt 
controls  a  territory  nearly  half  as  large 
as  the  United  States  of  America. 

Physical  Features.  —  The  country 
has  three  great  natural  divisions:  (1) 
the  Delta;  (2)  the  Nile  valley ;  (3)  the 
sandy  and  rocky  wastes.  The  Delta  is 
one  vast  triangular  plain,  watered  by 
the  branches  of  the  Nile  and  numerous 
canals,  and  covered  with  I'emains  of  an- 
cient cities  and  villages  and  groves  of 
palm  trees,  which  stand  on  mounds  of 
great  antiquity.  The  Delta  extends 
along  the  Mediterranean  for  about  200 
miles  and  up  the  Nile  for  100  miles. 
The  Tanitic  branch  of  the  Nile  is  on 
the  east  of  the  Delta,  and  the  Canopic 
branch  on  the  west,  though  the  Delta  is 
now  limited  chiefly  to  the  space  between 
the  Rosetta  and  the  Damietta  branches, 
which  is  about  90  miles  in  extent.  The 
valley  of  the  Nile  extends  to  the  lower 
or  First   Cataract,  near   the   island   of 


PhilaD,  which  is  about  500  miles  south 
of  Cairo.  It  is  in  a  rich  state  of  culti- 
vation, but  is  very  narrow,  and  hemmed 
in  by  low  mountains  or  rocky  table-land, 
rarely  rising  into  peaks,  though  often 
approaching  the  river  in  bold  promon- 
tories. Behind  the  rocky  range,  which 
varies  from  300  to  1000  feet  in  height,  on 
either  side  of  the  Nile,  are  deserts  rocky 
and  strewn  with  sand.  The  valley  is 
scarcely  more  than  10  miles  wide,  and 
there  is  little  fruitful  land  beyond  its 
limits,  or  such  portions  as  are  reached 
by  its  fertilizing  waters  on  the  rise  and 
overflow  of  the  river.     See  Nile. 

Climate  and  Productions. — The  climate 
of  Egypt  is  remarkably  equable,  the  at- 
mosphere dry  and  clear  except  on  the 
sea-coast;  the  summers  are  hot  and  sul- 
try, the  winters  mild ;  rain,  except  along 
the  Mediterranean,  is  very  rare, the  fertil- 
ity of  the  land  depending  almost  entire- 
ly upon  the  annual  overflow  of  the  Nile, 
or  upon  artificial  irrigation  by  canals, 
water-wheels,  and  the  shadoof.  Winds 
are  strong,  those  from  a  northerly  source 
being  the  most  prevalent,  while  the  si- 
moon, a  violent  whirlwind  and  hurricane 
of  sand,  is  not  infrequent.  The  chief 
fruits  are  dates,  grapes,  figs,  pomegran- 
ates, oranges,  apricots,  peaches,  lemons, 
bananas,  melons  of  various  kinds,  mul- 
berries, pears,  and  olives.  Among  the 
vegetables  are  beans,  peas,  onions,  leeks, 
lentils,  gourds,  cucumbers,  caraway, 
coriander,  cummin,  anise,  and  pepper; 
and  of  grains,  wheat,  barley,  millet, 
maize,  and  rice.  Among  plants  are 
the  indigo-plant,  cotton,  flax,  poppy, 
madder,  and  a  species  of  saff'ron.  Many 
kinds  of  reeds  were  found  in  the  coun- 
try, but  they  have  wasted  away,  as  pre- 
dicted, Isa.  19  :  6,  7  ;  even  the  famous 
papyrus,  or  bt/blus,  from  which  paper 
was  made,  has  nearly,  if  not  quite,  dis- 
appeared. Of  animals,  the  camel,  horse, 
mule,  ass,  sheep,  and  goat  are  common, 
and  the  wolf,  fox,  jackal,  hyena,  weasel, 
jerboa,  hare,  gazelle,  hippopotamus,  and 
crocodile  were  all  found  in  considerable 
numbers  ;  but  the  last  two  are  now  found 
only  in  the  upper  Nile.  Of  birds,  the 
vulture  (Pharaoh's  hen),  eagle,  falcon, 
hawk,  kite,  crow,  lark,  sparrow,  hoopoe 
(a  sacred  bird),  and  the  ostrich  were  the 
most  common  ;  and  of  reptiles,  the  co- 
bra, cerastes,  and  other  species  of  ven- 
omous  snakes   abounded,  and   are   yet 

263 


EGY 


EGY 


the  dread  of  native  and  of  traveller. 
Fish  abound  in  the  Nile  and  in  Lake 
Menzaleh.  Insects  are  well  represented, 
the  scorpion  being  among  the  most  dan- 
gerous, while  swarms  of  flies,  fleas,  bee- 
tles (the  scarabifus  being  held  sacred  by 


the  ancient  Egyptians),  and  bugs  of 
various  kinds  attack  man  and  beast, 
and  occasionally  swarms  of  locusts  sweep 
over  the  land,  reminding  one  of  the  plague 
preceding  the  Exodus,  and  of  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  invading  army  by  the  prophet 


Joel.  Ex.  10  :  12-15  ;  Joel  2  : 1-11.  The 
principal  minerals  are  granite,  syenite, 
basalt,  porphyr}',  limestone,  alabaster, 
sandstone,  and  emeralds.  The  first  four 
were  formerly  prized  for  the  purposes  of 
architecture  and  sculpture. 

Language. — The  sources  of  knowledge 
254 


respecting  ancient  Egypt  are  chiefly 
four:  (1)  the  Pentateuch;  (2)  the  writ- 
ings of  Manetho,  b.  c.  300-250,  whose 
work  is  lost,  but  fragments  of  which 
have  come  down  to  us  through  Jose- 
phus,  Julius  Afrieanus,  and  Eusebius ; 
(3)  the  accounts  of  Greek  travellers — 


EGY 


EGY 


Herodotus,  B.  c.  454,  Diodorus  Siculus, 
B.  c.  58,  and  Strabo,  b.  c.  30  ;  (4)  the 
monumental  inscriptions  and  papyrus 
rolls  in  the  temples  and  tombs  or  about 
mummies.  Copies  of  the  inscriptions 
and  many  of  the  papyrus  rolls  have  been 
discovered  during  the  present  century 
and  transferred  to  museums  in  London, 
Paris,  Berlin,  Leyden,  Turin,  and  Bulak, 
and  have  been  deciphered  by  Egyptolo- 
gists. The  hieroglyphic  signs  on  the 
monuments  are  partly  ideographic  or 
pictorial,  partly  phonetic.  The  hiero- 
glyphic, the  shorter  hieratic,  and  the 
demotic  alphabets  were  deciphered  by 
Champollion  and  Young  by  means  of 
the  famous  trilingual  Rosetta  Stone,  dis- 
covered in  1799,  and  the  Coptic  language 
"which  is  essentially  the  same  with  the 
old  Egyptian.  For  a  summary  of  the 
respective  merits  of  Young  and  Cham- 
pollion with  regard  to  the  interpreta- 
tion of  Egyptian  hieroglyphic,  see  Al- 
libone's  Dictionary  of  Authors,  vol.  iii. 
p.  2902. 

The  process  of  decipherment  was, 
briefly,  as  follows :  The  Rosetta  Stone 
had  an  inscription  in  three  characters, 
hieroglyphic,  demotic,  and  Greek.  The 
Greek,  which  was  easily  read,  declared 
that  fhere  were  two  translations,  one  in 
the  sacred,  the  other  in  the  popular,  lan- 
guage of  the  Egyptains,  adjacent  to  it. 
The  demotic  part  was  next  scrutinized, 
and  the  groups  determined  which  con- 
tained the  word  Ptolemy.  These  were 
compared  with  other  framed  symbols 
on  an  obelisk  found  at  Philae.  The 
symbol  on  the  obelisk  which  occurred 
in  connection  with  the  name  Ptolemy 
was  conjectured  to  be  Cleopatra,  as  the 
number  of  letters  also  indicated.  The 
t  vo  groups  were  then  compared  : 


he  took  to  be 
Ptolemais. 


were  afterward  verified  by  comparing 
them  with  the  names  of  other  kings, 
and  particularly  with  that  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  as  below: — 


The  second  symbol  in  the  second  group, 
a  lion,  Champollion  took  to  be  I,  and  the 
same  symbol  has  the  fourth  place  in  the 
first  group.  By  a  similar  process  of  com- 
parison, the  nine  letters  of  Cleopatra's 
name  were  ascertained,  while  the  dif- 
ferent letters    in   the  case   of  Ptolemy 


The  prevailing  opinion  is  that  the 
ancient  Egyptians  were  of  Asiatic 
rather  than  of  African  origin.  Their 
language  was  Egyptian,  and  was  re- 
lated, though  it  has  not  yet  been  proved 
as  belonging,  to  the  Semitic  family.  It 
had  two  dialects,  that  of  Upper  and  that 
of  Lower  Egypt,  and  by  degrees  a  vul- 
gar dialect  was  formed,  which  became 
the  national  language  not  long  before 
the  formation  of  the  Coptic.  The  writ- 
ten character  of  the  Egyptian  language 
was  the  hieroglyphic — a  very  complex 
system,  which  expressed  ideas  by  sym- 
bols or  by  phonetic  signs,  syllabic  and 
alphabetic,  or  else  by  a  combination  of 
the  two  methods.  From  this  combina- 
tion was  formed  the  hieratic,  a  running- 
hand,  or  common  written  form  of  the 
hieroglyphic,  principally  used  for  docu- 
ments written  on  papyrus.  The  later 
Coptic  language  was  written  in  Greek 
letters,  with  the  addition  of  six  new 
characters  to  that  alphabet.  The  writ- 
ings of  the  ancient  Egyptians  which 
have  come  down  to  our  times  are  dis- 
jointed, and,  from  a  literary  point  of 
view,  have  disappointed  the  expecta- 
tions even  of  warm  admirers  of  Egyp- 
tian civilization.  See  Poole  in  Ency- 
cloppedia  Britannica,  9th  Ed.,  vol.  vii. 
(1878). 

Learning  and  Art. — The  progress  of 
the  Egyptians  in  the  various  sciences 
was  equalled  by  that  of  no  other 
ancient  people  except  the  Greeks, 
and  perhaps  the  Babylonians  and 
the  Assyrians.  In  astronomy,  ge- 
9  ometry,  chemistry,  and  the  arts 
I  their  knowledge  is  attested  by  the 
^  cycles  they  formed  for  the  ad- 
•^  justment  of  different  reckonings 
of  time,  and  by  their  skill  in  shaping  and 
moving  vast  blocks  of  stone  used  in 
building,  which,  considering  their  want 
of  iron  and  the  very  simple  mechanical 
appliances  at  the  command  of  Egyptian 
builders,  are  an  enigma  to  modern  en- 
gineers.    The  hardening  of  bronze  tools 

255 


V 


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with  which  they  cut  granite  and  the  mode 
in  which  Moses  destroyed  the  golden  calf 
indicate  the  progress  they  had  made  in 
using  metals.  In  medicine  also  they 
were  inferior  only  to  the  Greeks. 

In  architecture  the  Egyptians  occupy 
the  most  distinguished  place  among  the 
nations  of  antiquitj'.  None  have  equalled 
them  in  the  grandeur,  massiveness,  and 
durability  of  their  structures.  Mr.  Fer- 
gusson  says :  '"'Xeither  Grecian  nor  Gothic 
architects  understood  more  perfectly  all 
the  gradations  of  art  and  the  exact  cha- 
racter that  should  be  given  to  every  form 
and  every  detail.  They  understood  also, 
better  than  any  other  nation,  how  to  use 
sculpture  in  combination  with  architec- 
ture, and  to  make  their  colossi  and  ave- 
nues of  sphinxes  group  themselves  into 
parts  of  one  great  design,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  use  historical  paintings, 
fading  by  insensible  degrees  into  hier- 
oglyphics on  the  one  hand  and  into 
sculpture  on  the  other,  linking  the 
whole  together  with  the  highest  class 
of  phonetic  utterance  and  with  the 
most  brilliant  coloring,  thus  harmoniz- 
ing all  these  arts  into  one  great  whole 
unsurpassed  by  anything  the  world  has 
seen  during  the  30  centuries  of  struggle 
and  aspiration  that  have  elapsed  since 
the  brilliant  days  of  the  great  kingdom 
of  the  Pharaohs." — Handbook  of  Archi- 

o 


lecture.  And  Poole  observes  :  "  In  the 
whole  range  of  ancient  art  Egyptian 
may  take  its  place  next  after  Greek. 
Indeed,  in  some  instances  it  excels 
Greek,  as  when  in  animal  forms  the 
natural  is  subordinated  to  the  ideal. 
The  lions  from  Gebel  Barkel  .  .  .  are 
probably  the  finest  examples  of  the 
idealization  of  animal  forms  that  any 
age  has  produced." — Encyclopaedia  Bri- 
tannica,  vol.  vii.  The  pyramids  and 
sphinxes,  the  immense  temples,  tombs, 
and  remarkable  obelisks,  have  called 
forth  the  admiration  alike  of  the  past 
and  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

Reli(jion. —  In  religion  the  ancient 
Egyptians  had  an  idea  of  one  supreme, 
self-existent  creator,  but  this  idea  was 
mixed  with  the  basest  forms  of  poly- 
theism and  idolatry.  Every  town  had 
its  local  divinities  and  its  sacred  ani- 
mal or  fetish.  Herodotus  remarked 
that  it  was  easier  to  find  a  god  than  a 
man  on  the  Nile.  Seth,  the  destructive 
power  of  Nature,  was  for  many  centu- 
ries the  special  divinity  of  Lower 
Egypt,  but  he  was  at  length  displaced. 
There  appear  to  have  been  various  or- 
ders of  gods,  each  town  having  a  cycle 
called  a  society  of  the  gods,  or  "the 
nine  gods."  The  Egyptians  explained 
this  cycle  as  the  self-development  of 
Ra,  the  chief  or  supreme  god,  already 


The  Principal  Egyptian  Triad,  Osiris,  Isis,  and  Horus.     (.After  Eiehm.) 


mentioned,  and  who  appears  to  be  iden- 
tified in  Egyptian  history  of  the  "  eigh- 
teenth dynasty  "  with  the  sun  and  sun- 
worship. 
256 


Two  lists  of  their  deities  are  given : 
the  first  is  according  to  the  system  of 
Memphis,  the  earlier  capital,  whost 
chief  gods  were  Ptah,  Ra,  Shu  or  Mu, 


Temple  at  Karnak.    Columns  in  the  Great  Hall.    {A^ier  Photographs  by  Sebak.) 


Temple  of  Medinet  Abou  at  Thebes.     {Ajter  Photographs  by  heoak.) 


17 


EGY 


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Seb,  Hesiri  or  Osiris,  Hes,  Seth  or  Sethos, 
and  Hiir.  Those  of  the  system  of  Thebes, 
the  Uiter  capital,  were,  according  to  Lep- 
sius,  Amen,  Mentu,  Atmu,  Shu,  Seb,  He- 
siri, Set,  liar,  and  Sebek.  These  two 
systems,  however,  may  be  treated  as  one, 
consisting  of  male  divinities  with  whom 
are  associated  goddesses.  Wilkinson 
gives  a  list  of  thirteen  triads  of  gods, 
two  of  whom  were  usually  of  equal  rank 
and  tlie  third  subordinate.  At  PhiltB 
was  the  triad  of  Osiris,  Isis,  and  Horus. 
Sun-worship  was  the  primitive  formof  the 
Egyptian  religion,  lla  was  represented 
as  a  hawk-headed  man,  generally  bear- 
ing on  his  head  the  solar  disk.  Osiris  (in 
Egyptian  Heairi)  was  usually  repre- 
sented as  a  mummy  with  a  royal  cap 
having  ostrich  plumes ;  he  is  the  good 
being,  the  judge  of  all  the  dead,  and  is 
opposed  to  Seth,  the  evil  being.  The 
worship  of  these  gods  required  priests, 
sacrifices,  offerings  of  fruits,  libations, 
and  at  some  early  periods  human  vic- 
tims. Vast  temples  were  built  in  honor 
of  the  deities,  each  town  usually  hav- 
ing at  least  one  temple,  and  immense 
tombs  were  also  constructed  as  a  relig- 
ious duty  and  connected  with  the  wor- 
ship of  some  of  the  gods,  usually  that 
of  Osiris  or  a  divinity  of  that  group. 

The  Egyptians  had  a  very  strong  be- 
lief in  a  future  life,  and  were  taught  to 
consider  their  abode  here  merely  as  an 
inn  upon  the  road  to  a  future  existence 
where  there  was  no  distinction  in  rank. 
After  death  the  body  was  embalmed 
and  often  kept  in  the  house  for  months 
or  a  year  before  the  burial.  See  Embalm. 
The  mummy  of  a  deceased  friend  was 
sometimes  introduced  at  their  parties 
and  placed  in  a  seat  at  the  table  as  one 
of  the  guests.  Herodotus  says  that  the 
Egyptians  were  the  first  to  maintain  the 
immortality  of  the  soul.  They  also  be- 
lieved in  the  transmigration  of  souls. 
Though  "'Moses  was  learned  in  all  the 
wisdom  of  the  Egyptians,"  the  system 
of  worship  and  religion  which  was  given 
to  the  Hebrews  under  him  is  in  marked 
contrast  to  the  polytheistic  and  idola- 
trous forms  of  Egypt,  and  attests  its 
divine  origin. 

Chronology  and  History. —  As  the 
father  of  nations,  Egypt  in  its  early 
history  antedates  all  records,  and  is 
lost  in  obscurity.  EgyjDtian  history 
may  be  divided  into  6  great  periods  : 
258 


(1)  The  Pharaohs  or  native  kings,  to 
B.  c.  525;  (2)  the  Persian,  to  b.  c.  332; 
(3)  the  Ptolemies,  to  B.  c.  30;  (4)  the 
Roman,  to  A.  d.  640  ;  (5)  the  Arab;  (6) 
the  Turk.  Egyptian  chronology  is  in 
a  confused  and  unsettled  condition. 
New  information  from  the  monuments 
has  simply  increased  the  difficulty  of 
settling  the  many  conflicting  statements 
and  establishing  dates  on  a  satisfactory 
basis.  The  principal  facts  that  appear  to 
be  generally  accepted  are:  (1)  Menes  is 
an  historical  person,  and  the  first  known 
king  of  Egypt.  (2)  The  (ireat  Pyramid, 
at  Gizeh,  dates  from  the  fourth  dy- 
nasty, and  is  an  imperishable  monu- 
ment of  the  skill  and  resources  of  the 
people  at  that  very  remote  period.  (3) 
Manetho's  lists  of  dynasties  were  chief- 
ly, though  not  entirely,  consecutive,  as 
appears  from  the  two  lists  of  the  first 
Pharaohs  found  in  the  temple  of  Aby- 
dos,  the  lists  at  Sakkarah,  and  another 
in  Thebes:  the  duration  of  these  dy- 
nasties, however,  is  not  settled.  (4) 
The  Hyksos,  or  Shepherd -kings  of 
Manetho,  conquered  and  ruled  Lower 
Egypt  for  centuries,  bi-eaking  the  con- 
tinuity of  the  empire,  but  they  were 
expelled  by  Amasis  I.  These  Hyksos 
are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
Hebrews,  whom  Manetho  deridingly 
calls  'Mepers."  (5)  During  the  eigh- 
teenth dynasty  the  empire  of  Egypt 
was  in  the  height  of  its  splendor,  its 
conquests  reaching  to  Babylon  and 
Nineveh  on  the  Euphrates,  and  over 
Nubia  in  the  south.  (6)  No  dates  can 
be  definitively  fixed  before  the  begin- 
ning of  the  twenty-second  dynasty. 
The  two  noted  authorities  on  this  sub- 
ject— M.  Mariette  and  Prof.  Lepsius — 
differ  over  1100  years  in  their  tables  as 
to  the  length  of  dynasties  I.-XVII.  See 
J.  P.  Thomson  in  liibUotheca  Sacra, 
1877,  and  Poole  in  JEncy elapsed ia  Bri- 
tannie.a,  vol.  vii.  Some  have  conjec- 
tured that  Menes,  the  founder  of  Egypt, 
was  identical  with  Mizraim,  a  grandson 
of  Noah.  Gen.  10  :  6. 

Eijyjit  and  the  Bible. — To  the  Bible- 
reader  the  chief  points  of  interest  in 
Egyptian  history  are  those  periods 
when  that  country  came  in  contact  with 
tlie  patriarchs  and  the  Israelites. 

1.  The  first  point  is  the  chronology 
of  Egypt  as  compared  with  that  of  the 
Bible.     On  this  it  may  be  said  that  the 


EGY 


EGY 


chronologies  of  both  are  in  such  an  un- 
settled state  that  there  cannot  fairly  bo 
«aid  to  be  an  irreconcilable  difference 
between  them  until  both  are  more  fully 
and  definitively  established.  The  ablest 
Egyptologists  vary  in  their  estimates  of 
the  duration  of  the  empire  about  3000 
years.  Menes,  the  first  Pharaoh,  began 
to  reign,  according  to  Boeckh,  b.  c.  5702  ; 
Mariette,  B.C.  5004;  Brugsch,  b.  c.  4455- 
4400  ;  Chabas,  B.  c.  4000  ;  Lepsius  and 
Ebers,  B.  c.  3892  ;  Bunsen,  b.  c.  3623- 
3039;  Birch,  b.  c.  3000;  Poole,  b.  c. 
2700  ;  Wilkinson,  b.  c.  2691  ;  G.  Raw- 
linson,  b.  c.  2450.  Egyptologists  gen- 
erally agree  that  the  chronology  is 
wholly  uncertain,  and  that  we  must 
wait  for  further  light  and  better  agree- 
ment among  scholars.  Bible  chronol- 
ogy is  likewise  unsettled,  some  theo- 
logians holding  to  the  *'long"  system 
of  the  Septuagint,  which  dates  the  Cre- 


ation b.  c.  5400  (Hales,  5400  ;  Jackson, 
5426),  and  others  to  the  shorter  system 
of  the  Hebrew  text  (Ussher,  4004;  Pe- 
tavius,  3983)  ;  hence  no  agreement  can 
be  attempted  until  the  age  of  Solomon. 
From  his  time  down  there  is  no  ma- 
terial disagreement  in  the  two  chro- 
nologies of  Egypt  and  the  Hebrew 
records. 

2.  The  second  point  is  the  visit  of 
Abraham  to  Egypt.  Gen.  12  :  10-20. 
This  visit  took  place,  according  to  the 
shorter  Hebrew  chronology,  about  B.  c. 
1920,  which  would  bring  it,  according 
to  some,  at  the  date  of  the  Hyksos,  or 
Shepherd-kings  ;  others  regard  this  as 
too  late  a  date,  and  put  it  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  twelfth  dynasty  ;  and  his 
favorable  reception  is  supposed  to  be 
illustrated  by  a  picture  in  the  tombs  at 
Beni-Hassan  (where  are  many  remark- 
able sculptures),  representing  the  arrival 


Entrance  to  Tomb  at  Beni-Hassan.    {From  a  Photograph.) 

of  a  distinguished  nomad  chief  with  his 
family,  seeking  protection  under  Osirta- 
sen  II. 

3.  The   third   point  of  contact   with 


Scripture  is  Joseph  in  Egypt.  Gen.  37: 
36.  This  beautiful  and  natural  story 
has  been  shown  to  be  thoroughly  in  ac- 
cord with  what  is  known  of  Egyptian 

259 


EGY 


EGY 


customs  of  that  age.  Inscriptions  on 
the  monuments  speak  of  the  dreams  of 
Pharaoh  ;  the  butler's  and  baker's  du- 
ties are  indicated  in  pictures  ;  one  of 
the  olde.*t  papyri  relates  the  story  that 
a  foreigner  was  raised  to  the  highest 
rank  in  the  court  of  Pharaoh  ;  and  Dr. 
Brugsch  believes  an  inscrijition  on  a 
tomb  at  el-Kab  to  contain   an  unmis- 


ent  scholars  :  (1)  Amosis  or  Aahmes  I., 
the  first  ruler  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty, 
is   identified  with   the  Pharaoh  of  the 
oppression,  and  Thothmes  II.,  about  100 
years  later,  as  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Ex- 
odus, by  Canon  Cook  in  Speaker's  Com- 
mentary  on    Exodus,  p.  44:3.     (2)  That 
Rameses  II.,  the  third  sovereign  of  the 
nineteenth  dynasty,  is  the  Pharaoh  of 
the  oppression,  and  Menephthah  the 
Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,   is  the  view 
now  held  by  a  majority  of  Egyptolo- 
gists— as  De  Rouge,   Chabas,   Lenor- 
mant,    Vigoroux,     Bunsen,     Lepsius, 
Ebers,  and  Brugsch.     Rameses  II.  is 
the  Sesostris  of  the  Greeks,  who  blend- 
ed him  with  his  father,   Sethi   I.,  or 
Sethos.     He  ruled  67  years  and  was 
the  great  conqueror  and  builder,  cov- 
ering his  empire  with  monuments  in 
glory  of  himself.     "  His  name,"  says 
Dr.  Ebers,  "may  be  read   to-day  on 
a   hundred   monuments    in    Goshen." 
Among  his  many  structures  noted  on 
monuments  and  in  papyri  are  fortifi- 
cations along  the  canal  from  Goshen 
to  the  Red   Sea,  and  particularly  at 
Pi-tum  and  Pi-rameses  or  Pi-ramessu  ; 
these  must  be  the  same  as  the  treas- 
ure-cities Pi-thom  and  Rameses  built 
or  enlarged  by  the  Israelites  for  Pha- 
raoh.   Ex.  1  :  11.     It  is  also  said  that 
under    the   reign    of    Rameses    III., 
nephew  of  Rameses  II.,  the  name  /e» 
Mosche — i.  e.   "island"  or  "bank  of 
Moses  " — occurs  among  the  towns  of 
Middle  Egypt.     It  is  noted  that  Men- 
ephthah, the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus, 
lost  a  son,  who  is  named  on  a  monu- 
ment at  Tanis,  which  Brugsch  connects 
with  the  loss  of  the  first-born.     But 
another  fact  is  of  more  weight.  Herod- 
otus tells  us  that  a  son  and  successor 
Profile  of  Rameses  II.,  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Oppres-  of  Sesostris  undertook  no  warlike  ex- 


sion.  (After  Lepsius.) 
takable  allusion  to  the  7  years  of  famine 
in  Joseph's  time,  as  follows  :  "I  gath- 
ered grain,  a  friend  of  the  god  of  har- 
vest. I  was  watchful  at  the  seed-time. 
And  when  a  famine  arose  through  many 
yearn  I  distributed  the  grain  through  the 
town  in  every  famine." 

4.  The  fourth  point  of  interest  is  the 
oppression  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt, 
and  the  Exodus.  Ex.  1  :  8-22  :  12  :'41. 
Who  was  the  Pharaoh  of  the  oppression, 
and  who  the  Pharaoh  of  the 


peditions  and  was  smitten  with  blind- 
ness for  10  years  because  he  "  impiously 
hurled  his  spear  into  the  overflowing 
waves  of  the  river,  which  a  sudden 
wind  caused  to  rise  to  an  extraordinary 
height."  Schaff  says:  "This  reads  like 
a  confused  reminiscence  of  the  disaster 
at  the  Red  Sea."  The  chief  objection  to 
this  view  is  that  it  allows  less  than  315 
years  between  the  Exodus  and  the 
building  of  Solomon's  temple ;  but  the 
present  uncertainties  of  the  Hebrew 
and  Egyptian  chronologies   deprive  the 


Exodus?     ^^ ^_, 

To  this  two  answers  are  given  by  differ-  !  objection  of  great  weight 


EGY 


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5.  After  the  Exodus  the  Israelites 
frequently  came  into  contact  with  Egypt 
at  various  periods  in  their  history. 
Through  an  Egj^ptian,  David  recovered 


Portrait  of  Menephthah  II.,  the  1  .Kiuiuii  of  the 
Exodus.     {From  Riehm.) 

the  spoil  from  the  Amalekites,  1  Sam. 
30  :  11,  etc.  ;  Solomon  made  a  treaty 
with  Pharaoh  and  married  his  daughter, 
1  Kgs.  3:1;  Gezer  was  spoiled  by 
Pharaoh  and  given  to  Solomon's  wife, 

1  Kgs.  9:16;  Solomon  brought  horses 
from  Egypt ;  Hadad  fled  thither  for 
refuge,  as  did  also  Jeroboam,  1  Kgs. 
10  :  28  ;  11 :  17  ;  12  :  2  ;  Shishak  plun- 
dered Jerusalem  and  made  Judaea  trib- 
utary, 1  Kgs.  14  :  26,  and  a  record  of 
this  invasion  and  conquest  has  been  de- 
ciphered on  the  walls  of  the  great  tem- 
ple at  Karnak,  or  el-Karnak.  In  this 
inscription  is  a  figure  with  a  strong 
resemblance  to  Jewish  features,  which 
bears  Egyptian  characters  that  have 
been  translated  "the  king  of  Judah." 
Phnraoh-necho  was  met  on  his  expe- 
dition against  the  Assyrians  by  Josiah, 
who  was  slain.  2  Kgs.  23  :  29,  30.  Pha- 
raoh-hophra  aided  Zedekiah,  Jer.  37  : 
5-11,  so  that  the  siege  of  Jerusalem 
was  raised,  but  he  appears  to  have 
been  afterward  attacked  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. The  sway  of  Egypt  was 
checked,  and  finally  overcome,  by  the 
superior  power  of  Babylonia,  and  its 
entire  territory  in  Asia  was  taken  away. 

2  Kgs.  24  :  7  ;  Jer.  46  :  2.     The    books 


of  the  prophets  contain  many  declara- 
tions concerning  the  wane  and  destruc- 
tion of  the  Egyptian  power,  which  have 
been  remarkably  fuUillcd  in  its  subse- 
quent history.  See  It-a.  19  ;  20  ;  30  : 
3  ;  31 :  3  ;  36  :  6  ;  Jer.  2:36;  9  :  25.  26  ; 
43  :  1 1-13  ;  44  :  30  ;  46  ;  E/.e.  29  ;  30  ; 
31 ;  32  ;  Dan.  11  :  42  ;  Joel  3:19;  and 
''  the  sceptre  of  Egypt  shall  depart 
away."  Zech.  10:  11. 

6.  In  the  N.  T.  there  are  several  ref- 
erences to  the  relations  of  the  Israelites 
to  Egypt  as  they  existed  in  0.  T.  times; 
see  Acts  2:10;  7:9-40;  Heb.  3:16; 
11 :  26,  27 ;  but  the  interesting  fact  in 
the  N.  T.  period  was  the  flight  of  the 
holy  family  into  Egypt,  where  the  in- 
fant Jesus  and  his  parents  found  a  ref- 
uge from  the  cruel  order  of  Herod  the 
Great.    Matt.  2:13-19. 

7.  Among  the  various  other  allusions 
to  Egypt  in  the  Bible  are  those  to  its 
fertility  and  productions.  Gen.  13:  10; 
Ex.  16  :  3 ;  Num.  11  :  5 ;  to  its  mode 
of  irrigation  as  compared  with  the 
greater  advantages  of  Canaan,  which 
had  rain  and  was  watered  by  natural 
streams,  Deut.  11  :  10 ;  its  commerce 
with  Israel  and  the  people  of  western 
Asia,  Gen.  37  :  25,  36  ;  1  Kgs.  10  :  28,  29  : 
Eze.  27  :  7 ;  its  armies  equipped  with 
chariots  and  horses,  Ex.  14  :  7  ;  Isa.  31 : 
1  ;  its  learned  men  and  its  priests,  Gen. 
41  :  8,  45  ;  47  :  22  ;  Ex.  7  :  11 ;  1  Kgs.  4  : 
30 ;  its  practice  of  embalming  the  dead, 
Gen.  50  :  3  ;  its  aversion  to  shepherds, 
and  its  sacrifices  of  cattle.  Gen.  46  :  34  ; 
Ex.  8  :  26;  how  its  people  should  be  ad- 
mitted into  the  Jewish  Church,  Deut, 
23  :  7,  8;  the  warnings  to  Israel  against 
any  alliance  with  the  Egyptians,  Isa. 
30  :  2  ;  36  :  6  ;  Eze.  17  :  15*;  29  :  6 ;  and 
to  the  towns  of  the  country.  Eze.  30  : 
13-18.  The  records  on  existing  monu- 
ments have  been  found  to  confirm  the 
accuracy  of  all  these  allusions  to  the 
customs  of  the  people. 

History. — The  history  of  Egypt,  as 
drawn  from  other  sources  than  the 
Scriptures,  is  confused,  like  the  chron- 
ology upon  which  it  depends  for  clear- 
ness and  order.  Of  the  thirty  dynasties 
from  Menes  to  the  second  Persian  con- 
quest, B.  c.  340,  some  of  the  most  noted 
earlier  kings  were  Thothmes  I.  and  III., 
Amenoph  II.  and  III.,  Scthos  or  Sesos- 
tris,  and  Rameses  II.  and  III.  These 
built  many  of  the  vast  and  grand  tem- 

261 


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pies  and  palaces  at  Karnak  and  Luxor, 
and  carried  their  conquests  to  Assyria 
and  Ethiopia.  Among  the  later  rulers 
were  Shishak  or  Sheshonk,  Pharaoh- 
necho,  Pharaoh-hophra.  and  Psammet- 
ichus.  Its  most  populous  cities  were 
Thebes.  Latopolis,  Apollinopolis,  Syene, 
Memphis,  Ileraclopolis,  Arsinoe,  Heli- 
opolis,  Bubastis,  Sais,  Busiris,  Tanis, 
and  Pelusium.  The  statements  of  some 
(ireek  and  Roman  writers  that  Egypt  in 
its  prosperity  had  7,000,000  population 
and  20,000  cities  are  believed  to  be 
greatly  exaggerated.  This  would  re- 
quire it  to  have  sustained  an  average 
poj)ulation  to  the  squai'e  mile,  exclusive 
of  the  desert,  twice  as  great  as  the  most 
densely-peopled  lands  of  modern  times. 
Egypt  was  conquered  by  Cambyses  the 
Persian  about  B.  c.  525 ;  regained  its 
independence  under  Amyrteus,  of  the 
twent^'-eighth  dynasty  of  native  kings ; 
was  again  conquered  by  the  Persians  un- 
der Darius  Ochus,  b.  c.  340  ,•  by  Alexan- 
der the  Great,  b.  c.  332,  when  he  founded 
Alexandria.  After  Alexander's  death  it 
formed  a  kingdom  under  the  Grecian  and 
Macedonian  Ptolemies,  the  Greeks  be- 
coming the  dominant  class  (the  last  of 
the  Ptolemies  reigned  jointly  with  his 
sister  and  wife,  the  famous  Cleopatra). 
After  the  battle  of  Actium,  b.  c.  30,  Egypt 
became  a  Roman  province.  Under  the 
Roman  rule  Alexandria  continued  to  be 
the  great  mart  of  trade  and  the  centre 
of  learning  and  philosophy  ;  for  three 
centuries  it  was  under  Roman  rule,  and 
during  that  period  Egypt  was  account- 
ed the  granary  of  Rome.  On  the  trans- 
fer of  the  seat  of  empire  to  Constantino- 
ple, the  Christians,  who  had  been  se- 
verely persecuted  under  its  Roman 
rulers,  gained  the  sway  over  the  pagans, 
and  for  three  centuries  theological  con- 
troversies raged  with  great  fierceness. 
The  Arab  conquest  under  Caliph  Omar 
came  a.  d.  040,  followed  by  the  Fatimite 
dynasty,  A.  d.  970,  when  Cairo  was 
founded  and  made  the  capital.  Saladin, 
the  noted  prime  minister  of  the  last  of 
the  Fatimites,  assumed  the  sovereignty, 
with  the  title  of  sultan,  a.  n.  1170,  arid 
was  a  vigorous  opposer  of  the  Crusaders. 
The  government  was  overturned  by  the 
Mamelukes  about  A.  i).  1250;  again  con- 
quered by  Selim  1.,  a.  d.  1517;  by  Na- 
poleon in  1798;  by  the  combined  forces 
of  the  English  and  the  Turks  in  1801  ; 
262 


and,  soon  after,  Mehemet  AH,  an  Alba- 
nian adventurer,  was  made  pasha,  being 
nominally  a  vassal  of  Turkey,  but  his 
power  was  nearly  absolute.  tJnder  the 
reign  of  his  grandson,  the  present  khe- 
dive  or  viceroy  (since  18fi3),  Egypt  has 
been  restored  to  some  extent  from  its 
low  condition,  schools  and  colleges  have 
been  founded,  commerce  and  manufac- 
tures encouraged,  numerous  reforms  in- 
troduced, the  Suez  Canal  completed  and 
opened  to  the  commerce  of  the  world, 
railways  and  telegraphs  have  been  con- 
structed ;  but  the  condition  of  the  people 
has  not  been  improved,  and  poverty  and 
misery  prevail.  The  treasury  of  the 
khedive  is  nearly  bankrupt.  Egypt  is 
"  the  old  house  of  bondage  under  new 
masters." 

The  Presbyterian  Church  has  estab- 
lished flourishing  mission  schools  in 
Alexandria,  Cairo,  and  Osiout,  among 
the  Copts. 

Monuments  and  Ruins. — "  Egypt  is  the 
monumental  land  of  the  earth,"  says  Bun- 
sen,  "  as  the  Egyptians  are  the  monu- 
mental people  of  history."  Among 
the  most  interesting  ancient  cities 
are:  (1)  On  or  Heliopolis,  "the  city  of 
the  Sun,"  10  miles  north-east  of  Cairo, 
where  are  traces  of  massive  walls,  frag- 
ments of  sphinxes,  and  an  obelisk  of 
red  granite,  68  feet  high,  bearing  an  in- 
scription of  Osirtasen  I.  of  the  twelfth 
dynasty,  and  erected,  therefore,  previ- 
ous to  the  visit  of  Abraham  and  Sarah 
to  the  land  of  the  Pharaohs.  Formerly 
the  two  "Needles  of  Cleopatra"  stood 
here  also,  but  were  removed  to  Alexan- 
dria during  the  reign  of  Tiberius  ;  and 
one  of  them  has  lately  been  transported 
to  London,  and  now  stands  on  the  banks 
of  the  Thames.  Joseph  Avas  married  at 
Heliopolis,  Gen.  41 :  45,  and  there  (ac- 
cording to  Josephus)  Jacob  made  his 
home;  it  was  probably  the  place  where 
Moses  received  his  education,  where  He- 
rodotus acquired  most  of  his  skill  in  writ- 
ing history,  and  where  Plato,  the  Greek 
philosopher,studied.  (2)  Thebes  "of  the 
hundred  gates,"  one  of  the  most  famous 
cities  of  antiquity,  is  identified  with  No 
or  No- Amnion  of  Scripture.  Jer.  46  :  25  ; 
Eze.  30  :  14-16  ;  Nah.  3  :  8.  The  ruins 
are  very  extensive,  and  the  city  in  its 
glory  stretched  over  30  miles  along  the 
banks  of  the  Nile,  covering  the  places 
now    known    as    Luxor,    Karnak,    and 


Ascent  of   the   Great   Pyramid   of   Egypt.     {From  a  recent  Photograph.) 


EGY 


EGY 


Thebes.  (3)  Memphis,  the  Noph  of 
Scripture,  Jer.  46:  10.  "Nothing  is 
left  of  its  temples  and  monuments  but 
a  colossal  statue  of  Kameses  II.,  lying 
mutilated  on  the  face  in  the  mud." 

Only  a  very  brief  notice  of  the  wonder- 
ful monuments  can  be  given  here.  For 
convenience  these  may  be  grouped  into 
two  classes:  (o)  The  pyramids,  obelisks, 
and  statues;  {b)  the  palaces,  temples, 
and  tombs. 


The  Obeli.^k  of  Oil.     (Jleliojjolis.     From  a  Photo- 
graph by  Good.) 

(a)  The  number  of  pyramids  still  ex- 
isting in  Egypt  is  variously  stated  at 
from  45  or  65  to  130.  Brugsch  says 
"  more  than  70 ;"  Lepsius  speaks  of  no 
less  than  30  that  had  escaped  the  notice 
of  former  travellers  (1842-184-i) ;  others 
count  as  many  as  130,  including  all  pyr- 
amidal structures,  ancient  and  modern. 
Piazzi  Smyth  (1874)  reduces  them  all  to 
38,  and  gives  a  list  of  them.  The  largest 
and  most  remarkable  are  those  near 
264 


Memphis,  at  Sakkara,  Aboosir,  Dashoor, 
and  Gizeh.  The  three  at  Gizeh  are  the 
most  interesting  of  all.  The  largest 
of  these  is  that  of  Cheops,  which  was 
erected  from  2000  to  3000  years  before 
Christ.  It  was  old  when  Rome  was 
built,  when  Homer  sang,  when  David 
reigned,  and  even  when  Moses  led  out 
the  Israelites.  This  pyramid,  accord- 
ing to  General  Vyse,  is  450  feet  9  inches 
high  (it  was  formerly  about  30  feet  high- 
er), the  present  length  of  its  base  is  746 
feet  (it  was  formerly  764  feet),  and  it 
covers  an  area  of  about  13  acres.  It 
has  been  stripped  of  its  polished  stone 
casing  in  centuries  past  to  adorn  the 
palaces  of  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Sara- 
cens. It  is  the  largest,  and  probably 
the  oldest,  structure  in  the  world.  The 
second  pyramid  is  scarcely  inferior  to 
the  first  in  height,  being  447  feet  6 
inches  high  and  having  a  base  690  feet 
9  inches  square.  A  great  part  of  its 
casing  has  been  preserved.  The  third 
pyramid  is  smaller  than  either  of  the 
other  two,  but  in  beauty  and  costliness 
of  construction  is  unexcelled  by  any 
other  pyramid.  These  colossal  struc- 
tures were  erected  as  monuments  and 
tombs  of  the  kings.  The  body  of  the 
dead  monarch  was  embalmed,  placed  in 
a  stone  sarcophagus,  put  into  the  mas- 
sive tomb,  and  the  entrance  closed.  See 
Schaff's  Bible  Lands,  p.  40.  Near  the 
pyramids  is  the  great  Sphinx,  a  massive 
man-headed  lion  in  a  recumbent  posture, 
nearly  190  feet  long,  with  immense  paws, 
formerly  50  feet  in  length.  The  vast 
figure  is  buried  in  the  sand,  except  his 
colossal  head.  There  are  also  six  other 
smaller  pyramids  near  the  three  here 
described,  three  standing  to  the  east  of 
the  Great  Pyramid  and  three  to  the 
south  of  the  third  one.  Southward  of 
those  at  Gizeh  are  the  pyramids  at 
Aboosir,  and  about  2  miles  still  far- 
ther are  those  of  Sakkara,  while  about 
5  miles  beyond  are  those  of  Dashoor, 
two  of  which  are  built  of  stone  and  three 
of  brick. 

(b)  Of  the  palaces,  temples,  and  tomb- 
structures,  the  most  remarkable  is  the 
famous  Labyrinth,  in  the  Feijoom  dis- 
trict, which  Bunsen  calls  the  most  gor- 
geous edifice  on  the  globe;  it  includes 
12  palaces  and  3000  saloons.  The  tem- 
ples at  Karnak  and  Luxor  are  the  most 
interesting,  the  grandest  among  them 


Temple  of  Haihor  or  Athor  at  Deuderah.    (A]ter  Photographs.) 


Avenue  of  Sphiuxes  and  Propylou  at  Karuak.    (^/ter  Fhotographs.) 


EGY 


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all  being  the  magnificent  temple  of 
Rameses  II.  See  No  and  No-Ammon. 
There  are  ruins  of  temples  at  Denderah, 
Abydos,  Phila;,  Ileliopolis,  and  at  Ipsam- 
boul,  170  miles  south  of  Philae,  in  Nu- 
bia. Among  the  noted  tombs  are  those 
at  Thebes,  Beni-Hassan,  and  Oslout, 
and   among   the   obelisks  are  those  at 


Luxor,  Karnak,  Heliopolis,  and  Alex- 
andria. These  wonderful  ruins  attest 
the  magnificence  and  grandeur,  but  also 
the  absolute  despotism  and  slavery,  of 
this  land  in  the  earliest  ages  and  as  far 
back  as  before  the  days  of  Abraham, 
and  they  also  attest  in  the  most  impres- 
sive manner  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy. 


Judgment  of  the  Dead.     {After  Eiehm.) 


In  a  cave  near  Thebes  39  royal  mum- 
mies and  various  other  objects  were  dis- 
covered in  1881.  Among  the  mummies 
was  that  of  Rameses  II..  the  Pharaoh 
of  the  oppression,  which  has  been  fully 
described  by  Maspero.  A  trilingual 
inscription,  perhaps  a  century  older  than 
the  Rosctta  Stone,  has  also  been  lately 
found,  and  one  of  the  oldest  pyramids 
opened. 

The  Egyptians  believed  in  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul,  and  that  when  the 
soul  reached  the  Hall  of  Double  Justice, 
the  heart  in  its  vase  was  placed  in  one 
scale,  and  the  goddess  of  Truth  in  the 
other.  Horus  and  a  cynocephalus  con- 
ducted the  process  of  weighing,  Anubis 
superintended,  Thoth  recorded  the  re- 
suit,  and  Osiris,  with  42  counsellors,  pro- 
nounced sentence.  If  the  heart  was 
light,  the  soul  suffered  the  torments  of 
hell,  or  was  sent  into  a  pig  or  some  un- 
clean animal,  then  returned  to  begin  life 
anew,  and  have  another  trial  by  judges. 
If  the  heart  was  heavy,  the  soul  was 
sent  to  the  regions  of  the  blest.  (See 
Baedeker's  Lower  Er/i/pt,  p.  137.) 

For  ancient  Egypt  see  the  following 
works  :  Caylus,  Comte  de,  liccne'd  d'An- 
tiquitea  Egyptiennen,  etc.,  Paris,  1761- 
67,  7  vols.  4to ;  Alexander,  Egi/piian 
Monuments  now  in  the  British  Museum, 
266 


collected  hy  the  French  Institute,  1805-7, 
5  parts  roy.  fol. ;  Birch,  S.,  Facsimiles 
of  the  Egyptian  Relics  discovered  at 
Thebes  in't'he  Tomb  of  Aah  Hotep,  1820, 
oblongfol.  :  Rosellini,  I Monumenti dell' 
Egitta  e  della  Nubia,  Pisa,  1832-44,  3 
vols,  atlas  fol.  and  9  vols,  8vo  of  text; 
Sharpe,  Egyptian  Inscriptions  from  the 
British  Museum,  etc.,  London,  1835-65, 
2  series  roy.  fol. ;  Bonomi  and  Arun- 
dale.  Gallery  of  Antiquities  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum  with  Inscriptions  by  Birch, 
1844,  2  parts;  Bunsen,  Egypt's  Place 
in  Universal  History,  1848-67,  5  vols. 
8vo,  vol.  v.  being  a  hieroglyphical  lex- 
icon and  grammar  by  S,  Birch  ;  Lep- 
sius,  Chronologic  der  Egypter,  etc.,  Ber- 
lin, 1849,  imp.  4to  ;  Lepsius,  Denkmaeler 
aus  ^Efjypten  vnd  ^Jthiopien,  Berlin, 
1849-59,  12  vols,  eleph.  fol.  and  1  vol. 
of  introductory  text,  imp.  4to  ;^  Rouge, 
Rituel  Funeraire  de  Anciens  Egyptiens, 
Paris,  1861-66,  5^1ivraisons,  imp.  fol.  ; 
Pleyte,  Etudes  Egyptologiques,  Leide, 
1866-69,  7  parts  4to;  Brugsch,  Diction- 
naire  Hieroglyphique,  Leipzig,  1867,  fol. : 
Ebers,  JEgypten  nnd  die  Bilcher  Mose's, 
vol.  i.,  Leipzig,  1868,  8vo  ;  Pleyte,  Les 
Papyrus  Rollin  de  la  Bibliotheque  Im- 
periale  de  Paris,  1868,  atlas  4to  ;  Frith, 
Eqypt  and  Palestine  Photographed  and 
Described,  1870,  2  vols.  roy.  fol.;  Wil- 


EHI 


ELA 


kinson,  Sir  J.  G.,  The  Manners  and  Cus- 
toms of  the  Ancient  E(fi/ptinns,  new  edi- 
tion by  S.  Birch,  LL.D..  London,  1879, 
3  vols.  8vo ;  Brugsch-Bey,  Gcschichte 
Aegi/pten's  nnter  den  Pharaonen.  Nach 
den  Denknidlern,  Leipzig,  LS77 ;  EngL 
translation,  London,  2d  ed.,  1881,  2  vols.  ; 
F.  A'^igouroux,  La  Bible  et  les  decouvertes 
modernes  en  Eyi/pte  et  en  Assyrie,  Paris, 
1877,  2  vols.;  Ebers,  Aegypten  im  Bild 
imd  Wort,  Leipzig,  1879.  On  modern 
Egypt:  Lane,  The  Modern  Egyptians,  2 
vols.,  London,  5th  ed.,  1871  ;  Zinke, 
Egypt  of  the  Pharaohs  and  the  Khedive, 
Lond.,  1873;  Klunzinger,  Upper  Egypt, 
London,  1878. 

E''HI  {my  brother),  a  son  of  Benja- 
min, Gen.  46  :  21  ;  called  Ahiram,  Num. 
26  :  38  ;  Aher,  1  Chr.  7:10;  Aharah, 
8:1. 

E'HUD  (union).  1.  A  great-grand- 
son of  Benjamin.   1  Chr.  7:18;  8:6. 

2.  A  son  of  Gera,  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin, who  delivered  the  Israelites  from 
the  oppression  which  they  suffered  un- 
der Eglon,  king  of  Moab.  Jud.  3  :  15. 
The  Israelites  sent  Ehud  to  pay  some 
tax  or  tribute  to  Eglon  as  a  token  of 
their  allegiance.  Under  the  pretence 
that  he  had  some  secret  message  to  the 
king,  he  obtained  a  private  audience ; 
and  while  they  were  together,  Ehud 
drew  a  dagger  which  he  had  made  ex- 
pressly for  the  purpose,  and  gave  him 
a  mortal  wound.  The  custom  of  deliv- 
ering confidential  messages  in  secret 
appears  to  have  been  so  common  that 
the  attendants  of  Eglon  left  his  pres- 
ence as  soon  as  Ehud's  wish  was  known. 
Such  is  the  custom  in  Eastern  courts  at 
this  day ;  as  soon  as  a  confidential  mes- 
sage is  announced  the  audience-cham- 
ber is  cleared  of  all  but  the  messenger. 
Ehud  fled  toward  Mount  Ephraim  ;  and 
summoning  the  oppressed  Israelites  to 
his  help,  they  secured  the  fords  of  the 
Jordan,  so  that  the  Moabites,  by  whom 
their  land  was  gai-risoned,  might  not 
escape.  As  soon  as  he  had  collected  a 
sufiicient  force  he  fell  upon  the  Moab- 
ites, and  cut  them  off  in  every  direction. 
"  And  the  land  had  rest  fourscore  years." 
Jud.  3  :  26-30. 

E'KER  (a  rooting  np)),  a  descendant 
of  Judah.   1  Chr.  2:27. 

EK'RON  {emigration),  the  most 
northerly  of  the  five  cities  of  the  Phil- 
istines, Josh.  13  :  3  ;  in  the  lowlands  of 


Judah,   16  :  11 ;   conquered   by  Judah, 
15  :  45  ;  allotted  to  Dan,  19  :  43  ;  recon- 
quered by  Samuel,  1  Sam.  5  :  10  ;  7  :  14 
again  a  Philistine  city,  1  Sam.  17  :  52 
2   Kgs.    1:2;    Jer.  25*:  20  ;    Am.   1  :  8 
Zech.  9:5;  now  called  Akir,  on  a  hill 
12  miles  south-east  of  Joppa,  a  wretched 
village  of  about  50  mud  hovels.     The 
prophecy    has    been    fulfilled,    "  Ekron 
shall  be  rooted  up."   Zeph.  2  : 4. 

EL,  which  often  occurs  as  an  ele- 
ment of  Hebrew  words  and  names,  sig- 
nifies "  strength,"  and  is  applied  not 
only  to  Jehovah,  but  to  heathen  gods. 

EL'ADAH,  an  Ephraimite.  1  Chr. 
7:20. 

E'LAH  {terebinth).  1,  An  Edomite 
chieftain.  Gen.  36  :  41  ;  1  Chr.  1  :  52. 

2.  The  father  of  one  of  Solomon's 
provision  oflScers.  1  Kgs.  4:18. 

3.  The  son  and  successor  of  Baasha, 
king  of  Israel.  He  reigned  2  years, 
B.  c.  930-928,  and  was  assassinated  by 
Zimri,  one  of  his  military  officers,  while 
revelling  at  the  house  of  his  steward, 
Arza,  at  Tirzah.  1  Kgs.  16:6-10. 

4.  The  father  of  Hoshea,  the  last 
king  of  Israel.  2  Kgs.  15:30;  17:1; 
18  :  1,  9. 

5.  A  son  of  Caleb,  the  son  of  Jephun- 
neh.  1  Chr.  4:  15. 

6.  A  Benjamite.  1  Chr.  9  :  8. 
E'LAH  {terebinth),  VALLEY  OF, 

where  David  slew  Goliath.  1  Sam.  17  : 
2,  19;  21:9.  It  is  now  called  Wady 
es-Sunt,  or  "  Acacia  Valley,"  14  miles 
south-west  of  Jerusalem.  The  valley  is 
about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  wide,  and  has 
steep  sides  rising  to  a  height  of  about 
500  feet.  The  torrent  or  brook  has  a 
deep  channel  in  the  middle  of  the  val- 
ley, and  its  course  is  strewn  with  smooth 
white  stones.  Terebinth  trees,  which 
gave  the  original  title  to  the  valley, 
are  still  found  there. 

E'LAM  {age).  1.  The  eldest  son  of 
Shem,  and  ancestor  of  the  Elamites 
and  Persians.  Gen.  10  :  22  ;  1  Chr.  1 : 
17. 

2.  A  Korhite  Levite  in  the  time  of 
David.  1  Chr.  26:3. 

3.  A  chief  man  of  Benjamin.  1  Chr. 
8:24. 

4.  "  Children  of  Elam"  returned  from 
Babylon.  Ezr.  2:7;  8:7;  Neh.  7  :  12. 

5.  Children  of  "  the  other  Elam  "  like- 
wise returned.  Ezr.  2:31;  Neh.  7  :  34. 
Their   representative  sealed   the   cove- 

267 


ELA 


ELD 


nant.  Neh.  10  :  14.  Some  had  foreign 
wives.  Ezr.  10  :  26. 

6.  A  priest  who  helped  to  dedicate 
the  wall.    Neh.  12:42. 

E'LAM,  a  country  peopled  by  the 
descendants  of  Shem,  and  called,  after 
his  son,  Elam.  Gen.  10  :  22.  It  lay 
south  of  Assyria  and  west  of  Persia 
proper,  and  reached  to  the  Persian 
Gulf.  Herodotus  called  it  Cissia.  It 
was  a  province  of  Persia,  of  which 
Susa  was  capital.  Ezr.  4:9;  Dan. 
3:2. 

History. — Elam  was  a  strong  power 
in  Abram's  time.  Gen.  14:9.  Its  peo- 
ple aided  in  the  destruction  of  Babylon, 
Isa.  21 :  2  ;  invaded  Israel,  22  :  6.  Its 
destruction  was  foretold.  Jer.  49  :  34- 
39  ;  25  :  25  ;  Eze.  32  :  24,  25.  A  re- 
markable statement  illustrating  the 
truth  of  the  Scriptures  in  respect  to 
Elam  has  lately  been  deciphered  from 
Assyrian  cylinders  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum. Assur-banipal  records,  B.  c.  668- 
626,  "  In  my  fifth  expedition,  to  Elam 

1  directed  the  march.  ...  I  over- 
whelmed Elam  through  its  extent.  I 
cut  off  the  head  of  Te-umman,  their 
wicked  king,  who  devised  evil.  Beyond 
number  I  slew  his  soldiers.  .  .  .  For  a 
month  and  a  day  Elam  to  its  utmost 
extent  I  swept."  There  are  other  rec- 
ords equally  remarkable,  but  there  is 
not  space  to  quote  them. 

EL'ASAH  {wJiom  God  made).  1. 
The  son  of  Shaphan.  Jer.  29 :  3. 

2.  A  priest  who  had  a  foreign  wife. 
Ezr.  10:22. 

E'LATH,  OR  E'LOTH  (trees),  a 
seaport-town  of  Edom,  at  the  northern 
end  of  the  eastern  arm  of  the  Red  Sea. 
Deut.  2:8;  2  Chr.  8:17.  It  is  usually 
associated  in  Scripture  with  Ezion-geber. 
The  children  of  Israel  passed  by  it;  it 
was  a  part  of  David's  conquest,  Deut. 

2  :  8  ;  2  Sam.  8  :  14 ;  was  a  place  of  im- 
portance in  Solomon's  time,  1  Kgs.  9  : 
26,  28  ;  was  recaptured  by  the  Edom- 
ites,  2  Kgs.  8  :  20  ;  was  retaken  by  Uz- 
ziah,  2  Kgs.  14:22;  2  Chr.  26  :  2,  who 
rebuilt  it ;  was  afterward  taken  by  the 
king  of  Damascus,  2  Kgs.  16  :  6,  and 
later  by  Assyria.  2  Kgs.  16  :  7-9.  Stan- 
ley thinks  that  Elath  was  on  the  site  of 
modern  Akaba,  and  Robinson  placed  it 
on  a  mound  near  Akaba.  Palm-groves 
still  exist  there. 

EL-BETH'EL  (the  Godof  Bethel), 
268 


the  name  given  by  Jacob  to  the  place 
where  he  built  an  altar,  or  to  the  altar 
itself.  Gen.  35  :  7 ;  comp.  33  :  20.  See 
Bethel. 

EL'DAAH  (whom  God  calls),  the 
last  named  son  of  Midian,  and  a  grand- 
son of  Abraham  by  Keturah.  Gen.  26  : 
4;   1  Chr.  1:33. 

EL'DAD  (ichom  God  loves),  and 
ME'DAD  (love),  were  of  the  70  elders 
of  Israel  appointed  by  Moses  to  assist 
aim  in  the  government  of  the  people. 
Num.  11  :  26.  When  the  elders  were 
assembled  around  the  tabernacle  to 
seek  wisdom  from  God  on  a  particular 
occasion,  Eldad  and  Medad  were  ab- 
sent. The  Spirit  of  God  was,  how- 
ever, poured  out  on  them  in  the  camp, 
and  they  prophesied.  Their  proceed- 
ing was  represented  to  Moses,  and  he 
was  asked  to  prohibit  them,  but  he  de- 
clined, and,  so  far  from  wishing  them 
to  be  silenced,  he  uttered  a  prayer  that 
all  the  people  might  receive  the  same 
spirit  which  was  upon  Eldad  and  Me- 
dad. 

The  passage  is  important  as  proving 
the  distribution  of  the  spirit  of  proph- 
ecy, which  had  been  concentrated  in 
Moses.  The  mode  of  prophecy  of  these 
men  was  perhaps  the  extempore  produc- 
tion of  hymns  chanted  forth  to  the  peo- 
ple. Compare  the  case  of  Saul.  1  Sam. 
10:11. 

ELD'ERS,  a  comprehensive  title, 
the  peculiar  force  of  which  must  be  de- 
termined by  the  connection.  Ex.  3  :16. 

1.  Old  Testament  Usage. — During  the 
sojourn  of  Israel  in  Egypt  the  elders, 
Ex.  4:29-31,  were  probably  either  the 
heads  of  tribes  or  the  oldest  and  most 
judicious  of  the  people.  And  though 
their  authority  was  in  its  nature  pater- 
nal, they  were  regarded  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent as  the  representatives  of  the  na- 
tion. In  the  Hebrew  commonwealth 
every  city  had  its  elders.  Deut.  19: 12; 
21:  2-9; 'Josh.  20:4;  Jud.  8:14;  Ezr. 
10 :  14. 

There  was  a  body  of  elders,  however, 
selected  and  appointed  for  special  duties. 
Num.  11 :  16,  17,  24,  25,  and  they  seem  to 
have  been  taken  from  the  general  class 
of  elders.  The  expression  is,"  Gather  unto 
me  seventy  men  of  the  elders  of  Israel, 
whom  thou  knowest  to  be  elders  of  the 
people,  and  officers  over  them."  The 
70  men  who  were  with  Moses  at  Mount 


ELE 


ELE 


Sinai  were  also  70  of  the  elders  of  Is- 
rael. Ex.  24  :  1,  9.  At  a  subsequent 
period  of  Jewish  history  we  find  a  tri- 
bunal of  70  elders,  known  as  the  San- 
hedrin,  which  the  Rabbins  maintain 
was  a  continuance  of  the  original  ap- 
pointment of  ciders  by  Moses.  Elders 
are  mentioned  in  the  Maccabsean  times, 
about  B.  c.  175,  1  Mace.  7  :  33  ;  12  :  6  ; 
and  in  the  N.  T.  are  associated,  but  not 
to  be  confounded,  with  the  chief  priests 
and  scribes.  Matt.  16  :  21,  etc.    See  San- 

HKDRIN. 

2.  New  Testament  Usoffe. — The  name 
elder  or  presbyter  is  no  doubt  of  Jewish- 
Christian  origin,  a  translation  of  the 
Hebrew  title  applied  to  the  rulers  of 
the  synagogues,  on  whom  devolved  the 
conduct  of  religious  affairs.  Referring 
originally  to  age  and  dignity,  it  came 
to  apply  to  office.  The  term  bishop 
(borrowed,  in  all  probability,  from  the 
political  relations  of  the  Greeks),  while 
applied  to  the  same  office  of  elder  or 
presbyter,  refers  to  the  official  duty  and 
activity  of  these  rulers  of  congregations. 
In  Acts  20  :  28,  Paul  addresses  as  "  bish- 
ops "  (''overseers"  in  our  version)  the 
very  same  rulers  of  the  Ephesian  church 
who  had  just  before  (v.  17)  been  called 
''elders."  In  Phil,  1  : 1  he  salutes  the 
saints  in  Philippi,  with  the  "bishops 
and  deacons,"  without  mentioning  the 
elders,  which  has  been  explained  by 
supposing  the  latter  to  have  been  iden- 
tical with  the  bishops.  The  plural  form 
is  further  evidence,  since  there  cannot  be 
more  than  one  diocesan  '*  bishop,"  in  the 
latter  sense,  in  any  one  church.  Tit.  1 : 
5  and  the  other  appropriate  passages  in 
the  pastoral  Epistles  prove  the  same  fact. 
As  to  the  time  and  manner  of  the  in- 
troduction of  eldership  we  have  no  such 
information  as  is  given  respecting  the 
diaconate.  Acts  6.  But  we  conjecture 
that  it  came  early  in  the  Church — per- 
haps was  even  co-eval  with  it ;  in  which 
case  it  is  no  wonder  that  its  introduc- 
tion is  not  mentioned.  As  the  office 
was  a  Christian  imitation  of  the  Jew- 
ish "rulers  of  the  s^magogues,"  who 
conducted  the  prayer,  reading,  and  ex- 
position which  constituted  the  service, 
every  church  had  a  number  of  elders. 
There  is  in  the  N.  T.  no  set  distinction 
made  between  the  teaching  and  the  rul- 
ing elder  ;  both  offices  were  united  in 
the  same  person.     See  Bishop. 


Elders,  Estate  of  the.  Acts  22:5. 
See  Estate  op  the  Elders. 

E'LiEAD  {whom  God  jjraiscs),  an 
Ephraimite.   1  Chr.  7:21. 

ELEA'LEH  {whither  God  ascends), 
a  city  east  of  Jordan  ;  given  to  the  Reu- 
benites.  Num.  32  :  3,  37  ;  afterward  pos- 
sessed by  Moab,  Isa.  15  :  4 ;  16:9;  Jer, 
48:34:  now  cl-A'al  ("the  high"),  1 
mile  north-east  of  Heshbon. 

ELE'ASAH  {whom  God  made).  1. 
A  descendant  of  Judah.   1  Chr.  2  :  39. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Saul.  1  Chr.  8: 
37:9:  43.  The  name  elsewhere  in  the 
A.  V.  is  Elasah. 

ELEA'ZAR  {God's  help).  1.  The 
third  son  of  Aaron,  Ex.  6  :  23,  and  his 
successor  in  the  office  of  high  priest, 
which  he  held  for  upward  of  20  years, 
and  his  family  after  him  till  the  time  of 
Eli.  Nadab  and  Abihu,  Eleazar  and 
Ithamar,  together  with  their  father, 
Aaron,  were  consecrated  to  the  sacer- 
dotal office.  The  first  two  were  struck 
dead  for  offering  strange  fire.  See 
Abihu.  Eleazar,  being  the  eldest  sur- 
viving son,  succeeded  his  father,  and 
was  himself  succeeded  by  his  eldest 
son,  Phinehas,  according  to  the  cove- 
nant. Num.  25:  10,  13.  The  time  of 
Eleazar's  death  is  not  given,  but  Jo- 
sephus,  probably  representing  Jewish 
tradition,  says  it  was  at  the  same  time 
as  Joshua's,  or  25  years  after  Moses. 
The  office  continued  in  Eleazar's  line 
through  seven  successions,  and  then 
passed  into  the  line  of  Ithamar  in  the 
person  of  Eli,  who  was  both  high  priest 
and  judge,  but  was  restored  to  the  fam- 
ily of  Eleazar  in  the  person  of  Zadok. 
Comp.  1  Sam.  2  :  35  ;  1  Kgs.  2  :  27. 

2.  The  son  of  Abinadab,  to  whose  caro 
the  ark  was  committed  when  it  was  sent 
back  by  the  Philistines.  1  Sam.  7:1. 

3.  A  warrior  of  distinguished  courage, 
two  of  whose  exploits  are  recorded  in  1 
Chr.  11 : 1 1-lS  and  2  Sam.  23  :  9. 

4.  A  Levite,  son  of  Merari,  who  is 
mentioned  as  having  no  sons  ;  but  his 
daughters  were  married  by  their  "  breth- 
ren " — /.  e.  cousins.  1  Chr.  23  :  21. 

5.  A  priest  who  took  part  in  Nehe- 
miah's  dedicatory  feast.  Neh.  12  :  42. 

6.  One  with  a  foreign  wife.  Ezr,  10  : 
25. 

7.  A  Levite.  Ezr.  8  :  33. 

8.  An  ancestor  of  Joseph.  Matt.  1 : 
15. 

269 


ELE 


ELI 


ELECT,    ELECTION.       The 

Greek  word  {ekltktus)  for  "elect"  or 
"chosen"  comes  from  a  verb  meaning 
"to  choose."  It  is  applied  to  persons 
or  things.  Luke  14:  7  ;  John  6  :  70.  The 
verb  is  uniformly  translated  in  A.  V. 
"choose,"  but  the  adjective  both  "cho- 
sen "  and  "  elect."  Luke  23  :  35  ;  cf.  18  : 
7.  Choice  implies  preference,  hence  ap- 
proval, favor,  delight,  as  in  Luke  23  :  35 
the  Messiah  is  called  "  the  chosen  of 
God  " — i.  e.  the  One  in  whom  God  takes 
pleasure. 

The  elect  in  N.  T.  usage  are  those 
chosen  of  God  unto  salvation,  who  there- 
fore enjoy  his  favor  and  lead  a  holy 
life  in  communion  with  him.  Matt.  24 : 
22  ,•  Mark  13  :  27  ;  Luke  18  :  7  ;  Rom.  8  : 
33  ;  Tit.  1:1.  Paul  once  speaks  of  "the 
election,"  Rom.  U  :  7,  instead  of  "the 
elect,"  just  as  he  says  "the  circumcis- 
ion" instead  of  "the  circumcised." 
Rom.  2  :  26.  In  Matt.  22  :  14  the  call- 
ing of  God  is  distinguished  from  the 
choosing  of  God:  "Many  are  called, 
but  few  are  chosen."  All  are  called 
who  hear  the  sound  of  the  gospel  and 
are  invited  to  accept  its  terms  of  salva- 
tion, but  those  only  are  chosen  who  re- 
pent and  believe  and  persevere  to  the  end. 

Elect  Lady.  2  John  1.  This  title  is 
applied  by  John  to  some  eminent  Chris- 
tian woman,  or  else  it  was  a  figurative 
expression  denoting  a  Christian  church. 

EL-ELO'HE-IS'RAEL(s^-e»r/#A 
of  God),  the  name  which  Jacob  gave  to 
an  altar  near  Shechein,  Gen.  33  :  18-20  ; 
probably  the  place  where  Abraham  had 
built  an  altar.  Gen.  12:7.  The  el  des- 
ignates God  as  the  mighty  One,  able  to 
do  whatsoever  he  pleased.  He  delivered 
Jacob,  whose  other  name — "Israel" — 
denoted  his  power  with  God. 

EL'EMENTS,  Gal.  4  :  3.  9.  else- 
where rendered  RU'DIIIENTS,  Col. 
2:8,20,  or  the  first  principles  of  an  art  or 
science,  is  a  term  applied  to  the  ceremo- 
nial ordinances  of  the  Mosaic  law,  which 
were  weak,  and  beggarly,  inasmuch  as 
they  consisted  very  much  in  outward 
observances,  Heb.  9:1,  and  were  of 
temporary  and  partial  service,  when 
compared  with  the  disclosures  of  grace 
and  mercy  which  they  were  designed 
to  shadow  forth.  In  the  case  of  the 
Colossians.  probably,  these  rudiments 
of  the  world  embraced  the  doctrines  of 
some  vain  and  deceitful  philosophy. 
270 


E'LEPH  {the  ox),  a  citv  of  Benja- 
min. Josh,  18  :  28.  The  Pal.  Memoirs 
suggest  Lifta,  a  village  about  2  miles 
north-west  of  Jerusalem,  as  its  site. 

EL  EPHANT.     See  Ivory. 

ELHA^NAN  [whom  God  bestoioed). 
1.  One  of  David's  warriors,  who  slew  a 
Philistinian  giant.  2  Sam.  21  :  19  ;  1  Chr. 
20  :  5. 

2.  Another  of  David's  warriors.  2 
Sam.  23  :24;  1  Chr.  11:26. 

E'LI  (ascent,  elevation),  a  descendant 
of  Ithamar,  the  fourth  son  of  Aaron,  and 
successor  of  Abdon  as  high  priest  and 
judge  of  Israel.  1  Sam.  2  :  11.  In  con- 
sequence of  his  negligence  or  injudi- 
cious management  of  his  two  sons, 
Hophni  and  Phinehas,  he  suffered  se- 
vere chastisement.  Samuel  was  direct- 
ed to  disclose  to  Eli  the  judgments  that 
would  come  upon  his  family,  1  Sam.  3  : 
13,  14,  chiefly  because  of  his  neglect  of 
paternal  duty.  The  old  man  received 
the  intelligence  with  remarkable  sub- 
mission, but  it  was  not  until  27  years 
after  that  God  fulfilled  his  threatenings. 
Then  his  two  sons  were  both  slain  in  the 
same  battle  with  the  Philistines,  into 
whose  hands  the  ark  of  God  fell.  The 
aged  priest,  then  in  his  98th  year,  was 
so  overwhelmed  when  these  calamities 
were  made  known  to  him  that  he  fell 
backward  from  his  seat  and  broke  his 
neck.  He  had  governed  the  Hebrews  in 
all  their  concerns,  civil  and  religious, 
for  the  long  period  of  40  years.  1  Sam. 
4:18.     See  Eloi. 

ELI,  ELI,  LA'MA  S  ABACH'- 
THANI  {)ny  God,  my  God,  ichy  hast 
thou  forsaken  me),  our  Lord's  cry  upon 
the  cross.  Matt.  27  :  46.  The  words  are 
Syro-Chaldaic,  but  are  more  correctly 
given  in  Mark  15  :  34. 

ELI'AB  {to  whom  God  is  father).  1. 
The  name  of  the  prince  of  Zebulun  when 
the  census  at  Sinai  was  taken.  Num.  1  : 
9;  2:7;  7:24,29:  10:16. 

2.  The  father  of  Dathan  and  Abiram. 
Num.  16  :  1,  12  :  26  :  8,  9  ;  Deut.  11 :  6. 

3.  The  eldest  brother  of  David.  1  Sam. 
16  :  6  ;  17  :  13,  28 ;  1  Chr.  2  :  13  ;  2  Chr. 
11    18. 

4.  A  Levite,  ancestor  of  Samuel.  1 
Chr.  6  :  27.  In  1  Sam.  1:1  he  is  called 
Elihu,  and  in  1  Chr.  6  :  34,  Eliel. 

5.  A  Gadite  leader  who  joined  David 
when  in  hold.  1  Chr.  12  :  9. 

6.  A  Levite  who  was  both  a  porter 


ELI 


ELI 


and    a    musician.    I   Chr.    15  :  IS,    20 ; 
16:5. 

ELI'ADA  (trhoni  God  knows).  1.  A 
son  born  to  David  in  Jerugalem.  2  Sam. 
5:16:  1  Clir.  3:8,  In  1  Chr.  14 :  7  he 
is  called  Beeliada — Baal  substituted  for 
El,  the  true  God. 

2.  A  Benjnmite,  one  of  Jehoshaphat's 
r:i])tiuns.   2' Chr.  17  :  17. 

ELI'ADAH  {whom  God  knoics),  the 
father  of  Rezon.   1  Kgs.  11  :  23-25. 

ELI'AH  {nil/  God  is  Jehovah).  1.  A 
Benjamite  chief.  1  Chr.  8  :  27. 

2.  One  who  had  a  foreign  wife.  Ezr. 
10:26. 

ELI'AHBA  {whom  God  hides),  one 
of  David's  mighty  men.  2  Sam.  23  :  32; 
1  Chr.  11  :  33. 

ELI'AKIM  {whom  God  establishes). 
1.  The  master  of  the  household  of  Hez- 
ekiah,  and  one  of  the  commissioners  ap- 
pointed to  treat  with  the  king  of  Assyr- 
ia. 2  Kgs.  18  :  18,  26,  37  ;  19  :  2  ;  Isa. 
22:20;  36:3,  11,  22;  37:2. 

2.  The  son  and  successor  of  Josiah, 
king  of  Judah.  His  name  was  changed 
to  Jehoiakim.  2  Kgs.  23  :  34 ;  2  Chr. 
36:4. 

3.  A  priest  who  helped  to  dedicate  the 
wall.  Neh.  12:41. 

4.  5.  Two  persons  in  Christ's  gene- 
alogy. Matt.  1:13;  Luke  3  :  30. 

ELI'AM  {God's  people).  1.  The 
father  of  Bath-sheba,  2  Sam.  11  :  3  ; 
called  Ammiel  in  1  Chr.  3:5;  the  names 
mean  the  same. 

2.  One  of  David's  warriors.  2  Sam. 
23 :  34. 

ELI'AS,  the  Greek  form  of  Elijah, 
used  in  the  N.  T.     See  Elijah. 

ELI'ASAPH  {xchom  God  added). 
1.  The  chief  of  Gad  when  the  second 
census  was  taken.  Num.  1  :  14  ;  2  :  14; 
7  :  42,  47  ;  10  :  20. 

2.  A  Levite.  Num.  3  :  24. 

ELI'ASHIB  {irhom  God  restores). 
1.  A  priest  in  the  time  of  David.  1  Chr. 
24:12. 

2.  A  descendant  of  David.  1  Chr.  3:  24. 

3.  The  high  priest  in  the  time  of  Ne- 
hemiah.  Ezr.  10  :  6 :  Neh.  3  :  1,  20,  21  ; 
12:  10,  22,  23;  13:4,  7,  28. 

4.  A  Levite  who  had  a  strange  wife. 
Ezr.  10 :  24. 

5.  6.  Two  similar  offenders.  10  :  27,  36. 
ELI'ATHAH     {to     ivhom      God 

comes),  a  Levite  musician  in  the  time  of 
David.  1  Chr.  25  :  4,  27. 


ELI'DAD  {whom  God  loves),  the 
Benjamite  representative  in  the  allot- 
ment of  Canaan.  Num.  34  :  21. 

E'LTEL  {to  whom  God  is  strength). 
1.  A  chief  of  cis-Jordanic  Manasseh.  1 
Chr.  5  :  24. 

2.  An  ancestor  of  Samuel.  1  Chr.  6  : 
34. 

3,  4.  A  Benjamite  chief.  1  Chr.  8 :  20, 
22. 

5,  6.  Warriors  under  David.  1  Chr. 
11 :  46,  47. 

7.  A  Gadite  chief  who  joined  David 
in  the  hold.  1  Chr.  12  :  11. 

8.  A  Kohathite  Levite  in  David's 
time.  1  Chr.  15:9,  11. 

9.  An  overseer  of  offerings  in  Heze- 
kiah's  reign.  2  Chr.  31 :  13. 

ElilE'NAI  {toward  Jehovah  are  mi/ 
eyes),  a  Benjamite  chief.   1  Chr.  8  :  20. 

ELIE'ZER  {God  is  help).  1. 
Abraham's  steward  and  confidential 
servant.    Gen.  15  :  2. 

2.  The  second  son  of  Moses  and  Zip- 
porah.  Ex.  18  :  4;  1  Chr.  23  :  15,  17  ; 
26  :  25. 

3.  A  Benjamite  chief.  1  Chr.  7  :  8. 

4.  A  priest  in  David's  reign.  1  Chr. 
15  :  24. 

5.  A  ruler  of  the  Reubenites  in  Da- 
vid's time.   1  Chr.  27  :  10. 

6.  A  prophet  who  rebuked  Jehosha- 
phat.  2  Chr.  20  :  37. 

7.  A  prominent  Jew  sent  by  Ezra  to 
fetch  Levites.  Ezr.  8:16. 

8.  9,  10.  Those  who  had  foreign  wives. 
Ezr.  10  :  18,  23,  31. 

11.  One  of  Christ's  ancestors.  Luke 
3:29. 

ELIHOE'NAI  {toward  Jehovah 
are  my  ei/es),  one  who  returned  with 
Ezra.  Ezr.  8:4. 

ELIHO'REPH  {God  his  recom- 
pense), one  of  Solomon's  scribes.  1  Kgs. 
4:3. 

ELI'HU  {God  is  he;  i.  e.  Jehovah). 
1.  An  ancestor  of  Samuel  the  prophet. 
1  Sam.  1:  1. 

2.  The  eldest  brother  of  David.  1  Chr. 
27:18. 

3.  A  chief  of  Manasseh  who  followed 
David  to  Ziklag.  1  Chr.  12  :  20. 

4.  A  Korhite  Levite  in  the  time  of 
David.  1  Chr.  26  :  7. 

5.  The  son  of  Baraehel  the  Buzite,  a 
friend  of  Job,  and  a  kind  of  arbitrator  in 
the  controversy  between  him  and  three 
other  of  his  acquaintances,  who  had  como 

271 


ELI 


ELI 


to  sympathize  with  him  in  his  calamities. 
Job  32  :  2.  Elihu  was  the  youngest  of 
them  all,  and  therefore  diffident  about 
giving  his  o])inion  in  the  presence  of 
such  old  men,  but  still,  in  opposition  to 
the  three  friends,  who  accused  Job  of 
secret  sins,  he  sets  forth  in  soothing 
and  yet  faithful  discourse  the  idea  of 
the  disciplinary  nature  of  suffering, 
and  therefore  tells  Job  to  submit  him- 
self in  loving  confidence  unto  Jeho- 
vah's chastening  hand.     See  Job. 

ELI'JAH  {mi/  God  is  Jehovah),  OR 
ELI'AS  (which  "is  the  Greek  form  of 
the  name).  Matt.  17  :  3.  A  native  of  Gil- 
ead,  and  called  the  *'  Tishbite,"  proba- 
bly from  the  name  of  the  town  or  dis- 
trict in  which  he  lived.  1  Kgs.  17:1. 
He  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  prophets. 
He  is  first  introduced  to  our  notice  as  a 
messenger  from  God  to  Ahab,  the  wick- 
ed king  of  Israel,  probably  in  the  tenth 
year  of  his  reign.  He  was  sent  to  ut- 
ter a  prophecy  of  a  three  years'  drought 
in  the  land  of  Israel.  After  delivering 
this  startling  and  distressing  prophecy, 
he  was  directed  to  flee  to  the  brook  Cher- 


Place  of  Elijah  '5  Saciihce 
ith,  where  he  was  miraculously  fed  by 
ravens.  When  the  brook  had  dried  up 
he  was  sent  to  a  widow-woman  of  Zare- 
phath,  and  again  the  hand  of  the  Lord 
supplied  his  wants  and  those  of  his 
friends.  He  raised  the  widow's  son  to 
life.  1  Kgs.  17.  After  the  famine  had 
lasted  the  predicted  period,  Elijah  en- 
countered Ahab,  and  then  ensued  the 
magnificent  display  of  divine  power 
and  of  human  trust  upon  the  ridge  of 
Carmel.  ch.  18.     See  Ahab. 

The  reaction  from  such  a  mental 
strain  left  the  pro])het  in  a  weak,  ner- 
vous condition,  and  in  a  fit  of  despond- 
ency he  fled  from  Jezebel  into  the 
"  wilderness  "  and  desired  death.  But 
by  angel-food  nourished  and  inspirited, 
272 


he  journeyed  40  days,  until  he  reached 
Mount  Sinai.  There  the  downcast  man 
of  God  was  witness  of  Jehovah's  strength 
and  experienced  Jehovah's  tenderness 
in  a  very  remarkable  vision.  1  Kgs. 
19  :  9-18.  Encouraged  by  the  assur- 
ance that  contrary  to  his  supposition  he 
did  tiot  stand  alone  as  the  only  worship- 
per of  the  Lord  in  Israel,  and,  more- 
over, having  a  fresh  commission  grant- 
ed him,  forth  from  Mount  Sinai  he  was 
sent  with  renewed  zeal  and  confidence. 
He  anointed  Elisha  to  be  prophet  in  his 
room.  ch.l9.  He  then  retired  into  pri- 
vacy, but  after  the  dastardly  murder  of 
Naboth  he  suddenly  appeared  before 
the  guilty  king  and  announced  the 
judgment  of  Jehovah  against  the  roy- 
al jjair.  ch.  21.  Several  years  after  oc- 
curred the  prophecy  of  Ahaziah's  death. 
2  Kgs.  1 :  3.  See  Ahaziah.  The  slaughter 
by  five  of  the  two  companies  of  troops 
sent  to  take  Elijah  must  have  greatly  in- 
creased the  popular  awe  of  the  prophet. 

After  executing  the  prophetic  office 
for  probably  15  years  Elijah  was  trans- 
lated to  heaven  in  a  miraculous  man- 
ner. Elisha  had  persisted  in  accompa- 
nying him  across  the  Jordan,  and  it  was 
while  they  were  talking  together  that  in 
a  ''chariot  of  fire "  Elijah  was  carried 
up.  Fifty  men  of  the  sons  of  the 
prophet  were  witnesses  of  the  extra- 
ordinary scene,  although  thej'  only  be- 
held it  afar  off".  A  fruitless  search  was 
made  for  the  body  of  Elijah,  under  the 
impression  that  the  Spirit  had  depos- 
ited it  somewhere.  2  Kgs.  2.    B.  c.  896. 

Malachi  prophesied,  4:5,  that  Elijah 
would  reappear  as  the  forerunner  of  the 
Messiah.  Our  Lord  explained  to  his  dis- 
ciples that  Elijah  did  really  ap})ear  in 
the  person  of  John  the  Baptist.  Elijah, 
with  Moses,  appeared  on  the  JNIount  of 
Transfiguration,  conversing  with  Jesus. 
Luke  9:28-35. 

Elijah  was  the  prophet  of  deeds.  He 
left  no  writings  save  the  letter  to  Jeho- 
ram,  king  of  Judah,  2  Chr.  21:  12-15, 
which  was  delivered  after  his  death. 
But  he  made  a  profound  impression 
upon  his  contemporaries  as  a  bold  man, 
faithful,  stern,  self-denying,  and  zeal- 
ous for  the  honor  of  God. 

2.  A  priest  who  had  married  a  for- 
eign wife.   Ezr.  10  :  21. 

EJj'lKA  {God  is  rejecter  F),  one  of 
David's  warriors.  2  Sam.  23  :  25. 


ELI 


ELI 


E'LIM  (trees),  the  second  station  of 
Israel  after  crossing  the  Red  8ea.  Ex. 
15:27;  Num.  33  :  9.  It  had  12  wells 
and  70  palm  trees,  and  has  been  identi- 
fied with  Wady  Gharandel,  which  is  the 


first  pleasant  spot  in  the  wilderness  after 
leaving  'Aytlii  Musa.  The  water  is  the 
best  on  the  whole  route  from  Cairo  to 
Sinai.  A  few  palm  trees  still  remain. 
Others  locate  Elim  a  little  farther  south, 


Eliiu,  Siiiai  (  Wady  Gharandel. 

in  Wady  Useit  or  in  Wady  Taiyibeh.  It 
certainly  must  have  been  in  this  neigh- 
borhood of  running  brooks,  feathery 
tamarisks,  wild  acacias,  and  stately 
palm  trees. 

ELIM'ELECH  {God  is  his  Icing), 
a  Bethlemite,  and  the  husband  of  Na- 
omi, Ruth's  mother-in-law.  Ruth  1:2, 
3;    2:1,  3;  4:3,9. 

ELIOE''NAI  {toioard  Jehovah  are 
my  eyes).  1.  Head  of  a  Benjamite  fam- 
ily.  1  Chr.  7:8. 

2.  Head  of  a  Simeonite  family.  1  Chr. 
4:36. 

3.  A  Korhite  Levite.   1  Chr.  26 :  3. 

4.  One  of  David's  descendants.  1  Chr. 
3:23,  24. 

6.  A  priest  who  had  a  foreign  wife. 
Ezr.  10:22;  Neh.  12:41. 

6.  Another  who  had  a  foreign  wife. 
Ezr.  10:27. 

EL'IPHAL  {lohom  God  judges), 
one  of  David's  warriors,  1  Chr.  11:  35; 
called  Eliphelet  in  2  Sam.  23  :  34. 

ELIPH'ALET  {God  his  deliver- 
ance),  one  of  David's  sons,  2  Sam.  5: 
16;  1  Chr.  14:7;  called  Eliphelet  in  1 
Chr.  3:8. 

EL'IPHAZ,  OR ELI'PHAZ  (Cor/ 
18 


After  a  Photograph  by  Fnth.) 


his  strength).  1.  The  son  of  Esau  and 
Adah,  and  father  of  Teman.  Gen.  36  :  4, 
10-16;  1  Chr.  1:35,  36. 

2.  One  of  Job's  three  friends.  Job  2  ; 
11.  He  is  called  the  Temanite;  hence 
it  has  been  inferred  he  was  a  descend- 
ant of  the  Teman  mentioned  above. 
His  part  in  the  discussions  with  Job  is 
marked  by  dignity  and  ability.  His 
theme  is  the  unapproachable  majesty 
and  purity  of  God.  4:12-21;  15:12- 
16.     See  Job,  Book  of. 

ElilPH'ELEH  {whom  God  makes 
distinguished),  a  Levite  porter  and  mu- 
sician. 1  Chr.  15:18,  21. 

ELIPH'ELET  {God  his  deliver- 
ance). 1.  One  of  David's  warriors,  2 
Sam.  23:34;  called  Eliphal  in  1  Chr. 
11  :  35. 

2.  A  son  of  David,  1  Chr.  3:6;  call- 
ed Elpalet  in  1  Chr.  14  :  5. 

3.  Another,  and  apparently  the  last, 
of  David's  sons,  1  Chr.  3:8;  called 
Eliphalet  in  2  Sam.  5:16;  1  Chr.  14 :  7. 

4.  A  descendant  of  Saul.  1  Chr.  8  :  39. 
6.  One  who  returned  with  Ezra.  Ezr. 

8:13. 

6.  One  who  had  a  foreign  wife.  Ezr. 
10  :  33. 

273 


ELI 


ELK 


ELIS'ABETH  {God  her  oath;  i.e. 
womhijjper  of  God),  the  wife  of  Zacha- 
rias,  and  mother  of  John  Baptist.  Luke 
1:5. 

ELISE'US,  the  Greek  form  of 
Elisha;  us:ed  in  Luke  4  :  27. 

ELl'SHA  {God  is  s(tlvatio)i),  the 
disciple  and  successor  of  Elijah.  He 
was  the  son  of  Shaphat,  and  a  native 
of  Abel-meholah.  1  Kgs.  19:16.  Eli- 
jah anointed  him,  by  divine  command, 
at  Abel-meholah,  where  he  found  Elisha 
ploughing.  He  threw  his  mantle  over  him 
as  the}'  stood  in  the  field,  thus  signifying 
the  service  to  which  he  was  called.  Eli- 
sha promptly  obeyed  the  call,  and  leav- 
ing his  oxen  in  the  field  took  leave  of 
his  father  and  mother  and  followed  Eli- 
jah. He  did  not  perform  any  independ- 
ent service  until  Elijah's  translation, 
which  took  place  some  8  years  afterward. 
He  then  became  the  head  of  the  school 
of  the  prophets.  He  was  the  counsellor 
and  friend  of  successive  kings.  He  was 
the  opposite  to  Elijah  in  most  things. 
He  lived  in  the  city  or  with  his  stu- 
dents, honored  and  sought  for,  a  wel- 
come guest  in  the  homes  he  graced  by 
his  presence.  And  yet  he  was  filled 
with  a  "  double" — /.  e.  an  elder  brother's 
— portion  of  Elijah's  spirit,  both  to  work 
miracles  and  to  give  counsel  for  pres- 
ent and  future  emergencies.  He  multi- 
plied the  widow's  oil,  and  when  the 
son  of  the  good  Shunammite — God's 
reward  to  her  for  her  kindness  to  his 
prophet — died,  he  raised  him  to  life. 
He  cured  Naaman,  smote  Gehazi  with 
leprosy,  misled  the  Syrians,  foretold 
abundant  food,  and  when  dying  gave  the 
king  the  promise  of  victory.  Strangely 
enough,  a  year  after  his  burial,  during 
the  guerrilla-warfare  kept  up  between 
the  Israelites  and  the  Moabites,  when 
a  dead  man  was  accidentally  put  in  his 
tomb,  no  sooner  had  the  two  dead  bod- 
ies touched  than  the  later  dead  revived 
and  lived.  But  God  did  not  recall  his 
beloved  back  to  earth.    2  Kgs.  13:21. 

We  find  the  history  of  Elisha  record- 
ed in  2  Kgs.  2-9  and  13:  14-21.  He 
exercised  the  prophetic  office  upward 
of  60  years,  b.  c.  cir.  892-8.32. 

ELFSHAH  {God  is  sahmtioii),  a 
son  of  Javan,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
settled  upon  some  islands  of  the  sea. 
Gen.  10  :  4  ;    Eze.  27  :  7. 

ELI'SHAH  {God  ia  salvation), 
274 


THE  ISLES  OF,  from  whence  Tyre 
obtained  her  blue  and  purple.  Eze.  27: 
7.  They  are  generally  identified  with 
^olis,  Lesbos,  Tenedos,  and  other  isl- 
ands of  the  Grecian  Archipelago. 

ELISH'AMA  {ichom  God  hears). 
1.  The  prince  of  Ephraim  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  Sinai.  Num.  1:10;  2:18;  7: 
48,  5;^  :  10  :  22  ;  1  Chr.  7  :  26. 

2,  3.  Sons  of  David.  2  Sam.  5: 16;  1 
Chr.  3:6,  8;  14:7. 

4.  A  priest  in  Jehoshaphat's  day.  2 
Chr.  17:8. 

5.  A  descendant  of  Judah.  1  Chr. 
2:41. 

6.  The  grandfather  of  Ishmael,  who 
killed  Gedaliah.  2  Kgs.  25  :  25 ;  Jer. 
41:1. 

7.  A  scribe  to  Jehoiakim.  Jer.  36  :  12, 
20,  21. 

ELISH'APHAT  {whom  God 
judges),  a  captain  employed  by  Jehoi- 
ada  at  Joash's  accession.  2  Chr.  23  : 1. 

ELISH'EBA  {God  is  her  oath),  the 
wife  of  Aaron.  Ex.  6  :  23.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Amminadab,  and  sister  of 
Naashon. 

ELISHU'A  {God  his  salvation), 
a  son  of  David,  2  Sam.  5:15;  1  Chr. 
14:5  ;  called  Elishama  in  1  Chr.  3  :  6. 

ELI'UD  {God  his  praise),  one  of 
Christ's  ancestors.   Matt.  1 :  14,  15. 

ELIZ'APHAN  {tchom  God  pro- 
tects).  1.  The  chief  of  the  Kohathite 
Levites,  Num.  3:30;  1  Chr.  16:8;  2 
Chr.  29  :  13  ;  called  Elzaphan  in  Ex.  6  : 
22  ;  Lev.  10  :  4. 

2.  A  chief  of  Zebulun,  commissioner 
in  the  allotment  of  Canaan.  Num.  34 :  25. 

ELI'ZUR  {God  his  rock),  the  prince 
of  Eeuben  during  the  census.  Num.  1 : 
5;   2:10;  7:30,  35;  10:18. 

EL'KANAH  {God  creates),  the 
name  of  several  descendants  of  Korah 
mentioned  in  the  0.  T.,  for  we  are  ex- 
pressly told  that  "  the  children  of  Korah 
died  not "  in  the  rebellion  of  Korah. 
Num.  26:11. 

1.  The  only  one  of  the  name  of  any 
interest  is  the  husband  of  Hannah  and 
father  of  Samuel.  1  Sam.  1 : 1  ff . ;  2:11, 
20 ;  1  Chr.  6  :  27,  34.  The  few  words 
that  are  spoken  of  him  set  him  in  a 
very  favorable  light.  He  was  a  kind 
and  faithful  husband,  a  pious  Hebrew^ 
and  a  self-sacrificing  father.  Although 
he  was  a  Levite,  he  did  not  apparently 
perform  any  of  the  usual  offices.    Judg- 


ELK 


EMB 


ing  from  the  sacrifices  he  offered  annu- 
ally, 1  Sam.  1:4,  and  from  the  present 
he  brought  to  the  Lord  when  Samuel 
was  dedicated,  he  was  a  man  of  wealth. 

2.  The  son  of  Korah.  Ex.  6:24;  1 
Chr.  6 :  23. 

3.  A  Korhite.  1  Chr.  6  :  26,  35. 

4.  A  Levite.   1  Chr.  9:16. 

5.  A  Korhite.  1  Chr.  12  :  6. 

6.  An  officer  of  the  household  of 
Ah:iz.  probably  the  second  in  command. 
2  Chr.  28  :  7.  He  was  killed  by  Zichri 
the  Ephraimite. 

EL'KOSH  {God  mil  how).  Nahum 
is  called  "  the  Elkoshite,"  Nah.  1 :  1, 
from  which  it  is  inferred  that  Elkosh 
was  his  birthplace.  The  traditional 
tomb  of  that  prophet  is  in  Assyria, 
about  2  miles  north  of  Mosul,  at  a 
place  called  Alkimh,  a  town  of  300  fam- 
ilies. Grove  and  others,  however,  place 
Elkosh  in  (xalilee. 

EL'LASAR  (oak,  or  heap),  the  coun- 
try of  which  Ariocli  was  king,  Gen.  14  : 
1-9  ;  probably  Litrsa,  in  lower  Babylo- 
nia, on  the  Euphrates,  between  Ur  and 
Erech.  Its  inscriptions  indicate  an 
earlier  date  than  Babylon,  in  which  it 
was  afterward  absorbed. 

ELM.  Hos.  4:13.  The  original  is 
elsewhere  translated  "oak."     See  Oak. 

ELMO'DAM  {extension?),  one  of 
our  Lord's  ancestry.  Luke  3  :  28. 

EL'NAAM  {God  hh  delight),  a  man 
two  of  whose  sons  were  of  David's 
guard.  1  Chr.  11  :  46. 

EL'NATHAN  {whom  God  hath 
given).  1.  The  maternal  grandfather  of 
Jehoiachin.  2  Kgs.  24  :  8. 

2,  3,  4.  Three  persons  in  Ezra's  time. 
Ezr.  8:16. 

ELO'I,  a  Syro-Chaldaic  form  of 
Eli.   Mark  15  :  34,  35. 

E'LON  {an  oak).  1.  The  Hittite, 
father  of  one  of  Esau's  wives.  Gen. 
26:34;  36:2. 

2.  A  son  of  Zebulun.  Gen.  46  :  14  ; 
Num.  26 :  26. 

3.  A  judge  of  Israel,  who  is  called 
the  Zebulonite  in  Jud.  12  :  11,  12. 

E'LOX  {oak),  a  town  in  Dan,  Josh. 
19  :  43  ;  the  Pal.  Memoirs  propose  Beit 
Ello  as  its  site. 

E'LON-BETH'-HA'NAN  {oak 
of  house  of  grace),  one  of  Solomon's 
provision-districts.  1  Kgs.  4:9.  Drake 
places  it  at  Beit  'Andn. 

E'LOTH.     See  Elath. 


EL'PAAL  {God  his  wages),  a  Ben- 
iamite  whose  descendants  built  some 
towns.   1  Chr.  8:  11,  12,  18. 

EL'PALET  {God  his  deliverance), 
a  son  of  David,  1  Chr.  14:5;  called  in 
1  Chr.  3:(),  Eliphclct. 

EL-PA'RAN,  literally  "the  oak 
of  Paran."    Gen.  14:  6.     See  Paran. 

EL'-TEKEH  {God  its  feur),  a 
place  in  Dan  ;  given  to  the  Levites. 
Josh.  19  :  44  ;  21  :  23.  Whitney  iden- 
tifies it  with  "  el-Mansurah,  between 
Ramleh  and  Akir."  There  is  an  el- 
Mansurah  between  Akir  and  'Ain  Shems, 
which  may  be  the  one  intended,  as  there 
is  no  place  of  this  name  between  Ram- 
leh and  Akir.  Conder  places  El-tekeh 
at  Beit  Likia,  north-east  of  Latrum. 

EL'-TEKON  {God  its  foundation), 
a  town  in  the  hills  of  Judah.  Josh.  15: 
59.  Grove  places  it  3  or  4  miles  north 
of  Hebron. 

EL-TO'LAD,  OR  EL'-TOLAD 
{God's  kindred),  a  town  in  the  south  of 
Judah  ;  given  to  Simeon,  Josh.  15  :  30  ; 
19  : 4  ;  called  Tolad  in  1  Chr.  4  :  29. 
Wilton  and  Grove  think  it  was  about 
40  miles  south  of  Beer-sheba,  in  the 
W(fdi/  el- Thou  la. 

E'LUL  {naught).  Neh.  6  :  15.  See 
Months. 

ELU'ZAI  {God  is  mil  praises),  a 
Beniamite  warrior.   1  Chr.  12  :  5. 

EL'YMAS.  See  Bar-jesus,  Ser- 
Gius  Patths. 

EL'ZABAD  {whom  God  hath  giv- 
en). 1.  A  Gadite  warrior  who  joined 
David.  1  Chr.  12:12. 

2.  A  Levite.   I  Chr.  26  :  7. 

EL'ZAPHAN  {whom  God  protects), 
a  Levite,  chief  of  the  Kohathites,  Ex. 
6  :  22  ;  Lev.  10  :  4  ;  called  Elizaphan, 
Num.  3  :  30  ;  1  Chr.  15  :  8  ;  2  Chr.  29  : 
13. 

EMBALM'.  Gen.  50:  2.  The  prac- 
tice of  embalming  prevailed  at  a  very 
early  period.  The  Hebrews  learned  it 
from  the  Egyptians,  by  whom  it  was 
understood  very  perfectly,  for  embalm- 
ing entered  into  their  religious  life,  in- 
asmuch as  they  maintained  it  ])re- 
served  the  body  for  the  dwelling-place 
of  the  soul  after  it  had  completed  its 
various  transmigrations.  The  embalm- 
ers  or  physicians  were  regarded  as  sa- 
cred officers. 

"  The  process  of  embalming  was  car- 
ried on  in  various  ways.     In  the  most 

276 


EMB 


EMB 


expensive  method  the  brain  and  viscera  1  with  bitumen  and  aromatic  substances  ; 
were  removed,  their  phice    being  filled  I  the  body  was  washed  in  oil  or  the  tar 


Bandaginw  Mummies  and  making  the  Cases.     (After  Wilkinson.) 
Fig.  1,  sawing  wood  ;  a,  timber  fastened  to  a  stand.     2.  cutting  the  leg  of  a  chair,  on  a  stand,  h,  indicating 
the  trade  of  a  carpenter.     3,  a  man  fallen  asleep,     c,  c,  wood  readj-  for  cutting,     d,  onions  and  other  provisions, 
which  occur  again  at  g,  with  vases,  /,/.     4,  5,  and  7,  binding  mummies.     6,  brings  the  bandages.    9,  using  the 
drill.    8,  10,  and  11,  painting  and  polishing  the  cases,     e,  h,  i,  mummy-cases. 

of  cedar,  bound   up    in    linen    smeared  I  cheap  method  dispensed  with  the  evis- 
with  spices,  asphalt,  and  various  gums ;  1  ceration,  but  all  methods  contained  the 

steeping  in  natron.      It  ap- 


pears also  that  salt  was  freely 
used ;  and  some  authors  be- 
lieve that  heat  was  employ- 
ed."—  Johnson's  Encyclopae- 
dia. After  this  process  the 
body  was  swathed  in  linen 
bandages,  with  a  profusion 
of  aromatics.  The  price  of 
embalming  a  single  body  was 
sometimes  upward  of  SI 600, 
and  from  that  down  to  $200 
or  $300.  The  process  lasted 
in  earlier  times  40,  Gen.  50 : 
?>,  but  in  later  times  70,  days, 
and  afterward  the  body  was 
placed  in  a  coffin  of  syca- 
more-wood or  of  stone,  and 
then  placed  upright  against 
the  walls  of  the  house,  where 
it  often  remained  for  years,  if 
the  family  did  not  wish  to  go 
to  the  expense  of  burial.  Fi- 
nally, the  bodies  were  placed 
in  subterraneous  vaults  in 
the  ground  or  in  the  rock, 
where  they  were  often  found, 
after  the  lapse  of  2000  or 
3000  years,  in  a  state  of  per- 
fect preservation. 

We  have  no  evidence  that 
embalming  was   practised  by 


(After  Wilkinson.) 
10.  Of  burnt  earthenware. 


Different  Forms  of  Mummy-Cases. 
1,  2,  4,  9.  Of  wood.    3,  5,  6,  7,  8.  Of  stone. 

and  the  whole  was  placed  in  a  solution  1  the   Hebrews,    except   in    the    cases   of 
of  natron  (saltpetre)  for  70  days.     The  I  Jacob   and   Joseph,   and    then   it  was 
276 


EMB 


EMM 


for  the  purpose  of  preserving  their  re- 
mains till  they  could  be  carried  into  the 
Land  of  Promise,  It  is  true  Asa  was 
laid   in   a  "  bed  which  was   filled   with 


Stone  Mummy-Case.  {After  Wilkinson.) 
sweet  odors  and  divers  kinds  of  spices 
prepared  by  the  apothecaries'  art,"  2 
Chr.  16 :  14,  and  that  mention  is  made 
of  spices  in  the  preparation  for  our 
Lord's  formal  burial,  John  19  :  39,  40, 
but  we  cannot  interpret  these  sentences 
as  indicating  any  proper  species  of  em- 
balming.    See  Bury. 

e:wbroid'er,  embroid'- 

ERER,  E3IBROID  ERY.    These 

words  occur  in  A.  V.  in  Ex.  28  :  39; 
35  :  85;  38  :  23,  but  it  is  doubtful 
if  they   ^re   used   correctly.     It  seems 


probable  that  the  production  called 
''cunning  work,"  Ex.  26:1,  was  more 
like  embroidery  than  the  needlework 
which  the  embroiderer  is  said  to  have 
made.  But  neither  kind  answers  ex- 
actly to  the  notion  of  modern  embroi- 
dery. 

EM'ERALD  (perhaps  the  glow- 
ing), a  very  precious  gem  of  a  pure 
green  color,  to  which  it  owes  its  chief 
value,  as  the  deepest  colors  are  the  most 
esteemed.  Ex.  28  :  18 ;  Eze.  27  :  16  ;  28  : 
13.  The  emerald  was  anciently  obtain- 
ed from  Egypt.  There  is  little  question 
that  the  original  word  should  have  been 
translated  *'  carbuncle."  This  gem  is 
"  a  garnet  cut  with  a  convex  face."  See 
Stones,  Precious. 

EM'ERODS.  1  Sam.  5:  6,  9.  The 
name  of  a  painful  disease  sent  upon  the 
Philistines  :  probably  it  resembled  the 
modern  disease  of  the  piles.  It  was 
customary  with  the  heathens  to  offer  to 
their  gods  figures  of  wax  or  metal  rep- 
resenting the  parts  which  had  been 
cured  of  disease,  whence  it  is  inferred, 
in  connection  with  1  Sam.  6  :  5,  that  the 
priests  and  diviners  of  the  Philistines 
recommended  a  similar  course. 

E'MIMS  (terrors),  a  race  of  giants 
living  east  of  the  Dead  Sea;  related  to 
the  Anakim.  Gen,  14  :  5;  Deut.  2  :  10, 
11. 

EMMAN'UEL.     See  Immanuel. 

EM'MAUS  {hot  springs),  a  village 
near  Jerusalem.  Luke  24:13.  Its  site 
has  been  disputed  ;  among  the  places 
suggested  are,  1.  A  little  hamlet  called 
'Amu-ds,  and  known  as  Nicopolis  in  the 
third  century.  It  is  on  the  plain  of 
Philistia,  22  miles  from  Jerusalem  and 
10  miles  from  Lydda.  This  appears 
too  far  from  Jerusalem,  as  Luke  says  it 
was  only  "  threescore  furlongs  "  distant, 
or  less  than  7  miles.  2.  Robinson  places 
Emmaus  near  Kuryct  el  'Eiiab,  3  hours 
from  Jerusalem,  on  the  road  to  Jaffa. 
3.  Lange  and  Grove  find  Emmaus  at 
Kiilonieh,  2  leagues  or  4J  miles  west 
of  Jerusalem.  4.  Others  have  lately 
proposed  Urtds,  a  poor  village  about  2 
miles  south-west  of  Bethlehem,  as  the 
site  of  Emmaus.  5.  In  the  fourteenth 
century  Emmaus  was  placed  at  Knbei- 
heh,  a  little  over  7  miles  north-west  of 
Jerusalem.  This  view  is  sustained  b^y 
Dr.  H.  Zschokke  of  Jerusalem,  who 
has  made  Emmaus  a  special  study,  but 

277 


EMM 


ENH 


Urtna  seems  to  have  the  strongest  argu- 
ments in  its  favor. 

EM'MOR  {an  nas).  Acts  7: 16.  See 
Hamor. 

ENA'BLED,  in  1  Tim.  1 :  12,  means 
"qualified." 

ENA'JIM  {gate  of  two  eyes),  a  mar- 
ginal reading  in  Gen.  38  :  14,  21,  which 
some  scholars  understand  to  mean  a 
place  identical  with  Enam.  Tayler 
Lewis  regards  the  idea  that  it  refers 
to  a  cit3'  as  absurd. 

E'NAM  {double  sprinij),  a  town  in 
the  low  country  of  Judah.  Josh.  15 : 
34.  Warren  suggests  Bier-en-Nalil  for 
Enam  j  Conder  suggests  a  ruin  called 
'A/in,  near  Thamtiali,  now  Tibneh,  as 
the  ancient  Enam. 

E'NAN  {hoviiKj  eyes),  the  father  of 
a  prince  of  Naphtali.  Num.  1  :  15  ;  2 : 
29  :  7 :  78,  83  :  10  :  27. 

ENCAMPMENT.     See  Camp. 

ENCHANT'MENTS.  This  word 
is  the  translation  of  several  Hebrew 
terms.  It  comprehends  the  tricks  of 
the  Egyptian  magicians,  Ex,  7  :  11,  22  ; 
8:7;  the  omens  Balaam  used.  Num. 
24 : 1  ;  the  charming  of  serpents,  Eccl. 
10 :  11  ;  and  also  magical  spells,  Isa. 
47 :  9,  12.  In  Jer.  27  :  9  the  "  enchant- 
ers" were  rather  seers  or  augurs.  Every 
species  of  enchantment  fell  under  the 
ban  of  the  Mosaic  Law.  Lev.  19  :  26  ; 
Deut.  18  : 1 0-1 2.     See  Divination. 

EN'-DOR  {spriiHi  of  Z'o;-),aplacein 
Issachar,  possessed  by  Manasseh,  Josh. 
17  :  11.  where  Sisera  and  Jabin  were 
slain,  Ps.  83  :  9,  10,  and  where  Saul  con- 
sulted the  witch,  1  Sam.  28  :  7.  It  is 
now  a  miserable  village  called  End6r, 
about  6^  miles  from  Jezreel. 

ENDOWS     See  Dowry. 

EIV-EG'LAIM,OR  EN-EGLA'- 
IM  {/oiDitoiii  of  tiro  heifers),  apparent- 
ly a  place  near  the  Dead  Sea,  and  pos- 
sibly 'Ain-Ajlah,  as  suggested  by  De 
Saulcv.  Eze.  47:  10. 

EN-GAN'NIM  {fountain  of  gar- 
dens).  1.  A  place  in  the  lowlands  of 
Judah.  between  Zanoah  and  Tappuah. 
Josh.  15  :  34;  now  Umm  Jhia. 

2.  A  place  in  Issachar;  given  to  the 
Levites,  Josh.  19  :  21  ;  21  :  29:  probably 
identical  with  ''garden-house  "  of  2  Kgs. 
9  :  27.  In  the  list  of  Levitical  cities  in 
1  Chr.  6  :  73.  Anem  seems  to  have  taken 
the  place  of  En-gannim.  The  latter  has 
been  identified  with  modern  Jenin,  a 
278 


flourishing  village  of  3000  inhabitants, 
on  the  south  side  of  the  great  plain  of 
Esdraelon.  Near  by  is  a  large  fountain, 
a  source  of  the  ancient  river  Kishon,  and 
gardens  and  orchards  surround  the  town. 
The  people,  mostly  Moslems,  are  fanat- 
ical, rude,  and  rebellious,  given  to  fight- 
ing among  themselves  or  with  their 
neighbors.  En-gannim  was  also  the 
same  as  Beth-haggan. 

EN-GE'DI  {fountain  of  the  kid),  a 
place  in  Judah.  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  Josh.  15  :  62  ;  Eze.  47  :  10, 
about  midway  between  its  northern  and 
southern  ends. 

History. — En-gedi  was  first  called  Ha- 
zezon-tainar.  Gen.  14  :  7  ;  2  Chr.  20  :  2  ; 
it  was  David's  hiding-place  from  Saul, 
1  Sam.  23  :  29  ;  24  :  1,  and  where  David 
cut  off  the  skirt  of  Saul's  robe,  24 :  4 ; 
its  vineyards  are  mentioned.  Song  Sol. 
1  :  14  ;  now  called  'Ain  Jidy,  near  which 
there  is  a  thermal  spring,  about  1  mile 
from  the  seashore  and  from  330  to  500 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  about  1200  be- 
low the  top  of  the  cliffs.  The  ancient 
city  was  probably  on  the  slope  below 
the  spring,  where  there  are  a  few  ruins. 
EN'GINES.  See  War. 
ENGRAVE'.  Engraved  seals  are 
spoken  of  at  a  very  early  period  of  the 
world.  The  names  of  the  children  of 
Israel  were  directed  to  be  engraved  on 
two  stones,  and  the  words  "  Holiness  to 
THK  Lord"  were  also  to  be  engraved  on 
the  high  priest's  breastplate,  both  to  be 
like  the  engravings  of  a  signet.  Ex.  28  : 
11,  36.  The  signet  is  mentioned  before 
Joseph  was  sold  into  Egypt.  Job  also 
speaks  of  engraving  with  an  iron  pen 
upon  a  rock.  Jobl9:24.  The  ten  com- 
mandments were  engraved,  Ex.  32  :  16, 
and  graven  images  were  undoubtedly 
among  the  earliest  objects  of  idolatrous 
worship.  Ex.  20:4;  32:4.  Allusion  is 
also  made  to  the  engraver's  art  in  Eze. 
23  :  14.  The  engraved  lines  were  prob- 
ably filled  in  with  coloring-matter.  See 
also  Acts  17  :  29.     See  Seal. 

EN-HAD'DAH  {swift  fountain),  a 
place  in  Issachar.  Josh.  19  :  21.  Van 
de  Velde  and  Thomson  suggest  as  its 
site  'Ain  Hand,  on  the  western  slope  of 
Mount  Carmel,  2  miles  from  the  sea. 
Grove  questions  this  view.  Conder 
proposes  Kefr  'Adan. 
\  EN-HAk'KORE  {fountain  of  the 
i  crier),   a   spring   opened    for    Samson. 


ENH 


ENS 


Jud.  15  :  19.      Milton   refers   to   it   in 
Samson  Ayoniates : 

"  God,  who  caused  a  foiuitain  at  thy  prayer 
From  the  dry  ground  to  spring,  thy  thirst  to 

aUay, 
After  the  brunt  of  battle,  can  as  easy 
Cause  light  again  within  thine  eyes  to  spring." 

"  Samson's  Spring  "  was  pointed  out 
on  the  way  from  Sochoh  to  Eleutherop- 
olis  from  the  time  of  Jerome  to  the  four- 
teenth century,  but  Robinson  rejects  this 
site ;  Van  de  Velde  suggests  a  large 
spring  near  Tell  el-Lekiyeh,  4  miles  from 
Beer-sheba.  This,  however,  is  30  miles 
from  Gaza,  while  Samson's  exploit  was 
probably  much  nearer  that  city.  Conder 
found  near  Zoreah  a  spring  called  ' Ayun 
Kara,  which  name  seemed  to  resemble 
En-hakkore. 

^^'Yi.A.'ZOTi{s2yring  of  the  village), 
a  city  of  Naphtali,  near  Kedesh,  Josh. 
19  :  37 ;  now,  perhaps,  Hazireh,  a  ruin 
near  Dihl. 

EN-MISH'PAT  (fountain  of  judg- 
ment).    Gen.  14  :  7.     See  Kadesh. 

E'NOCH  (initiating).  1.  A  son  of 
Cain,  after  whom  he  named  a  "  city," 
the  first-mentioned  city  in  the  Bible. 
Gen.  4  :  17;  Heb.  11  :  5. 

2.  The  son  of  Jared,  and  father  of 
Methusaleh.  Gen.  5  :  18,  21-24.  He  is 
called  "the  seventh  from  Adam,"  Jude 
14,  to  distinguish  him  from  the  son 
of  Cain,  third  from  Adam.  We  are 
told  that  he  "walked  with  God" — an 
expressive  figure  to  denote  the  closest 
communion  with  the  divine  Being  and 
entire  conformity  to  his  will.  And  con- 
cerning his  departure  from  the  world, 
we  are  told  that  "  he  was  not,  for  God 
took  him  " — a  phrase  which  imports  a 
mere  change  of  residence,  without  suf- 
fering the  ordinary  dissolution  of  the 
body.  In  this  case,  as  well  as  in  Eli- 
jah's, the  body  was  clothed  with  immor- 
tality, or  endued  with  the  immortal 
principle  by  the  immediate  power  of 
God.  1  Cor.  15  :  50. 

Enoch,  Book  of.  There  is  only  one 
reference  in  the  Bible,  Jude  14,  to 
Enoch  as  a  prophet,  but  an  Apocryphal 
book  called  after  hira  was  well  known 
to  the  early  fathers.  It  was  then  lost 
to  the  knowledge  of  Europe,  excejit  in 
fragments,  until  Bruce,  in  1773.  brought 
from  Abyssinia  three  manuscript  copies 
containing  the  complete  ^thiopic  trans- 
lation.    Archbishop  Lawrence  made  an 


English  translation  of  the  book,  which 
was  the  basis  of  various  subsequent  edi- 
tions, which  were  rendered  comparative- 
ly worthless  when,  in  1851,  Dr.  Dillmann 
published  a  new  edition  of  the-^thiopio 
text,  and  in  1853  a  German  translation. 
"  The  book  consists  of  a  series  of  reve- 
lations supposed  to  have  been  given  to 
Enoch  and  Noah,  which  extend  to  the 
most  varied  aspects  of  nature  and  life, 
and  are  designed  to  offer  a  complete 
vindication  of  the  action  of  Providence." 
It  was  never  received  by  the  Jews  nor 
by  the  fathers  as  inspired.  The  author- 
ship and  date  are  unknown. 

E'NOCH,  a  city  built  by  Cain.  Gen. 
4:17. 

E'NON,  OR  ^'NON  (springs),  a 
place  near  Salim  where  John  was  bap- 
tizing. John  3  :  23.  Three  sites  have 
been  proposed  for  it:  1.  The  traditional 
one,  by  Jerome,  about  8  miles  south  of 
Beisan;  not  confirmed  by  later  authori- 
ties. 2.  In  Wadg Pdrah,5  mUes  north-east 
of  Jerusalem ;  suggested  by  Dr.  Barclay. 
3.  The  more  probable  site,  pointed  out 
by  Robinson,  Stanley,  and  Conder.  This 
is  east  of  Nuhlus,  near  the  village  Salim, 
and  north  of  the  latter,  in  Wady  Fara 
(but  not  the  same  valley  as  in  No.  2), 
where  there  are  copious  springs  ;  and  3 
or  4  miles  north  of  the  springs  is  a  vil- 
lage called  'Ainun  or  Mnon.  The  site 
may  therefore  be  regarded  as  settled 
with   some  degree  of  certainty. 

E'NOS  (/Hrr»),the  first-born  of  Seth. 
Gen.  4:26:  5  :  6,  7,  9-1 1  ;  Luke  3  :  38. 

E'NOSH  (man),  a  form  of  Enos.  1 
Chr.  1 :  1. 

EN-RIM'MON  (fountain  of  the 
pomegranate),  perhaps  the  same  as  Ain 
and  Rimmon,  Josh.  15  :  32,  and  Ain 
Renimon,  Josh.  19  :  7.  and  Ain  Rim- 
mon. 1  Chr.  4  :  32  ;  Neh.  11  :  29.  Van 
de  Velde  and  Wilton  place  it  at  Uni  er- 
Rumdniin,  between  Eleutheropolis  and 
Beer-sheba,  where  there  is  a  large  spring. 

EIV-RO'GEL  (fountain  of  the  ful- 
ler), a  spring  not  far  from  Jerusalem. 
Josh.  15  :  7  ;  18  :  16 ;  2  Sam.  17  :  17,  21 ; 
1  Kgs.  1  :  9.  Some  place  it  at  the  "  well 
of  Joab,"  in  the  valley  of  Hinnom.  M. 
Ganneau  would  identify  it  with  the  Foun- 
tain of  the  Virgin.     See  Jkuusalem. 

EN-SHE'MESH  (fountain  of  the 
Sun),  a  sjjring  between  Judah  and  Ben- 
jamin, Josh.  15:7;  18:17;  probably 
the  same  as  that  now  called  the  "  Apog- 

279 


ENS 


EPH 


tie's  Spring,"  about  li  miles  east  of  Beth- 
any, and  the  first  halting-place  for  trav- 
ellers from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho. 

EN'SIGN.     See  Banners. 

ENSUE'  means,  in  1  Pet.  3:11,  ''to 
follow  after  and  overtake." 

EN-TAP'PUAH  {apple,  or  citron 
spring),  a  place  in  Manasseh.  Josh.  17  : 
7.     See  Tappuah. 

ENTREAT',  when  spoken  of  con- 
duct, means  "to  treat j"  as,  ''to  entreat 
well." 

EP^N'ETUS  {praised),  one  whom 
Paul  in  Rom.  16  :  5  called  his  "well-be- 
loved," and  ''  the  first  fruits  of  Acha- 
ia" — better,  "of  Asia" — unto  Christ. 

EP'APHRAS  {lovely,  a  contraction 
of  '•  Epaphroditus"),  a  distinguished 
disciple  of  Colossae,  and  a  faithful  min- 
ister of  the  gospel.  Col.  1 :  7.  His  cha- 
racter is  described  by  the  apostle  Paul, 
Col.  1 :  7,  8  ,•  4 :  12,  whose  fellow-pris- 
oner he  was  at  Rome.     Phile.  23. 

EPAPHRODI'TUS  {lovely),  an 
eminent  disciple  who  resided  at  Philip- 
pi,  and  was  commissioned  by  the  church 
in  that  city  to  visit  the  apostle  Paul 
during  his  imprisonment  at  Rome;  to 
which  circumstance,  and  the  procuring 
cause  of  it,  the  apostle  alludes  with 
strongcommendation.  Phil.  2:25;  4:18. 

E'PHAH  {darkness).  1.  A  son  of 
Midian.  and  grandson  of  Abraham, 
Gen.  25:4;  1  Chr.  1:38;  descendants 
mentioned  in  Isa.  60  :  6. 

2.  A  concubine  of  Caleb,  the  son  of 
Hezron.   1  Chr.  2:46. 

3.  One  of  Judah's  descendants.  1  Chr. 
2:47. 

E'PHAH  (from  the  Egyptian,  a 
measure,  especially  of  corn).  See  Meas- 
ures, 

E'PHAI  {weary),  a  Netophathite 
whose  sons  repaired  unto  Gedaliah.  Jer. 
40:8. 

E'PHER  (a  calf).  1.  A  son  of  Mid- 
ian. Gen.  25:4;  1  Chr.  1:3.3. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Judah.  1  Chr.  4  : 
17. 

3,  A  chief  of  the  trans-Jordanic  Ma- 
nasseh.  1  Chr.  5  :  24. 

E'PHES-DAM'^IIM  {boundary 
of  bloodshed),  caUediihoVAS-jyAM'' 
MIM.  1  Sam.  17  :  1  ;  1  Chr.  11  :  13. 
Van  de  Velde  locates  it  at  a  ruin  in 
Wady  Sunt  called  Damim,  but  Conder 
thinks  we  have  a  trace  of  the  ancient 
Ephes  -  dammim  in  the  modern  Beit 
280 


Fased,  or  "  House  of  Bleeding,"  near 
Shochoh.     (  Tent-Life,  ii.  p.  160.) 

EPHE'SIANS,  the  citizens  of 
Ephesus.  Acts  19:28. 

Epistle  to,  was  written  by  Paul  to 
the  Christians  at  Ephesus.  The  church 
in  that  renowned  city  was  established 
and  built  up  under  Paul's  ministry, 
Acts  18:  19,  21  ;  19,  during  the  years 
54-57.  This  letter  was  written  by  the 
apostle  about  A.  d.  62,  while  he  was  in 
prison  at  Rome,  and  forwarded  by 
Tychicus,  a  beloved  bi other  and  faith- 
ful minister.  Eph.  6  :  21.  While  other 
Epistles  of  Paul  were  evidently  called 
forth  by  the  circumstances  of  the  church 
to  which  they  were  addressed,  this  Epis- 
tle is  of  a  general  character,  and  was 
intended  for  a  number  of  congregations 
in  Asia  Minor.  He  expatiates  with 
great  fervor  and  eloquence  upon  the 
doctrine  of  election,  upon  the  richness 
of  the  Christian  inheritance,  uj^on  the 
new  relationship  between  God  and  us — 
that  in  Christ  Jesus  we  become  "  fellow- 
citizens  with  the  saints,  and  of  the 
household  of  God."  The  succeeding 
prayer  is  surely  one  of  the  most  mar- 
vellous outbursts  of  the  apostle's  piety, 
under  the  guidance  of  thtf  Holy  Spirit. 
The  main  doctrinal  thought  of  the  Epis- 
tle is  the  Church  in  Christ  Jesus,  the 
eternal  principles  of  her  life,  her  unity 
of  many  members,  her  warfare  and  her 
victor}',  her  steady  growth,  and  her 
glorious  end.  Hence,  in  the  hortatory 
portion,  or  last  three  chapters,  he  urges 
the  dvity  of  preserving  unity,  and  makes 
the  relation  of  Christ  to  his  Church  and 
of  the  Church  to  Christ  the  ideal  stand- 
ard of  the  domestic  relation  between 
man  and  wife  and  parents  and  chil- 
dren. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  was 
written  at  the  same  time.  Hence  there 
is  great  similarity  between  them.  See 
Colossians,  Epistle  to. 

EPH'ESUS,  the  most  important 
commercial  city  of  Asia  Minor,  "one 
of  the  eyes  of  Asia,"  Smyrna,  40  miles 
to  the  north,  being  the  other.  Ephesus 
stood  upon  the  south  side  of  a  plain, 
with  mountains  on  three  sides  and  the 
Icarian  Sea  on  the  west.  The  river 
Cayster  ran  across  the  plain. 

Scripture  History. — Paul  visited  Ephe- 
sus on  his  second  tour.  Acts  18  :  19-21  ; 
Apollgs  was  instructed  there  by  Aquila 


EPH 


EPH 


and  Priscilla,  18:24-26;  Paul  dwelt 
there  3  years,  Acts  19 ;  charged  the 
elders  of  the  church,  20:16-28;  the 
angel  of  the  church  of  Ephesus  is 
named  in  Rev.  2 : 1-7.  The  city  is  a 
complete  desohition  ;  the  ruins  of  the 
Stadium  and  theatre  remain,  but  wild 
beasts  haunt  them.  On  the  plain  is  a 
little  Turkish  village  called  Ayasalonk, 
from  St.  John,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
ended  his  days  at  Ephesus.  The  an- 
cient city  often  changed  its  name  and 
its  site.  In  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war 
it  was  called  Alopes,  then  Orthygia,  next 
Morges,  then  Smyrna,  Trachse,  and 
Samornion,  then  Ptelte,  then  Ephesus, 
and  now  Ai/asalouk. 

Bitildiugs. — In  apostolic  times  Ephe- 
sus contained  three  remarkable  build- 
ings :  1.  The  Temple  of  Diana,  one  of 
the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  world.  It  was 
erected  at  the  joint  cost  of  all  Asia,  and 
was  220  years  in  building.  Its  length 
was  425  feet,  and  its  breadth  220  feet. 
Built  of  purest  marble,  it  is  said  to  have 
gleamed  like  a  meteor.  Columns  of 
Parian  marble,  60  feet  high  and  127  in 
number,  supported  the  roof.  Its  doors 
were  of  carved  cypress.  The  jambs 
were  of  marble,  and  the  transom  above 
was  a  single  block  of  vast  dimensions, 
reputed  to  have  been  put  in  place  by 
the  goddess  herself.  The  hall  contained 
famous  pieces  of  sculpture  by  Praxit- 
eles, Phidias,  and  other  masters ;  in 
the  gallery,  hung  with  master-pieces  of 
paintings,  one  by  Apelles  is  estimated 
to  have  cost  upward  of  $190,000.  In 
the  centre  of  the  court  was  an  image  of 
the  goddess,  which  the  superstitious 
people  believed  fell  down  from  heaven. 
Acts  19  :  35.  See  Diaxa.  Ephesus  fell 
a  prey  to  the  Goths,  A.  n.  262,  and  the 
remains  of  its  magnificent  temple  were 
hidden  from  the  world  until  brought  to 
light,  in  1869,  by  Mr.  J.  T.  Wood,  who 
spent  eleven  years,  from  1863  to  1874, 
in  exploration  about  the  ancient  city. 
He  found  two  large  stones  containing 
inscriptions  in  Greek  and  Latin  record- 
ing that  certain  walls  were  built  by  order 
of  Augustus,  B.  c.  6.  Twenty  feet  below 
the  surface  was  found  a  pavement  be- 
longing to  the  most  ancient  of  the  three 
temples  which  rose  successively  to  Diana, 
The  first  temple,  enlarged  and  beautified 
and  called  the  second  temple,  was  set  on 
fire  B.  c.  356,  on  the  night  Alexander  the  '. 
282 


Great  was  born.  Some  2000  mediaeval 
coins  were  discovered  in  1871,  which  are 
now  in  the  British  Museum. 

2.  The  Theatre,  Acts  19  :  29,  the  largest 
structure  of  its  kind  built  by  the  Greeks, 
and  claimed  to  be  capable  of  seating 
50,000  spectators.  Mr.  Wood  estimated 
its  seating  capacity  at  24,500  persons. 

3.  The  Stadium,  or  Circus,  685  feet 
long  by  200  feet  wide,  an  arena  in  which 
the  Ephesian  people  witnessed  foot-ra- 
cings, wrestlings,  and  fights  with  wild 
beasts.  The  combatants  were  usually 
condemned  criminals,  who  were  sent 
naked  into  the  arena  to  be  torn  in 
pieces  by  the  wild  beasts.  1  Cor.  16  :  32. 
The  victims  were  sometimes  exposed  at 
the  end  of  the  combat,  which  gives 
great  vividness  to  the  apostle's  figure 
in  1  Cor.  4 :  9.  Some  of  these  games 
were  held  in  honor  of  Diana,  and  the 
silver  shrines  or  images  of  the  goddess 
made  by  Demetrius  and  his  fellow-crafts- 
men were  eagerly  purchased  for  house- 
hold idols  by  visitors.  Acts  19  :  24.  A 
railroad  has  been  built  from  Ephesus 
to  Smyrna  by  an  English  company. 

EPH'LAL  (Judgment),  a  descend- 
ant of  Judah.   1  Chr.  2  :  37. 

E'PHOD  (ephod,  or  image),  the 
father  of  one  who  helped  in  apportion- 
ing the  land  under  Joshua  and  Eleazar. 
Num.  34  :  23. 

EPH'OD,  one  of  the  articles  of  the 
priest's  ofiicial  dress.  Ex.  28  :  6.  It  was 
made  of  plain  linen,  1  Sam.  2:18;  2 
Sam.  6:14,  except  the  ephod  of  the 
high  priest,  which  was  embroidered 
with  various  colors.  It  consisted  of 
two  parts,  one  covering  the  back  and  the 
other  the  breast,  clasped  together  upon 
each  shoulder  with  a  large  onyx  stone, 
upon  which  were  engraved  the  names 
of  the  twelve  tribes,  six  on  each  stone; 
and  upon  the  place  where  it  crossed  the 
breast  was  the  breastplate.  See  Breast- 
plate. It  was  further  fastened  by  a 
"curious  girdle  of  gold,  blue,  purple, 
scarlet,  and  fine  twined  linen."  The 
ephod,  or  something  resembling  it  and 
called  by  the  same  name,  was  worn  by 
others  besides  the  priests.  1  Chr.  15  :  27 
and  passages  before  cited.  See  High 
Priest. 

E'PHRAIM  (double  fruitfdnesH), 
the  second  son  of  Joseph.  Gen.  41  :  52. 
Though  3'ounger  than  Manasseh,  he  was 
the  object  of  peculiar  favor,  and  the  pre- 


EPH 


EPI 


diction  of  their  grandfather,  Jacob,  was 
literally  fulfilled.  Cornp.  Gen.  48  :  8-20  ; 
Num.  2:18-21. 

E'PHRAIM  {double  fyuitf Illness), 
a  territory  named  after  Joseph's  second 
son,  Gen.  41  :  50-52;  its  boundaries  are 
given  in  Josh.  16:1-10.  It  lay  in  the 
centre  of  Canaan,  south  of  Manasseh 
and  north  of  Benjamin  and  Dan,  ex- 
tending from  the  Jordan  to  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea.  It  was  about  55  miles 
long,  and  about  30  miles  in  its  greatest 
breadth. 

Physical  Features. — It  may  be  divi- 
ded into  three  groups  :  1.  The  valley  of 
the  Jordan  ;  2.  The  hill-country  ;  3.  The 
plain  of  Sharon,  on  the  sea-coast.  All 
these  were  well  watered  and  fertile,  ful- 
filling the  blessing  of  Moses  in  Deut. 
33  :  13-16. 

History. — For  the  early  histoi*y  of  this 
territory,  see  Canaan.  For  more  than 
400  years  Ephraim,  with  Manasseh  and 
Benjamin,  exercised  undisputed  pre- 
eminence. Joshua  and  Samuel  were 
Ephraimites.  In  its  territory,  at  Shi- 
loh,  the  tabernacle  was  set  up.  Josh. 
18  :  1.  The  territory  was  prominent 
during  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solo- 
mon ;  but  after  the  revolt  of  the  ten 
tribes  from  Rehoboam,  Jeroboam  select- 
ed Shechem  in  Ephraim  as  his  capital, 
1  Kgs.  12  :  25,  when  this  territory  be- 
came the  chief  portion  of  the  northern 
kingdom  of  Israel.  See  Israel,  King- 
dom OF.  It  was  desolated  by  the  Assyr- 
ians at  the  time  of  the  Babylonish  Cap- 
tivity, and  the  country  was  repeopled 
by  colonists,  and  later  its  name  was 
changed  to  Samaria.     See  Samaria. 

Ephraim,  Gate  of,  one  of  the  gates 
of  ancient  Jerusalem,  2  Kgs.  14 :  13 ;  2 
Chr.  25  :  23  ;  Neh.  8:16;  12  :  39  ;  prob- 
ably on  the  north  side,  as  the  present 
Damascus  gate  is. 

Ephraim,  Mount,  a  name  applied  to 
the  hill-country  of  Ephraim,  extending 
from  Bethel  to  the  plain  of  Jezreel ; 
called  also  the  "  mountains  of  Israel," 
Josh.  11 :  21,  and  ''  mountains  of  Sama- 
ria." Jer.  31  :  5,  6;  Am.  3  :  9. 

Ephraim,  Wood  of,  a  forest  in  which 
the  great  battle  was  fought  when  Absa- 
lom was  killed.  2  Sam.  18  :  6.  It  lay 
east  of  the  Jordan,  in  Gilead,  near  Ma- 
hanaim.  Thick  woods  of  oaks  and  tere- 
binths still  exist  in  that  region. 

E'PHRAIN  (Hebrew,  Ephron,  two 


fawns),  one  of  the  places  taken  from  Is- 
rael by  Judah,  2  Chr.  13  :  19;  perhaps 
Ophrah  is  meant,  though  some  think  it 
is  the  same  as  the  *'city  called  Ephra- 
im" to  which  Jesus  retired.  John  11: 
54.  This  was  in  the  wilderness,  per- 
haps at  el  -  Taii/ibeh,  about  5  miles 
north-east  of  Bethel. 

EPH'RATAH  (fruitful),  Caleb's 
wife,  1  Chr.  2:50;  4:4;  called  Eph- 
rath  in  1  Chr.  2:19, 

EPH'RATAH,  and  EPH'- 
RATH  (fruitful),  the  original  name 
of  Bethlehem.  Ruth  4:11;  Ps.  132  :  6  ; 
Gen.  35:  16,  19;  48:7.  See  Bethle- 
hem. 

EPH'RATH.     See  Ephratah. 

E'PHRON  (fuion-like),  the  son  of 
Zohar  the  Hittite,  of  whom  Abraham 
bought  the  field  and  cave  of  Machpelah. 
Gen.  23:8. 

E'PHRON,  MOUNT  (fawn-like), 
on  the  northern  boundary  of  Judah, 
Josh.  15  :  19  ;  probably  the  range  of 
hills  west  of    Wacly  Beit-Hanina. 

EPICUREANS,  OR  EPICU'- 
REANS.  This  was  a  sect  of  Gentile 
philosophers  founded  by  Epicurus,  b.  c. 
342-271,  who  was  born  on  the  island  of 
Samos,  but  taught  his  philosophy  at 
Athens.  They  were  in  high  repute  at 
Athens  in  Paul's  days.  Acts  17  :  18. 
Among  their  doctrines  were  these — that 
the  world  came  into  being  and  will  be 
dissolved  by  chance,  or  by  the  effect  of 
mechanical  causes  moved  by  chance ; 
that  all  events  happen  by  chance  or  are 
occasioned  by  mechanical  causes;  that 
the  soul  dies  with  the  body ;  that  there 
is  no  future  retribution  ;  and  that  man's 
chief  happiness  lies  in  pleasure  or  bod- 
ily ease.  This  philosophy  obtained  a 
wide  popularity  in  Asia  Minor  and  in 
Rome  as  well  as  in  the  city  and  land 
of  its  originator.  It  derided  the  my- 
thology of  the  ancients,  but  proposed 
nothing  better.  It  created  a  frame  of 
mind  hostile  to  all  religion,  and  par- 
ticularly to  the  serious  doctrines  of 
the  gospel. 

EPIS'TLES,  the  word  applied  to 
the  apostolic  letters  in  the  N.  T.  The 
existence  of  letters  among  the  Hebrews 
and  the  mode  of  their  composition  will 
be   discussed  under  Letter,  Writing. 

The  Epistles  of  the  N.  T.  arose  from 
the  necessity  of  correspondence  as  a 
substitute  for  the  personal  instruction 

283 


ER 


ERE 


of  the  apostles  with  the  widening  of 
their  field  of  labor.  They  may  be  di- 
vided into  three  classes  :  congregational, 
those  addressed  to  a  particular  church 
and  dealing  with  doctrinal  or  practical 
questions  ;  private,  those  directed  to  in- 
dividuals, but  still  containing  exhorta- 
tion and  advice  fitted  for  many;  and 
general,  those  intended  for  universal 
use.  Paul  contributes  thirteen  or  four- 
teen :  John,  three;  Peter,  two;  James 
and  Jude,  one  each. 

In  their  outward  form  the  Epistles 
are  such  as  would  be  expected  from 
Jews  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  Greek 
civilization.  They  begin  (the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews  and  1  John  excepted) 
with  the  writer's  name  and  the  person 
or  church  to  whom  the  letter  is  address- 
ed ;  in  the  case  of  1  and  2  Peter  and 
Jude,  with  a  more  general  address. 
The  usual  Greek  and  Hebrew  saluta- 
tion ("grace"  and  "peace")  follows. 
In  the  letter  the  first  person,  singular 
or  plural,  is  used  indiscriminately.  The 
individual  messages  are  reserved  to  the 
close. 

Since  the  Epistles  of  Paul  are  the 
most  numerous  and  important,  their  form 
and  method  demand  fuller  treatment. 
His  opening  salutation  combines  the 
Greek  "grace"  with  the  Hebrew 
"peace,"  and  transforms  the  prevail- 
ing ideas  of  physical  health  and  tem- 
poral comfort  into  the  deep  meaning 
of  the  saving  grace  of  God  and  peace 
in  Christ.  Paul  employed  an  amanu- 
ensis. This  fact  explains  many  of  his 
peculiarities ;  his  sentences  are  some- 
times involved  and  have  the  vehemence 
of  a  speaker,  and  not  the  calmness  and 
control  of  a  writer.  In  order,  however, 
to  authenticate  his  letters,  Paul  added  a 
few  words,  a  salutation,  or  a  sentence  in 
his  own  hand,  probably  employing  larger 
letters  than  those  in  ordinary  use,  per- 
haps because  of  his  defective  eyesight. 
Ye  see  with  how  large  letters  I  have 
written  unto  you  with  my  own-  hand, 
he  writes  unto  the  Galatians,  6  :  11. 
Every  one  of  his  Epistles  was  written 
to  meet  some  emergency  ;  hence  they 
bear  the  imprint  of  a  historical  oc- 
casion. Each  Epistle  has  a  clearly-de- 
fined fundamental  idea  which  governs 
every  part  of  it.  They  are  tracts  for  his 
time,  and  yet  tracts  for  all  times  and  all 
congregations. 
284 


The  earlier  Epistles  antedate  the  Gos- 
pels. They  arose  out  of  the  necessities 
of  the  young  Church.  Questions  would 
constantly  be  submitted  to  the  apostles 
for  their  decision.  Then,  too,  there 
were  Christians  to  be  encouraged  and 
dangers  to  be  pointed  out,  and  so  there 
were  multiform  occasions  for  these  let- 
ters. It  is  quite  manifest  that  our  N. 
T.  contains  only  a  portion  of  this  corre- 
spondence. But  every  letter  which  was 
in  its  nature  adapted  for  the  universal 
Church  has  been  preserved  as  part  of 
her  canon.     See  Canon. 


Thessalonians  I.. 
Thessalonians  II. 

Galatiaus 

Corinthians  I 

Corinthians  II... 

Romans 

James 

Colossians 

Ephesians 

Philemon 

Philippians 

Hebrews 

Peter  I \ 


Timothy  I 

Titus 

Timothy  II 

Peter  II 

Jude 

John  I.,  II.,  III.. 


Corinth  > 
Corinth  5  "* 

Ephesus 

Epliesus      ( 
Macedonia  J 

Corinth 

Jerusalem  . . 
Rome  ~i 
Rome  1 
Rome  I    ■ ■  ■  * 
Rome  J 

Italy 

Babylon      ? 

or  Rome  5 

Macedonia  . . 

Macedonia  . . 

Rome 

Rome 

Unknown 

Ephesus  .... 


Date 

^approximate). 


53 

56  or  57 

58 

59 
62(?) 

61-63 


64(?) 

64(?) 

66  f?) 

66(?) 

68(?) 

68 

90 


64  and 
64  and 
67  or 
67  or 
80  and 
96  and  100 


ER  (watchfi(l),  Judah's  first-born, 
slain  for  his  wickedness.  Gen.  38  :  3,  6, 
7;  Num.  26:19;   1  Chr.  2:3. 

2.  A  son  of  Shelah.   1  Chr.  4:21. 

3.  A  name  in  the  genealogical  list  of 
Christ.  Luke  3:28. 

E'RAN  [watchful),  an  Ephraimite. 
Num.  26:36. 

ERAS'TUS  {beloved).  1.  One  of 
Paul's  attendants,  whom  he  sent  with 
Timothy  into  Macedonia,  Acts  19  :  22, 
and  whom  he  salutes  in  his  letter  to 
Timothy.    2  Tim.  4  :  20. 

2.  The  "chamberlain"  or  treasurer 
of  Corinth,  and  one  of  Paul's  converts. 
Rom.  16  :  23.  Some  identify  him  with 
the  preceding,  but  upon  insufficient 
grounds ;  for  in  this  case  we  should 
expect  the  mention  of  his  office  in  the 
Acts  and  in  Timothy,  as  in  Romans — 
unless,  indeed,  he  received  the  office  after 
his  conversion,  which  is  very  unlikely. 

E'RECH  (enduring),  a  city  of  Nim~ 
rod.  Gen.  10:iO.  Its  people  are  called 
Achevites  and  noticed  in  connection  with 
the  Babylonians.  Ezr,  4 :  9,  Jerome  iden- 


EBl 


ESH 


tifies  Erech  with  Edessa,  in  Mesopotamia: 
others  identity  it  with  Orchoe  or  Orech 
of  the  Greek  and  Roman  geographers. 
It  corresponded  to  modern  Witrka, 
about  120  miles  south-east  of  BaV)ylon, 
where  there  are  ruins  of  ancient  build- 
ings, and  a  ram])art  of  earth  nearly  6 
miles  in  circumference  and  some  places 
40  feet  high.  There  are  ruins  of  three 
considerable  buildings,  the  most  im- 
portant one  being  200  feet  square  and 
about  100  feet  high.  Many  of  the 
bricks  bear  the  name  of  Urukh,  a  king 
who  is  said  to  have  lived  about  b.  c. 
2250.  Warka  is  desolate — a  city  of 
tombs  which  even  the  jackal  and  hyena 
appear  to  shun. 

E'RI  (wdtching,  i.  e.  icorshij^ping, 
Jehovah),  one  of  the  sons  of  Gad.  Gen. 
46:  16;  Num.  26:16. 

ESA'IAS,  the  same  with  Isaiah. 
Matt.  3  :  '.^,  etc. 

E'SAR-HAD'DON,  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria, 
and  one  of  the  greatest  of  her  kings. 
2  Kgs.  19  :  37.  He  is  the  only  Assyrian 
monarch  who  actuall}'  ruled  in  Baby- 
lon. He  was  the  builder  of  magnifi- 
cent structures,  including  3  palaces 
and  30  temples.  His  reign  extended 
from  B.  c.  680  to  667,  and  during  it 
Manasseh,  the  king  of  Judah,  was  taken 
prisoner  by  his  captains  and  carried  be- 
fore him  at  Babylon,  and  kept  a  captive 
for  some  time.  2  Chr.  33: 11. 

E'SAU,  OR  E'DOM,  son  of  Isaac 
and  Rebecca,  and  twin  brother  of  Ja- 
cob. Gen.  25  :  25  ;  Gen.  36  :  1.  The 
most  important  events  of  his  life  are 
so  intimately  connected  with  the  life  of 
Jacob  that  they  will  be  considered  under 
Jacob.  His  family  settled  on  Mount 
Seir,  east  of  Jordan,  which  was  hence 
called  Edom,  and  his  descendants  were 
the  Edomites,  one  of  the  most  powerful 
and  formidable  nations  of  that  age. 
See  Edom. 

ESCHEW  (from  the  old  French 
eschever)  means  ''  to  flee  from."  Job 
1:1,  8:  2:3;  1  Pet.  3:11. 

ESDRAE'LON,  the  great  plain  in 
Samaria.     See  Jezrkel. 

ES  DRAS,  THE  BOOKS  OF. 
These  two  Apocryphal  books  are  not  of 
any  historical  value.  First  Esdras  is 
little  more  than  a  compilation,  after  the 
Septuagint,  of  the  canonical  Ezra,  pref- 
aced by  the  last  two  chapters  of  2  Chron- 


icles, with  a  piece  of  Nehemiah  at  the 
end.  It  contains  a  history  of  the  tem- 
])le  and  its  services  from  .Tosiah  to 
Ezra.  But  chs.  3  and  4  are  original, 
and  contain  a  legend  of  a  contest  in 
wisdom  between  Zerubbabel  and  two 
others,  held  before  Darius.  The  ques- 
tion in  debate  was,  "  Which  is  the 
strongest  power?"  The  king  was  so 
much  pleased  with  Zerubbabel's  answer 
that  he  promised  to  give  him  anything 
he  might  ask,  and,  further,  a  seat  next 
him  and  the  name  of  "  cousin."  Zerub- 
babel took  this  occasion  to  ask  that  the 
Jews  might  have  permission  to  rebuild 
their  city  and  temple.  The  book  breaks 
off  abruptly  ;  indeed,  the  present  First 
Esdras  seems  to  be  only  a  fragment  of  a 
much  larger  work.  We  do  not  know  the 
name  of  the  compiler.  It  was  probably 
written  in  Egypt,  some  time  in  the  sec- 
ond century  b.  c.  Its  object  was  to 
present  a  picture  of  the  liberality  of 
Cyrus  and  Darius  toward  the  Jews  as  a 
pattern  to  the  heathen  rulers  of  Judaea 
in  the  author's  time. 

Second  Esdras  is  of  less  value  than 
First.  It  exists  in  a  Latin  transla- 
tion. The  Greek  original  has  not  been 
found.  It  is,  however,  curious  as  a  rev- 
elation of  the  Jewish  mind  of  the  day 
upon  their  future.  It  purports  to  con- 
tain a  series  of  visions  vouchsafed  to 
Ezra.  They  are  upon  certain  mysteries 
in  the  moral  world  and  the  final  tri- 
umph of  the  righteous.  The  book  was 
written  in  Egypt,  probably  before 
Christ,  but  interpolated  bv  Christians. 

E'SEK  {strife),  a  well  in  the  valley 
of  Gerar,  dug  by  Isaac's  herdsmen. 
Gen.  26:20. 

ESH'-BA'AL  {Baal's  man),  the 
same  with  Ishbosheth.  1  Chr.  8  :  33  :  9  : 
39,     See  Ishbosheth. 

ESH'-BAN  {wise  man),  a  descend- 
ant of  Seir  the  Horite.  Gen.  36:26;  1 
Chr.  1:41. 

ESH'COL  {clnster),  one  of  Abra- 
ham's allies.    Gen.  14:13,24. 

ESH'COL.  (/^»»cA,  or  cluster),  THE 
VALLEY  OF,  a  valley  in  the  land 
of  Canaan,  Num,  13  :  23,  24  ;  32  :  9  ; 
Deut.  1 :  24.  It  has  been  placed  at  'Ain 
el-Khashkali,  north  of  Hebron,  but 
Palmer  and  Drake  would  place  it  at 
Telilat  el-'Anab,  or  "  gra])e-mounds," 
near  Beer-sheba.  Van  Lennep  has  found 
clusters  of  grapes  18  inches  in  length, 

285 


ESH 


ESS 


and  it  is  said  that  bunches  weighing 
from  12  to  20  pounds  are  still  found  in 
southern  Palestine. 

E'SHE  AN,  a  ])lace  in  the  mountains 
of  Judah.  Josh.  15  :  52.  Van  de  Velde 
suggests  the  ruins  of  Khursa,  near  He- 
bron, as  its  site;  Knobel  would  identify 
it  with  Shema,  1  Chr.  2:43;  Conder 
identifies  it  with  CH-Slmia. 

E'SHEK  {oppression),  a  descendant 
of  Saul.   1  Chr.  8  :  ;!9. 

ESH'TAOL  {recess,  or  hollow  way), 
a  town  in  the  lowlands  of  Judah,  Josh. 
15  :  33  ;  given  to  Dan.  19  :  41.  It  was 
the  region  of  Samson's  boyhood  and 
burial.  Jud.  13  :  25  ;  16  :  31.  '  The  Dan- 
ites  went  out  from  thence.  18 :  2-11. 
Robinson  and  others  suggest  Yeshua  as 
its  site  ;  Black  proposes  Eshua,  1  mile 
east  of  Snra  {Zoreah) ;  and  Grove  pro- 
poses  Kustul,  east  of  Kitriet-el-Enab. 

ESHTE.>10'A  {obedience),  a  de- 
scendant of  Judah.  1  Chr.  4:  19. 

ESHTEMO'A,  or  ESHTEM'- 
OA  {woman  of  r enow u  ?),  a  town  in  the 
hill-country  of  Judah;  given  to  the 
priests,  Josh.  21:14;  1  Chr.  6:57; 
visited  by  David,  1  Sam.  30  :  31  ;  now 
called  Semu'a  a  village  of  about  200  in- 
habitants. Among  its  houses  are  ruins 
and  ancient  hewn  stones.  It  was  also 
called  Eshtemoh.  Josh.  15  :  50. 

ESH'TEMOH.     See  Eshtemoa. 

ESH'TON  {effeminate).  It  is  usu- 
all}^  taken  as  the  name  of  a  descendant 
of  Judah,  but  Grove  thinks  it  was  prob- 
ably a  place  in  Judah.  1  Chr.  4:11,  12. 

ES 'Li I  {reserved  by  Jehovah),  a  per- 
son in  Christ's  genealogy.  Luke  3  :  25. 

ESPOUSE'.     See  Betroth. 

ES'ROM.  Matt.  1:3;  Luke  3  :  33. 
The  same  with  Hezron.  Gen.  46  :  12. 

ESSE'NES.  This  Jewish  sect  is 
not  mentioned  in  the  N.  T.,  because  they 
lived  in  retired  communities,  and  hence 
Christ  and  his  apostles  did  not  encoun- 
ter them.  They  represent  the  mystic 
and  ascetic  forms  of  Judaism,  while  the 
Pharisees  represented  the  orthodox,  and 
the  Sadducees  the  rationalistic  and  lati- 
tudinarian,  forms.  Their  origin  is  un- 
known. Some  think  they  started  in  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees,  about  B.  c.  150, 
while  others  trace  them  back  to  the 
Rechabites.  Their  name  has  never 
been  satisfactorily  explained.  Some 
think  it  means  "the  retiring"  or  "the 
puritan ;"  others,  "  the  healers."  Bishop 
286 


Lightfoot  prefers  the  meaning  "pious;" 
Philo  makes  it  mean  "  holy  ;"  Josephus 
considers  it  equivalent  to  "  oracle." 

From  the  two  last-mentioned  authors 
we  derive  our  information,  which,  though 
not  extensive,  is  sufficient  to  give  us  a 
vivid  picture  of  their  mode  of  life.  In 
Josephus's  day  most  of  the  Essenes  lived 
in  small  colonies  or  villages  at  long  dis- 
tances from  the  towns,  principally  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Dead  Sea,  although 
some  lived  in  the  cities.  They  diifered 
likewise  in  regard  to  marriage,  the  laxer 
practising  it,  but  the  stricter  being  celi- 
bates. Inasmuch  as  the  latter  were 
really  the  majority,  our  attention  will 
be  limited  to  them. 

"Ascetic  communism  expresses  the  pe- 
culiarity of  the  Essenic  movement." 
They  had  all  things  common.  Philo 
says :  "  There  is  no  one  who  has  a  house 
so  absolutely  his  own  private  property 
that  it  does  not  in  some  sense  also  belong 
to  every  one ;  for  besides  that  they  all 
dwell  together  in  companies,  the  house 
is  open  to  all  those  of  the  same  notions 
who  come  to  them  from  other  quarters. 
There  is  one  storehouse  among  them 
all ;  their  expenses  are  all  in  common, 
as  are  their  garments  and  food.  They 
do  not  retain  their  wages  as  their  own, 
but  bring  it  into  the  common  stock. 
They  take  care  of  their  sick  and  honor 
their  elders."  Each  settlement  had  near 
it  a  room  in  which  the  members  assem- 
bled at  regular  hours.  Each  Essene  rose 
before  sunrise,  and  said  his  morning 
praj'er  with  his  face  turned  toward  the 
East.  At  daybreak  they  went  to  work: 
farming,  cattle-i'aising,  bee-keeping,  and 
such-like  peaceful  operations,  were  their 
occupations.  They  shunned  commerce, 
war,  and  trade.  They  dressed  simply — 
not  for  show,  but  for  decency  and  com- 
fort; in  the  winter  in  a  hairy  mantle, 
and  in  the  warm  season  in  an  undergar- 
ment without  sleeves.  Besides,  at  all 
times,  they  wore  a  leathern  apron  and 
carried  little  spades.  They  worked  un- 
til 11  A.M. — the  fifth  hour — then  bathed, 
dressed  themselves  in  white  linen  (the 
dress  of  the  sect),  and  then  assembled 
for  the  meal.  A  priest  said  grace  before 
and  after  the  meal,  which  was  always 
extremely  simple,  since  they  abstained 
from  meat  and  wine.  Then,  having 
sung  a  hymn,  they  resumed  their  work, 
and  worked  until  sunset.     The  seventh 


EST 


EST 


day  of  tbe  week  was  kept  as  an  absolute 
rest,  the  time  passed  in  the  reading  and 
exposition  of  the  Law  and  their  own  pe- 
culiar books.  While  observing  the  Law 
in  many  points,  they  broke  it  in  one  im- 
portant particular :  they  did  not  go  to 
the  feasts  to  sacrifice  in  Jerusalem, 
though  they  regularlj^  sent  gifts.  This 
imumaly  has  been  explained  by  their 
circumstances :  their  asceticism  pre- 
vented them  from  partaking  of  the 
feasts,  their  mode  of  worship  prevented 
them  from  entering  the  temple. 

Since  they  abjured  marriage,  they  re- 
cruited their  ranks  by  adopting  chil- 
dren, whom  they  took  great  pains  in 
teaching.  But  they  were  never  numer- 
ous. Philo  states  that  in  his  time  they 
did  not  number  more  than  4000.  He 
who  would  join  them  had  to  endure  a 
three  years'  novitiate,  during  which  he 
was  excluded  from  their  society,  but 
was  compelled  all  this  while  to  live 
on  their  spare  diet  and  observe  their 
rules.  In  the  first  year  the  novice  wore 
the  apron  and  the  white  linen  garment 
and  carried  the  spade.  At  the  end  of 
the  year  he  was  made  a  "partaker  of. 
the  waters  of  purification."  At  the  end 
of  the  third,  after  he  had  bound  himself 
with  tremendous  oaths — though  at  other 
times  oaths  were  absolutely  forbidden — 
to  be  worthy  of  the  order  and  obedient 
to  its  rulers,  and  especially  ''to  keep 
the  books  of  the  order  and  the  names 
of  the  angels,"  he  was  admitted  into 
full  membership.  The  "  books  "  contain- 
ed probably  speculations  in  regard  to  the 
future,  inasmuch  as  the  Essenes  enjoyed 
distinction  from  the  number  of  their 
prophets.  The ''names  of  the  angels" 
may  have  been  magic  formula?,  since  the 
Essenes  practised  magic.  Banishment 
from  the  order  was  equivalent  to  starva- 
tion if  the  banished  man  desired  rein- 
statement, since  their  peculiar  notions 
would  prevent  him  receiving  food  from 
any  one  not  an  Essene. 

In  regard  to  theology,  the  Essenes  be- 
lieved in  unconditional  Providence,  the 
immortality  of  the  soul,  but  not  in  the 
resurrection  of  the  body,  in  future  re- 
wards to  the  righteous,  and  in  future 
punishment  to  the  wicked,  who  are 
*'  banished  to  a  cold  and  dark  corner, 
where  they  suffer  unspeakable  tor- 
ments." They  believed  they  had  among 
them  prophets,  and  indeed  this  was  the 


popular  opinion.  Their  celibacy,  sun- 
homage,  and  abstinence  from  sacrifice 
were  their  non-Jewish  qualities,  derived 
from  the  Zoroastrian  religion  ;  to  these 
must  be  added  their  magical  rites  and 
intense  striving  after  purity. 

In  their  life  the  Essenes  were  noted 
for  their  kindness  to  the  sick  and  the 
poor.  They  opposed  slavery.  They 
made  medicines  from  herbs  which 
were  healing.  Modest  and  retiring,  they 
shrank  from  participation  in  public  af- 
fairs. According  to  Philo,  their  con- 
duct generally  was  directed  by  three 
rules — "  the  love  of  God,  the  love  of 
virtue,  and  the  love  of  man." 

It  was  the  notion  of  some  rationalists 
that  Jesus  derived  his  theology  from 
them.  But  this  opinion,  which  never 
had  any  foundation,  is  now  given  up 
by  the  rationalists  themselves. 

Bishop  Lightfoot  {Com.  on  Colossians, 
"  Introd."  p.  98)  maintains,  with  many 
German  commentators,  that  the  Colos- 
sian  heresy  which  Paul  combats  in  his 
Epistle  was  a  form  of  Essene  Judaism 
which  was  Gnostic  in  its  character.  The 
Essenes  disappear  from  history  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem.  See  De  Quin- 
cey's  Essays  on  the  Essenes. 

ESTATE'  is  the  general  name  for 
an  order  or  class  of  men  in  society  or 
government,  Mark  6  :  21,  as  in  Great 
Britain  the  lords  and  commons  are 
called  the  "estates"  of  the  realm. 

ESTATE'  OF  THE  ELD'- 
ERS,  Acts  22  :  5,  means  the  eldership, 
the  elders  of  the  Jews,  a  distinct  body 
from  the  Sanhedrin,  but  co-operating 
with  it. 

ES'THER  (star),  called  also  in  He- 
brew HADAS'SAH  {the^  wyrtle),  an 
eminent  Jewess,  wife  of  Xerxes.  She 
was  an  orphan  child  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin, and  cousin  to  Mordecai,  who 
adopted  her  and  brought  her  up  very 
tenderly.  When  Ahasuerus — who  was 
Xerxes — put  away  Queen  Vashti,  he 
chose  Esther,  who  had  already  been 
selected,  on  account  of  her  beauty  and 
her  worth,  to  fill  the  vacant  place,  b.  c. 
479.  Having  learned  through  her  cou- 
sin, Mordecai,  who  held  some  office  in  the 
palace  of  Shushan,  or  Susa,  the  winter 
and  favorite  palace  of  the  Persian  kings, 
that  ILaman,  the  prime  minister,  had 
procured  the  roj-al  permission  to  kill  all 
the  Jews  in  the  kingdom,  Esther  had  the 

287 


ETA 


ETA 


faith  and  the  courage  to  carry  out  the  plan 
suggested  by  Mordecai,  and  succeeded 
not  only  in  executing  the  author  of  the 
infamous  plot,  but  in  getting  permission 
for  the  Jews,  upon  the  appointed  day  of 
slaughter,  to  defend  themselves  and  take 
vengeance  upon  all  who  dared  molest 
them,  and  for  the  Jews  in  Shushan  to 
repeat  the  slaughter  on  the  next  day. 

Esther,  Book  of,  a  narrative  of  the 
startling  deliverance  of  the  Jews  through 
the  agency  of  Esther  and  her  cousin, 
Mordecai,  and  of  the  origin  of  the  Purim 
festival.  Ilaman,  prime  minister  of 
Ahasuerus,  had  formed  the  wicked  de- 
sign to  extirpate  the  Jews  in  the  empire 
in  revenge  upon  Mordecai,  who  refused 
to  pay  him  the  customary  homage,  and 
whom  he  had  been  compelled  by  the 
king  to  lead  through  the  streets  in 
recognition  of  Mordecai's  services  in 
saving  the  king's  life.  But  his  design 
was  frustrated  by  the  bravery  of  Esther, 
and  the  day  fixed  for  the  Jews'  slaugh- 
ter was  for  them  a  day  of  revenge.  In 
memory  of  this  deliverance  the  festival 
of  Purim  ("lots")  was  instituted,  and  so 
called  in  remembrance  of  llaman's  cast- 
ing of  lots.  Esth.  3  :  7  :  9  :  24,  26.  It  is 
annually  observed  on  the  14th  and  15th 
Adar,  which  month  begins  with  the  new 
moon  of  February  and  lasts  till  the  new 
moon  in  March.  At  this  festival  the 
book  is  read,  and  it  is  the  custom,  in 
"  some  synagogues,  whenever  the  name 
of  Haman  is  pronounced,  to  hiss  and 
stamp  and  clench  the  fist  and  cry,  'Let 
his  name  be  blotted  out !  May  the  name 
of  the  wicked  rot !'  It  is  said  also  that 
the  names  of  Ilanian's  sons  are  all  read 
in  one  breath,  to  signify  that  they  all  ex- 
pired at  the  same  instant  of  time." 

The  book  is  written  upon  a  single  roll. 
It  is  greatly  admired  by  the  Jews.  This 
saying  is  attributed  to  one  of  their 
greatest  men :  "  In  the  days  of  the  Mes- 
siah the  prophetical  books  and  the  Ha- 
giographa  will  be  done  away  with, 
excepting  only  Esther,  which  will  en- 
dure together  with  the  Pentateuch." 
Its  literary  character  is  fully  equal  to 
the  best  of  the  other  historical  books  of 
the  canon.  The  style  is  lively,  and 
almost  dramatic.  But  the  peculiarity 
of  the  book  is  that  the  name  of  God 
does  not  occur  in  any  form.  The  omis- 
sion was  probably  intentional,  and  in 
order  to  permit  the  reading  of  Esther  at 
288 


the  joyous,  even  hilarious,  festival  of 
Purim,  without  irreverence.  It  is  wor- 
thy of  notice,  in  this  connection,  that  in 
Solomon's  Song  the  name  of  God  occurs 
only  once  in  the  Hebrew,  8  :  6,  where 
the  A.  Y.  translates  '"  a  most  vehement 
flame."  The  book  of  Esther  is  full  of 
a  most  intense  Judaism,  and  incident- 
ally exhibits  great  familiarity  with  Per- 
sian manners  and  customs.  Its  inci- 
dents are  thoroughly  in  keeping  with 
the  known  character  of  Xerxes. 

The  book  furnishes  a  striking  illustra- 
tion of  an  all-ruling  Providence  in  con- 
trolling human  passions,  frustrating 
wicked  designs,  punishing  sinners,  and 
delivering  God's  people  from  their  ene- 
mies even  in  a  foreign  land.  This  is 
the  chief  practical  value  of  the  book.  It 
is  likewise  a  divine  sanction  to  the  vir- 
tue of  patriotism. 

The  language  of  the  book  contains  sev- 
eral Persian  words,  translated  ''  satrap," 
"  post,"  "  edict,"  ''  royal  "  (not ''  camel;" 
8  :  10  and  14  read:  "coursers  of  the 
roijnl  stud"),  "cotton,"  "crown,"  "no- 
bles," "a  copy,"  and  "lot." 

The  circumstantial  minuteness  of  de- 
tail, the  vividness  of  the  portraits,  the 
Persian  words,  and  the  whole  tone  of 
the  book  indicate  that  the  author  was  a 
Jew  who  lived  about  the  time  of  the 
events  recorded,  at  the  court  of  Persia, 
where  he  had  access  to  the  official  docu- 
ments of  the  kingdom.  Professor  Raw- 
linson  assigns  the  book  to  a  period  from 
20  to  30  years  after  Xerxes's  death,  B.  c. 
444-4?,4. 

E'TAM.  1.  A  place  in  Simeon,  1 
Chr.  4  :  32 ;  jierhaps  the  modern  'Ai- 
tun. 

2.  A  place  in  Judah,  2  Chr.  11 :  fi  • 
the  source  of  the  water  for  Solomon's 
gardens  and  the  temple,  according  to 
Josephus.  It  has  been  identified  with 
Urtns,  near  Bethlehem  ;  but  Drake  sug- 
gests the  spring  'Ain  'Atdii,  a  few  hun- 
dred yards  south-east  of  Solomon's  pools. 

E  TAM,  THE  ROCK,  Samson's 
retreat  after  the  slaughter  of  the  Philis- 
tines. Jud.  15  :  8,  11.  Condor  locates  it 
at  Beit  ' Atdh,  a  little  north  of  Eshii'a 
(Eshtaol),  which  he  thinks  fully  meets 
all  the  requisites  of  the  case.  It  has 
clefts,  caves,  and  a  rock-tunnel  which 
would  so  effectually  conceal  one  that 
those  not  acquainted  with  the  place 
might  not  find  him,  nor  even  the  en- 


ETE 


ETH 


trance    to   the  tunnel    except   by    acci- 
dent.     {Tent-Life,  vol.  i.  p.  275.) 
ETERNAL,     ETERNITY. 

The  word  translated  "eternity"  is  in 
Hebrew  okivi,  which  means  *'  hidden  ;" 
in  Greek,  aiou,  which  has  primary  ref- 
erence to  a  period  as  "  a  lifetime."  The 
dift'erence  between  them  consists  in  the 
fact  that  olain  usually  means  the  world 
in  time,  although  the  only  place  where 
it  is  so  rendered  in  our  version  is  Eccl. 
3  :  11.  But  Ps.  90  : 1  is  literally  "  from 
world  to  world,"  Ps.  145  :  13,  "  kingdom 
of  all  worlds,"  Deut.  33  :  27  ;  "  the  arms 
of  the  world"  (English  Version,  "ever- 
lasting arms  ").  The  underlying  thought 
in  these  passages  is  that  of  immense  time- 
movements  exhibiting  God's  great  work. 

The  Hebrew  and  Greek  words  both 
had  plurals,  which  proves  that  they  did 
not  in  themselves  denote  absolute  end- 
lessness. They  are  likewise  applied  to 
finite  things.  Gen.  17:8;  49:26;  Ex. 
12  :  14.  When  they  are  applied  to  God 
and  spiritual  things  they  indicate  the 
endless  succession  of  ages,  which  is  the 
popular  and  necessary  conception  of 
eternity.  The  idea  of  absolute  eter- 
nity is  impressed  in  the  Bible  by  lan- 
guage which  implies  finality.  It  is  this 
which  renders  Matt.  25 :  46  so  impres- 
sive. The  verse  sets  forth  the  last  act 
of  the  great  drama  of  human  life,  and 
the  rewards  and  penalties  are  awarded 
irreversibly.     Here  the  curtain  falls. 

E'THAM  {houinlan/  of  the  sea),  a 
Station  of  the  Israelites  "  in  the  edge  of 
the  wilderness."  Ex.  13  :  20  ;  Num.  33  : 
6,  7.  Canon  Cook  would  identify  it 
with  Pithnm  or  ancient  Hiei-apolis; 
others  with  Selia  Beer,  "  seven  wells," 
about  3  miles  west  of  the  Red  Sea ; 
Trumbull,  with  a  "  wall"  from  the  Red 
to  the  Great  Sea. 

E'THAN  (Jinn,  strong).  1.  The 
"Ezrahite,"  Ps.  89,  title,  was  of  the 
tribe  of  Levi,  and  was  remarkable  for 
his  wisdom.  1  Kgs.  4:31:  1  Chr.  2:  6. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  written   Ps.  89. 

2.  Son  of  Kishi,  a  Merarite  Levite, 
head  of  that  family  in  the  time  of  Da- 
vid, and  spoken  of  as  a  "  singer."  1  Chr. 
6:44;  15:17,  19. 

3.  A  Gershonite  Levite,  ancestor  of 
Asaph,  the  Psalmist.  1  Chr.  6  :  42. 

ETH'ANIM.     See  Months. 
ETH'BAAL  {with  Baal;   i.  e.  fa- 
vored   by  him),  king  of  the    Zidonians 
19 


and  father  of  Jezebel.  1  Kgs.  16  :  31. 
In  secular  history  he  is  known  as  Itho- 
balus,  a  priest  of  Astarte,  as  well  as 
king.  He  usurped  the  throne  of  Tyre 
after  having  murdered  the  reigning 
king.  He  reigned  32  years,  b.  c.  940- 
908. 

E'THER  {abundance),  a  town  in 
the  lowlands  of  Judah,  .Josh.  15:42; 
given  to  Simeon,  19:7.  In  1  Chr.  4: 
32,  Tochen  is  put  in  the  place  of  Ether. 
Van  de  Velde  suggested  Tell  Athar,  and 
Wilton,  Attdrah.  Conder  proposes,  as 
the  corresponding  name,  ' Atr. 

ETHIO'PIA  {burnt-faces),  called 
CUSH  by  the  Hebrews,  a  country 
south  of  Egypt,  Ezr.  29  :  10,  which  em- 
braced in  its  more  extended  sense  mod- 
ern Nubia,  Sennaar,  Kordofan,  and 
northern  Abyssinia.  Sometimes  it  rep- 
resented the  whole  of  Africa  beyond 
Egypt.  In  the  Scriptures  "Ethiopia" 
usually  refers  to  the  region  extending 
from  Egypt  southward  beyond  the  junc- 
tion of  the  White  and  Blue  Nile.  This 
was  Seba,  Isa.  43  :  3,  and  known  to  the 
Romans  as  the  kingdom  of  Meroe.  The 
country  is  rolling  and  mountainous,  the 
elevation  increasing  toward  the  south, 
until  it  reaches  a  height  of  about  8000 
feet  in  Abyssinia. 

Scrijjture  History. — Frequent  notices 
of  this  country  and  its  people  are  found 
in  the  Bible.  It  was  settled  by  the  chil- 
dren of  Ham,  Gen.  10  :  6,  dark-skinned 
men  of  stature.  Jer.  13  :  23  :  Isa.  45  :  14. 
They  were  selected  as  members  of  royal 
households.  Jer.  38  :  7-13.  The  treas- 
urer of  its  queen,  Candace,  was  bap- 
tized by  Philip.  Acts  8  :  27-38.  It  is 
noticed  in  connection  with  Egvpt.  Isa. 
20  :  4;  43  :  3;  45  :  14;  with  Libya 
(Phut),  Jer.  46:9;  Lydia  and  Chub 
(Lub  and  Lud),  Eze.  30:5,  and  the 
Sukkiim.  2  Chr.  12  :  3.  Moses  married 
an  Ethiopian,  Num.  12  :  1  ;  Ethiopians 
were  in  Shishak's  army,  2  Chr.  12:3; 
Zerah,  an  Ethiopian  king,  had  an 
army  of  a  million  soldiers,  2  Chr.  14  : 
9-12  ;  Job  mentioned  the  precious  stones 
of  Ethiopia,  Job  28:19;  the  Israelites 
were  familiar  with  the  merchandise  of 
that  country,  Isa.  45:14;  and  Isaiah 
foretold  the  subjugation  of  Ethiopia 
by  the  Assyrians.  Isa.  20:4,  5.  Among 
the  Assyrian  inscriptions  of  Assur- 
banipal,  now  in  the  British  Museum, 
George  Smith  deciphered  several  which 

289 


ETH 


EUP 


especially  illustrate  and  confirm  the  ful- 
filment of  this  prophecy.  Among  other 
prophecies  in  respect  to  Ethiopia  are 
Ps.  68:31:  87:4;  Isa.  45:14;  Eze. 
30  :  4-9  ;  Dan.  11 :  43 ;  Hab.  3:7;  Zeph. 
2:12;  Nah.  3:8-10. 

Secular  History. — Ethiopia  became 
one  of  the  most  powerful  and  civilized 
nations  of  the  world  as  early  as  B.  c. 
1000.  The  ruling  class  was  of  the 
priests.  In  the  eighth  century  b.  c.  an 
Ethiopian  dynasty  reigned  in  Lower 
Egypt.  Its  first  king  was  Sabaco, 
whose  son  was  So  of  the  Bible,  2  Kgs. 
17 :  4,  an  ally  of  Hoshea,  king  of  Israel. 
It  is  said  that  in  the  reign  of  the  Egyp- 
tian king  Psarametichus,  B.  c.  630, 
240,000  of  the  military  class  migrated 
into  Ethiopia.  In  b.  c.  530,  Cambyses, 
king  of  Persia,  invaded  Egypt,  and, 
according  to  Josephus,  conquered  Me- 
roe  or  Ethiopia.  The  Romans,  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus  Ctesar,  b.  c.  22,  de- 
feated Candace,  queen  of  Ethiopia,  and 
made  the  country  tributary  to  Rome. 

ETHIOPIAN  EU'NUCH, 
THE,  the  Jewish  proselyte  who,  re- 
turning from  some  feast  in  Jerusalem, 
was  met  by  Philip  the  evangelist  and 
baptized.  Acts  8 :  26  fi".  He  was  a  eu- 
nuch in  the  strict  sense,  not  in  its  offi- 
cial sense  of  "courtier,"  and  the  treas- 
urer of  Candace,  queen  of  the  Ethio- 
pians. Candace  was  the  name  of  a  dy- 
nasty, and  not  of  individual  monarchs. 

ETHIOPIAN  WO  MAN,  the 
name  by  which  the  wife  of  Moses  is 
called  in  Num.  12  :  1.  She  was  prob- 
ably his  second  wife,  married  after  the 
death  of  Zijjporah,  who  was  a  Midian- 
ite. 

ETH'NAN  [hire  ;  e.g.  of  a  harlot), 
a  descendant  of  Judah.   1  Chr.  4:  7. 

ETH'NI  {munificent),  a  Gershonite 
Levite.  1  Chr.  6:41. 

EUBU'LUS  (prudent),  a  Roman 
Christian  who  greeted  Timothy.  2  Tim. 
4:21. 

EUNI'CE,  OR  EU'NICE  {happily 
victorious),  the  mother  of  the  evangelist 
Timothy.  She  was  by  birth  a  Jewess, 
but  married  a  Gentile.  Acts  16  :  1 ;  2 
Tim.  1  :  5, 

EU'NUCH  {bed-keeper,  chamber- 
lain). Such  persons  have  long  been, 
and  are  still,  employed  about  Eastern 
courts  as  guards  and  attendants  in 
harems.  2  Kgs.  9 :  32;  Esth.  2:3;  and 
290 


others  of  this  class  hold  oftentimes  the 
principal  offices.  They  are  often  cow- 
ardly, jealous,  intriguing,  the  tool  of  des- 
pots and  libertines,  ready  for  any  evil 
work,  being  shameless  and  remorseless. 
They  are  also  peculiarly  liable  to  be  mel- 
ancholy, and,  as  the  only  way  of  ridding 
themselves  of  the  burden  of  life,  to  com- 
mit suicide.  Eunuchs  are  the  natural 
consequence  of  polygamy,  and  they  are 
numerous  in  the  Eastern  cities.  In 
ancient  Rome  there  were  many  ;  so  in 
Greece  during  the  Byzantine  period. 
There  are  even  to-day  in  Rome  a  few 
who  sing  soprano  in  the  Sistine  chapel 
— the  only  instance  in  Christian  lands. 

According  to  the  law  of  Moses,  no  eu- 
nuch could  enter  into  the  congregation 
of  the  Lord,  Deut.  23 : 1 ;  nor  could  a 
mutilated  animal  be  otfered  in  sacrifice. 
Lev.  22  :  24.  Eunuchs  existed  in  the 
various  foreign  courts  of  which  we  read 
in  the  Bible.  Herod  had  them,  and  so 
Queen  Candace.  Acts  8:  27. 

The  word  "  eunuch  "  is  employed  by 
Christ,  Matt.  19  :  12,  in  various  senses 
to  designate:  1.  Those  who  are  natu- 
rallj' incapacitated ;  2.  Those  who  have 
been  mutilated;  3.  Those  who  voluntar- 
ily abstain  from  marriage  in  order  to  de- 
vote themselves  more  exclusively  to  the 
interests  of  the  kingdom  of  God. 

EUO'DIAS  {frar/rant),  a  Christian 
woman  of  Philippi.     Phil.  4  :  2. 

EUPHRA'TES  {the  abounding), 
a  noted  river,  the  largest  in  western 
Asia,  rises  in  Armenia  in  two  sources. 
One,  on  the  northern  side  of  the  moun- 
tain of  Ararat,  runs  in  a  south-easterly 
course,  receives  many  tributaries  in  its 
winding  course  along  the  borders  of 
Syria,  and  skirting  the  Arabian  desert 
passes  through  the  middle  of  Babylon 
to  the  sea.  Its  whole  length  is  1780 
miles.  It  is  navigable  for  large  ships 
to  Bassora,  70  miles  above  its  mouth; 
a  steamer  drawing  4  feet  of  water  has 
ascended  to  Bir,  1197  miles.  It  flows 
in  a  broad,  deep  current,  filled  to  the 
level  of  its  banks,  and  at  Babylon  is 
considerably  less  than  a  mile  in  width. 
For  the  last  800  miles  of  its  course  it 
does  not  receive  a  single  tributary. 
The  quantity  of  water  discharged  by 
the  river  at  Hit  is  estimated  at  72,804 
cubic  feet  per  second.  The  Tigris  flows 
in  a  narrower  channel,  with  deeper  banks 
and  a  less  rapid  current.     The  country 


EUR 


EVE 


between  the  two  rivers  slopes  toward  the 
Tigris,  and  thus  greatly  favors  the  drain- 
ing oft"  of  the  superfluous  waters  of  the 
Euphrates. 

The  Euphrates  overflows  its  banks  in 
the  spring  of  every  year,  when  the  snow 
of  the  Armenian  mountains  dissolves, 
and  it  sometimes  rises  12  feet.  It  swells 
in  March,  and  sinks  in  July.  Dykes, 
lakes,  and  canals  constructed  at  vast 
expense  preserved  the  water  for  irriga- 
tion during  the  dry  season,  and  i)re- 
vented  its  carrying  away  the  soil. 

History. — Euphrates  is  named  as  one 
of  the  rivers  of  Eden,  Gen.  2:13;  call- 
ed ''  the  great  river,"  Gen.  15  :  18  ;  Deut. 
1:7;  noted  as  the  eastern  boundary  of 
the  Promised  Land,  Deut.  11 :  24  ;  Josh. 
1:4;  1  Chr.  5:9;  and  of  David's  con- 
quests, 2  Sam.  8:3;  1  Chr.  18  :  3  ;  of 
those  of  Babylon  from  Egypt,  2  Kgs. 
24:7;  is  referred  to  in  prophecy,  Jer. 
13  :  4-7  ;  46  :  2-10  ;  61  :  63,  and  in  Reve- 
lation, 9:14;  16  :  12.  In  upward  of  26 
other  passages  it  is  spoken  of  as  "  the 
river."  By  this  stream  the  captive  Jews 
wept.  Ps.  137:1.  It  is  now  called  the 
Frat  by  the  natives.  For  a  sketch-map 
of  the  course  of  the  Euphrates  see  As- 
syria. 

The  Murad-chai,  a  branch  of  the 
Euphrates,  was  crossed  by  Xenophon, 
B.  c.  410.  After  this  unites  with  the 
other  chief  stream,  forming  the  Eu- 
phrates, the  river  is  120  yards  wide. 
It  was  used  to  irrigate  the  valley  around 
Babylon  by  means  of  numerous  canals, 
dykes,  and  aqueducts,  making  the  plain 
one  of  the  most  fertile  spots  in  the  world. 
It  was  announced  in  1879  that  a  railroad 
had  been  projected  along  the  Euphrates 
from  Damascus  to  Bagdad.  See  Baby- 
lon and  Chald.'ka. 

EUROC'LYDON.  Acts  27  :  14. 
A  very  tempestuous  wind  on  the  Med- 
iterranean ;  now  known  under  the  name 
of  a  "  Levanter."  It  blows  from  all 
points,  and  its  danger  results  from  its 
violence  and  the  uncertainty  of  its 
course. 

EU'TYCHUS  {fortunate),  the 
name  of  a  young  man  who  fell  from 
the  third  story  of  a  house  where  Paul 
was  preaching  in  Troas,  and  was  re- 
stored by  him  to  life.  Acts  20  :  9. 

EVAN'GELIST  (a  messenger  of 
good  tidings).  In  the  N.  T.  the  word 
jueans  a  preacher   of   the    gospel   who 


was  not  fixed  in  any  place,  but  who 
travelled  as  a  missionary  to  preach  the 
gospel  and  establish  churches.  Acts  21 : 
8  ;  Eph.  4:11:2  Tim.  4 :  5.  The  evan- 
gelists seem  to  have  been  an  order  of 
ministers  standing  between  the  apostles 
and  the  pastors  and  teachers.  They 
could  not  impart  the  Holy  Ghost.  Acts 
8 :  15.  They  were  liable  to  be  sent 
upon  sudden  errands.  Acts  8  :  26.  They 
might  be  ofiicers  in  a  particular  church, 
yet  evangelists,  as  was  the  case  with 
Philip,  who  is  the  best  known  of  the 
class.  Acts  6  : 5.  We  find  the  evan- 
gelists commonly  in  the  service  of  the 
apostles  as  their  "  helpers  "  and  "  fel- 
low-laborers." Paul  made  most  use  of 
them,  as  was  to  be  expected  ;  on  his 
last  journey  to  Jerusalem  he  was  ac- 
companied by  no  less  than  seven  of 
them.  Acts  20  :  4,  5.  They  were  the 
"vicegerents"  of  the  apostles.  Thus, 
Timothy  was  sent  by  Paul  to  report  the 
condition  of  the  Philippian  church, 
Phil.  2  :  19-23,  completed  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Ephesian  church,  and  re- 
pressed the  growth  of  errors  during  the 
absence  of  Paul.  1  Tim.  1  :  3  ;  3  :  14,  15  ; 
4:13.  The  discourses  of  the  evangel- 
ists were  historical  in  their  matter  and 
turned  chiefly  upon  the  main  facts 
of  Christ's  life. 

This  fact  gave  rise  to  the  later  appli- 
cation of  the  term  to  the  authors  of  our 
written  Gospels,  who  are  commonly  call- 
ed "the  four  Evangelists."  To  Matthew 
is  assigned  as  symbol  the  face  of  a  man 
(because  he  traces  the  human  descent  of 
Christ,  the  Son  of  man);  to  Mark  the  lion, 
(because  he  sketches  Christ  as  the  con- 
quering Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah) ;  to 
Luke  the  ox  (with  reference  to  Christ 
as  the  Victim  slain  fof  the  sins  of  the 
world) :  and  to  John  the  eagle  (because 
of  his  bold  flight  and  steady  gaze  at  the 
eternal  Son  of  God). 

EVE  {lifp)-  The  name  was  applied 
by  Adam  to  his  wife  because  "she  was 
the  mother  of  all  living."  Gen.  3  :  20.  She 
was  formed  out  of  a  rib  of  Adam,  taken 
while  he  slept — a  fact  which  teaches 
the  identity  of  nature  and  the  oneness 
of  the  origin  of  man  and  woman,  and 
stamps  the  divine  disap])roval  u})on  any 
degradation  of  women.  In  the  lan- 
guage of  Matthew  Henry,  "the  woman 
was  made  of  a  rib  out  of  the  side  of 
Adam  ;  not  made  out  of  his  head  to  top 

291 


EVE 


EXC 


him,  not  out  of  his  feet  to  be  trampled 
upon  by  him,  but  out  of  his  side  to  be 
equal  with  him,  from  under  his  arm  to 
be  protected,  and  from  near  his  heart 
to  be  beloved." 

Eve  was  Adam's  helpmeet  and  his 
equal  in  sinless  purity.  But  her  weak- 
er nature  afforded  Satan's  opportunity. 
Overcome  by  his  sophistry,  she  ate  of 
the  forbidden  fruit,  and  then  in  turn 
became  a  tempter,  by  her  persuasion 
inducing  Adam  to  share  her  sin,  and 
thus  brought  death  into  the  world  and 
all  our  woe.  For  her  prominent  part 
in  the  Fall,  God  said  to  her,  "  I  will  great- 
ly multiply  thy  sorrow  and  thy  con- 
ception ;  in  sorrow  thou  shalt  bring 
forth  children  ;  and  thy  desire  shall  be 
to  thy  husband,  and,  he  shall  rule  over 
thee."  Gen.  3  :  16.  But  it  was  the  seed 
of  Eve  which  was  to  bruise  the  ser- 
pent's head,  and  thus  the  unhappy 
author  of  human  sin  was  to  be  the 
blessed  mother  of  sin's  destroyer.  The 
remarkable  sayings  of  Eve's  at  the 
birth  of  her  three  known  sons  have 
been  preserved,  and  make  up  all  that  is 
known  of  her.  She  welcomed  the  first, 
Cain  (Heb.  possession),  as  the  prom- 
ised one  :  *'  I  have  gotten  a  man,  even 
the  Lord."  But,  soon  undeceived,  she 
said  of  Abel  {vanity),  "  Vanity  ;"  and 
while  her  heart  was  made  heavy  by  the 
experience  of  crime,  she  said  of  Seth 
(compensation):  "God  hath  appointed 
me  another  seed  instead  of  Abel,  whom 
Cain  slew."  The  Scripture  account  of 
Eve  closes  with  the  birth  of  Seth.  She 
is  twice  mentioned  by  Paul,  once  as  the 
subject  of  the  serpent's  guile,  2  Cor. 
11 : 3,  and  once  as  the  second  created, 
in  an  argument  for  the  silence  of  women. 
1  Tim.  2  :  13. 

E'VENING,  Ps.  55  :  17,  E'VEN- 
TIDE.  Gen.  24  :  63.  The  Hebrews 
reckoned  two  evenings,  one  commencing 
at  sunset  and  embracing  the  period  of 
twilight,  and  the  other  commencing  at 
dark.  Some  suppose  that  the  first  even- 
ing commenced  as  early  as  3  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon,  and  the  second  at  sunset. 
It  was  in  the  interval  between  the  two 
evenings,  at  whichever  of  these  periods 
it  occurred,  that  the  passover  was  to  be 
killed  and  the  daily  sacrifice  offered. 
See  marginal  reading  of  Ex.  12  :  6  ; 
Num.  9:3;  28:4.  "  Eventide  "  is  the 
same  with  "evening-time." 
292 


E'VI  (desire),  a  king  of  Midian 
slain  by  the  Israelites.  Num.  31  :  8  ; 
Josh.  13:21. 

E'VIL-MERO'DACH,   son   and 

successor  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of 
Babylon.  2  Kgs.  25  :  27.  Soon  after 
his  accession  to  the  throne  he  released 
Jehoiachin,  king  of  Judah,  from  prison, 
and  treated  him  with  great  regard 
through  life.  Jer.  52  :  31-34.  He  began 
his  reign  B.  c.  561,  but  in  b.  c.  559  he 
fell  a  victim  to  a  conspiracy  formed 
among  his  own  kindred,  headed  by  his 
brother-in-law,  Neriglissar — probably 
the  Nergal-sharezer  of  Jer.  39  :  3,  13 — 
who  succeeded  him. 

EXCHAN'GERS.  See  Changers 
OF  Money. 

EXCOMMUNICA'TION.  The 
writings  of  the  Rabbins  mention  the 
various  offeuces  for  which  men  were  cut 
off  from  the  privileges  of  the  synagogue, 
and  even  from  social  life.  Our  Lord  is 
supposed  to  refer  to  the  excommunica- 
tions practised — "  the  simple  separa- 
tion, the  additional  malediction,  and 
the  final  exclusion " — when  he  said, 
"  Blessed  are  ye  when  men  shall  hate 
you,  and  when  they  shall  separate  you 
from  their  company,  and  shall  reproach 
yon,  and  cast  out  your  name  as  evil,  for 
the  Son  of  man's  sake."  Luke  6  :  22. 
Another  and  yet  more  evident  reference 
to  these  Jewish  ceremonies  is  that  in 
John's  story  of  the  man  born  blind. 
John  9  :  22,  23,  34,  35.  Rabbinical 
excommunication  does  not  rest  upon  the 
Law  of  Moses.  It  is  the  natural  out- 
growth of  a  Avell-organized  society, 
which  keeps  itself  clear  of  all  obnox- 
ious persons.  In  its  mildest  form  it  was 
a  prohibition  from  "the  use  of  the  razor, 
the  bath,  or  the  convivial  table,  and  all 
who  had  to  do  with  the  offender  were 
commanded  to  keep  him  at  four  cubits' 
distance."  It  lasted  30  days,  but  might 
be  renewed  for  an  equal  period.  In 
case  of  continued  rebellion,  the  second 
step  was  taken.  In  a  solemn  manner 
the  offender  was  cursed,  and  prohibited 
from  teaching  or  being  taught,  hiring 
or  being  hired,  and  from  "  performing 
any  commercial  transactions  beyond 
purchasing  the  necessaries  of  life." 
The  third  and  last  step  was  entire  ex- 
clusion from  the  congregation. 

It  was  to  be  expected  that  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church  the  practice  of  excommuni- 


EXE 


EXO 


cation  would  be  continued.  Its  institu- 
tion by  our  Lord  is  recorded  in  Matt.  18  : 
15,  IS,  and  the  practice  and  commands  of 
Paul  are  given  in  1  Tim.  1 :  20  ;  1  Cor. 
6:11:2  Cor.  2  :  5-10  ;  Tit.  3  :  10.  Chris- 
tian excommunication,  as  we  gather 
from  these  Pauline  Epistles,  was  a 
purely  spiritual  penalty,  inflicted  for 
the  good  of  the  sufferer  and  in  order 
that  the  church  might  be  protected. 
The  sentence  might  be  increased  or 
lightened  according  to  circumstances. 
Repentance  was  the  condition  of  res- 
toration :  and  as  the  exclusion  of  the  of- 
fender from  the  temporal  body  of  Christ 
was  a  public  and  congregational  act,  so 
the  reception  of  the  excommunicated 
member  was  of  the  same  character. 

EXECU  TIONER.  In  0.  T. 
times  the  post  was  honorable.  The 
executioner  of  Mark  6  :  27  belonged  to 
the  king's  body-guard. 

EX'ODUS,  the  second  book  of  the 
Pentateuch.  The  word  is  Greek  for 
"going  out"  or  "  departing,"  and  is  an 
appropriate,  title  to  the  book,  which  con- 
tains an  account  of  the  going  out  of  the 
Israelites  from  the  land  of  Egypt.  It 
may  be  divided  into  two  parts:  1.  The 
historical,  chs.  1-18  :  27  ;  2.  The  legis- 
lative, ch.  19  to  the  end. 

In  the  historical  portion  we  have  an 
account  of  the  depressed  condition  of 
the  people  under  the  king  "  who  knew 
not  Joseph"  (Rameses  II.),  the  birth, 
education,  flight,  and  return  of  Moses, 
the  attempts,  at  first  disastrous  to  the 
Hebrews,  to  secure  the  king's  permis- 
sion to  their  temporary  exodus,  the 
plagues  wrought  by  the  Lord's  power, 
culminating  in  the  death  of  the  first- 
born, the  journey  of  the  Israelites  from 
Goshen  to  Sinai,  with  all  the  important 
incidents  and  miracles.  This  portion 
closes  with  the  Israelites  before  Mount 
Sinai,  encamped  upon  the  ground  they 
were  to  occupy  for  a  year. 

2.  In  the  legislative  part  are  related 
the  giving  of  the  Law,  and  the  sin  of  the 
golden  calf;  then  follow  the  text  of  the 
ten  commandments,  the  various  laws 
for  the  governance  of  the  people,  the 
full  directions  for  the  priesthood  and 
all  their  appointments.  And  lastly 
there  are  described  the  erection  of  the 
tabernacle  and  the  inauguration  of  the 
service.  In  this  book  the  Bible  is 
brought  into  contact  with   Egyptology 


and  much  light  has  been  thrown  upon 
it  from  modern  discoveries  and  re- 
searches confirming  the  Mosaic  narra- 
tive.    See  Pentatkiich. 

EX'ODUS,  THE.  The  date,  the 
geography,  and  the  history  of  this 
"  great  turning-point  in  biblical  his- 
tory "  will  be  considered. 

1.  Date.  —  There  is  a  difference  of 
opinion  among  biblical  scholars  as  to 
the  name  of  the  two  kings  who  oppress- 
ed the  Israelites  and  are  mentioned  in 
the  book  of  Exodus  under  the  generic 
name  of  Pharaoh. 

(1)  Some  hold  that  Amosis  or  Aahmes 
I.  was  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Oppx'ession, 
and  that  Thothmes  or  Tutmes  II.  was  the 
Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  who  perished 
in  the  Red  Sea.  The  latter  reigned 
about  a  century  later,  b.  c.  1485.  His 
reign  is  known  to  have  been  short  and 
inglorious.  But  the  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  this  view  are  numerous. 

(2)  According  to  the  other  theory, 
now  held  by  the  majority  of  Egyptolo- 
gists and  biblical  scholars,  Rameses  II., 
the  Great — the  Sesostris  of  the  Greeks 
— was  the  Pharaoh  who  "  knew  not  Jo- 
seph," Ex.  1  :  11  (b.  c.  1388  to  1325), 
and  his  son,  Menephthah  II.,  was  the 
Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus.  Menephthah 
was  the  thirteenth  son  of  Rameses, 
and  began  to  rule  probably  B.  c.  1325 
or  1322.  He  marks  a  period  of  de- 
cline in  which  the  conquests  of  his 
two  great  predecessors  were  gradually 
lost.  Few  monuments  were  erected  in 
his  reign,  and  even  his  father's  tomb 
was  left  unfinished.  This  is  just  what 
we  would  expect  after  the  catastrophe 
in  the  Red  Sea.  Herodotus  tells  us  that 
the  son  of  Sesostris  (Rameses,  whom 
he  calls  Pheron)  undertook  no  warlike 
expeditions,  and  was  smitten  with  blind- 
ness for  10  years  because  "  he  impiously 
hurled  his  spear  into  the  overflowing 
waves  of  the  river,  which  a  sudden  wind 
caused  to  rise  to  an  extraordinary 
height."  This  reads  like  a  confused 
reminiscence  of  the  overthrow  in  the 
Red  Sea.  Taking  this  view,  we  may, 
with  Lepsius  and  Ebers,  set  the  Exodus 
in  B.  c.  1317,  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  the 
first  month,  A  bib  or  Nisan,  our  April. 

2.  Gufxjvaphy.  —  The  Scripture  data 
about  the  Exodus  are  as  follows  :  The 
children  of  Israel  proceeded  from  Ram- 
eses to  Succoth,   Ex.  12  :  37;  thence  tu 

293 


EXO 


EXO 


Etham,  "in  the  edge  of  the  wilderness," 
13  :  20  ;  here  they  were  to  ''turn  and  en- 
camp, before  Pi-hahiroth,  between  Mig- 
dol  and  the  sea,  over  against  Baal-ze- 
phon."  14  :  2.     With  these  notices  must 
be  compared  the  list  of  camping-stations 
which    Moses    gives.     Num.    33  :  2-10. 
When  the  Egyptians  came  upon  the  track 
of  the  Israelites  they  said,  "  They  are  en- 
tangled in  the  land  ;  the  wilderness  is 
closed   against  them,"  Ex.  14  :  3 — i.  e. 
"They  cannot  get  out  of  Egypt;  they 
must  either  return   or  cross    the   sea." 
Moses  intended  to  go  by  the  way  of  the 
wilderness,  but  when  he  turned   south- 
ward, by  divine  command,  he  was  shut 
in  by  the  waters  of  the  Red  Sea,  which 
then  probably  extended  farther  north, 
to  the  Bitter  Lakes.     We  may  thus 
identify  the  places  mentioned  in  the 
itinerary.    Rameses,  the  place  of  gen- 
eral rendezvous,  is  Zoan  (  Tanis).   Suc- 
coth,  which  Ebers  considers  an  Egyp- 
tian word  {field>i),  must  have  been  half- 
way  between    Rameses    and   Etham. 
Etham  was  probably  Pithom  (Pitum) ; 
Pi-hahiroth  is. 4/r»f?or^l^rMr?,  a  fortress 
on  the  way  from  Etham  to  Suez;  Mig- 
dol  is  Bir  Sitweis,  about  2  miles  from 
Suez  ;  Baal-zephon  is  perhaps  identi- 
cal with  Mount  Atakah.    Baal  was  the 
chief  deity  of  the   Phoenicians,  who 
had  at  a  very  early  period  a  settle- 
ment in  Lower  Egypt. 

There  are  two  prominent  theories 
about  the  locality  and   mode  of  the 
miraculous  passage  of  the  Israelites 
through  the  Red  Sea:  (1)  The  usual 
theor}',  which  locates  the  passage  sev- 
eral miles   south  of  Suez,  where  the 
sea  is   about   10  miles   broad.      This 
theory    fits    in    best    with   the    literal 
meaning  of  the  narrative,  for  in  this 
case  the  waters  must  have  been  actual- 
ly divided  for  several  miles,  and  have 
stood  like  walls  on  either  hand.     But 
the  difficulties  the  view  raises  are  more 
numerous  than  those  it  solves.     Could 
the     host    of    Israel,     encumbered     as 
they  were,  have   crossed   in   one  night 
through   such   a   channel?     Would  the 
Egyptians  have  followed  them  through 
the   deep   sea,  and  in  view  of  such  an 
amazing  interposition  of  God  ?     Could 
any  wind  have  had  such  an  effect  upon 
so  wide  a  sea?     And  if  not,  why  is  it 
mentioned  at  all  as  an  agent?     An  ac- 
cumulation of  miracles  is  called  for  by 
294 


this  theory.  (2)  The  second  theory  puts 
the  crossing  at  the  head  of  the  gulf,  near 
or  some  distance  north  of  Suez.  In  Mo- 
ses's time  the  gulf  may  have  extended 
as  a  reedy  marsh  as  far  as  the  Bitter 
Lakes.  The  crossing  was  made  possible 
by  a  special  providence  and  a  miraculous 
adaptation  of  the  laws  of  nature.  The 
east,  or  rather  north-east,  wind  drove 
off  the  waters  from  the  small  arm  of  the 
sea  which  runs  up  by  Suez;  this  would 
leave  the  water  on  the  more  northern 
j^art  of  the  arm,  so  that  there  would  be 
waters  on  both  sides  to  serve  as  an  en- 
trenchment.    This  would  meet  the  exi- 


Sketch-map  of  the  Koute  of  the  Exodus. 

gences  of  the  narrative,  Ex.  14  :  22.  But 
even  in  this  case  the  passage  of  two  mil- 
lions of  people,  with  all  their  cattle,  was 
an  astounding  miracle.  It  has  its  coun- 
terpart in  the  crossing  of  the  river  Jor- 
dan at  the  end  of  the  journey  through 
the  wilderness.  For  a  third  theory  ad- 
vocated b\'  Brugsch  Bey,  and  more  re- 
cently by  Prof.  A.  H.  Sayce,  see  Red  Sea. 
3.  History. — The  Exodus  was  the  ex- 
ecution of  a  divine  plan.     God  sent  ten 


EXO 


EZB 


plagues  upon  the  land  in  punishment. 
The  last  was  the  severest :  the  first-born 
in  every  house  lay  dead.  But  while  the 
destroying  angel  went  through  the  midst 
of  Egypt  the  Israelites  were  gathered  in 
their  respective  houses,  ready  at  any 
moment  to  hear  the  command,  "  Go  !  be- 
gone !"  their  loins  girded,  their  shoes  on 
their  feet,their  staffs  in  their  hands, 
eating  hastily  the  lamb  which  they 
had  roasted.  Thus  they  observed 
the  Passover.  "  Dimly  we  see  and 
hear  in  the  darkness  and  confu- 
sion of  that  night  the  stroke 
which  at  last  broke  the  heart  of 
the  king  and  made  him  let  Israel 
go."  "  And  Pharaoh  in  the  night, 
he  and  all  his  servants,  and  all 
the  Egyptians;  and  there  was  a 
great  cry  in  Egypt,  for  there  was 
not  a  house  where  there  was  not 
one  dead."  Then  followed  in  quick 
succession  the  midnight  call  of 
Pharaoh  for  Moses  and  Aaron, 
the  command  to  depart,  the  ur- 
gent co-operation  of  the  nation 
to  hasten  their  departure,  and  the 
actual  leaving  of  the  house  of 
bondage  and  start  upon  the  mo- 
mentous journey. 

4.  Practical  Lesson.  —  The  history 
of  the  exodus  of  the  Israelites  from 
the  land  of  bondage — their  wanderings 
through  the  dreary  wilderness  under 
the  guidance  of  the  Law  of  God,  the 
pillar  of  cloud  by  day  and  fire  by  night, 
with  many  resting-places  in  delightful 
oases,  and  the  constant  services  of  the 
tabernacle,  and  their  final  entrance  into 
the  Promised  Land — has  always  been 
regarded  as  a  most  instructive  type  and 
illustration  of  the  history  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church  and  of  the  individual  be- 
liever, his  deliverance  from  the  bondage 
of  sin,  and  his  passage  to  the  heavenly 
land  of  rest  and  peace. 

EXOR'CISTS,  those  who,  by  the 
use  of  the  name  of  God,  attempted  to 
expel  evil  spirits  from  places  or  persons 
of  whom  they  had  possession.  It  was 
not  an  uncommon  profession  among  the 
Jews,  as  we  may  infer  from  Matt.  12 : 
27;  Mark  9:38;  Acts  19  :  13.  They 
were  popularly  believed  to  have  gotten 
their  power  by  their  study  of  magic  for- 
mulas written  out  by  Solomon,  of  drugs 
and  charms,  by  the  use  of  spells  and  in- 
cantationS;  but  they  were  impostors. 


EXPIA'TION,     FEAST     OF. 

See  Fkasts;  Atonement,  Day  of. 

EYES.  It  was  part  of  the  cruelty 
which  distinguished  ancient  warfare  to 
put  out  the  eyes  of  prisoners,  particu- 
larly those  who  were  prominent  or  dan- 
gerous. This  custom  is  referred  to  in 
Jud.  16  :  21  ;  1  Sam.  11 :  2  ;  2  Kgs.  25  :  7. 


The  custom  of  adorning  the  eyelids  in 
any  way  for  effect  is  not  known  among 
us,  but  is  often  alluded  to  in  the  0.  T., 
2  Kgs.  9  :  30  ;  Jer.  4  :  30  ;  Eze.  23  :  40, 
and  prevails  extensively  now  among 
Eastern  women,  especially  among  Mo- 
hammedans. The  hair  and  edges  of  the 
eyelids  are  tinged  with  a  fine  black  pow- 
der moistened  with  oil  or  vinegar,  which 
causes  a  small  black  line  to  appear  around 
the  edge,  and  at  a  distance  (and  especial- 
ly by  candlelight)  gives  a  heavy,  dark 
shade  to  the  ej^es.  A  smooth  cylindri- 
cal piece  of  silver  or  ivory,  shaped  like  a 
quill  and  about  2  inches  long,  is  dipped 
into  the  composition  and  placed  within 
the  eyelashes,  which  are  closed  over  it. 

The  figurative  use  of  the  word  "eye" 
to  indicate  alacritvand  vigilance  occurs 
Eze.  1:18;  10:12;   Rev.  4  :  6,  8. 

EVE'-SERVICE,  in  Col.  3:22; 
Eph.  6  :  6,  means  "  service  performed 
only  as  it  were  under  the  master's  eye — 
I.  e.  reluctant  and  mercenary." 

E'ZAR  {treasure).  1  Chr.  1 :  38.     See 

EZKU. 

EZ'BAI  (shmiiuj),  the  father  of  one 
of  David's  warriors.  1  Chr.  11  :  37. 
KZ'BON  {splendor).     1.  One  of  the 

29§ 


EZE 


EZE 


sons  of  Gad,  Gen.  46  :  16 ;  called  Ozni. 
Num.  26:16. 

2.  A  Beniiunite.  1  Chr.  7  :  7. 

EZEKI'AS,  the  Greek  form  of  Hez- 
ekiah.  used  in  Matt.  1:9,  10. 

EZE'KIEL  {God  will  Htrengthen, 
or  the  8treu<ith  of  God),  the  son  of  a 
priest  named  Buzi.  was  born  and  spent 
his  earlier  years  in  Judaea.  He  was 
carefully  educated,  but  carried  by  Neb- 
uchadnezzar into  captivity  with  Jehoi- 
achin,  king  of  Judah,  B.  c.  598,  11  years 
before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
and  placed  with  a  Jewish  community 
by  the  river  Chebar,  in  Chalda^a.  See 
Chebar.  He  prophesied  over  22  years, 
B.  c.  595-573,  till  the  fourteenth  year 
after  the  final  captivity  of  Jerusalem. 
From  incidental  allusions  we  learn  that 
he  had  a  house.  8:1,  and  had  lost  his 
wife  very  suddenly,  24:16-18.  He  was 
held  in  great  esteem  and  frequently  con- 
sulted by  the  elders,  8:1;  11 :  25  ;  14  : 
1 ;  20  :  1.  It  is  said  that  he  kept 
up  an  intimate  friendship  with  Jere- 
miah, and  even  that  they  exchanged 
prophecies.  At  all  events,  they  echo 
one  another's  grief  and  lament  over 
the  ruined  city,  and  both  pierce  through 
the  gloom  of  the  present  distress  and  see 
the  light  of  a  new  dispensation  when  the 
Law  shall  be  written  in  the  heart.  Eze. 
11 :  19  5  18  :  31 ;  cf.  Jer.  31 :  33.  We  do 
not  know  how  or  when  his  death  occur- 
red. Tradition  states  he  was  murdered. 
His  reputed  tomb  is  shown  near  Bagdad. 

Ezekiel  was  stern,  inflexible,  an  earnest 
Jewish  patriot,  devoted  to  the  rites  and 
ceremonies  of  his  religion,  and  uncom- 
promisingly opposed  to  all  forms  of  evil. 
He  no  doubt  contributed  much  to  the 
formation  of  the  intense  nationality  of 
the  Jews  during  that  period.  Prof.  J. 
T.  Hyde  says :  "  He  is  not  so  much  of 
a  counsellor  and  seer  as  Isaiah,  nor  so 
much  of  a  reformer  and  intercessor  as 
Jeremiah,  nor  so  much  of  a  prince  and 
statesman  as  Daniel,  but  more  of  a  priest 
in  his  general  spirit  and  bearing.  More 
than  a  hundred  times  is  he  called  '  son  of 
man,'  a  title  given  to  no  other  prophet 
except  Daniel,  and  to  him  onl}'  once, 
Dan.  8  :  17,  signifying,  doubtless,  that 
'to  them  of  the  captivity 'he  was  not 
only  a  living  witness  for  God,  but  a 
priestly  mediator,  with  somewhat  of  the 
distant  dignity  of  the  great  '  Son  of 
man '  himself." 
296 


Prophecy  op.  The  book  of  Ezekiel 
is  arranged  in  regular  chronological  or- 
der, and  presents  a  great  variety  of  vis- 
ions, symbolical  actions,  parables,  prov- 
erbs, allegories,  and  direct  prophecies. 
Many  of  the  symbolic  acts  were  proba- 
bly not  literally  performed  by  the  proph- 
et, but  described  in  this  manner  for  rhe- 
torical effect.  He  is  especially  familiar 
with  architecture,  from  which  he  often 
draws  his  illustrations.  He  is  somewhat 
obscure  by  reason  of  the  strange  things 
he  describes — "wheels  within  wheels, 
with  living  creatures  wedded."  The  Jews 
reckoned  his  prophetical  writings  among 
those  portions  of  Scripture  which  were 
not  allowed  to  be  read  till  the  age  of  30. 
His  imagery  and  symbolism  derive 
much  light  from  the  recently-discover- 
ed Assyrian  monuments.  We  there 
find  reproduced  the  strange  forms  he 
brings  to  our  view — the  eagle-winged 
lion  and  the  human-headed  bull.  His 
visions  give  us  "the  last  glimpse  of 
these  gigantic  emblems,  which  vanished 
in  the  prophet's  lifetime,  only  to  reap- 
pear in  our  own  age  from  the  long-lost 
Nineveh."  (Stanley.) 

The  book  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
of  which  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  is  the  turning-point. 
(1)  Chs.  1-24  contain  predictions 
before  that  event;  these  are  arranged 
in  chronological  order  from  the  fifth 
year  of  the  Captivity  to  the  ninth.  (2) 
Chs.  25-48  contain  prophecies  and  vis- 
ions after  Jerusalem's  fall,  including 
denunciations  against  Amnion,  Moab, 
Edoin,  the  Philistines,  Tyre,  Zidon,  and 
Egypt,  30-32  ;  predictions  of  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  theocracy,  35-48. 
Ch.  35  is  the  judgment  of  Seir.  The 
second  part  is  also  arranged  chronolog- 
ically. Ezekiel  himself  is  the  apparent 
editor  of  his  book. 

There  are  no  direct  quotations  of 
Ezekiel  in  the  N.  T.,  but  many  parallels 
and  obvious  allusions  to  the  later  chap- 
ters in  the  book  of  Revelation. 

The  Vision  of  the  Temj)le. — This  sec- 
tion, the  last  nine  chapters,  40-48,  is  so 
remarkable  that  it  arrests  the  attention 
of  every  reader  and  constitutes  the 
unique  feature  of  Ezekiel's  book.  It 
is  a  magnificent  vision  and  description 
of  the  new  temple  which  Ezekiel  saw 
from  a  high  mountain  in  the  twenty- 
fifth    year   of    the    Captivity   and    the 


EZE 


EZK 


fourteenth  after  the  destruction  of  the 
holy  city.  Although  a  few  commenta- 
tors maintain  it  was  but  a  description 
from  memory  of  Solomon's  temple,  the 
majority  hold  that  it  has  to  do  with  fu- 
ture events.  These  latter  difler  accord- 
ing as  they  sec  in  it  a  mere  prophetic 
picture  of  Zerubbabel's  temple,  or  a 
vague  announcement  of  some  future 
blessing,  or,  as  is  altogether  the  best 
view,  a  Messianic  prophecy.  It  is  most 
probably  a  grand  symbol  of  the  future 
Church  of  Uod.  Its  historical  founda- 
tion is  undoubtedly  the  first  temple  and 
the  hidden  springs  of  the  sacred  mount, 
but  upon  this  foundation  the  inspired 
prophet  builds  a  glorious  superstruc- 
ture of  allegory  which  sets  forth  the 
whole  scheme  of  redemption. 

E'ZEL(rfpi>fn7Hre),  THE  STONE, 
near  Saul's  residence,  and  noted  as  the 
place  where  Jonathan  and  David  parted. 
1  Sam.  20  :  19. 

E'ZEM  {hone),  a  city  of  Simeon,  1 
Chr.  4  :  29 ;  also  called  Azem.  Josh. 
19  : 8. 

E'ZER  [treasure),  a  "duke"  of  the 
Horites.  Gen.  36  :  21, 27, 30 ;  1  Chr.  1 :  42. 

E'ZER  (help).  1.  A  descendant 
of  Judah.  1  Chr.  4:4. 

2.  A  son  of  Ephraim.  1  Chr.  7:21. 

3.  A  (xadite  chief  who  joined  David. 
1  Chr.  12  :  9. 

4.  A  Levite  who  assisted  in  repairing 
the  wall.  Neh.  3:19. 

5.  A  priest  who  took  part  in  its  dedi- 
cation. Neh.  12  :  42. 

E'ZION-GA'BERjOR  GE'BER 
(giant's  backbone),  a  city  on  the  Red 
Sea,  the  last  station  of  the  Israelites 
before  they  came  to  the  wilderness  of 
Zin,  Num. "33  :  35  ;  Deut.  2:8;  the  sta- 
tion of  Solomon's  navy,  1  Kgs.  9  :  26  ;  2 
Chr.  8:17,  and  of  Jehoshaphat's  navy.  1 
Kgs.  22:48.  Probably  it  was  at  'Ain 
el-GhufJydn,  about  10  miles  up  what  is 
now  the  dry  bed  of  the  Arabah.  Kie- 
pert  and  Robinson  suppose  that  the 
northern  end  of  the  gulf  anciently 
flowed  up  to  this  point. 

EZ'RA  (helji).  1.  A  descendant 
of  Judah.  1  Chr.  4:17. 

2.  A  Jewish  priest  and  scholar  who 
lived  in  Babylon  during  the  reign 
of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  over  whom 
he  had  such  influence  that  in  his  sev- 
enth year  he  obtained  permission  to 
head   a  large  company  of  persons  and 


go  to  Jerusalem,  b.  c.  457.  Ezr.  7.  The 
journey  was  completed  in  four  months. 
In  addition  to  the  treasure  brought, 
Ezra  had  other  sujiplies,  for  he  had  per- 
mission to  draw  on  the  king's  treasures. 
In  Jerusalem  he  carried  through  the  re- 
forms he  had  intended,  particularly  the 
separation  of  the  "  strange  wives."  Ezr. 
10.  With  an  account  of  this  important 
measure  the  book  of  Ezra  ends.  The 
next  notice  is  in  Nchemiah,  8:  1,  thir- 
teen years  after  this.  It  is  in  every 
way  likely  that  his  first  residence  in 
Jerusalem  was  temporary,  and  that 
after  effecting  the  various  reforms  and 
appointing  proper  persons  to  maintain 
them  he  returned  to  Babylon.  Nehe- 
miah  was  governor  when  Ezra  entered 
Jerusalem  the  second  time  ;  accordingly, 
he  attended  only  to  priestly  duties,  such 
as  teaching.  Neh.  8:1.  It  is  unknown 
when  he  died. 

Jewish  tradition  elevates  him  to  a 
level  with  Moses  and  Elijah,  and  makes 
him  the  founder  of  the  great  synagogue, 
the  collector  of  the  books  of  the  Bible, 
the  introducer  of  the  Chaldee  character 
instead  of  the  old  Hebrew,  the  author 
of  Chronicles,  Ezra,  and  Nehemiah,  and 
lastly,  the  originator  of  synagogue-wor- 
ship. And  it  is  very  likely  that  he  was 
the  author  of  these  changes,  or  at  all 
events  that  they  occurred  in  his  time. 

Ezra,  the  Book  of,  covers  about  79 
years,  and  should  be  read  in  connection 
with  the  prophecies  of  Ilaggai  and 
Zechariah.  It  contains,  (1)  chs.  1-6, 
an  account  of  the  return  of  50,000  Jews 
under  Zerubbabel  in  the  first  year  of 
Cyrus,  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple, 
and  the  interference  of  the  Samaritans; 
(2)  chs.  7-10,  the  history  of  Ezra's  im- 
migration and  his  reforms,  particularly 
in  regard  to  the  strange  wives. 

The  book  of  Ezra  is  written  in  Chal- 
dee from  ch.  4 :  8  to  6  :  19,  narrating  the 
attempt  of  the  Samaritans  to  hinder  the 
building  of  the  temple,  and  from  the  be- 
ginning of  ch.  7  to  the  twenty-seventh 
verse.  The  people  recently  returned  from 
the  Captivity  were  more  conversant  with 
the  Chaldee  than  even  with  the  Hebrew 
tongue.  Ezra  is  the  author  of  at  least 
the  greater  part  of  the  book.  The  date 
may  be  given  as  b.  c.  456. 

EZ'RI  [helj)  of  Jehovah),  David's 
superintendent  of  those  who  "did  the 
work  of  the  field."  1  Chr.  27:26. 

297 


FAB 


FAI 


F. 


FA'BLE  is  a  form  of  narrative  in 
which  plants  and  animals,  or  even  life- 
less objects,  are  represented  as  endowed 
with  some  of  the  attributes  of  man,  as 
the  gift  of  speech  and  rational  action. 
Sometimes  the  fable  is  designed  to  teach 
moral  and  practical  truths,  and  some- 
times only  to  interest  and  entertain. 
It  differs  from  the  parable  in  this  :  what 
the  fable  relates  is  not  real  and  cannot  oc- 
cur, as  trees  speaking,  Jud.  9:8;  while 
that  which  the  parable  relates  may  and 
does  take  place,  as  the  sower  sowing  seed 
in  soil  of  various  degrees  of  productive- 
ness. Matt.  13  :  3.  The  fable  was  often 
used  in  ancient  heathen  as  in  modern 
Christian  literature.  In  the  Bible  there 
is  only  one  fable,  Jud.  9 :  7-15,  where 
Jotham  represents  the  trees  as  seeking 
a  king  and  asking,  one  by  one,  the  olive 
and  others  to  reign  over  them,  till  the 
bramble  finally  consents.  This  is  often 
erroneously  called  a  parable. 

Fables  are  referred  to  in  the  N.  T.,  1 
Tim.  1:4,  etc.,  as  ''cunningly  devised," 
etc.  Here  ''  fables  "  mean  false  stories 
or  foolish  systems  and  opinions. 

FACE.  Gen.  3  :  19.  See  Blackness. 
Whatever  of  a  thing  is  most  exposed  to 
view  is  called  its  face ;  hence  we  read 
of  the  face  of  the  country,  field,  gate, 
house,  wilderness,  water,  sky,  etc. 

"  Face,''  when  applied  to  God,  de- 
notes, (1)  His  omniscience,  1  Sam.  26: 
20,  and  to  ''provoke  him  to  the  face" 
is  to  act  very  openly  and  impudentl3^ 
Isa.  65  :  3.  (2)  The  brighter  displays 
of  his  glory,  which  cannot  be  enjoyed 
in  this  world.  Ex.  33:20;  ITim.  6: 
16.  (3)  His  favor  and  love,  and  the 
gracious  displays  thereof:  this  is  al- 
ways meant  when  his  face  is  said  to 
"  shine,"  or  it  is  represented  as  a  mercy 
to  behold  and  enjoy  it  or  a  misery  to  be 
deprived  of  it. '2"Chr.  30:9;  Ps.  31  : 
16  ;  80  :  7  ;  Dan.  9  :  17.  (4)  His  wrath, 
and  the  providential  displays  thereof. 
Ps.  34:16.  Christ's  "face'"  denotes, 
(1)  His  person  and  ofiice  as  the  image 
of  the  invisible  God.  2  Cor.  4:6.  (2) 
His  gracious,  glorious,  or  terrible  ap- 
pearances. Rev.  20  :  11. 
298 


FAIR  HA'VENS,  a  harbor  on  the 
southern  shore  of  the  island  of  Crete. 
Acts  27  :  8-10,  21.  It  is  about  midway 
between  the  eastern  and  western  ends 
of  the  island,  and  is  still  known  as 
Kalous  Limionas,  or  "Fair  Havens." 
It  is  a  fair  winter  harbor,  though  not 
as  good  as  Phoenice,  40  miles  westward. 

FAIRS.  The  word  occurs  in  Eze. 
27  :  12,  14,  16,  22,  27,  33.  In  v.  33  the 
Hebrew  word  is  translated  "  wares," 
and  this  is  probably  the  true  meaning 
in  all  the  passages. 

FAITH.  The  word  in  the  N.  T, 
denotes  (1)  the  truth  of  the  gospel  of 
Christ  and  the  kingdom  of  God.  Acts 
6:7;  Rom.  1:5;  Gal.  1 :  23 ;  1  Tim.  3  : 
9;  Jude,  ver.  3  ("the  faith  which  was 
once  delivered  to  the  saints"). 

(2)  The  act  by  which  we  lay  hold  of 
and  appropriate  the  truths  of  the  gos- 
pel and  Jesus  Christ,  and  rely  for  salva- 
tion upon  the  work  done  by  him  in  our 
stead.  This  is  the  prevailing  sense  of 
the  word.  Matt.  8:10;  John  3:16;  Rom. 
1 :  16,  etc.,  and  all  through  John  and  the 
Pauline  Epistles. 

The  verb  corresponding  to  the  noun 
"faith"  is  "believe."  Acts  16  :  31. 
The  word  occurs  only  a  few  times  in 
the  0.  T.,  but  the'  principle  is  there 
designated  by  other  terms,  such  as  to 
"  look  "  to  God,  Isa.  45  :  22,  to  "  wait 
on"  him,  Ps.  27  :  14,  and  to  "trust" 
in  him,  Nah.  1 :  7.  Abraham  is  "the 
father  of  the  faithful,"  because  unbound- 
ed trust  in  God  was  the  very  essence  of 
his  piety.  Comp.  Rom.  4:  1.  Paul  de- 
rives the  theme  of  his  Epistle  to  the  Ro- 
mans from  the  passage  of  Habakkuk  : 
"  The  just  shall  live  by  faith."  Rom.  1  : 
17;  comp.  Hab.  2:4.  The  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  gives  a  bright  catalogue 
of  the  heroes  of  faith  under  the  old  dis- 
pensation. 11 :  1  ff. 

The  nature  of  saving  faith  is  three- 
fold. It  includes  a  cnnviction  of  the 
understanding,  assent  of  the  will,  and 
trust  of  the  heart.  The  principal  ele- 
ment of  faith  is  trust  when  its  object  is 
Christ.  But  it  is  impossible  for  us  to 
trust  in   him   without  first   being  con- 


FA  I 


FAL 


vinced  of  the  genuineness  of  his  claims. 
We  believe  a  thing  when  we  are  assured 
of  its  reality  ;  in  a  person  when  we  add 
to  this  assurance  trust.  Faith  appre- 
hends Christ,  and  takes  actual  hold  of 
him  and  all  his  benefits.  Hence  he 
who  believes  in  Christ  has  already  eter- 
nal life.  John  3  :  36.  Faith  is  opposed 
to  doubt,  Matt.  21  :  21,  and  to  sight, 
2  Cor.  5  :  7.  Things  which  are  the  objects 
of  faith  we  do  not  see.    Ileb.  11:  1. 

The  importance  of  faith  consists  in 
this — that  without  faith  we  cannot  be- 
come partakers  of  the  merits  and  right- 
eousness of  Christ.  As  by  the  hand 
we  lay  hold  of  a  treasure,  and  as  by  the 
eye  we  perceive  the  beauties  of  scenery, 
so  by  faith  we  lay  hold  of  Christ.  We 
who  come  within  hearing  of  the  gospel 
must  exercise  faith  in  order  to  become 
heirs  of  salvation.  By  faith  we  *'  put 
on  ■'  Christ.     It  is  by  faith  that  we  are 


justified,  and  not  by  works.  The  work 
of  salvation  was  all  accomplished  when 
the  Saviour  uttered  the  words,  "  It  is 
finished."  But  a  living  faith  will  be 
accompanied  by  works,  as  much  as  a 
rose  must  diffuse  perfume,  and  a  good 
tree  bring  forth  good  fruit.  As  our  Lord 
said, ''  Thy  faith  hath  made  thee  whole," 
so  Paul  says,  "  By  grace  are  ye  saved 
through  faith  ;  and  that  not  of  your- 
selves :  it  is  the  gift  of  God,"  Eph. 
2  :  8.  But  "faith  without  works  is 
dead."  Jas.  2  :  26.  Faith  is  operative 
in  love.  Gal.  5  :  6. 

The  "  faith  of  God,"  Rom.  3  : 3,  means 
his  faithfulness. 

FAITH'FULNESS  is  a  divine 
attribute,  and  denotes  the  certainty  of  the 
accomplishment  of  all  that  the  divine 
Being  has  declared.  Num.  23:19;  Ps. 
89  :  1,  33,  34  ;  Heb.  10  :  23. 

FAL 'LOW-DEER.     "Deer"   is 


The  Bubale,  or  Fallow-Deer  of  Scripture.     (After  Wood.) 
a  general  name  of  a  class  of  quadrupeds,  i  etc.,  but  the  animal  is  never  mentioned 
fis  the  stag,  fallow-deer,  reindeer,  elk,  |  by  this  generic  pame  in  the  Bible. 


FAL 


FAE 


The  deer  mentioned  in  1  Kgs.  4  : 
23  was,  by  the  Levitical  law,  a  clean 
animal.  Deut.  14 :  5.  It  was  formerly 
supposed  to  be  the  European  red  deer, 
called  fallow  from  its  pale-red  or  yel- 
low color.  Tristram  and  other  late  au- 
thorities make  it  the  bubale  (Alcephalua 
biibalis)  or  "  wild  cow  "  of  the  Arabs. 
This  deer,  from  its  heavy,  calf-like 
build,  was  classed  by  Orientals  among 
cattle.  It  was  valued  for  its  venison,  is 
still  found  in  northern  Africa  and  Arabia, 
and  probably  once  dwelt  in  Palestine. 

Lieut.  Conder  has  recently  found  a 
kind  of  deer  in  the  vicinity  of  Mount 
Carmel  which  is  called  by  the  Arabs 
yahmfir — precisely  the  Hebrew  word 
translated  '*  fallow-deer."  Naturalists 
who  have  examined  the  skin  which 
Lieut.  Conder  brought  to  England  state 
that  this  animal  does  not  differ  percep- 
tibly from  the  European  roebuck,  which 
is  therefore  seemingly  the  animal  that 
furnished  Solomon's 
table  with  choice 
venison.     See  Roe. 

FAL'LOW- 
GROUND,afield 
ploughed,  but  un- 
sowed  (figuratively, 
Jer.  4:3;  Hos.  10  : 
12;  literally,  "til- 
lage." Prov.  13  : 
23).  See  Agricul- 
ture. 

FAL'IiOW- 
YEAR.  See  Sab- 
batical Year. 

FAMIL'IAR 
SPIR'ITS  (from 
the  Yi'diixv  familiar- 
18,  "  a  household  ser- 
vant"). The  phrase 
expressed  the  idea 
that  necromancers 
had  spirits  at  their 
command  to  wait 
upon  them  as  ser- 
vants.   See  Divina- 

TIOX. 

FAM'INE.  We  have  an  account  of 
at  least  8  famines  in  Palestine  and 
the  neighboring  countries.  They  were 
among  the  judgments  of  God  for  na- 
tional sins,  and  were  often  prophetically 
announced.  Two  famines  occurred  in  the 
lifetimes  of  Abraham  and  Isaac,  Gen. 
12  :  10 ;  26  :  1  ;  another  in  Jacob's  time, 
300 


Gen.  41 :  56  ;  and  the  most  remarkable 
one  was  that  of  7  years  while  Joseph 
was  governor  in  Egypt.  But  in  se- 
verity it  was  surpassed  by  the  famine 
of  2  Kgs.  7,  when  people  resorted  to  the 
dunghills  for  food. 

Two  very  severe  and  prolonged  sea- 
sons of  famine  in  Egypt  have  been 
noted  by  Arabian  historians — one  in 
A.  D.  1200,  the  other  lasting  from  a.  d. 
1064-107L 

Famine  was  produced  by  a  variety  of 
causes,  as  when  the  Nile  did  not  over- 
flow in  Egypt,  or  rains  did  not  fall  in 
Jud^a,  at  the  customary  season,  or  when 
caterpillars,  locusts,  or  other  insects  de- 
stroyed the  fruits. 

FAN.  This  was  probably  a  broad 
shovel  used  to  toss  the  threshed  grain 
against  the  breeze  for  the  purpose  of 
separating  the  chaif  from  the  grain.  Isa. 
30:24.  The  "shovel"  mentioned  in 
the  same  passage  seems  to  have  been  a 


Winnowing-Fans. 

narrower  implement,  or,  as  some  think, 
a  fork  or  bread-basket  used  in  a  similar 
way.  Jer.  15  :  7  ;  Matt.  3  :  12.  See 
Thresh,  Winnow. 

FAR'THING.  Two  Greek  words 
are  translated  "  farthing"  in  the  N.  T. : 
(1)  the  kodvdntes,  worth  about  three- 
eighths    of    a    cent;    (2)    the    assarion, 


FAS 


FAT 


A  Faithiii 


worth  about  a  cent  and  a  half.  See 
Money. 

FASTS,  There  was  only  one  day 
appointed  as  a  fast  by  the  Mosaic  code, 
the  day  of  atonement,  Lev.  16  :  29,  sq., 
where  the  expression  "  Ye  shall  afflict 
your  souls"  probably  refers  to  fasting. 
During  and  after  the  Babylonian  cap- 
tivity four  special  fast-days  were  ob- 
served. Zech.  7  :  5.  Subsequent  tradi- 
tion relates  that  fasts  commemorated 
the  breaking  of  the  tables  of  the  Law 
by  Moses,  Ex.  32,  and  the  siege  of  Jeru- 
salem, Jer.  52  :  4,  sq.  ;  the  return  of 
the  spies.  Num.  13  :  25  ;  the  burning 
of  the  tem})le  by  Nebuchadnezzar ;  the 
sack  of  Jerusalem  and  the  death  of 
Gedaliah,  2  Kgs.  25  :  13,  sq.  ;  and  the 
reception  by  Ezekiel  and  others  in  Bab- 
ylon of  the  intelligence  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem. 

Public  fasts  were  proclaimed  at  spe- 
cial seasons  by  Nehemiah,  9  : 1,  Jehosh- 
aphat,  2  Chr.  20  :  3,  the  Jews  at  Shushan, 
Esth.  4:16,  and  others.  The  appoint- 
ment of  fasts  by  individuals  for  them- 
selves was  not  uncommon,  Neh.  1:4; 
2  Sam.  1 :  12,  and  also,  in  the  N.  T.,  Luke 
2 :  37,  etc. 

Fasts  indicate  humility  and  a  sense 
of  dependence  on  the  Almighty,  and 
were  observed  on  solemn  occasions,  such 
as  the  death  of  a  prominent  personage 
(Saul,  1  Sam.  31 :  13  ;  2  Sam.  1 :  12),  an 
impending  calamity,  Jon.  3:5;  Esth.  4: 
3,  before  a  war,  2  Chr.  20  :  3  ;  Jud.  20  : 
26,  and  before  a  journey.  Ezr.  8  :  21. 

The  Jewish  fasts  were  kept  with  great 
strictness,  and  generally  from  evening 
to  evening.  The  body  was  clothed  with 
sackcloth,  ashes  were  sprinkled  on  the 
head,  the  hands  were  left  unwashed,  the 
head  was  unanointed,  and  the  air  was 
filled  with  the  voice  of  supplication  and 
the  sobs  of  grief  and  penitence.  Isa.  22  : 
12;  Joel  2:15-17. 

At  the  time  of  our  Lord  fasting  was  a 
very  prominent  religious  observance  and 
the  occasion  of  much  hypocrisy  and  j)a- 


rade.  Matt.  6:16.  The  fast  spoken  of  in 
Acts  27  : 1'  was  the  day  of  n  tenement.  The 
weekly  fasts  were  upon  the  second  and 
fifth  days  of  the  week.  Fasts  were  not 
observed  upon  the  Sabbath,  the  new 
moons,  the  great  festivals,  or  the  feasts 
of  Purim  and  dedication.  John  the 
Baptist  and  his  disciples  fasted,  but  we 
have  no  account  that  our  Lord  observed 
periodic  fasts,  although  that  he  fasted 
is  proved  by  Matt.  4:2;  cf.  Matt.  9: 
14.  After  the  Lord's  ascension  Chris- 
tians fasted,  2  Cor.  6 : 5,  and  the  N.  T. 
recommends  fasting  as  a  means  of  Chris- 
tian growth.  Mark  9  :  29  ;  1  Cor.  7  : 5,  etc. 

The  N.  T.  leaves  the  times  of  fasting 
to  the  full  choice  and  ap])ointment  of  the 
individual.  In  Matt.  9:15  our  Saviour 
teaches  that  fasting  follows  and  springs 
from  affliction,  rather  as  a  consequence 
than  a  cause,  and  then  may  be  a  means 
of  grace. 

FAT.  The  Hebrews  distinguished 
between  the  suet  or  pure  fat  of  an  ani- 
mal and  the  fat  which  was  intermixed 
with  the  lean.  Neh.  8: 10.  Some  parts 
of  the  former  were  forbidden  to  be 
eaten  in  the  case  of  animals  sacrificed, 
Lev.  3  :  3,  9,  17  ;  7  :  3,  23,  on  the  ground 
that  the  richest  pai't  of  the  animal  be- 
longed to  Jehovah.  Lev.  3  :  16.  The 
Hebrews  had,  however,  their  stalled 
oxen,  appreciating  the  luxury  of  fat 
meat.  1  Kgs.  4  :  23  ;  Luke  16  :  23. 

FAT  {i.e.  ''vat").  See  AViNE-PRESS. 
The  word  is  used  in  the  A.  V.  only  in 
Joel  2:24:  3:13. 

FA'THER.  This  word  is  used  in 
the  Bible  in  several  senses  besides  its 
usual  one. 

1.  It  is  applied  to  any  ancestor,  and 
in  the  plural  to  ancestors  in  general. 
Dan.  5:2;  Deut.  1:11;  Matt.  23  :  30. 

2.  As  a  title  of  respect,  especially  to 
kings,  prophets,  and  priests.  Jud.  17  : 
10  ;  1  Sam.  10  :  12  ;  2  Kgs.  2:12;  Acts 
7:2;  1  Cor.  4  :  15.  Also  of  protector 
or  guardian.  Ps.  68  :  5. 

3.  The  author,  source,  or  beginning 
of  anything.  Gen.  4:21;  Rom.  4:12. 

4.  God  is  called  "  Father."  Deut.  32 : 
6  ;  Ps.  89  :  26  ;  Matt.  6  :  4,  9  ;  Rom.  1  :  7. 

The  position  of  father  was  one  of 
great  dignity  and  authority.  Laws  were 
enacted  to  secure  this.  Ex.  22  :  17  ;  Lev. 
20  :  9.  The  father  had,  however,  no 
])ower  over  the  life  of  his  child.  Deut. 
21 :  18-21.     Both  his  blessing  and   his 

301 


li^At 


FEE 


curse  were  especially  efficacious.  Gen. 
9:25,26;  27:27-40.  The  fifth  com- 
mandment was  the  only  one  to  whose 
obedience  a  blessing  was  especially 
promised.  Ex.  20:12;  Eph.  6  :  2.  Dis- 
respect toward  parents  was  one  of  the 
worst  of  crimes.  Ex.  21 :  15-17  :  1  Tim. 
1 :  9.  The  father,  as  the  head  of  the  fam- 
ily, was,  in  patriarchal  times,  the  priest. 
Gen.  8  :  20  ;  Job  1:5.  "  It  is  a  beauti- 
ful circumstance  in  the  law  of  Moses 
that  this  filial  respect  is  exacted  for 
the  mother  as  well  as  for  the  father." 
See  Children. 

FATH'OM.     See  Measures. 

FEAR.  "  The  fear  of  the  Lord  "  is 
a  common  expression  in  the  0.  T.  Job 
28  :  28  ;  comp.  Acts  9  :  31.  It  refers  to 
awe  and  reverence  for  piety  rather  than 
to  dread  of  God.  The  love  of  God  is 
not  so  plainly  revealed  in  the  0.  T.  as 
in  the  New.  The  attributes  of  God's  holi- 
ness and  power  are  most  strongly  empha- 
sized. Hence  the  frequent  exhortation 
to  fear  God. 

Fear  has  its  fit  place  also  under  the 
gospel  dispensation.  Paul  exhorts  Chris- 
tians, Phil.  2  :  12,  ''work  out  your  own 
salvation  with  fear  and  trembling."  If 
it  is  a  "  fearful  thing  to  fall  into  the 
hands  of  the  living  God,"  Heb.  10  : 
31,  and  "if  the  righteous  scarcely  be 
saved,"  1  Pet.  4:  18,  we  ought  ever  to 
remember  the  punishment  due  to  us 
for  sin  and  God's  abhorrence  of  it,  and 
in  view  of  the  punishment  pass  our 
time  in  a  proper  state  of  godly  fear, 
which,  however,  is  not  slavish,  but  con- 
sistent with  assurance  of  faith  and  with 
love  for  God  as  our  Father.  Comp.  Rom. 
8:15:   1  John  4:18. 

FEAST,  Luke  14: 13,  FEASTS. 
Lev.  23  :  2.  We  often  read  in  the  Bible 
of  feasts  or  sumptuous  entertainments, 
and  of  the  customs  pertaining  to  them. 
They  were  generally  given  to  celebrate 
or  commemorate  some  important  or  joy- 
ful event.  Gen.  21  :  8  ;  29  :  22  :  40  :  20 ; 
Eccl.  10  :  19.  On  such  occasions  the 
guests  amused  themselves  with  stories 
or  sallies  of  humor,  and  sometimes  with 
enigmatical  questions,  Jud.  14:12,  or 
dancing,  Mark  6 :  22,  and  music,  Isa. 
5:12,-  24:  7-9. 

As  among  the  Romans,  so  among  the 
Jews  at  the  time  of  our  Lord,  the  guests 
at  feasts  reclined  upon  couches,  and  did 
not  sit  upright,  as  we  do. 
302 


The  most  honorable  place  or  seat,  or 
"uppermost  room,"  as  it  is  called.  Matt. 
23:6,  or  "highest"  or  "  chief  room," 
Luke  14 : 7,  8,  was  the  middle  couch, 
and  the  middle  of  that ;  and  lying  be- 
low one  at  table  is  to  lie  as  it  were  in 
or  upon  his  bosom.  John  13  :  23.  See 
Eating. 

The  "ruler"  or  "governor  of  the 
feast,"  John  2 :  8,  was  the  superintend- 
ent of  the  servants,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  one  who  controlled  all  the  ar- 
rangements for  the  festivity.  It  was 
his  office  to  test  the  meats  and  drinks 
that  were  ofi"ered  to  the  guests.  John 
2:9. 

Feasts,  Religious.  The  stated  re- 
ligious festivals  among  the  Jews  may 
be  divided  into  the  following  classes : 
(1)  The  Sabbath,  the  feast  of  new 
moons,  the  sabbatical  year,  and  the 
year  of  jubilee.  (2)  The  Passover, 
Pentecost,  and  the  feast  of  taberna- 
cles. (3)  The  feasts  of  Purim  and  of 
the  dedication.  The  first  two  classes 
of  feasts  were  established  by  the  Law 
of  Moses;  the  last  did  not  come  into 
existence  till  after  the  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity. At  each  of  the  feasts  of  the 
first  two  classes  the  males  were  to  "ap- 
pear before  the  Lord  "  and  to  make  their 
offerings  with  rejoicing.  Deut.  27:7. 

There  was  a  suspension  of  labor  on 
the  principal  feast-days.  Ex.  12:16; 
Lev.  23:21,  24,  etc.  But  inasmuch  as 
the  festival  of  the  Passover  lasted 
through  a  whole  week,  only  the  first 
and  the  seventh  days  were  included  un- 
der this  restriction.  Ex.  12:16.  A  par- 
ticular description  of  each  feast  is  giv- 
en in  its  proper  place. 

Feasts  of  Charity  or  Love.  These 
are  mentioned  in  Jude  12,  and  are  sup- 
posed to  refer  to  the  social  interviews 
established  among  the  early  Christians, 
in  imitation,  perhaps,  of  the  Jewish, 
Deut.  12  :  18  ;  26  :  12,  or  Gentile  observ- 
ances of  like  character.  They  were 
held  in  the  assembly  or  church,  either 
after  or  before  the  celebration  of  the 
Lord's  Supper.  Similar  observances 
are  customary  at  the  present  day 
among  some  Christian  denominations. 

FEET.  To  remove  the  shoes  from 
the  feet  was  regarded  as  a  token  of 
reverence,  and  also  of  mourning.  Ex. 
3:5;  Eze.  24  :  17.  It  is  supposed  that 
the    priests    officiated  with  naked   feet^^ 


FEL 


FIE 


and  in  modern  times,  among  heathen 
nations  and  some  nominal  Christians,  it 
is  customary  to  enter  the  place  of  wor- 
ship with  the  shoes  off  and  the  feet 
washed.  To  wash  tlie  feet  was  a  com- 
mon mark  of  hospitality,  Gen.  18  :  4, 
and  was  usually  done  by  a  servant,  1 
Sam.  25  :  41  ;  John  13  :  5,  6.  This  cus- 
tom still  prevails  in  the  East.  At 
Smyrna  the  washing  of  the  priests'  feet 
by  the  bishop  is  a  distinct  and  very  im- 
posing ceremony,  and  is  designed  to  be 
an  exact  imitation  of  Christ's  example. 
See  Clothes,  Dlst,  Foot. 

Foot-chains  are  supposed  to  be  meant 
by  the  word  "chains  "  in  Num.  31  :  50 
and  Isa.  3:19.  They  were  worn  around 
the  ankles,  and  caused  the  wearer  to 
observe  a  certain  measured  pace.  The 
same  ornaments  are  now  worn  by  the 
women  of  Syria  and  Arabia.  Little 
rings  are  hung  upon  them,  which  tinkle 
when  the  foot  is  in  motion,  and  they 
are  often  richly  ornamented. 

FE'JLIX  [hnjipy),  the  Roman  gov- 
ernor of  Judaea,  A.  D.  52-60,  was  a 
profligate  and  cruel  man.  Acts  23  :  26. 
He  was  married  three  times.  His  third 
wife  was  Drusilla,  whom  he  persuaded 
to  leave  her  husband  and  marry  him, 
and  they  were  residing  at  Caesarea  when 
Paul  was  brought  there  in  custody. 

He  is  specially  known  for  the  manner 
in  which  he  treated  the  exhortations 
and  warnings  of  Paul,  Acts  24:  26,  who 
preached  before  him  a  most  practical 
sermon,  arraigning  his  crimes  and  urg- 
ing upon  him  the  duty  of  rejjentance  in 
view  of  future  judgment. 

The  sermon  made  an  impression,  for 
"Felix  trembled,"  but  it  was  transient. 
He  kept  the  apostle  imprisoned  for  2 
years,  and  postponed  the  inquiry  re- 
specting his  own  salvation  until  a  "con- 
venient season,"  which,  so  far  as  we 
know,  never  came.  Felix  was  super- 
seded by  Porcius  Festus  2  years  after 
this  event,  and  tried  at  Rome  before 
Nero  for  malversation  of  office,  but  es- 
caped punishment  through  the  inter- 
vention of  Pallas,  the  freedman  of 
Claudius  and  his  successor,  Nero. 

FENCED  CIT'Y.     See  Cities. 

FER'RET,  an  animal  of  the  weasel 
family  tamed  in  Europe  and  used  for 
catching  rats.  It  has  long  been  agreed 
that "  the  creature  which  sighs  or  groans" 
(Heb.  andkdh,  "to  groan  "j  is  not  the  fer- 


ret. Lev.  11  :  30.  Older  writers  consid- 
ered it  the  shrew-mouse  or  the  hedge- 
hog, both  of  which  abound  in  Pales- 
tine. The  belief  is  now  almost  univer- 
sal that  it  is  some  animal  of  the  lizard 


The  Gecko,  or  Ferret. 

tribe.  Several  of  these  reptiles  make  a 
mournful  cry  or  wail,  especially  the//et'/>r>, 
which  is  very  common  in  Palestine  and 
Egypt  among  ruins,  and  is  remarkable 
not  only  for  the  clucking  note  which  its 
name  imitates,  but  for  its  fan-like  toes, 
whereby  it  is  able  to  run  up  the  smooth- 
est wall,  and  even  on  ceilings.  Of  these 
small  lizards  there  are  several  species. 

FESTIVALS,  RELIGIOUS. 
See  Feasts. 

FES'TUS,  POR'CIUS,  succeed- 
ed Felix,  A.  D.  60,  in  the  government  of 
Judgea,  and  died  in  62.  Acts  24 :  27. 
Paul  had  a  hearing  before  him  on  sun- 
dry charges,  and  Festus  would  have  re- 
leased him  if  Paul  had  not  appealed  to 
the  emperor.  Acts  26  :  .32.  Josephus 
gives  him  a  good  character  as  an  effi- 
cient ruler,  especially  because  he  did  his 
best  to  rid  the  country  of  robbers. 

FET'TERS.     See  Chains. 

FIELD.  The  Hebrew  word  trans- 
lated "  field  "  conveys  a  contrary  idea 
to  ours,  inasmuch  as  it  implies  the  ab- 
sence of  enclosure.  Thus  the  "  field  "  is 
often  contrasted  with  portions  of  land 
that  are  enclosed,  such  as  a  vineyard, 
Ex.  22:5;  Lev.  25:3,  4:  a  garden  or 
a  walled  town,  Deut.  28:  3,  16;  "  un- 
walled  villages  or  scattered  houses 
ranked  in  the  eye  of  the  law  as  fields." 
Lev.  25:31.  "Field  "means  the  open 
country  apart  from  habitations,  in  Gen. 
25:27;  37:15.  Stones  were  used  to 
separate  one  plot  of  ground  from  an- 
other ;  curses  were  threatened  for  re- 
moving these  landmarks.  Deut.  19  .  14  ; 
27  :  1  :  Job  24  :  2  ;  Prov.  22  :  28. 

303 


FIE 


FIG 


If  such  unfenced  fields  were  pasture- 
grounds,  the  herd  or  flock  would  require 
constant  watching.  Ex.  22  :  5.  A  piece 
of  ground  of  any  size,  from  the  mere 
land  around  a  cave,  Gen.  23  :  13,  17,  to 
an  entire  inheritance,  Ruth  4  :  5,  was 
called  a  "field."  In  the  N.  T.  the 
Greek  for  "  fields  "  occasionally  means 
farm-houses  or  hamlets,  in  distinction 
from  villages  and  towns,  but  in  the 
A.  V.  it  is  rendered  "country."  Mark 
5  :  U  ;  6  :  36,  56.  The  knowledge  of 
these  unenclosed  fields  throws  light 
upon  the  parable  of  the  Sower.  Some  of 
the  seed  scattered  as  he  draws  near  the 
end  of  his  lot  is  certain  to  fall  beyond 
the  ploughed  portion,  and  the  birds  will 
devour  it.  Again,  the  custom  of  run- 
ning footpaths  between,  and  not  over, 
fields  explains  the  Sabbath-walk  of  our 
Lord  and  his  disciples.  Luke  6  : 1.  The 
little  band  did  not  trample  down  the 
ripened  grain.  They  merely  walked 
between  the  fields  and  plucked  the 
wheat  on  either  hand.  The  complaint 
was  not  brought  against  them  because 
they  took  the  wheat,  but  because  they 
broke  the  Sabbath. 

FI'ERYSER'PENTS.  See  Ser- 
pents. 

FIG,  FIG'  TREE.  The  fig  tree 
{Ficus  caricn)  has  been  cultivated  in 
Palestine  from  remote  times,  Deut.  8  : 
8 ;  Isa.  34  :  4,  and  is  also  found  in  a 
wild  state.  It  does  not  grow  to  a  great 
height,  but  throws  out  a  profusion  of 
very  spreading  branches,  and  the  trunk 
is  often  3  feet  in  diameter.  Pive-lobed 
leaves  luxuriantly  clothe  these  limbs, 
and  often  convert  this  tree  into  a  beau- 
tiful natural  arbor.  1  Kgs.  4  :  25  ;  2  Kgs. 
18:31;  Isa.  36:16;  Mic.  4:4;  Zech.  3  : 
10;  John  1:48. 

The  fruit  is  pear-shaped,  and  the  small 
green  figs  appear  before  the  leaves. 
When  these  figs  have  attained  some  size, 
their  interior  will  be  found  filled  with 
minute  white  flowers.  This  curious  pro- 
vision leads  to  the  common  impression 
that  this  tree  never  blossoms.  When 
the  leaves  have  appeared,  if  there  be 
no  fruit  among  tliem,  the  fig  tree  will 
be  barren  for  the  present  season.  Matt. 
21:19. 

Figs   are  much   used   as   food  in   all 

Eastern  lands.     Two  kinds  of  this  fruit 

are   mentioned  in  the   Bible.      1.    The 

early  fig,   or   boccore,   of   which    a    few 

304 


ripen  and  are  gathered  in  June,  Isa. 
28  :  4;  Hos.  9  :  10;  Mic.  7  :  1,  while 
the  most  of  this  early  fruit  falls  ofi"  be- 
fore it  is  perfected.  Rev.  6  :  13.  2.  The 
main  crop,  or  kermouse,  ordinarily  does 


Figs  and  Fig-Leaves. 

not  ripen  till  August.  These  are  the 
"  green  figs  "  of  Song  Sol.  2  :  13.  "  Beth- 
phage  "  means  "  house  of  green  figs."  A 
long  dark-colored  kermouse  sometimes 
hangs  upon  the  trees  all  winter. 

These  various  kinds  of  figs  are  eaten 
as  they  come  from  the  tree,  and  are  also 
dried  in  masses  or  cakes.  1  Sam.  25  :  18. 
They  seem  to  have  been  an  ordinary  ar- 
ticle of  food,  and  to  have  possessed  me- 
dicinal properties.  2  Kgs.  20  :  7  ;  1  Chr. 
12  :  40. 

The  putting  forth  of  the  fig  tree  was 
one  of  the  earliest  indications  of  sum- 
mer. Song  Sol.  2:13;  Matt.  24:32; 
Luke  21  :  29 ;  and  a  failure  of  its  fruit 
was  a  great  calamitj'.  Jer.  5:17;  8:13; 
Joel  1:7,  12;  Hab.  3:17,  18. 

The  cursing  of  the  fig  tree  by  our  Sa- 
viour, Mark  11  :  13,  21,  has  occasioned 
great  perplexity.  This  incident  oc- 
curred about  the  beginning  of  April, 
when,  as  the  evangelist  states,  the  time 
for  figs  had  not  come.  Why,  then, 
should  Christ  seek  figs  upon  the  tree 
and,  as  it  were,  blame  its  barrenness  ? 
The  best  reply  seems  to  be.  Because  the 
tree  was  in  leaf;  and  when  the  tree  was 
in  this  state,  abnormal  though  it  were, 
fruit  might  be  expected.  Dr.  Thomson, 
as  the  result  of  his  observation,  consid- 
ers it  not  at  all  impossible  that  the  early 


FIL 


FIR 


variety  of  this  tree  might  have  ripe  fruit 
in  the  warm,  sheltered  ravines  of  Olivet 
at  Easter :  "  If  there  was  no  fruit  on  tliis 
leafy  tree,  it  might  justly  be  condemned 
as  barren ;  and  hence  the  propriety  of 
the  lesson  it  was  made  to  teach — that 
those  who  put  forth  in  profusion  only 
the  leaves  of  empty  profession  are  nigh 
unto  cursing." 

FILE.  The  word  occurs  only  once 
in  the  A.  V.  1  Sam.  13:  21.  The  pre- 
ceding verse  is  connected  with  it,  and 
they  are  best  rendered :  "  But  all  the 
Israelites  went  down  to  the  Philistines 
to  sharpen  [their  tools]  whenever  there 
was  bluntness  of  edge  to  their  shares 
and  coulters  and  prong-forks  and  axes, 
and  to  point  their  goads." 

FIRE  was  of  course  used  for  cook- 
ing and  for  wai-mth.  We  find  reference 
to  the  latter  use  in  Jer.  36  :  22  ;  Luke  22  : 
55;  John  18  :  18.  See  Fuel.  A  hearth 
with  lighted  wood  or  a  pan  with  burn- 
ing charcoal  is  mentioned  in  the  pas- 
sages specified  as  the  sources  of  the  heat. 
Fire  was  used  in  the  service  of  God  to 
consume  the  sacrifices  partially  or  en- 
tirely. There  may  be  a  question  whether 
Abel  offered  a  burnt-sacrifice.  Gen.  4 :  4, 
but  surely,  from  the  time  of  Noah,  fire 
was  used  with  the  sacrifices.  The  Mo- 
saic law  prescribes  its  use.  Lev.  1 :  7,  and 
this  burnt-altar  fire  was  to  be  kept  ever 
burning.  Lev.  6  :  9,  13. 

Fire  was  the  sign  of  the  divine  pres- 
ence and  acceptance.  Thus,  the  heav- 
enly fire  which  came  down  upon  the 
altar  of  burnt-offering  on  the  occasion 
of  the  first  sacrifice  after  the  giving  of 
the  Law,  Lev.  9  :  24,  indicated  Jeho- 
vah's gracious  pleasure  in  the  service. 
To  the  same  end  fire  was  sent  in  other 
instances,  Jud.  6:21;  1  Kgs.  18  :  38 ;  I 
Chr.  21 :  26.  Fire  was  used  as  a  purifier. 
Num.31:22,  23;  cf.  Zech.l3:8,  9.  The 
victims  slain  for  sin-offerings  were  after- 
ward consumed  by  fire.  Lev.  4:12,  21  ; 
6:30;  16:27.  The  Nazarite  marked 
the  conclusion  of  his  vow  by  shaving 
his  head  and  casting  the  hair  into  the 
fire  on  the  altar  of  burnt-offering.  Num. 
6:18.  It  was  forbidden  by  the  Law  to 
kindle  a  fire  on  the  Sabbath,  Ex.  35  :  3  ; 
Num.  15  :  32  ;  but  some  maintain  that 
the  prohibition  applies  to  the  ])repara- 
tion,  and  not  to  the  heating,  of  food. 
Consequently,  by  having  the  principal 
meal,  which  was  always  eaten  in  the 
20 


evening,  a  little  earlier  on  Friday  and 
a  little  later  on  S.aturday,  the  Jew  could 
have  a  hot  meal  every  day  in  the  week. 

The  law  held  him  who  wilfull}'^  or 
carelessly  set  fire  to  ripe  or  harvested 
fields  on  which  the  grain  yet  stood  pe- 
cuniarily liable  for  damages.  Ex.  22:  (i. 
The  punishment  of  death  by  fire  was  in- 
flicted in  early  times.  Jer.  29  :  22  ;  Dan. 
3:20,21.  See  FiiKNACE.  It  is  enjoined 
by  the  Law  in  the  ease  of  incest  with  a 
mother-in-law,  and  of  unchastity  on  the 
part  of  the  daughter  of  a  priest.  Lev. 
20  :  14  ;  21 :  9.  But  it  is  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  in  both  these  cases  the  con- 
demned were  first  killed  by  stoning  or 
strangling,  and  then  their  bodies  burnt. 
To  fire  the  gates  was  one  way  of  ending 
a  siege.  Jud.  9  :  49,  52. 

Fire  is  the  comparison  of  intense  love, 
Song  Sol.  8:6;  of  the  injuring  tongue, 
Ps.  120  :  4 ;  Prov.  16  :  27  ;  Jas.  3  :  5,  and 
of  godlessness,  Isa.  9  :  18.  The  anger 
of  God  burns  as  fire,  Ps.  79  :  5  ;  89  :  46  ; 
Nah.  1 :  6.  His  word  is  like  fire,  Jer. 
23  :  29.  Yea,  he  himself  is  a  consuming 
fire,  Deut.  4:24;  Heb.  12:29.  The 
word  is  frequently  used  metaphorically. 
The  "  strange  fire,"  Lev.  10  :  1,  is  gen- 
erally explained  as  common  fire,  not 
taken  from  the  holy  fire  of  the  altar. 
But  inasmuch  as  no  express  law  forbade 
the  burning  of  incense  by  ordinary  fire, 
it  is  very  probable  that  the  offence  con- 
sisted in  presenting  an  incense-offering 
not  commanded  in  the  law  in  an  im- 
proper, merely  vainglorious  spirit.  The 
time  and  manner  of  the  ofiering  were 
*'  strange,"  not  the  fire. 

FIRE'-PAN,  one  of  the  vessels  of 
the  temple-service.  Ex.  27:3;  38:3; 
2  Kgs.  25  :  15;  Jer.  62  :  19.  The  same 
word  is  elsewhere  rendered  "snuff-dish," 
Ex.  25  :  38  ;  37  :  23  ;  Num.  4  :  9,  and 
"censer."  Lev.  10:1;  16:12;  Num. 
16  :  6  ff.  These  utensils  were  probably 
shallow  metal  vessels  which  served 
either  to  catch  the  snuff  of  the  lamps 
when  they  were  trimmed  or  to  burn 
small  quantities  of  incense. 

FIR'KIN.     See  Measures. 

FIR'MAMENT.  The  word  "ex- 
pansion "  would  more  perfectly  convey 
the  meaning  of  the  original  word.  Gen. 
1:  17.  A  similar  idea  is  suggested  Ps. 
104  :  2  ;  Isa.  40  :  22,  and  the  same  word 
is  used  to  denote  a  "covering,"  Num. 
16  :  38,  39,  or  a  "  spreading  over,"  Isa. 

305 


FIR 


FIR 


40  :  19,  or  "spread  forth."  Isa.  42  :  5. 
The  Jews  probably  understood  the  word 
"  firmament "  to  denote  an  immense  arch 
or  canopy  sprung  from  one  side  of  the 
horizon  to  the  other,  studded  with  stars 
and  forming  a  sort  of  separating  wall 
between  the  upper  and  lower  waters. 
See  Ps.  19  :  1 :  Dan.  12  :  3.  The  stars 
are  represented  as  dropping  from  their 
settings  in  it.  Isa.  34  :  4;  Matt.  24  :  29. 

FIRST'-BORN.  The  first-born 
male  of  every  Jewish  family  and  of  all 
beasts  was  consecrated  to  God  in  com- 
memoration of  the  judgment  which  God 
brought  upon  the  first-born  of  Egypt.  Ex. 
13  :  2.  Several  provisions  of  the  Jewish 
law  relate  to  the  first-born.  He  received 
a  double  portion  of  the  estate,  Deut.  21 : 
17,  and  officiated  as  priest  of  the  family 
in  the  father's  absence  or  death.  The 
privileges  of  the  first-born  were  obvi- 
ously great  in  the  cases  of  Esau  and 
Reuben,  Gen.  27  :  29,  36  ;  1  Chr.  5  : 1,  2, 
but  might  be  forfeited,  as  these  two  cases 
show.  The  religious  pre-eminence  of 
the  first-born  ceased  when  the  priest- 
hood was  committed  exclusively  to  the 
tribe  of  Levi.  Num.  3 :  12,  13.  It  was 
then  required  that  a  certain  piece  of 
money  (5  shekels,  about  $2.50)  should 
be  paid  for  the  redemption  of  all  the 
first-born  of  succeeding  generations; 
and  this  redemption-money  became  part 
of  the  sacred  revenue.  Num.  8:17;  18  : 
16.  The  first-born  of  all  beasts  used  in 
sacrifice  were  devoted  to  the  Lord,  Ex. 
13  :  2,  but  the  first-born  of  unclean  ani- 
mals might  be  redeemed  with  the  ad- 
dition of  one-fifth  of  the  value,  Lev. 
27  :  13 ;  otherwise,  they  were  sold,  ex- 
changed, or  destroyed.  Ex.  13  :  13  ;  Lev. 
27  :  27.  It  is  supposed  that  dogs  were 
never  redeemed,  Deut.  23  :  18. 

The  titles  "  the  first-born  of  every 
creature,"  Col.  1:15,  and  "  the  first-be- 
gotten "  of  God,  Heb.  1  :  6,  belong  ex- 
clusively to  Christ.  The  first  of  the 
two  might  be  translated  the  "  first- 
born "  or  begotten  (not  created)  "before 
every  creature,"  and  both  expressions 
denote  a  dignity  superior  to  men  and 
angels  and  the  whole  creation. 

FIRST'- FRUITS.  The  first- 
fruits  of  harvest,  of  the  vintage,  the 
threshing-floor,  the  wine-press,  the  oil- 
press,  the  first  baked  bread  of  the  new 
crop,  and  the  first  fleeces  of  the  flock, 
were  required  by  God  to  be  given  for  the 
306 


use  of  his  ministers,  the  priests.  Ex. 
23  :  19  ;  Num.  15  :  19-21 ;  18  :  12,  13. 
These  offerings  were  brought  to  the 
temple.  By  making  this  consecration 
of  the  first-fruits  the  entire  produce 
was  consecrated,  as  the  nation  had  been 
by  the  consecration  of  the  first-born. 
No  particular  quantity  was  designated, 
but  it  is  supposed  a  sixtieth  part  of  the 
whole  was  the  least  measure. 

The  manner  of  offering  the  first-fruits 
is  prescribed  Lev.  23  :  10-14.  A  sheaf 
of  the  first  ripe  barley  was  brought  on 
the  morrow  after  the  Passover  Sabbath, 
and  waved  by  the  priest  before  the 
Lord ;  and  after  being  threshed  in  a 
court  of  the  temple,  a  handful  of  it  was 
cleansed  and  roasted  and  pounded  in  a 
mortar.  Oil  was  mingled  with  it,  and 
it  was  then  waved  before  the  Lord  in 
the  name  and  behalf  of  the  nation,  as 
an  acknowledgment  of  dependence  and 
gratitude.  Until  this  was  done  the  har- 
vest remained  untouched. 

During  the  times  of  apostasy  after 
Solomon  this  ordinance  was  neglected, 
but  Hezekiah  awakened  the  national 
conscience  on  this  subject,  2  Chr.  31  : 
5-12.  After  the  Captivity,  Nehemiah 
appointed  places  for  the  reception  of 
the  first-fruits  of  both  kinds  (raw  pro- 
duce and  prepared  produce).  Neh.  10 : 
35,  37  :  12  :  44.  The  prophets  insist  on 
the  dutv  of  offering  them.  Eze.  20  :  40  ; 
44  :  30  :  48  :  14  ;  comp.  Rev.  14 : 4.  Fruit 
trees  were  unplucked  for  three  years. 
The  fourth  year's  yield  was  given  to 
God  as  the  first-fruits,  but  from  the 
fifth  year  the  fruit  was  the  owner's, 
Lev.  19 :  23-25. 

The  first-fruits  were  emblematical  of 
abundance  and  excellence,  Rom.  8  :  23, 
and  also  the  earnest  or  sample  of  a  full 
harvest  at  hand,  1  Cor.  16  :  20. 

FIR'  TREE,  probably  the  Aleppo 
pine  {Pinus  halepensis),  which  is  almost 
as  large  as  the  cedar,  is  now  found  on 
Lebanon,  and  was  formerly  doubtless 
abundant  through  Palestine,  Hos.  14 : 
8.  Sometimes  the  cypress  and  juniper 
may  have  been  included  under  this  name, 
as  well  as  other  pines  found  here. 

The  fir  was  used  for  shipbuilding, 
Eze.  27  :  5,  musical  instruments,  2 
Sam.  6  :  5,  and  in  the  frame-,  and  or- 
namental, work  of  costly  edifices,  1  Kgs. 
5:8,  10:  6:  15,  34;  9:11;  2  Chr.  2:8; 
3:5;  Song   Sol.  1 :  17.     The  fir  is  still 


FIS 


FIS 


of  the  shoals  "can  scarcely  be  conceived 
by  those  who  have  not  witnessed  them. 
Frequently  these  shoals  cover  an  acre 
or  more  of  the  surface,  and  the  fish,  as 
they  slowly  move  along  in  masses,  are 
so  crowded,  with  their  back-fins,  just 
appearing  on  the  level  of  the  water, 
that  the  appearance  at  a  little  distance 
is  that  of  a  violent  shower  of  rain  pat- 
tering on  the  surface.  We  obtained  14 
species  of  fishes  in  the  lake,  and  prob- 
ably the  number  inhabiting  it  is  at  least 
three  times  as  great." 

But  not  all  of  these  fish  of  Galilee  arc 
savory    eating.    Matt.    13  :  47,    48.     On 


used  in  the  manufacture  of  harps,  lutes, 
guitars,  etc.  It  was  a  tall,  straight  tree, 
of  fine  appearance,  in  the  tops  of  which 
the  storks  built  their  nests,  Ps.  104  :  17. 
Hence  it  is  used  to  illustrate  power  or 
grandeur,  2  Kgs.  19  :  23  ;  Isa.  14  :  8 ; 
37  :  24:  and  in  Nah.  2  :  3  the  brandish- 
ing of  weapons  of  war  is  compared  to 
the  shaking  of  the  tops  of  fir  trees  by  a 
violent  wind.  The  springing  up  of  the 
fir  is  emblematical  of  verdure  and  j^lenty, 
Isa.  41  :19;  55:1:^;  60:1:-!. 

FISH.  The  rapid  multiplication  of 
fish  finds  recognition  in  the  root-meaning 
of  their  Hebrew  name,  "  to  increase."  See 
also  Gen.  48  :  16,  margin. 
They  are  mentioned  in 
the  first  chapter  of  Gen- 
esis (vs.  20,26,  28)  and  in 
Ps.  8  :  8  as  one  of  the 
chief  classes  of  living 
creatures,  and  as  placed 
under  the  dominion  of 
man.  In  the  Law,  Lev. 
11  :  9-12,  distinction  of 
them  is  made  into  clean 
and  unclean,  according  as 
they  have  fins  and  scales 
or  are  without  them.  Of 
the  numerous  species  of 
fish  which  inhabit  the 
lakes  and  rivers  of  Pales- 
tine and  the  adjacent  sea, 
Solomon  possessed  some 
knowledge,  1  Kgs.  4 :  33, 
but  not  a  single  variety 
has  its  name  recorded  in 
the  Bible.  (The  whale  is 
not  a  fish !) 

An  aggravation  of  the 
first  plague  of  Egypt  was 
the  destruction  offish — an 
important  part  of  the  food 

of  the  people.     In  the  wil-  Fishes  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.    (After  Tnstram.) 

derneSS  the  Israelites  mur-     !•  Chromis  Nllotlca.     2.  Clarias  Macracanthus.     3.  Labeobarbus  Canis. 


mured  for  the  fish  of  their  old  home. 
Num.  11  :  5.  It  was  a  sad  prophecy  for 
Egypt  that  by  the  failing  of  her  waters 
the  fishermen  should  mourn,  and  that 
they  should  be  disappointed  who  make 
ponds  and  sluices  for  fish.  Isa.  19  :  5-10  ; 
comp.  Eze.  29:4-10. 

Most  of  the  still  and  running  waters 
of  Palestine  swarm  with  fish.  Josephus 
first  called  attention  to  the  similarity 
of  the  fish  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  and 
those  of  the  Nile.  Of  those  in  the  for- 
mer water  Tristram  says  :  the  density 


this  lake  four  of  the  disciples  toiled  as 
fishermen.  Matt.  4:18-21,  References 
to  the  "  fish-gate,"  2  Chr.  33  :  14,  etc., 
of  Jerusalem  show  that  the  city  was 
probably  supplied  with  a  market  for 
this  kind  of  food.  The  product  of  the 
Mediterranean  was  doubtless  then,  as 
now,  brought  from  Joppa,  the  port  of 
Jerusalem.  The  Phoenicians  were  es- 
jjecially  engaged  in  the  capture  and 
sale  of  fish,  Eze.  26  :  5,  14  ;  Neh.  13  : 
16,  and  the  Hebrew  name,  Zidon,  sig- 
nifies "fishing." 

307 


FIS 


FIT 


The  fish  was  frequently  worshipped 
from  Egypt  to  Assyria  and  India.  Deut. 
4  :  18.  Dagon,  the  Philistine  idol,  1 
Sam.  5:4,  was  half  fish,  half  man.  On 
early  Christian  monuments,  especially 
in  the  Catacombs  of  Rome,  the  fish  it- 
self or  its  Greek  name  was  often  carved, 
because  that  name,  ichthus,  is  formed 
of  the  first  letters  of  the  confession  : 
"Jesus  Christ,  Son  of  God,  Saviour." 

Fish  are  often  carried  by  the  Jordan 
and  smaller  streams  into  the  Dead  Sea, 
but  soon  perish  in  its  acrid  element. 
In  the  mystical  vision  of  Ezekiel  waters 
were  seen  issuing  from  under  the  house 
of  God,  carrying  fertility  along  the  Ke- 
dron  valley,  and  pouring  into  this  sea  of 
death,  whose  waters  were  healed  :  '*And 
it  shall  come  to  pass,  that  the  fishers 
shall  stand  upon  it  from  En-gedi  even 
unto  En-eglaim  ;  they  shall  be  a  place 
to  spread  forth  nets  ;  their  fish  shall  be 
according  to  their  kinds  as  the  fish  of 
the  great  sea,  exceeding  many."  Eze. 
47:1-10. 

"  Fish  is  an  article  of  diet  of  which 
the  Orientals  are  passionately  fond.  It 
brings  a  high  price,  unless  some  extraor- 
dinary haul  has  exceptionally  cheapened 
the  market.  The  government  derives  a 
considerable  revenue  from  the  tax  on  fish 
sold  in  the  market.  Every  beach  on  the 
sea-coast  of  Syria  is  enlivened  with  trawl- 
ing-nets  and  cast-nets  and  fishing-boats, 
and  fishermen,  standing  often  knee-deeji 
or  waist-deep,  casting  their  pole-lines 
into  the  surf.  Fish  swarm  in  the  warm 
water  of  this  latitude,  and  every  variety, 
even  to  dog-fish  and  octopods,  are  greed- 
ily eaten.  The  word  '  smack' or  '  boat' 
would  better  express  the  kind  of  craft  in 
which  the  great  draught  of  fishes  was 
caught,  Luke  6  :  2." — Dr.  Post,  of  Beirut. 

FISH'-GATE,  agate  in  Jerusalem. 
2  Chr.  33  :  14,  etc.  Dr.  Barclay  thinks 
it  was  near  the  "Fish-Pool."  See  Je- 
rusalem. 

FISH'-HOOKS.  Am.  4:  2;  comp. 
Jer.  16:  16.  The  method  of  taking  fish 
with  hooks  was  doubtless  known  in  the 
early  ages  of  the  world.  Job  41  :  1. 
The  spear  was  also  used.  Job  41 :  7. 

The  usual  way,  however,  was  by  a 
net — either  a  casting-net,  Eze.  26  :  5  ; 
47  :  10  ;  Hab.  1:15;  Matt.  4  :  20,  21  ; 
Mark  1  :  18,  19  ;  Luke  5:2;  John  21  : 
6  flF.,  or  a  drag-net.  Isa.  19  :  8  :  Hab.  1  : 
15  ;  Matt.  13:47.  In  the  latter  case  a 
308 


boat  was  necessarily  used.  Such  fish- 
ing was  done,  by  preference,  at  night. 
Luke  5  :  5.  Angling  was  a  favorite 
recreation  in  ancient  Egypt.  The  ref- 
erence in  Job  41 :  2  is  to  the  custom  of 
putting  a  ring  through  the  gill  of  a  fish, 
and  then  by  a  line  attaching  it  to  a  stake, 
the  object  being  to  keep  it  alive  in  the 
water  until  required  for  use.  Besides 
amateur  there  were  professional  fisher- 
men.    Such  were  many  of  the  apostles. 

FISH-POOLS  OF  HESH'- 
BON,  a  mistranslation  for  "pools" 
simply.  Song  Sol.  7  :  4.  There  is  no 
reference  to  fish.     See  Heshbon. 

FITCH'ES,  a  plant  [Niyella  sa- 
tiva)  of  the  buttercup  family.  Isa.  28  : 
25.     Some  species  are  cultivated  in  our 


Fennel   Flower,    or   Fitches.     {Nigella  Sativa. 
After  Carruthers.) 

flower-gardens  under  such  names  as 
"  love-in-a-mist."  Fitches  are  grown 
for  their  small  black,  hot-tasting  seeds, 
which  are  sprinkled  over  the  flat  cakes 
of  the  Syrians  before  they  are   baked 


FLA 


FLI 


These  tender  seeds  are  still  beaten  out 
with  a  stout  staff,  as  described  in  Isa. 
28  :  27.  "  Fitches,"  in  Eze.  4  :  9,  should 
read,  as  in  the  margin,  "  spelt."  See  Rye. 

FLAG.  Probably  used,  as  by  us, 
somewhat  indefinitely.  Ex.  2  :  3.  If 
any  special  plant  was  intended,  it  may 
have  been  the  edible  rush  or  the  flower- 
ing rush,  both  of  which  abound  in 
Eg3'pt,   and  the  latter  in  Palestine. 

FLAG'ON.  The  Hebrew  word  so 
translated  in  2  Sam.  6  :  19;  1  Chr.  16  : 
3  ;  Song  Sol.  2  :  5  j  Hos.  3  : 1  (cf.  mar- 
gin) means  a  "cake,"  ordinarily  of 
compret-sed  raisins.  The  last-quoted 
text  shows  that  such  cakes  were  offered 
to  idols.  But  in  Isa.  22  :  24  the  word 
"flagon"  is  the  correct  translation  of 
the  Hebrew. 

FLAX,  a  well-known  plant,  which 
furnishes  the  material  of  linen  stuffs  of 
every  variety,  Ex.  9:31.  It  was  pro- 
duced of  the  best  quality  in  Egypt, 
Isa.  19  :  9,  and  was  an  article  of  exten- 
sive commerce. 

At  the  present  day,  as  in  ancient 
times,  flax  is  laid  upon  the  housetop  in 
the  heat  of  the  sun  to  dry,  Josh.  2 : 6. 


Flax.     {After  Tristram.) 

Lamp-wicks  were  made  of  this  material, 
Isa.  42  :  3.     The  spinning  of  flax  was 


ife^s;^^;^© 


Preparation  of  Flax.     (From  the  Egyptian  Monuments.     After  Wilkinson.) 


anciently  the  labor  of  the  most  noble 
ladies.  Prov.  31 :  13,  19,  24.  See  Linen 
and  Distaff. 

FLEA,  a  small  insect  mentioned  as 
the  most  insignificant  of  creatures.  1 
Sam.  24  :  14  ;  26  :  20.  Residents  and 
travellers  in  warm  climates  are  too  well 
acquainted  with  it. 

FLESH  is  usedfiguratively for  every- 
thing living,  Gen.  6  :  13,  17,  19;  some- 
times mankind,  6:12;  sometimes  the 
body  as  distinguished  from  the  soul  or 


spirit.  Col.  2  :  5  ;  1  Pet.  4:6.  In  a  the- 
ological sense,  "  the  flesh  "  is  the  natural 
man.  including  the  unrenewed  will  and 
mind,  moving  in  the  world  of  self  and 
sense  only.  Rom.  7:6;  8  :  1,  5,  9;  Gal. 
5:17,  19  ;  Eph.  2  :  3.  Self-imposed  or- 
dinances gratify  the  flesh — i.  e,  self — 
whilst  seemingly  mortifying  it. 

FLINT,  a  hard  and  well-known 
stone  very  abundant  in  Palestine  and 
adjacent  districts,  Ps.  114:  8.  The  fig- 
urative use  of  the  word  in  Deut.  32  :  13 

309 


FLO 


FLY 


represents  the  great  abundance  of  oil, 
and  in  Isa.  50  : 7  and  Eze.  3:9  it  is 
used  to  denote  firmness  and  constancy. 

FLOATS,  rafts  by  which  the  tim- 
bers already  fitted  for  the  building 
might  be  floated  to  Joppa,  and  then 
carried  overland  to  Jerusalem.  1  Kgs. 
5:9;  2  Chr.  2:  16. 

FLOCK.     See  Sheep. 

FLOOD,  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able events  in  the  history  of  our  world. 
It  occurred  2500  years  before  the  birth 
of  Christ,  and  was  a  judgment  upon  the 
world  for  the  great  wickedness  of  its  in- 
habitants, only  8  of  whom  were  saved — 
Noah  and  his  family.  Gen.  6  :  17  flF. 
Noah  obeyed  the  divine  injunction  to 
build  the  ark  and  put  into  it  pairs  of 
all  the  land-animals.  The  waters  of  the 
flood  increased  for  150  d^ys,  until  the 
mountains  were  covered  and  the  waters 
attained  the  depth  of  15  cubits,  or  22J 
feet.  In  consequence,  "  all  flesh  died 
that  moved  upon  the  earth,"  and  only 
those  animals  were  saved  which  were 
confined  in  the  ark.  At  the  end  of  this 
period  the  waters  began  to  assuage,  and 
the  ark  rested  on  Mount  Ararat.  Noah 
sent  out  in  turn  a  raven  and,  on  two  oc- 
casions, a  dove.  The  second  time  the 
dove  returned  with  an  olive-leaf.  Gen. 
8:11,  which  was  the  best  evidence  of 
the  abatement  of  the  waters.  The  bib- 
lical narrative  is  given  in  Gen.  6-8. 

The  description  of  a  vast  flood  is  not 
confined  to  the  Old  Testament.  Many 
peoples  have  preserved  a  tradition  of 
the  event.  And  not  only  do  we  find  tra- 
ditions to  this  efi"ect  on  the  tablets  of 
Assyria  and  in  the  literature  of  Greece, 
but  also  among  the  Chinese  and  among 
the  aborigines  of  North  and  South 
America  and  Mexico.  The  prevalence 
of  a  belief  in  the  occurrence  of  a  great 
deluge  confirms  the  account  of  Gen- 
esis. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  assume  that  the 
Flood  extended  over  all  the  earth,  al- 
though it  did  most  likely  destroy  all 
human  life  except  the  family  of  Noah. 
Such  expressions  as  "  all  the  high  hills 
.  .  .  were  covered,"  Gen.  7  :  19,  do  not 
oblige  us  to  go  beyond  those  portions  of 
the  earth  which  were  then  inhabited  by 
men.  Similar  expressions  are  used  where 
the  event  referred  to  was  only  partial  in 
extent.  See,  for  example,  Gen.  41 :  57 ; 
Luke  2":  1.  Opinions  still  diff"er  as  to 
310 


whether  the  Flood  was  universal  or  only 

partial. 

The  Deluge  is  referred  to  in  the  N.  T. 
Matt.  24  :  37  ;  2  Pet.  2:5;  3:6. 

The  account  of  the  Flood  upon  the 
Assyrian  tablets  has  been  deciphered 
by  Mr.  George  Smith  and  published  in 
his  work,  The  Chaldsean  Account  of 
Genesis  (London  and  New  York,  1876). 
We  quote  a  portion  of  the  interesting 
story,  pp.  270,  271 : 

"  On  the  seventh  day  in  the  course  of  it 
I  sent  forth  a  dove  and  it  left.     The 

dove  went  and  turned,  and 
a  resting-place  it  did  not  find,  and  it 

returned. 
I  sent  forth  a  swallow  and  it  left.     The 

swallow  went  and  turned,  and 
a  resting-place  it  did  not  find,  and  it 

returned. 
I  sent  forth  a  raven  and  it  left. 
The  raven  went,  and  the  decrease  of  the 

water  it  saw,  and 
it  did  eat,  it  swam,  and  wandered  away, 

and  did  not  return. 
I   sent   the   animals   forth  to   the  four 

winds,  I  poured  out  a  libation, 
I  built   an   altar  on   the  peak  of  the 

mountain, 
by  seven  herbs  I  cut, 
at  the  bottom  of  them  I  placed  reeds, 

pines,  and  simgar. 
The    gods   collected   at    its    savor,   the 

gods  collected  at  its  good  savor; 
the   gods   like   flies   over   the    sacrifice 

gathered 
From  of  old  also  Rubat  in  her  course 
The  great  brightness  of  Anu  had  cre- 
ated.    When  the  glory 
of  those  gods  on  the  charm  round  my 

neck  I  would  not  leave." 

FLOOR.     See  Threshing. 

FLUTE.     See  Pipe. 

FLUX,  BLOODY,  or  dysentery, 
Acts  28:8. 

FLY,  the  name  of  a  large  tribe  of 
insects,  some  of  which  are  exceedingly 
annoying  and  destructive,  Isa.  7  :  18. 
They  abound  in  Egypt  and  Palestine. 
One  species,  which  is  found  by  modern 
travellers  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Nile,  and 
called  the  Abyssinian  fly,  is  as  large  as 
a  bee,  and  is  such  an  annoyance  to  cat- 
tle and  other  large  animals  as  to  oblige 
them  to  forsake  their  pastures  and 
ranges,  and  to  flee  to  some  place  where 
they  can  roll  themselves  in  the  mud  or 
sand.     Hence  we  may  judge  of  the  ter- 


FOL 


FOR 


rible  nature  of  the  judgments  mentioned 
in  Ex.  8  :  24 ;  Isa.  7:18;  in  which  last 
passage  we  are  informed  that  the  fly 
shall  be  found  in  the  very  places  to 
which  the  cattle  resort  to  rid  themselves 
of  its  presence. 

FOLD.     See  Sheep. 

FOL'LY,  Gen.  34  :  7,  FOOL, 
Prov.  15  :  5.  These  terms  are  used  by 
the  sacred  writers  sometimes  to  denote 
weakness  of  understanding,  Ps.  14  :  1 ; 
1  Cor.  1 :  27  ;  4  :  10^  and  sometimes  sin 
or  wickedness.  Ps.  38  :  5  ;  Josh.  7  :  15. 
The  transgression  and  disobedience  of 
Adam  were  the  height  of  folly,  as  is  the 
sin  of  humanity  generally.  Foolish 
talking,  jesting,  foolish  and  unlearned 
questions,  etc.,  2  Tim.  2  :  23,  are  such 
as  are  vain,  frivolous,  or  have  no  useful 
tendency. 

The  phrase  "  Thou  fool,"  Matt.  5  :  22, 
implies  not  only  an  angry  temper,  but 
probably  also  impiety  and  wickedness, 
in  allusion  to  Ps.  14  : 1,  where  the  athe- 
ist is  called  a  fool. 

FOOD.  Gen.  3:6.  We  may  form 
some  judgment  of  the  ancient  diet  from 
what  we  know  of  that  of  the  modern 
Orientals.  Vegetable  food  is  much 
more  common  than  animal.  Instead 
of  butter,  lard,  and  suet,  they  use  olive- 
oil.  A  soup,  or  rather  pottage,  of  beans 
and  lentiles,  seasoned  with  garlic  and 
oil,  is  still,  as  it  was  of  old,  a  favorite 
dish.  The  "red  pottage  of  lentiles" 
for  which  Esau  sold  his  birti^-ight  was 
something  of  this  kind.  Eggs,  honey, 
milk  (especially  sour  milk),  and  garden- 
productions  of  every  kind  afford  the 
principal  materials  of  Eastern  diet.  The 
most  common  dish  at  this  day  in  the 
East  is  the  ]nlan,  which  consists  of 
rice  cooked  with  meat  so  as  to  make  a 
sort  of  broth,  seasoned  variously  and 
colored  blue,  red,  or  yellow. 

We  do  not  find  the  use  of  animal  food 
often  occurring,  except  upon  the  occa- 
sion of  entertainments,  or  the  exhibition 
of  hospitality  to  a  friend,  Gen.  18 :  7 ; 
Luke  15 :  23,  or  upon  the  tables  of  the 
rich.  The  animals  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, especially  neat  cattle,  were  often 
"stalled"  and  "fattened."  1  Sam.  16  : 
20  ;  28  :  24 ;  1  Kgs.  4  :  23  ;  Neh.  5:18; 
Isa.  1 :  il ;  11 :  6  ;  Jer.  46  :  21 ;  Eze.  39  : 
18;  Am.  6:4;  Mai.  4  :  2. 

Wild  game,  lambs,  and  kids  consti- 
tuted the  favorite  viands  in  the  East. 


At  this  day  beef  is  not  much  used,  though 
from  some  texts  above  and  other  similar 
authorities  we  learn  that  the  flesh  of 
young  bullocks  and  stall-fed  oxen  was 
highly  prized.  Prov.  15  :  17;  Matt. 
22  :  4. 

In  very  ancient  times  it  was  always 
the  piaster  of  the  house,  whether  he 
were  rich  or  poor,  who  slew  the  animal. 
Jud.  6  :  19.  Grecian  and  Roman  writers 
mention  a  like  custom  of  later  times. 
The  preparation  of  the  food  by  cooking 
was  the  business  of  the  mistress.  The 
shoulder  was  probably  the  choicest  part. 

1  Sam.  9  :  24. 

It  is  customary  for  the  Arabs  to  serve 
up  at  one  meal  the  whole  of  any  animal 
which  they  have  killed.  This  is  occa- 
sioned in  some  measure  by  the  difficulty 
of  preserving  fresh  meat  in  the  Eastern 
climate.  Gen.  18  :  7  :  Luke  15  :  23. 

The  people  of  the  East  are  particularly 
fond  of  fish,  and  in  Egypt  this  consti- 
tutes a  very  important  part  of  their  sub- 
sistence. Num.  11 :  5.     See  Fish. 

FOOT'MAN.  The  term  sometimes 
means  soldiers  on  foot  or  infantry.  At 
other  times  it  has  special  reference  to 
the  king's  guard.  1  Sam.  22  :  17.  The 
word  there  translated  "  footman  "  is  ren- 
dered "guard"  in  other  passages.  1  Kgs. 
14  :  28 ;  2  Kgs.  11 :  4,  etc. 

FOOT'STOOL.  2  Chr.  9  :  18. 
Kings  and  other  rulers  sitting  in  state 
required  a  stool  ujjon  which  to  rest  their 
feet.  The  divine  glory,  which  resided 
symbolically  in  the  holy  place  between 
the  cherubim  above  the  ark,  is  supposed 
to  use  the  ark  as  a  footstool.  1  Chr.  28 : 

2  ;  Ps.  99  :  5.  So  the  earth  is  called 
God's  footstool  by  the  same  expressive 
figure  which  represents  heaven  as  his 
throne. 

FOOT,  WA'TERING  WITH 
THE,  a  phrase  used  of  Egypt  in 
Deut.  11:10,  because  the  "Egyptians 
watered  with  the  foot  in  two  ways — by 
the  tread-wheel  working  sets  of  pumps, 
and  by  means  of  artificial  channels  con- 
nected with  reservoirs,  and  opened,  turn- 
ed, or  closed  by  the  feet." — Bible  Com- 
mentary. 

FORD,  a  word  frequently  used  to 
designate  the  crossing  of  any  stream,  but 
especially  of  the  Jordan,  as  Josh.  2:7: 
Jud.  3  :  28 ;  12  :  5,  6 ;  of  the  Jabbok,  Gen. 
32  :  22  ;  of  the  Arnon,  Isa.  16  :  2 ;  of  the 
Euphrates.   Jer.  51 :  32.     Until  recently 

311 


FOE 


FOU 


the  fords  of  the  Jordan  were  supposed 
to  be  only  8  or  10  in  number,  but  the 
British  Palestine  Survey  has  noted 
about  50. 

FORE'HEAD.  Inasmuch  as  mod- 
est women  kept  the  forehead  covered 
with  a  veil,  not  to  do  so  was  indicative 
of  shamelessness.  Jer.  3  :  3.  Jewels  for 
the  forehead,  Eze.  16  :  12,  were  nose- 
jewels,  although  at  the  present  day  in 
the  East  women  wear  jewels  and  strings 
of  coins  across  their  foreheads.  To  mark 
the  forehead  with  the  device  of  a  god 
denoted  the  consecration  of  the  intellect 
unto  it.  Thus,  the  mark  of  the  beast 
was  upon  the  forehead.  Rev.  13  :  16. 
So  God's  name  is  upon  the  saint's  fore- 
head. Rev.  22  :  4. 

FOR'EIGNER,  any  one  not  of 
the  genuine  Hebrew  stock.  Ex.  12  :  45; 
comp.  Eph.  2  :  12. 

FOREKNOWL'EDGE,  a  pecu- 
liar and  essential  attribute  of  God,  re- 
ferring to  his  knowledge  of  the  future 
and  of  future  events.  Acts  2  :  23 ;  15 :  18. 
Believers  are  said  to  be  "elect  according 
to  the  foreknowledge  of  God."  1  Pet. 
1:2. 

FORERUN'NER.  Heb.  6  :  20. 
The  term,  as  used  of  the  entrance  of  our 
Saviour  within  the  veil,  refers  to  one 
who  not  only  goes  before  to  a  particular 
place  to  make  arrangements  for  his  suc- 
cessors, but  who  leads  or  prepares  the 
way. 

FOR'EST.  1  Sam.  22  :  5.  Sev- 
eral tracts  of  country  were  designated 
in  this  way  ;  as,  *'the  forest  of  Hareth," 
that  of  "  Ephraim,"  "■  the  wood  of  Ziph," 
etc.  It  is  known  that  in  the  tenth  cen- 
tury A.  D.  there  was  a  fir-wood  between 
Jerusalem  and  Bethlehem.  Not  a  trace 
of  these  forests  remains.  One  of  the 
chief  causes  of  the  present  desolation 
of  the  Holy  Land  is  the  disappearance 
of  forests.  The  "house  of  the  forest  of 
Lebanon,"  which  was  built  by  Solomon, 
and  which  was  magnificent  in  size  and 
style,  1  Kgs.  7  :  2,  was  so  called  probably 
from  the  great  quantity  of  cedar  which 
was  used  in  the  construction  of  it. 

FORGIVE'NESS  is  an  act  of 
God  toward  man,  and  of  man  toward 
his  fellow.  To  forgive  sin  is  the  exclu- 
sive prerogative  of  God,  of  whose  law 
sin  is  the  transgression.  Ps.  130  :  4. 
Our  Lord,  by  virtue  of  his  divine  na- 
ture, assumed  the  prerogative  and  exer- 
312 


cised  the  power  of  forgiving  sins,  which 
the  scribes  and  Pharisees,  viewing  him 
merely  as  a  man,  made  the  occasion  of 
a  charge  of  blasphemy,  Mark  2  :  5. 
The  gospel  makes  known  not  only  that 
there  is  forgiveness  with  God,  but  also 
how  such  forgiveness  is  made  compati- 
ble with  the  divine  justice. 

Forgiveness,  full,  free,  and  everlast- 
ing, is  offered  to  all  who  will  believe 
and  obey  the  gospel.  Acts  13  :  38,  39  ; 
1  John  2  :  12.  The  duty  of  mutual  for- 
giveness is  urged  upon  man  with  the 
most  solemn  sanctions.  Matt.  6  :  14,  15  ; 
18  :  22  ;  Luke  17  :  3,  4. 

FORKS,  mentioned  in  1  Sam.  13: 
21,  were  used,  not  in  eating  (for  the 
Orientals  eat  without  forks),  but  in  tak- 
ing the  meat  out  of  the  vessels  in  which 
it  was  cooked,  or  else  in  husbandry.  See 
Eat,  Eating. 

FORNICA'TION.  This  word, 
as  used  by  the  sacred  writers,  denotes 
various  acts  of  lewdness  and  inconti- 
nency ;  and  it  is  also  figuratively  ap- 
plied to  idolatry,  or  the  mingling  of  the 
pure  worship  of  God  with  the  impure 
rites  of  heathenism.  Matt.  5 :  32,  etc. 

FORSWEAR'.     See  Oath. 

FORTUNA'TUS,  one  of  the 
three  Corinthians,  the  others  being 
Stephanus  and  Achaieus,  who  were  at 
Ephesus  when  Paul  wrote  his  first  Epis- 
tle to  the  Corinthians,  and  who  are 
mentioned  in  the  postscript  as  the 
bearers  of  the  Epistles.    1  Cor.  16:17. 

FOUNT'AIN.  Springs  of  water 
are  often  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  Pal- 
estine, in  contrast  with  Egypt,  was  a 
land  of  brooks  of  water,  of  fountains 
and  depths,  Deut.  8  :  7.  Hundreds  of 
fountains  may  be  counted  with  ease 
on  either  side  of  the  Jordan.  Some 
have  peculiar  properties.  There  are 
intermittent,  thermal,  brackish,  sulphur, 
and  hot  springs.  Perpetual  fountains 
or  springs  of  living  water  were  greatly 
valued.  Ps.  36  :  8,  9  ;  Isa.  49  :  10  ;  Jer. 
2:13:  Joel  3  :  18  ;  Zech.  13  :  1 ;  John 
4:10:  Rev.  7  :  17. 

In  the  expressive  language  of  the 
Hebrews  and  the  modern  Arabs,  a  foun- 
tain is  the  "  eye  "  of  the  locality.  The 
importance  of  water  is  attested  by  the 
numerous  names  of  localities  into  which 
enters  the  Hebrew  en  or  the  Arabic  ain, 
"  fountain,"  such  as  "  En-rogel,"  "  En- 
gedi"    (Arabic    'Ain-jidy),    "En-had- 


FOW 


FOX 


dah."  Damascus  is  the  best  supplied 
with  water  of  all.  the  Eastern  cities ; 
Jerusalem  also  had  so  abundant  a  sup- 
ply that  during  its  numerous  sieges 
there  was  never  a  complaint  on  this 
score.  Public  fountains  are  frequent 
in  the  towns.  The  "  fountain  sealed"  of 
Song  Sol.  4  :  12  is  a  well-spring  covered 
with  a  stone  and  sealed  with  the  king's 
own  signet.  The  word  "  fountain  "  was 
used  figuratively ;  thus,  Deut.  33  :  28 
and  Ps.  68  :  26,  it  is  applied  to  Israel 
as  the  ancestor  of  the  chosen  people  of 
God,  and  in  Prov.  5  :  18  to  a  beloved  wife. 

FOWL.     See  Bird. 

FOX.  Neh.  4  :  3.  Under  this  term 
the  jackal  is  included — indeed,  most  of 
the  references  seem  to  be  to  that  animal. 
The  Orientals  at  the  present  time  do  not 
distinguish  in  common  language  be- 
tween the  two  creatures.  Both  are  com- 
mon in  Palestine.  The  fox  (  Vulpes 
vulgaris)    is    smaller    than    the    jackal 


{Cam's  aureus),  and  is  of  a  reddish  hue, 
while  the  latter  is  yellowish  ;  hence  its 
scientific  name,  meaning  *'the  golden 
dog."  It  is  the  latter  also,  and  not  the 
fox,  which  devours  the  dead  and  fol- 
lows armies  that  he  may  feed  on  human 
bodies  left  behind.  Ps.  63  :  10.  Both 
animals  are  omnivorous,  but  the  jackal, 
which  goes  in  packs,  is  even  more  de- 
structive to  the  vineyards  than  the 
other.  Song  Sol.  2:15.  The  crafty, 
artful  nature  of  the  fox  is  proverbial. 
Eze.  13:4;  Luke  13  :  32.  He  prowls  sin- 
gly for  his  prey  of  birds  or  small  quad- 
rupeds, which  he  takes  by  stratagem. 
Jackals  are  concealed  by  hundreds 
among  the  ruins,  caves,  and  gardens 
of  Syria.  Lam.  5  :  18.  At  sunset  they 
come  forth,  and  both  then  and  at  inter- 
vals through  the  night  the  traveller 
hears  their  cry,  resembling  the  con- 
fused wailing  of  many  infants. 

Evidently,  the  ''foxes"  which  Sam- 


The  Syrian  Fox. 


son  caught  (Jud.  15  :  4)  were  jackals. 
On  this  Tristram  judiciously  remarks  : 
while  Samson  could  not  have  caught  so 
many  foxes,  "  he  might  easily  have 
'  snared,'  as  the  Hebrew  expresses  it, 
300  jackals,  which  hunt  in  large  packs, 
and  which  are  still  most  numerous  in 
southern  Palestine.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  assume  that  the  whole  300  were 
caught  at  once  or  turned  loose  in  the 
same  place,  but  rather  that  Samson, 
having  taken  them,  turned  them  loose 
in  many  difiFerent  places,  so  as  to  make  I 


150  incendiary  fires,  and  to  cause  the 
widest  possible  injury  to  the  standing 
crops  of  the  Philistines.  The  brands 
would  be  attached  at  some  distance 
from  the  tails  of  the  animals,  and  jack- 
als, accustomed  to  run  together,  would 
not,  unless  very  tightly  fastened,  pull  in 
opposite  directions,  as  foxes  or  dogs 
would  ;  but  the  terrified  animals  would, 
so  soon  as  ever  they  were  let  go,  rush 
as  fast  as  possible  from  their  captor, 
and  carry  the  devastation  far  and  wide 
before  the  brand  was  extinguished." 

313 


FRA 


FRO 


FRANKIN'CENSE  {ichite),  a  dry, 
resinous,  aromatic  substance  of  a  white 
or  yellowish  color,  bitter  and  acrid  to  the 
taste,  burning  for  a  long  time  with  a 
clear,  steady,  and  very  odoriferous  flame. 
Several  trees  (of  the  genus  Boswellia) 
which  grow  in  India,  Arabia,  and  Af- 
rica yield  this  gum  from  incisions  in  the 
bark.  Along  the  coast  of  Hadramaut,  a 
district  of  Arabia,  as  Carter  has  shown, 
frankincense  (the  olibanum  of  com- 
merce) is  produced,  as  was  affirmed  by 
Herodotus,  Celsius,  other  ancient  writ- 
ers, and  the  Bible.  Isa.  60 :  6 ;  Jer.  6  : 
20,  The  Arabian  species  {B.  Carterii) 
somewhat  resembles,   especially  in   its 


Boswellia  Thurifera.     {Colehrooke.    Supposed  Frankincense. 
After  Dr.  Birdwood.) 

pinnate  leaves  when  young,  the  moun- 
tain-ash. This  gum,  in  the  above  and 
other  passages,  is  mentioned  simply  as 
"incense."  It  is  csbUed  frank  because 
of  the  freeness  with  which  it  burns  and 
gives  forth  its  odors ;  and  the  pure  in- 
cense is  that  which  is  first  obtained, 
and  is  freest  from  foreign  admixture. 
"  Sweet  incense,"  Ex.  30  :  7,  might  as 
314 


well  be  rendered  "  incense  of  spices," 
and  is  the  composition  mentioned  in 
Ex.'  30  :  34. 

The  use  of  incense  in  the  Jewish 
worship  may  be  learned  from  Ex.  30  :  7 
and  Lev.  16  :  12,  13,  and  it  is  figura- 
tively employed  to  represent  lovely  and 
agreeable  qualities.  Song  Sol.  3:6;  4 : 
6,  14,  and  devotional  fervor.  Ps.  141:2; 
Mai.  1:  11  :  Rev.  8:3. 

FRANK'LY  is  used  in  Luke  7  :  42 
in  the  sense  of  "  freely." 

FRIEND.     Abraham  is  called  "  the 
friend  of  God."  Isa.  41 :  8  ;  Jas.  2  :  23. 
Jesus   called  his  disciples  his    friends. 
John  15: 15.     He  used  a  diff'erent  word 
in   the    Greek   to   Judas,    Matt. 
26  :  50,  and  one  used  more  like 
our     conventional      "  my     good 
friend,"   implying    kindly    feel- 
ing, though  no  especial  regard. 
FRIN'GES,  a   part   of  the 
outer  garment,  and  the  same  as 
the  hem  or   border  of  the   gar- 
ment. Deut.  22  :  12 ;  Matt.  9:20; 
14  :  36.     See  Clothes. 

The  children  of  Israel  were 
enjoined  to  wear  them  by  Moses, 
Num.  15 :  38,  and  to  place  them 
on  the  four  borders  or  edges  of 
their  outer  garment,  which  was 
usually  rectangular  in  shape. 
They  were  of  a  blue  color. 

The  object  of  the  fringes  was 
to  remind  the  children  of  Israel 
of  the  commandments  of  God. 
Num.  15  :  39.  In  the  time  of  our 
Lord  they  had  become  objects 
of  parade  and  show,  so  that  he 
finds  an  evidence  of  the  hypoc- 
risy of  the  Pharisees  in  their 
practice  of  "  enlarging  the  bor- 
ders of  their  garments."  The 
*'hem  of  the  garment"  which 
the  woman  with  the  issue  of 
blood  touched.  Matt.  9  :  20,  was 
the  ancient  fringe  enjoined  by 
Moses. 

They  became  with  time,  as  did 
the  rolls  containing  the  Scriptures,  phy- 
lacteries, and  other  things,  objects  of 
superstitious  regard,  and  a  Jewish 
commentator  on  Num.  15  says  that  any 
man  clothed  with  this  fringe  is  safe, 
and  shall  be  delivered  from  all  hurt 
and  destruction. 

FROG,  a  well-known  amphibious 
reptile  which  lives  on  insects,  worms,  etCt 


FRO 


FUR 


Ex.  8  :  2.  But  one  species  is  found  in  the 
waters  of  Egypt  {liana  csctdenta).  In 
Rev.  16  :  13  this  creature  is  the  symbol 
of  uncleanness.  Ex.  8  :  2  records  the 
miraculous  multiplication  of  frogs 
among  the  Egyptians  in  such  numbers 
as  to  fill  their  beds,  ovens,  and  knead- 
ing-troughs ;  and  when  they  died,  as 
they  did  in  immense  masses,  they  fill- 
ed the  land  with  an  o8"ensive  and  pesti- 
lential effluvium. 

FRONT'LETS.  See  Phylac- 
teries. 

FRUIT.  The  word  is  used  in  both 
a  literal  and  figurative  sense.  **  The 
fruit  of  the  ground"  is  the  product  of 
the  ground ;  "  the  fruit  of  the  body " 
signifies  children.  By  "fruit"  is  some- 
times meant  reward  or  consequences. 
Prov.  1 :  31.  "  The  fruit  of  the  lips  "  is 
service  or  thanksgiving.  But  used  lit- 
erally it  is  a  comprehensive  term.  For 
the  regulation  in  regard  to  fruit  trees, 
see  Tree, 

FU'EL  was  so  scarce  in  the  East 
that  the  peopie  resorted  to  almost  every 
kind  of  combustible  matter,  such  as  the 
withered  stalks  of  herbs  and  flowers, 
Matt.  6  :  28-30,  thorns,  Ps.  58  :  9  ;  Eccl. 
7  :  6,  and  even  excrements.  Eze.  4  :  12- 
16.     See  Dung. 

FULFIL'LED.  Matt.  2  :  17.  This 
word  is  frequently  used  in  reference  to 
the  accomplishment  of  prophecy.  The 
expression,  "that  it  might  be  fulfilled," 
Matt.  2  :  15,  23  ;  8  :  17  ;  12 :  17,  etc.,  etc., 
signifies  that  the  events  have  fallen  out 
in  accordance  with  the  prophecies  of 
the  0.  T.  The  word  in  this  connection 
is  almost  synonymous  with  "  verified." 

In  other  connections.  Gen.  25  :  24  ; 
Rev.  15  :  8,  etc.,  the  word  means  "com- 
pleted" or  "accomplished,"  as  when 
Christ  said,  "The  time  is  fulfilled," 
Mark  1:15. 

FUL'LER.  The  Hebrew  word 
comes  from  the  verb  "  to  tread,"  be- 
cause originally  the  clothing  was  trod- 
den upon  in  tubs  of  water  until  the  soap 
which  had  been  dissolved  had  cleansed 
it.  The  fuller  did  not  simply  full  new 
cloth,  but  washed  clothing  that  had  been 
worn.  Among  the  primitive  Hebrews 
washing  was  done  at  home  by  the  wo- 
men. Ex.  19  :  10  ;  Num.  19  :  7.  It  was 
obligatory  in  the  case  of  the  leper's 
clothing.  Lev.  13  :  54.  But  in  later 
times   among   the   Hebrews,   as    among 


the  Egyptians,  as  the  monuments  tes- 
tify, washing  was  an  especial  and  im- 
portant business  of  the  men.  2  Kgs.  18  : 
17  ;  Isa.  7  :  3  ;  36  :  2  ;  Mark  9  :  3.  Men- 
tion is  made  in  the  Bible  of  the  various 
substances  used  in  this  business,  such  as 
nitre,  Prov.  26  :  20  ;  Jer.  2:22;  soap, 
probably  the  juice  of  some  saponaceous 
plant,  Mai.  3  :  2.  Chalk  was  rubbed 
into  clothes  for  the  same  purpose.  Since 
the  fullers  occasioned  ofi'ensive  smells, 
they  carried  on  their  work  outside  the 
cities.  West  of  Jerusalem  was  their 
field ;  its  removed  position  and  the  sup- 
ply of  water  from  the  upper  Pool  of 
Gihon  rendered  the  place  very  fit.  See 
Fullers'  Field.  En-rogel  was  the 
fullers'  fountain. 

FUL'LERS'  FIELD,  a  spot  close 
to  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  2  Kgs.  18  : 
17,  26;  Isa.  36:2;  7:3.  One  resort 
of  the  fullers  appears  to  have  been  En- 
rogel,  below  and  south-east  of  Jerusa- 
lem, but  the  place  where  Rabshakeh 
stood  was  probably  on  the  north  of  the 
city,  or  perhaps  near  the  Jaffa  gate,  at 
the  upper  Gihon  pool,  where  fullers  now 
whiten  their  garments. 

FULLNESS.  Gal.  4:4.  This  ex- 
pression has  a  peculiar  meaning  in  some 
passages  of  the  sacred  writings.  The 
"  fulness  of  time,"  in  relation  to  the 
Messiah,  has  the  same  meaning  as  the 
expression  "  when  the  measure  of  time 
was  full " — that  is,  when  the  time  had 
elapsed  as  appointed  by  God,  and  all 
the  preparations  for  his  coming  were 
completed.  So  when  the  day  of  Pen- 
tecost was  fully  come.  Acts  2:1.  The 
same  word  is  used,  John  1 :  16  and  Col. 
1:19,  to  signify  the  perfect  and  com- 
plete sufficiency  of  spiritual  blessings 
in   Christ  Jesus. 

"Fulness  of  the  Godhead,"  Col.  2 :  9, 
denotes  all  the  attributes  of  the  divine 
nature  in  their  entire  and  complete  per- 
fection. The  "  fulness  of  Deity  "  was 
in  Christ. 

FU'NERAL.     See  Bury. 

FUR'LONG.     See  Measures. 

FUR'NACE.  Furnaces  were  used 
for  melting  the  precious  metals.  Prov. 
17 :  3.  They  were  also  used  to  punish 
criminals.  The  furnace  into  which 
Nebuchadnezzar  cast  the  young  He- 
brews who  refused  to  worship  his  image, 
Dan.  3  :  22,  23  ;  cf.  Jer.  29  :  22,  was 
probably  a  large  furnace,  like  a  brick- 

315 


FUR 


FUR 


kiln,  with  an  opening  at  the  top  to  cast 
in  the  materials  ;  a  second,  for  the  re- 
moval of  slag,  cinders,  etc.,  or  molten 


Egyptian  Fuiuace.     (^Ayre.") 

metal,  was  arranged  below,  in  one  of 
the  sides,  so  that  the  material  in  the  in- 
terior could  be  observed. 

FUR'NITURE.  To  a  European  eye 
the  best-furnished  houses  in  the  East  ap- 
pear empty.  On  the  marble  floors  are 
rugs,  on  the  divan  are  cushions  of  rich 
materials.  But  the  great  variety  of 
furniture  to  which  we  are  accustomed  is 
unknown.  The  poor  of  course  had  cor- 
respondingly less.  A  mat  or  a  skin  to 
recline  on  during  the  day,  a  mattress  to 


sleep  on  at  night,  a  stool,  a  little  low 
table,  and  a  brazier, — this  would  be  the 
extent  of  the  furniture.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  observe  that  the  rich  Shunam- 
mite  furnished  the  room  of  Elisha  with 
simply  a  bed — perhaps  merely  a  mat- 
tress— a  table,  a  stool  (chair),  and  a 
candlestick.  2  Kgs.  4  :  10-13  .  The  word 
"furniture"  is  used  in  Gen.  31 :  34  of 
the  camel-trappings. 

FURROW  is  the  translation  of 
diflferent  words  in  the  Hebrew.  In  Hos. 
10  :  10  the  word  is  properly  "transgres- 
sions." The  complaining  of  the  furrows. 
Job  31  :  38,  is  mentioned  in  Hindoo 
proverbs. 

FU'RY.  Jer.  10  :  25.  As  the  word 
is  generally  used,  the  prophet  here  at- 
tributes to  God  what  is  true  only  of 
man.  We  associate  haste,  impulse, 
thoughtlessness,  and  unkindness  with 
fury.  But  in  this  sense  God  cannot 
have  the  emotion  of  fury.  He  has 
anger  for  sin,  but  this  is  a  righteous 
and  holy  feeling,  devoid  of  the  bitter- 
ness by  which  men  are  most  often  ac- 
tuated in  their  fury  ;  and  when  he  is  said 
to  pour  out  his  fury  on  a  person  or  on  a 
people,  it  is  a  figurative  expression  for 
dispensing  afflictive  judgments. 


Modern  Eastern  Furniture. 
1.  A  Village  Table.    2.  A  Brazier,  Tongs,  etc.    3.  Chairs,  Persian  Canopy  Bed,  a  Couch  and  Wooden 

Pillow. 

816 


GAA 


GAD 


G. 


GA'AL  {loathing),  the  son  of  Ebed, 
led  a  revolt  against  Abimelech,  king  of 
the  Shechemites.  Jud,  9  :  26-46.  He 
was  defeated  and  his  partisans  were 
scattered. 

GA'ASH  (earthquake),  the  hill  where 
Joshua  was  buried.  Josh.  24  :  30 ;  Jud. 
2:9.  South  of  7V6ne//,  which  is  iden- 
tified as  Timnath-serah,  is  a  hill,  upon 
the  north  side  of  which  are  tombs  ;  hence 
it  is  supposed  to  be  "  the  hill  Gaash." 

GA'BA.     See  Geba. 

GAB'BAI  {tax-gatherer),  a  Benja- 
mite  living  in  Jerusalem.   Neh.  11  :  8. 

GAB'BATHA  (j9^a(/orHi),  the  place 
of  Pilate's  judgment-seat;  called  also 
<'  the  pavement."  John  19  :  13.  The 
judgment-hall  was  the  Prgetorium,  on 
the  western  hill  of  Jerusalem,  and  the 
pavement,  or  Gabbatha,  was  a  tesselated 
pavement  outside  the  hall. 

GA'BRIEL  {mau  of  God),  an  angel 
specially  charged  with  the  message  to 
Zacharias  respecting  the  birth  of  John, 
and  to  Mary  respecting  the  birth  of 
Christ.  Luke  1  :  19-26.  At  an  earlier 
period  he  was  sent  to  Daniel  to  unfold 
a  vision.  Dan.  8:16j  9  :  21.  See  An- 
gels. 

GAD  {good  fortune  ?).  1.  The  sev- 
enth son  of  Jacob,  and  the  first-born  of 
Zilpah,  Leah's  handmaid,  Gen.  30:  11. 

2.  A  prophet  and  particular  friend  of 
David,  the  history  of  whose  reign  he 
wrote.  1  Chr.  29  :  29.  He  came  to  Da- 
vid when  the  latter  was  in  the  cave  Adul- 
1am.  1  Sam.  22  :  5.  He  then  began  his 
career  of  counsellor,  under  divine  direc- 
tion, which  eventually  won  him  the  title 
of  "the  king's  seer."  2  Sam.  24:  11,  13; 
1  Chr.  21 :  9.  In  Hezekiah's  day  he  was 
remembered.    2  Chr.  29  :  25. 

GAD,  THE  TRIBE  OF.  The 
territory,  given  to  the  tribe  of  Gad 
lay  east  of  the  Jordan,  north  of 
that  allotted  to  Reuben,  and  south  of 
that  given  to  Manasseh  on  that  side  of 
the  river.  It  extended  from  the  .Jordan 
eastward  to  Aroer,  Josh.  13  :  2.^,  includ- 
ing half  of  Mount  (iilead  and  half  of 
Ammon.  Deut.  3  :  12  ;  Josh.  13  :  25.  For 
physical  features  and  history,  see  Gil- 


KAD.     Its  chief  cities  were  Ramoth-gil- 
ead,  Mahanaim,  llcshbon,  and  Aroer. 

This  tribe,  in  the  Wilderness,  Avas 
placed  with  Simeon  and  Reuben  on  the 
south  of  the  tabernacle;  with  Reuben 
and  the  half  of  Manasseh,  it  occupied 
the  pasture-grounds  on  the  east  of  the 
Jordan.  It  was  warlike,  as  is  graphically 
stated,  1  Chr.  12:  8.  Two  famous  men 
came  from  Gad — Barzillai,  2  Sam.  17 : 
27,  and  Elijah,  1  Kgs.  17  : 1.  The  ter- 
ritory was  the  battle-field  for  wars  be- 
tween Syria  and  Israel.   2  Kgs.  10  :  33. 

GAD'ARA.     See  Gadarenes. 

GAD'ARENES,  COUNTRY 
OF,  possibly  the  same  as  that  of  the 
Gergesenes.  Matt.  8:28;  Mark  5:1; 
Luke  8  :  26.  A  region  about  Gadara,  an 
important  city  about  6  miles  south-east 
of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  16  miles  from 
Tiberias ;  now  called  Um  Keis.  The 
town  is  about  1215  feet  above  the  sea- 
level,  on  the  western  crest  of  a  mountain. 
The  tomb-caverns  are  very  numerous, 
and  some  of  them  are  still  inhabited  by 
the  Arabs,  illustrating  Matt.  8  :  28.  The 
ruins  of  the  ancient  city  cover  a  circuit 
of  about  2  miles,  including  a  street  with 
basalt  pavement  having  marks  of  char- 
iot-wheels. There  are  rows  of  columns, 
two  theatres. 

The  place  of  the  miracle  of  Matt.  8 : 
28-33  has  been  in  doubt,  but  it  cannot 
be  Gadara,  which  is  too  far  from  the 
lake  for  the  herd  of  swine  to  rush  into 
it  precipitantly  in  one  short  movement. 
Recent  explorations  fix  it,  with  some 
certainty,  about  midway  of  the  Lake 
of  Galilee,  on  its  eastern  side  and  near 
Gerasa,  or  modern  Kersa.  Between 
two  wadys,  Seniakh  and  File,  which  are 
3  miles  apart,  the  hills  come  within  40 
feet  of  the  lake,  and  present  a  steep 
slope,  so  that  a  herd  of  swine  running 
swiftly  down  it  would  be  carried  on  into 
the  water.  This  identification  is  support- 
ed by  W.  M.  Thomson,  Tristram,  and  the 
menibers  of  the  Palestine  Exploration 
Survey.  W.  M.  Thomson  suggests  that 
Matthew,  writing  for  the  Hebrews,  who 
knew  the  country,  notices  the  more  exact 
but  less  known  locality  of  Gergesa,  while 

317 


GAD 


GAL 


Mark  and  Luke,  writing  for  those  at  a 
distance,  refer  simply  to  the  country 
of  Gadara,  which  was  more  widely 
known  as  the  capital  of  that  region, 

GAD'DI  {fortunate),  the  spy  from 
the  tribe  of  Manasseh.    Num.  13:11. 

GAD'DIEL  {fortune  of  God;  i.  e. 
sent  from  God),  the  spy  from  Zebulun. 
Nura".  13  :  10. 

GA'DI  (a  (9«f/*7e),  the  father  of  Men- 
ahem,  a  king  of  Israel.  2  Kgs.  15  :  14, 17. 

GA'HAM  {sunburnt),  a  son  of  Na- 
hor,  nephew  of  Abraham.  Gen.  22  :  24. 

GA'HAR  {Inrking-plnce),  a  Neth- 
inim.    Ezr.  2  :  47  j  Neh.  7:49. 

GA^IUS.  1.  A  Macedonian,  Acts 
19  :  29,  Paul's  host  at  Corinth  when  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans  was  written,  Rom. 
16  :  23,  and  baptized  with  his  household 
by  Paul.  1  Cor.  1 :  16.  He  accompanied 
Paul  to  Ephesus,  and  was  seized  by  the 
mob.  Acts  19  :  29.  The  association  of 
his  name  with  that  of  Aristarchus  seems 
to  identify  him  with  the  Gaius  of  Derbe. 
Acts  20  :  4.  Opinions  differ  on  this 
point. 

2.  To  one  of  this  name  is  addressed 
the  third  Epistle  of  John.  3  John  1. 

GA'IiAL  {influential).  1.  A  Levite. 
1  Chr.  9:  15. 

2.  A  Levite.  1  Chr.  9:16;  Neh.  11  : 
17. 

GALiA'TIA,  a  central  province  of 
Asia  Minor,  subject  to  the  Roman  rule, 
bounded  by  Bithynia  and  Paphlagonia 
on  the  north,  Pontus  on  the  east,  Cap- 
padocia  and  Lycaonia  on  the  south, 
and  Phrygia  on  the  west.  Its  bound- 
aries, however,  were  often  changed. 
In  Ptolemy's  time  it  extended  to  the 
Euxine  or  Black  Sea,  and  at  one  time 
included  Lycaonia  on  the  south.  Its 
capitals  were  Tavium,  Pessinus,  and  An- 
cyra.  The  country  is  chiefly  high  table- 
land between  the  two  rivers  Halys  and 
Sangarius. 

The  Galatians  were  originally  Gauls 
or  Celts  who  300  years  before  Christ 
moved  from  the  regions  of  the  Rhine 
back  toward  the  east,  and  there  min- 
gled with  Greeks  and  Jews.  Their 
character  resembled  that  of  the  mod- 
ern French,  and  combined  quick  temper, 
prompt  action,  inconstancy,  and  change- 
ableness.  So  they  appear  in  the  Epistle 
of  Paul  to  them. 

Galatia  was  a  part  of  Paul's  mission- 
ary-field.    He  visited  it  once  with  Silas 
318 


and  Timothy,  Acts  16  :  6 ;  again,  on  his 

third  tour,  he  ''  went  over  all  the  country 
of  Galatia,"  18 :  23,  and  received  a  col- 
lection for  the  saints  from  its  churches, 
1  Cor.  16  :  1.  Crescens  also  appears  to 
have  been  sent  there  near  the  close  of 
Paul's  life.  2  Tim.  4:  10. 

GALATIANS,  EPISTLE  TO, 
written  by  Paul  with  his  own  hand  (ch. 
6:11)  between  A.  d.  65-58.  Its  design 
is  to  diffuse  true  notions  among  the 
Galatian  Christians  concerning  justifi- 
cation, the  relation  of  the  Mosaic  econ- 
omy to  the  Christian,  and  the  authority 
of  Paul  as  an  apostle.  The  Galatians 
had  received  Paul  with  much  enthusiasm 
when  he  first  preached  the  gospel  to 
them,  ch.  4  :  15.  After  his  departure 
teachers  had  disseminated  the  false  idea 
that  the  obligation  was  incumbent  upon 
the  followers  of  Christ  to  practise  the 
ceremonies  and  rites  of  the  Mosaic  code. 
With  much  vehemence  and  fervor  Paul 
combats  their  Judaizing  teachings,  and 
enforces  the  doctrine  that  by  faith  alone 
are  we  justified.  Faith  constitutes  one 
the  child  of  Abraham,  3  :  9,  and  circum- 
cision is  not  only  not  essential  to  salva- 
tion, but  is  in  itself  of  no  avail.  6  :  6. 
Chs.  1  and  2  are  occupied  mainly  with 
a  vindication  of  Paul's  apostolic  com- 
mission as  of  equal  authority  with  that 
of  the  other  apostles,  and  with  an  ac- 
count of  a  debate  concerning  meats  at 
the  council  of  Jerusalem.  Chs.  5  and  6 
contain  practical  exhortations.  The 
main  argument,  that  we  become  par- 
takers of  salvation  by  faith,  3  :  26,  is 
the  same  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians 
as  in  that  to  the  Romans.  The  two 
Epistles  were  best  understood  in  the 
time  of  the  Reformation,  and  form  the 
magna  charta  of  evangelical  Protestant- 
ism. 

GAL'BAXUM,  a  resinous  gum  of 
dark-yellow  color,  produced  in  Syria 
and  neighboring  countries,  Ex.  30  :  34. 
It  burns  with  a  pungent,  disagreeable 
odor,  was  an  ingredient  of  the  sacred 
incense,  and  is  still  valued  for  its  me- 
dicinal properties.  There  is  uncertainty 
from  what  plant  it  is  obtained,  but  that 
of  Palestine  is  thought  to  be  from  one 
which  botanists  call  Galbanum  officinale. 

GAL'EED  {heap  of  witness),  a  place 
on  Mount  Gilead ;  named  by  Jacob, 
Gen,  31 :  47,  48  ;  probably  near  Tihneh. 

GALILE'ANS,  the  inhabitants  of 


GAL 


GAL 


the  province  of  Galilee.  Luke  13  :  1-3 ; 
Acts  2  :  7. 

GAL'ILEE  {circle,  circuit),  a  name 
in  the  0.  T.  for  a  small  district  in  the 
northern  mountains  of  Naphtali,  around 
Kedesh-naphtali,  and  includinj^  20  towns 
given  by  Solomon  to  Hiram,  king  of 
Tyre,  Josh.  20 :  7  ,•  21 :  32  ;  1  Kgs.  9:11; 
2  Kgs.  15  :  29,  and  called  "  Galilee  of  the 
nations"  in  Isa.  9  :  1.  Devastated  dur- 
ing the  wars  of  the  Captivity,  it  was 
repeopled  by  strangers.  In  the  time  of 
the  Maccabees  they  probably  outnum- 
bered the  Jewish  population,  and  gave 
their  new  name  to  a  much  wider  dis- 
trict. 

In  the  time  of  our  Lord,  Palestine  was 
divided  into  three  provinces,  of  which 
Galilee  was  the  most  northern.  It  in- 
cluded the  whole  region  from  the  Plain 
of  Jezreel  to  the  Litany  (Leontes)  River, 
being  about  50  miles  long  by  20  to  25 
miles  wide.  The  northern  part  was 
known  as  Upper  and  the  southern  part 
as  Lower  Galilee.  These  included  the 
territories  given  to  Asher,  Naphtali, 
Zebulun,  and  Issachar.  The  country 
was  famed  for  its  fertility,  rich  pastures, 
and  fine  forests.  The  portion  west  of 
the  lake  was  the  most  beautiful.  In 
the  Roman  period  the  population  was 
dense,  Josephus  estimating  it  at  2,000,000 
or  3,000,000,  though  that  is  probably  an 
exaggeration.  It  had  a  mixed  popula- 
tion of  heathens,  foreigners,  and  Jews. 
The  latter,  having  a  strong,  if  not  domi- 
nant, influence,  were  less  strict  and  less 
acquainted  with  the  Law  than  their 
southern  Judaean  neighbors,  by  whom 
they  were  little  esteemed. 

The  noted  mountains  of  Galilee  were 
Carmel,  Gilboa,  and  Tabor  ;  the  towns 
were  Nazareth,  Cana,  Tiberias,  Chorazin, 
Bethsaida,  and  Capernaum.  Jesus  spent 
the  greater  portion  of  his  life  and  ministry 
in  Galilee.  Many  of  his  most  remark- 
able miracles,  teachings,  and  labors  were 
within  this  province  of  Galilee.  His 
disciples  were  chiefly  from  this  region. 
Acts  1:11.  After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem, 
Galilee  became  the  residence  of  cele- 
brated rabbis  and  the  centre  of  Jewish 
schools  of  learning. 

GAI/ILEE  OF  THE  GEX'- 
TILES.     See  Gamlee. 

GALILEE,  SEA  OF,  a  small 
lake  of  deep  interest  to  the  Bible-read- 
er  as   the   scene  of  some    of  the   most 


remarkable  works  of  Jesus.  The  lake 
is  named  from  the  district  or  province 
of  Galilee.  It  was  known  by  several 
other  names,  as  the  sea  of  Chinnereth, 
Num.  34:  11  ;  Deut.  3  :  17,  or  Chinne- 
roth.  Josh.  11  :  2  ;  12  :  3,  or  Cinneroth, 
1  Kgs.  15  :  20,  probably  from  a  town  of 
that  name  which  stood  on  its  shore.  Josh. 
19  :  35  ;  the  lake  of  Gennesaret,*  Luke 
5  : 1,  from  the  plain  or  land  of  that  name 
on  its  north-western  side.  Matt.  14:34; 
Mark  6  :  53  ;  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  from 
the  celebrated  city  of  that  name,  John 
6:1;  and  the  sea,  Matt.  4:15.  It  is 
also  called  (Jennesar  in  the  Apocryj)hal 
book  of  Maccabees,  1  Mace.  11 :  67.  Its 
present  name  is  Bahr  Tnhariyeh.  It 
is  worthy  of  note  that  all  the  towns 
whose  names  were  applied  to  this  lake 
were  situated  upon  its  western  side. 

Situation  and  Extent. — This  sea  is  60 
miles  north-east  from  Jerusalem,  and  27 
east  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Its  form 
is  an  irregular  oval  or  pear-shape,  the 
broad  end  being  toward  the  north.  Its 
length  is  12^  miles  according  to  Wilson, 
16i  according  to  Baedeker,  and  its 
breadth  from  4  to  7i  miles.  Its  level 
varies  at  diff"erent  seasons,  and  is  from 
600  to  700  feet  below  the  Mediterranean, 
the  mean  depression  being  about  626 
feet,  and  its  depth  160  feet. 

Physical  Features. — The  lake  is  sur- 
rounded by  an  almost  continuous  wall 
of  hills,  broken  or  receding  occasionally, 
as  at  Tiberias,  the  plain  of  Gennesaret, 
and  at  the  Jordan.  The  hills  are  of 
limestone,  basalt,  and  volcanic  rocks, 
indications  of  volcanic  action  being  also 
specially  abundant  in  the,  Jordanic 
chasm,  though  Wilson  sees  nothing  to 
indicate  a  volcanic  origin  of  the  lake. 
Hot  springs  abound  ;  earthquakes  are 
frequent.  The  Jordan  runs  through  the 
lake,  coloring  its  water  for  a  mile.  The 
water  of  the  lake  is  slightly  salty,  but 
drunk  by  the  people.  Fish  abound, 
many  species  having  been  found.  Tris- 
tram says  :  "  The  shoals  were  marvellous 
black  masses  of  many  hundred  yards 
long,  with  the  black  fins  projecting  out 
of  the  water  as  thickly  as  they  could 
pack.  No  wonder  that  any  net  should 
break  which  enclosed  such  a  shoal  ! 
Yet  though  the  lake  swarms  with  fish  as 

*  "  GennezaretA,"  which  is  a  form  of  the  name 
also  given  to  the  sea  by  many  authors,  is  not 
found  in  the  A.  V.  of  our  English  Bible. 

319 


GAL 


GAL 


I  could  not  have  believed  water  could 
swarm,  there  are  but  two  boats  existing 
on  its  whole  extent  besides  a  ferry-boat." 
( La7id  of  hrael,  p.  430.)  Baedeker  notes 
three  miserable  fishing-boats.  These  are 
all  that  are  left  to  remind  the  traveller  of 
the  numerous  boats  which  our  Saviour 
saw  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  Josephus  de- 
scribes a  naval  engagement  which  took 
place  on  its  waters  between  the  Jews  and 
the  soldiers  of  Vespasian.     Violent  and 


Sketcli-Map  ot"  the  Sea  of  Galilee.     (Palestine  Exploration  Fund.) 

sudden  storms  are  common  now  on  the 
lake,  as  in  our  Lord's  day. 

Scripture  History. — This  lake  is  men- 
tioned in  the  0.  T.  but  seldom,  and  then 
rather  incidentally,  as  in  Num.  34  :  11  ; 
Deut.  3:17;  Josh.  11 :  2;  12  :  3  ;  1  Kgs. 
15  :  20.  Its  chief  interest  is  its  associa- 
tion with  the  public  ministry  of  our  Sa- 
viour. Upon  its  shores  was  '"'his  own 
320 


city,"  Matt.  9:1;  from  fishing-boats 
on  Galilee  he  called  Simon  Peter  and 
his  brother  Andrew,  and  his  partners 
James  and  John,  who  were  thenceforth 
"  to  catch  men,"  Matt.  4  :  18,  22 ;  Mark 
1  :  16-20 ;  Luke  5  :  1-11 ;  on  it  he  stilled 
the  tempest  and  made  the  winds  and 
the  sea  obev  him.  Matt.  8  :  23-27  ;  14  : 
22-33  ;  see  also  17  :  27  ;  Mark  7  :  31-35  : 
at  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  Christ  also  showed 
himself  to  the  disciples  after  his  resur- 
rection. John  21.  Of 
the  nine  or  more  popu- 
lous cities  which  stood 
upon  its  shores,  the 
more  important  were 
Bethsaida,  Capernaum, 
Chorazin,  Tiberias,  and 
Magdala. 

Present  Ajjjjearance. — 
Porter  gives  an  eloquent 
description  of  the  lake 
as   it  appeared  to   him 
from  his  tent-door,  on  a 
lovely  spot,  at  evening: 
"  The  silence  was  pro- 
found.      Even    Nature 
seemed   to   have   fallen 
asleep.  The  river  glided 
noiselessly  past;  the  sea 
was    spread   before    me 
like  a  polished  mirror. 
.  .  .  East  of  the  lake  the 
side    of  Bashan's   lofty 
plateau  rose  as  a  moun- 
tain-chain,   and    at   its 
northern    end    my    eye 
rested  on  the  very  scene 
of  that  miracle  of  mercy 
where    thousands    were 
fed,  and  at  its  southern 
end  on  that  of  the  mir- 
acle of  judgment,  where 
'  the  whole  herd  of  swine 
ran    violently    down    a 
steep  place,  and  perish- 
ed in  the  waters.'   Away 
to  the  west  the  shatter- 
ed ramparts  of  Tiberias 
seemed  to  rise  out  of  the  bosom  of  the  lake, 
and   behind  them  a  dark   mountain,  in 
whose  caverned  cliffs  repose  the  ashes  of 
many  a  learned  rabbin,  while  over  all  ap- 
peared the  graceful  rounded  top  of  Tabor. 
Farther  to  the  right,  on  the  white  strand, 
I  saw  the  huts  of  Magdala,  with  the  coast 
of  Gennesaret  extending  from  it  north- 
ward to  Capernaum — Christ's  own  city." 


GAL 


GAL 


At  the  present  time  the  hike  is  almost  ut- 
terly forsaken  :  only  three  or  four  tisher- 
boats  can  be  found  there ;  while  at  the 
time  of  Christ  it  was  covered  with  sail- 
ing-vessels, and  the  surrounding  western 
shore  (the  plain  of  Gennesaret)  was.  ac- 
cording to  the  glowing  description  of  Jo- 
sephus,  a  paradise  of  beauty  and  fertility. 
F.  R.  and  C.  R.  Conder  describe  the 


famous  sea  as  pear-shaped,  and  resem- 
bling in  size  the  English  lake  Winder- 
mere. They  add :  "  It  is  surrounded 
with  precipices  of  limestone,  except  on 
the  north,  where  a  shelving  slope  leads 
to  the  shore  from  a  plateau  of  basalt  ex- 
tending from  the  foot  of  the  highest 
range  of  Upper  Galilee.  The  scenery 
of  the  lake   is    bare,    and   much    tamer 


The  Sea  of  Galilee  from  Tiberias.     (After  orifjinal  Photograph.) 


than  that  of  the  Dead  Sea.  The  beach  is 
narrow  except  on  the  north-west,  where 
the  cliffs  recede,  leaving  a  fertile  plain 
(Gennesaret),  2^  miles  long  and  I  mile 
broad,  watered  by  several  fine  springs. 
The  pebbly  open  shore  on  the  north  is 
broken  into  numerous  bays,  and  is 
fringed  with  dark  oleander  bushes. 
On  the  south-eastern  side  is  a  palm- 
grove,  and  a  few  palms  dot  the  western 
shore.  The  ruddy  cliffs  on  the  west  and 
the  steep  slopes  on  the  east  are  bare  and 
desolate,  but  the  sweet  waters  of  the 
lake,  in  calm  weather  mirroring  the 
surrounding  hills  and  shining  in  the 
sun,  present  a  beautiful  scene,  espe- 
cially at  evening.  The  sea  is  remark- 
able for  its  shoals  of  fish,  for  the  vio- 
21 


lence  of  its  sudden  thunder-storms,  and 
for  the  hot  springs  along  its  shores.  The 
neighborhood  of  the  lake  is  also  pecu- 
liarly subject  to  volcanic  disturbances." 
—Handbook  of  the  Bible,  p.  215  (1879). 
The  Rev.  Dr.  S.  Manning  encountered 
a  sudden  and  violent  storm  on  this  lake, 
illustrating  many  of  the  details  of  N.  T. 
history  :  "  I  had  taken  a  boat,  on  a  bright, 
cloudless  morning,  to  explore  the  eastern 
shores  and  the  point  where  the  Jordan 
enters  the  lake.  There  was  not  a  ripple 
on  the  water,  not  a  perceptible  current 
in  the  air.  Almost  without  warning,  the 
wind  rose  :  the  waves,  crested  with  foam, 
began  to  break  over  the  sides  of  the  boat. 
I  was  sitting  on  a  cushion,  or  'pillow,' 
on  the  flat,  raised  stern,  '  in  the  hinder- 

321 


GAL 


GAM 


part  of  the  ship,'  and  watched  the  crew 
'toiling  and  rowing.'  But  all  their  ef- 
forts were  in  vain.  They  were  unable 
to  make  any  way,  for  '  the  wind  was 
contrary.*  At  length  one  of  them  jump- 
ed overboard,  and,  partly  swimming, 
partly  wading,  towed  the  vessel  ashore." 
—Hohi  Fields,  p.  205.  Capt.  Wilson  ex- 
perienced a  similar  sudden  storm, 

GALL19  BILi!E,  an  animal  fluid,  of 
exceedingly  bitter  taste,  secreted  by  the 
liver.  Ps.  69:21.  Allusion  is  made  to  it 
in  Job  16:13;  20:14,  25;  Lam.  2:11, 
and  elsewhere.  But  by  the  same  word, 
in  Ps.  69  :  21,  reference  is  made  to  the 
extraction  of  a  very  bitter  herb,  Deut. 
29:18;  32:32,  perhaps  hemlock.  Hos. 
10  : 4.  It  was  so  bitter  as  to  be  used  as 
a  generic  term  for  bitter  substances  ;  as 
sour  wine  or  sour  cider,  etc.,  is  called 
"  vinegar."  Comp.  Matt.  27  :  34  ;  Mark 
15  :  23  ;  Acts  8  :  23.     See  Myrrh. 

GALi'LiERYj  a  veranda  common  in 
Eastern  houses.  But  the  word  in  the 
A.  V.  is  not  a  correct  translation  of  the 
Hebrew,  which  means,  according  to  the 
latest  researches,  the  colonnade  or  else 
wainscoting.  Song  Sol.  1:17;  Eze.  41 : 
15. 

GAL 'LEY.    See  Ship. 

GAL'LIM  {heaj)s),  the  home  of  Da- 
vid's wife,  1  Sam.  25  :44;  a  village  of  Ben- 
jamin, Isa.  10  :  30  ;  now  perhaps  Khirhet 
es-Soma.     Conder  proposes  Beit  Jala. 

GAL'LIO,  proconsul  of  Achaia  and 
brother  of  Seneca,  the  famous  philos- 
opher, who  describes  him  as  a  man  of 
great  mildness  and  simplicity.  Acts  18 : 
12.  Paul  was  brought  before  his  tri- 
bunal at  Corinth  by  the  Jews,  who  ac- 
cused him  of  blasphemy.  Acts  18  :  6. 
Gallio  dismissed  the  case  as  one  not 
cognizable  by  a  Roman  court.  Acts  18  : 
14,  15.  He  deemed  the  offence  at  best 
a  trivial  one.  Like  his  brother  Seneca, 
Gallio  was  executed  at  the  command  of 
Nero. 

GAL 'LOWS.     See  Punishments. 

GAMA'LIEL  {recomjienne  of  God). 
1.  The  prince  of  Manasseh  in  the  des- 
ert. Num.  1:10;  2  :  20  :  7  :  54,  59  ;  10  : 
23. 

2.  A  distinguished  Jewish  rabbi  and 
prominent  member  of  the  Sanhedrin. 
Acts  5  :  34.  He  was  for  32  years  its 
president.  He  is  first  introduced  to  our 
notice  in  connection  with  the  earlier 
attempts  made  at  Jerusalem,  a.  d.  33, 
322 


to  intercept  the  progress  of  the  gospel. 
On  one  occasion,  when  the  apostles, 
standing  in  the  presence  of  the  San- 
hedrin, aroused  the  feelings  of  this  body 
to  such  a  pitch  that  they  discussed 
measures  for  putting  them  to  death, 
Acts  5  :  33,  Gamaliel,  one  of  their  num- 
ber, counselled  more  moderate  and  pru- 
dent action.  He  wisely  advocated  a 
policy  which  would  not  have  inter- 
fered, for  the  time  being,  by  violence, 
with  the  preaching  of  the  cross.  His 
words  on  this  occasion  are  among  the 
most  famous  that  the  opponents  of 
Christianity  uttereU  in  the  early  Church. 
Acts  5  :  38,  39.  He  was  Paul's  teacher 
at  Jerusalem.  Acts  22:  3.  A  tradition 
states  that  Gamaliel  was  baptized  by 
Peter  and  John.  This  is  very  doubtful. 
Rather  is  the  theory  to  be  trusted  which 
identifies  him  with  that  Gamaliel  who 
was  the  grandson  of  Hillel,  and  who  is 
referred  to  often  as  an  authority  in  the 
Jewish  Mishna. 

GAMES.  Doubtless  the  Hebrew 
children  had  playthings  and  sports,  like 
all  other  children,  but  there  is  no  more 
than  a  passing  allusion  to  such  things 
in  the  Bible,  nor  would  more  be  expect- 
ed. Zechariah,  8  :  5,  declares  that  part 
of  the  outward  evidence  of  the  restora- 
tion of  Jerusalem  will  be  the  public 
playing  of  the  children.  The  same 
prophet,  12 :  3,  illustrates  the  divine 
care  of  Jerusalem  by  comparing  the 
city  to  a  stone  of  burden — i.  e.  heavy 
and  difficult,  if  not  dangerous,  to  lift; 
for  the  Lord  would  guard  her  against 
all  attacks,  so  that  man  could  not  pre- 
vail against  her.  In  this  comparison 
commentators  see  an  allusion  to  a  prac- 
tice, which  Jerome  reports  to  have  pre- 
vailed in  Judasa,  of  lifting  heavy  stones 
as  a  trial  of  strength.  Our  Lord  likens 
his  generation  of  the  Jews  to  children 
playing  in  the  market-place  a  game 
which  consisted  in  imitating  a  funeral 
or  a  marriage.  Matt.  11 :  16.  But  the 
Hebrews  had  no  public  games  such  as  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  had.  They  did  not 
fit  in  with  the  Hebrew  character,  partic- 
ularly with  their  intense  religious  feel- 
ing. Besides,  the  three  great  annual  re- 
ligious festivals — the  Passover,  the  feast 
of  weeks,  and  that  of  tabernacles — drew 
the  nation  sufficiently  together  to  prevent 
stagnation.  It  was  quite  characteristic 
that  these  festivals  furnished  the  Jews 


GAM 


GAM 


with  their  needed  diversion.  So  far 
from  having  public  games,  the  Jews 
considered  them  disreputable,  and  even 
blaspjiemous.  For  the  attempt  of  Jason 
to  introduce  the  gi/nuHisiittn  he  is  called 
an  "ungodly  wretch,"  2  Mace.  4:13, 
and  those  who  practised  in  it  were  said 
to  have  sold  themselves  to  do  mischief. 
1  Mace.  1:  15.  The  building  by  Ilerod 
the  Great  of  a  theatre  and  amphitheatre 
in  Jerusalem,  as  well  as  at  Ca;sarea,  ex- 
cited the  aversion  of  pious  Jews,  and 
any  one  who  took  part  in  the  games  was 
regarded  as  a  renegade.  And  yet,  doubt- 
less, the  Jews  paid  some  attention  to  the 
development  of  their  muscles.  The  fact 
that  swiftness  of  foot  was  so  much  es- 
teemed and  that  runners  were  employed 
to  carry  the  news  of  battle  would  render 
it  probable  that  there  were  competitive 
races.  So  the  Psalmist,  19  :  5,  speaks 
of  the  sun  rejoicing  "as  a  strong  man 
to  run  a  race,"  and  in  Eccl.  9:11  the 
Preacher  uses  the  words,  "  The  race  is 
not  to  the  swift."  Then,  too,  the  skill 
acquired  in  the  use  of  the  bow  and  the 
sling,  1  Sam.  20:20;  Jud.  20:16;  1 
Chr.  12  :  2,  implies  private  if  not  public 
competition.  The  proposition  of  Abner, 
"  Let  the  young  men  now  arise,  and  play 
before  us,"  2  Sam.  2  :  14,  its  immediate 
acceptance,  and  its  bloody  end,  indicate 
the  training  and  skill  of  the  young  men, 
and  suggest  that  the  friendly  contests  of 
peace  had  been  turned,  on  this  occasion, 
into  a  deadly  struggle.  But  such  an  in- 
terpretation may  be  too  far-fetched.  The 
games  of  private  life  such  as  are  known 
to  us  were  many  of  them  familiar 
to  the  Egyptians,  and  are  pictured  on 
the  monuments.  Presuming  that  the 
Hebrews  would  learn  these  from  their 
neighbors,  if  they  did  not  invent  them 
i  )r  themselves,  we  may  fancy  an  ancient 
Hebrew  amusing  himself  with  "  odd  and 
even,"  "checkers,"  "graces,"  catching 
balls,  etc. 

But  although  the  ancient  Hebrews,  as 
a  nation,  were  opposed  to  public  games, 
individuals  among  them  entered  into 
them  with  zest,  and  the  Jews  residing 
in  foreign  cities  came  into  frequent  con- 
tact with  them.  We  find  the  Greek 
games  frequently  referred  to  by  Paul, 
whose  heroic  nature  seems  to  have 
been  fired  by  the  splendid  triumphs  of 
the  arena.  His  metaphors  are  so  fre- 
quently taken  directly  from  these  games 


that  his  mind  seems  to  run  on  them,  as, 
in  a  modern  parallel,  F.  W.  Robertson 
used  metaphors  taken  from  soldier-life. 
Some  of  Paul's  allusions  are  unhappily 
concealed  from  view  in  the  A.  V. 

Nothing  more  than  a  brief  handling 
of  this  iuteresting  subject  will  be  ex- 
pected here.  We  follow,  in  the  main, 
Dean  Howson's  Metaphors  of  St.  Paul. 
The  most  noted  of  the  Greek  games  were 
the  Olympic,  the  Pythian,  the  Isthmian, 
and  the  Nemean.  They  bore  the  appel- 
lation of  "  sacred."  They  consisted  of 
leaping,  running,  quoiting,  wrestling, 
hurling  the  spear,  and  boxing ;  besides 
these,  there  were  chariot-races.  The 
Olympic  games  were  held  in  the  highest 
honor.  The  victors  there  were  regarded 
as  the  happiest  of  mortals.  They  were 
crowned  and  led  along  the  stadium,  pre- 
ceded by  a  herald,  who  proclaimed  their 
names,  parentage,  and  country.  They 
were  afterward  solemnly  received  into 
their  native  cities.  Poets  sang  their 
praise;  statues  were  sometimes  erected 
in  their  honor.  These  games  were  cele- 
brated every  five  years  at  Olympia,  in 
Elis,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus; hence  the  epochs  called  "Olym- 
piads." The  other  games  were  similar 
in  toil  and  honor.  The  training  prepar- 
atory to  the  contest  in  either  was  long 
and  severe.  Every  care  was  taken  to 
prevent  foul  play.  The  judges  were 
strictly  impartial.  The  prizes  were  of 
no  intrinsic  worth.  At  the  Olympics 
the  victors  received  each  a  wreath  of 
wild-olive  and  a  palm-branch ;  at  the 
Pythian  the  crown  or  chaplet  was  made 
of  laurel ;  at  the  Isthmian,  of  twigs  of 
the  pine  tree  ;  at  the  Nemean,  of  parsley 
or  ivy.  Only  one  out  of  all  the  comba- 
tants in  each  contest  received  a  prize. 

The  apostle  Paul  was  doubtless  brought 
frequently  in  contact  with  these  games, 
which,  although  Greek  in  their  origin, 
were  yet  fostered  by  Rome.  He  may 
have  formed  part  of  the  throng  which 
witnessed  the  Isthmian  games,  since 
these  were  celebrated  near  Corinth  and 
Paul  spent  18  months  in  that  city.  At 
all  events,  he  had  heard  the  scenes  de- 
scribed, and  had  had  pointed  out  to  him 
the  victors.  The  (/yinnasium,  or  place 
of  training,  and  the  stadium,  or  ground 
for  running,  were  among  the  most  con- 
spicuous and  the  most  frequented  spots 
in  the   architecture  and  embellishment 

323 


GAM 


GAM 


of  the  cities.  That  feature  of  these 
games  which  was  the  most  exciting  is 
the  more  frequently  referred  to — viz.  the 
foot-race.  Thus,  Paul  says  :  "  None  of 
these  things  move  me,  neither  count  I 
my  life  dear  unto  myself,  that  I  might 
finish  my  course  [end  my  race]  with 
joy."  Acts  20  :  24.  Again :  I  have 
fought  the  good  fight  [an  athletic,  not  a 
warlike,  contest] ;  I  have  ended  my 
race ;  I  have  kept  the  faith  ',  henceforth 


there  is  laid  up  for  me  the  crown  of 
righteousness,  which  the  Lord,  the 
righteous  Judge,  shall  give  me  at  that 
day.  See  2  Tim.  4  :  7,  8.  "  The  race  is 
nearly  run,  the  struggle  is  all  but  over ; 
he  is  weary,  as  it  were,  and  panting 
with  the  effort ;  but  he  is  successful. 
The  crown  is  in  sight,  and  the  Judge 
who  cannot  make  a  mistake  is  there, 
ready  to  place  that  bright  wreath  upon 
his  head."     To  the  Galatians  he  says : 


Foot-race.     {Adapted  from  a  View  of  the  Circus  Flora  at  Rome.     Montfaucon.) 


"Ye  did  run  well;  who  did  hinder  you. 
that  ye  should  not  obey  the  truth  ?" 
Gal.  5  :  7.  The  magnificent  outburst  in 
the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians,  3  :  13,  U 
— "  I  count  not  myself  to  have  appre- 
hended :  but  this  one  thing  /  do,  farget- 
ting  those  things  which  are  behincT,  and 
reaching  forth  unto  those  things  which 
are  before,  I  press  toward  the  mark  for 
the  prize  of  the  high  calling  of  God  in 
Christ  Jesus," — brings  vividly  before  us 
a  racer.  The  oft-quoted  passage,  1  Cor. 
9  :  24-27,  receives  a  flood  of  light  when 
we  bear  in  mind  the  familiarity  of  the 
Corinthians  with  the  Isthmian  games. 
Paul  alludes  to  the  foot-race,  out  of 
which  only  one  runner  came  as  a  victor, 
to  the  strict  regimen  requisite  to  success, 
to  the  vast  superiority  of  the  Christian's 
prize,  and  the  shame  it  were  if,  while  so 
much  energy  were  put  forth  to  gain  a 
little  reputation,  the  Christian  should 
not  strive  to  gain  an  unfading  crown  : 
"  I  so  run,  not  as  uncertainly."  A  man 
who  does  not  know  his  own  mind  is  sel- 
dom successful.  But  the  runner  keeps 
his  eye  fixed  upon  the  goal,  and  bends 
all  his  energies  to  win  it.  And  the  apos- 
tle, almost  in  the  same  breath,  alludes 
324 


to  the  pugilist:  "So  fight  I,  not  as  one 
that  beateth  the  air.'  v.  26.  He  would 
not  beat  the  air,  but  make  every  blow 
tell,  as  the  heavy  blow  from  the  hand 
covered  with  the  nail-studded  leather 
(cestiis)  inflicted  a  bruise  every  time  it 
struck.  I  keep  under  my  body  and 
bring  it  into  subjection  :  lest  that  by  any 
means,  when  I  have  been  a  herald  [the 
ofiicer  who  summoned  the  competitors 
to  the  struggle]  unto  others,  I  myself 
should  be  a  castaway — a  reference  to 
the  training  of  the  pugilist.  See  v.  27. 
These  are  only  a  few  of  the  passages  in 
Paul's  writings  to  be  illustrated  by  the 
Grecian  games. 

The  mention  of  the  Chief  of  Asia 
(which  see),  or  asiarchs,  Acts  19  :  31,  at 
Ephesus  as  the  friends  of  Paul,  in  con- 
nection with  Paul's  declaration,  taken 
literally,  that  he  had  "  fought  with  beasts 
at  Ephesus,"  1  Cor.  15  :  32,  have  led 
some  to  suppose  the  apostle  was  actually 
thrown  into  the  arena,  but  delivered  by 
a  miracle,  and  that  there/ore  the  asiarchs 
treated  him  with  consideration.  But  it 
is  every  way  more  likely  that  Paul  uses 
a  metaphor  borrowed  from  the  Roman 
games,    in    which     fighting    with    wild 


GAM 


GAT 


beasts  was  introduced.  He  alludes 
again  to  these  brutal  fights  between 
men  and  beasts,  or  to  the  gladiatorial 
shows,  when,  in  1  Cor.  4 :  9,  he  says : 
"  God  hath  set  forth  us  the  apostles  last, 
as  it  were  appointed  to  death."  The 
words  ''  refer  to  the  band  of  gladiators 
brought  out  last  for  death,  the  vast  range 
of  an  amphitheatre  under  the  open  sky 
well  representing  the  magnificent  vision 
of  all  created  beings,  from  men  up  to 
angels,  gazing  on  the  dreadful  death- 
struggle,  and  then  the  contrast  of  the 
selfish  Corinthians  sitting  by  unconcern- 
ed and  unmoved  at  the  awful  spectacle." 
— Stanley:    Com.  on  Corinth, 

The  early  Christians,  like  the  Jews, 
but  for  different  reasons,  regarded  these 
games  and  the  theatrical  exhibitions  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  with  horror. 
They  were  closely  connected  with  hea- 
thenism ;  attendance  upon  them  exposed 
the  Christians  to  the  cry,  "  To  the  lions  !" 
for  in  this  way  many  had  been  killed ; 
hence,  regard  for  the  memory  of  their 
departed  brethren  should  forbid  Chris- 
tians' attendance  on  them.  But  apart 
from  these  considerations,  they  were  re- 
garded as  too  worldly,  as  tending  to 
withdraw  the  mind  from  the  things  of 
God  and  unduly  to  elevate  the  body. 
Surely,  as  conducted  in  later  times,  the 
games  were  brutalizing,  and  hence  the 
humane  spirit  of  Christ  forbade  the 
sight  of  so  much  bloodshed  and  suf- 
fering. 

GAM'MADIM  (Hebrew,  bmve  sol- 
diers). Eze.  27  :  11.  The  prevailing 
opinion  respecting  this  term  is  that  it 
is  rather  descriptive  of  the  men  of  Ar- 
vad,  V.  11,  than  the  name  of  any  partic- 
ular people. 

GA'MUIj  (weaned),  the  leader  of  the 
twenty-second  course  of  the  priests.  1 
Chr.  24:17. 

GAR'DEN.  Isa.  1 :  8.  The  gardens 
of  the  Hebrews  were  enclosures  upon  the 
outskirts  of  towns.  Allusions  to  them  are 
made  Gen.  21 :  33  ;  Num.  24  :  6  ;  Job  8  : 
16,  and  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that 
they  were  chiefly  devoted  to  fruit-  and 
shade-trees  and  aromatic  plants  and 
herbs.  1  Kgs.  21 :  2  ;  Song  Sol.  4  :  12- 
16.  A  reservoir  of  water  was  considered 
an  indispensable  appendage,  either  in 
the  form  of  a  fountain,  a  well,  or  a  stream 
passing  through  it.  Gen.  2:10;  13  :  10. 
The    gardens     around    Damascus     are 


abundantly  watered  by  little  currents 
which  are  made  to  flow  through  every 
part  of  them.  Beautiful  allusions  to 
this  are  made.  Prov.  21  :  1 ;  Isa.  58  :  11 ; 
Eccl.  2  :  5,  6.  Gardens  were  used  to 
some  extent  as  burying-places,  John 
19  :  41,  and  also  as  places  of  religious 
worship  and  retirement.  Isa.  1  :  29  ;  65  : 
3.  The  custom  at  the  present  day  is,  as 
in  the  past,  to  erect  a  hut  upon  an  arti- 
ficial mound  built  in  the  centre  of  the 
field  in  which  is  a  valuable  crop,  such  as 
cucumbers,  gourds,  etc.  In  this  hut  a 
watchman  lives  until  the  crop  is  secur- 
ed. This  fact  explains  the  allusion  in 
Isa.  1 :  8.  When  the  harvest  is  over  the 
hut  is  deserted,  and  gradually  falls  to 
pieces. 

GA'REB  {scahhij),  one  of  David's 
warriors.   2  Sam.  23  :  38  ;   1  Chr.  11  :  40. 

GA'REB,  THE  HILL,  near  Je- 
rusalem, and  meaning  scraped  off.  Jer. 
31:39.  Ewald  proposes  to  identify  it 
with  Golgotha;  Conder  noted  a  ruin 
called  Gltarahah,  3  miles  south  of  Shi- 
loh. 

GAR'LANDS.  Acts  14  :  13.  The 
heathen  adorned  the  victim  of  their  sac- 
rifices in  a  variety  of  ways.  Probably 
the  garlands  mentioned  in  this  passage 
were  to  decorate  the  head  of  the  ox  which 
they  designed  to  sacrifice  to  the  supposed 
gods. 

GAR'LiICK,  a  well-known  bulbous 
root  or  vegetable  similar  to  an  onion 
{Alliuni  sativum),  which  was  cultivated 
in  Egypt  und  much  esteemed  by  the 
Jews.    Num.  11  :  5. 

GAR'MENTS.     See  Clothes. 

GAR'MITE,  THE  {the  stronr,). 
Keilah  the  Garmite  is  mentioned  1  Chr. 
4:  19. 

GAR'RISON.     See  War. 

GASH'MU  (rain),  a  form  of  the 
name  Geshem  ;    used  in  Neh.  6  :  6. 

GA'TAM  (a  valley  burnt),  a  grand- 
son of  Esau,  and  one  of  the  "dukes" 
of  Edom.  Gen.  36  :  11,  16;  1  Chr.  1: 
36. 

GATE.  1  Sam.  4:18.  The  entrances 
to  walled  cities  are  secured  by  gates  of 
either  wood,  iron,  or  brass.  Acts  12:10. 
Houses  also  were  protected  in  the  same 
way,  and  sometimes  a  door  or  passage 
was  made  in  the  gate,  so  as  to  save  the 
necessity  of  opening  the  whole  gate 
every  time  a  single  person  would  pass. 
Acts  12  :  13.      In    many    Asiatic   cities 

323 


GAT 


GAZ 


there  were  broad  streets  covered  over 
wholly  or  in  part,  and  appropriated  to 
merchants  or  tradesmen  in  particular 
branches  of  business,  and  there  were 
also  open  squares  in  which  the  booths 
and  stalls  of  venders  were  erected. 
These  were  frequently  at  the  gates  of 
the  city,  which  were,  of  course,  places 
of  the  greatest  concourse.  2  Sam.  15  :  2  ,• 
2  Kgs.  7:1;  Neh.  8:1;  Job  29  :  7  ; 
Prov.  22  :  22  ;  31 :  23.  The  gates  were 
often  also  the  places  of  judicial  proceed- 
ings, Deut.  17  :  5  ;  25  :  7  ;  Am.  5:10,  12, 
15 — the  mode  of  conducting  which  may 
be  learned  from  Ruth  4  :  1-12 — and  of 
general  resort.  Gen.  19  : 1,  and,  of  course, 
frequented  by  idlers  and  loungers.  Ps. 
69  :  12.  In  Arabia  the  gate  of  the  city 
is  still  the  place  of  judgment. 


Gate  of  Damascus. 

As  the  possession  of  the  gates  of  the 
city  was  a  possession  of  the  city  itself, 
the  word  is  sometimes  used  to  signify 
power.  Gen.  22  :  1 7  ;  Isa.  24  :  12.  Hence 
the  expression  of  our  Lord  that  "the 
gates  of  hell  "(Hades)  shall  never  prevail 
against  his  Church.  Matt.  16  :  18.  The 
government  of  the  sultan  is  called  "  the 
Sublime  Porte." 

Gates,  like  doors,  were  often  orna- 
mented, 1  Kgs.  6  :  34  ;  2  Kgs.  18 :  16,  etc. ; 
the  Beautiful  Gate,  Acts  3  :  2,  required  20 
men  to  close  it.  "  The  figurative  expres- 
sion '■  to  exalt  the  gate,"  Prov.  17  :  19 — /.  e. 
to  have  the  opening  of  the  gateway  lofty 
— implies  ostentation,  which  is  likely  to 
provoke  envy,  and  therefore  leads  often 
to  destruction." — Ayre. 

GATH  (wine-presfi),  one  of  the  five 
cities  of  the  Philistines,  Josh.  13  : 3  ; 
1  Sam.  6:17;  Am.  6:2;  Mic.  1:10;  a 
stronghold  of  the  Anakim,  Josh.  11  : 
22  ;  home  of  Goliath,  1  Sam.  17 :  4  ;  place 
whither  the  ark  was  carried,  1  Sam.  5  : 
8  ;  where  David  sought  refuge,  21  :  10- 
326 


15;  was  strengthened  by  Rehoboam, 
2  Chr.  11 :  8  ;  taken  by  Hazael  of  Syria, 
2  Kgs.  12  :  17  ;  ])robably  recovered  by 
Jehoash,  13  :  25  ;  broken  down  by  Uz- 
ziah,  2  Chr.  26  :  6 ;  was  probably  de- 
stroyed before  the  time  of  the  later 
prophecies,  as  it  is  omitted  from  the  list 
of  royal  cities.  See  Zeph.  2:4;  Zech. 
9  :  5,  6.  Thomson  would  identify  it  with 
Eleutheropolis,  but  Porter,  Warren,  and 
Conder  place  Gath  at  Tel  ef<-Snfi,  1 5  miles 
south  of  Ramleh  and  12  miles  south-east 
of  Ashdod. 

GATH-HE'PHER  {icme-press  of 
the  well),  a  town  of  Zebulun,  the  home 
of  Jonah,  2  Kgs.  14  :  25  ;  called  also 
Gittah-hepher,  Josh.  19  :  13  :  now  el- 
Meshhed,  a  small  village  on  a  rocky  hill, 
2  miles  east  of  Sepphoris,  on  the  short 
route  from  Nazareth  to  Tiberias. 

G AT H.'mm.'MON  iimmegranate). 
1.  A  Levitical  city  of  Dan,  Josh.  21 : 
24  ;  1  Chr.  6  :  69  ;  not  far  from  Joppa. 

2.  A  town  of  Manasseh  west  of  the 
Jordan,  belonging  to  the  Levites,  Josh. 
21 :  25  ;  called  Bileam  in  1  Chr.  6  :  70. 

GAULANI'TIS.     See  Golan. 

GA''ZA  (Hebrew  Azzah,  strong),  the 
chief  of  the  five  cities  of  the  Philistines, 
50  miles  south-west  of  Jerusalem,  3  miles 
from  the  Mediterranean,  and  10  miles 
from  Ascalon ;  now  called  Ghuzzeh. 

History. — Gaza  is  one  of  the  oldest 
cities  in  the  world  ;  was  peopled  by  the 
descendants  of  Ham,  Gen.  10:19;  by 
the  Anakim,  Josh.  11  :  22  ;  given  to 
Judah,  15  :  47  ;  the  scene  of  Samson's 
exploits,  Jud.  16  ;  under  Solomon's  rule, 
and  called  Azzah,  1  Kgs.  4 :  24 ;  smitten 
by  Egypt,  Jer.  47  :  1,  5  ;  prophesied 
against.  Am.  1 :  6,  7  ;  Zeph.  2:4;  Zech. 
9:5;  noticed  in  N.  T.  only  in  Acts  8  : 
26 ;  a  chief  stronghold  of  paganism 
and  the  worship  of  the  god  Marnas 
(Dagon),  whose  tem])les  were  destroj^ed, 
A.  D.  400  ;  taken  by  the  Arabs,  A.  D.  634 ; 
restored  by  the  Crusaders,  A.  B.  1149  ; 
plundered  by  Saladin,  A.  d.  1170,  and 
again  in  A.  D.  1187  ;  taken  by  Napoleon, 
1799  ;  has  now  about  18,000  population, 
mostly  Moslems.  The  town  is  now 
without  walls  or  gates,  but  is  in  the 
midst  of  olive-orchards.  Conder  thinks 
the  ancient  town  stood  on  the  hill  where 
most  of  the  modern  town  now  stands. 
The  place  is  full  of  reminiscences  of 
Samson  and  his  tragic  end.  The  pil- 
lars are  showij  which  he  pulled  down. 


GAZ 


GEM 


The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Moslems ; 
but  there  is  also  a  Greek  church,  and  a 
Protestant  school  in  connection  with  the 
Jerusalem  mission.     See  Philistine. 

GA'ZER.     See  Gezer. 

GA'ZEZ  {nhearer),  the  names  of  the 
son  and  grandson  of  Caleb,  1  Chr.  2  : 
46,  although  some  suppose  the  second  is 
a  repetition  of  the  first. 

GAZ'ZAM  {devouring),  one  whose 
descendants  returned  with  Zerubbabel. 
Ezr.  2:48;  Neh.  7  :  51. 

GE^B  A  {hill),  a  Levitical  city  of  Ben- 
jamin, Josh.  21 :  17  ;  1  Chr.  6  :  60  ;  also 
called  Gaba.  Josh.  18  :  24.  In  the  reign 
of  Saul  it  was  held  by  the  Philistines, 
but  taken  by  Jonathan,  1  Sam.  13  :  3  ; 
was  a  northern  landmark  of  Judah,  2 
Kgs.  23  :  8 ;  was  rebuilt  by  Asa,  1  Kgs. 
15  :  22  ;  held  by  the  Assyrians,  Isa.  10  : 
29 :  peopled  by  Benjamites  after  the 
Captivity.  Ezr.  2  :  26.  Geba  and  Gibeah 
appear  to  be  sometimes  confounded  in 
the  English  Version  (see  1  Sam.  14  :  5), 
though  they  were  separate  towns.  Geba 
was  near  Michmash  and  on  the  south 
side  of  the  ravine.  It  has  been  identi- 
fied with  Jeha,  a  deserted  village  6  miles 
north  of  Jerusalem,  and  1  mile  from 
Michmash.  The  ravine  now  called  Wady 
Suweinit  is  the  ancient  pass  of  Mich- 
mash. 1  Sam.  14  :  5,  31. 

GE'BAL  {mountain).  1.  A  place 
near  Tyre ;  now  Jehail,  10  miles  north 
of  Beyrout,  and  known  as  Byblus  by  the 
Greeks.  Eze.  27:9.  Among  the  ruins 
of  an  ancient  citadel  are  stones  20  feet 
long,  and  in  finish  and  size  closely  re- 
sembling those  seen  in  the  foundation  of 
the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  and  suggesting 
the  same  class  of  workmen. 

2.  Some  identify  the  Gebal  of  Ps.  83  : 
7  with  northern  Edom,  called  el-Jebal, 
but  others  regard  it  as  Geba,  No.  1. 

GE'BER  {man),  two  men  of  Solo- 
mon's twelve  ofiicers  for  provision.  1 
Kgs.  4  :  13,  19. 

GE'BIM  {ditches),  a  place  near  Je- 
rusalem. Isa.  10  :  31.  Conder  places  it 
at  el- Jib  ;   Grove  Sit  el- Isawiyeh. 

GEDALI'AH  {ichom  Jehovah  hath 
made  poiver/ul),  the  governor  of  Judaea, 
appointed  by  Nebuchadnezzar  after  its 
subjection.  2  Kgs.  25  :  22  ;  Jer.  40  :  5. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Jeremiah's,  Jer.  40  : 
6,  and  had  the  confidence  of  the  people, 
but  was  not  permitted  long  to  rule,  for 
a  party  of  the  royal  family  of  Judah, 


headed  by  Ishmael,  rose  against  him 
and  slew  him.  Jer.  41 :  2. 

GENDER  {walled  place),  possibly 
same  as  Gedor,  No.  2.  Josh.  12  :  13. 

GEDE'RAH  (»/(ce;>co^e).  1.  A  town 
near  the  valley  of  Elah,  and  in  the  low- 
lands of  Judah.  Josh.  15:  36;  now  Je- 
dlrch,  9  miles  south  of  Ludd.  2.  A  town 
in  Benjamin.  1  Chr.  12  :  4  ;  now  Jedtreh, 
No.  2,  6  miles  north-west  of  Jerusalem. 

GEDE'ROTH  {sheep-cotes),  a  city 
in  the  plain  of  Judah;  taken  by  the 
Philistines,  Josh.  15  :  41  ;  2  Chr.  28  :  IS. 
Warren  suggests  as  its  site  Katrah,  a 
village  in  the  valley  of  Sorek,  3  miles 
south-west  of  'Aktr  (Ekron). 

GEDEROTHA'IM  {two  sheep- 
folds),  a  town  in  the  low-country  of 
Judah.  Josh.  15  :  36. 

GE'DOR  {wall).  1,  2.  Two  names 
in  the  genealogy  of  Judah.  1  Chr.  4 : 
4,  18. 

3.  A  Benjamite  name  in  Saul's  gene- 
alogy. 1  Chr.  8:31;  9  :  37. 

GE'DOR  {loall).  1.  A  town  in  the 
hill-country  of  Judah,  Josh.  15  :  58 ; 
probably  Jedur,  8  miles  north  of  He- 
bron. 

2.  A  town  apparently  of  Benjamin, 
2  Chr.  12  :  7,  and  probably  the  same  as 
Geder  of  Josh.  12  :  13. 

3.  Gedor  of  1  Chr.  4  :  39  was  prob- 
ably between  Judah  and  Mount  Seir. 
The  Septuagint  calls  it  Gerar. 

GEHA'ZI  {valley  of  vision),  the  ser- 
vant and  constant  attendant  of  Elisha. 
On  three  occasions  he  comes  into  promi- 
nence in  connection  with  the  Shunam- 
mite,  2  Kgs.  4  :  12-37  ;  8  :  4,  and  later  he 
was  guilty  of  deception  in  the  matter  of 
Naaman  the  Syrian,  and  in  punishment 
was  made  a  leper.  5  :  20-27.  See  Elisha. 

GEHEN'NA.  See  Hinnom,  Val- 
ley OP. 

GEL'ILOTH  {circle),  one  of  the 
places  marking  the  boundary  of  Benja- 
min. Josh.  18  :  17.  Gilgal  is  in  place  of 
Geliloth  in  Josh.  15 :  7,  and  the  two  are 
supposed  to  be  identical.     See  Gilgal. 

GEMAL'LI  {camel-driver),  the  fa- 
ther of  the  spy  from  Dan.  Num.  13  : 
12. 

GEMARI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  hath 
perfected).  1.  The  son  of  Ililkiah, 
Zedekiah's  ambassador  to  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. Jer.  29  :  3. 

2.  The  son  of  Shaphan,  a  minister  of 
Jehoiakim,  from    whose   house    Baruch 

327 


GEM 


GEN 


read  Jeremiah's  prophecy.  Jer.  36  :  10- 
12,  25. 

GEMS.     See  Precious  Stoxes. 

GENEAL'OGY.  The  matter  of 
pedigree  was  deemed  of  great  import- 
ance by  the  Hebrews  and  ancient  peoples 
generally,  as  at  present  among  the  Arabs. 
Genealogical  lists  are  interspersed  all 
through  the  historical  books  of  the  0. 
T.  They  are  called  "the  book  of  the 
generation  of,"  etc.  They  answer  also 
a  spiritual  purpose.  They  prove  the 
faithfulness  of  God  in  favoring  the  in- 
crease of  the  race,  in  accordance  with 
his  command,  in  keeping  his  promise  to 
Abraham  and  his  seed,  in  raising  up 
priests  to  minister  in  his  sanctuary,  and 
finally,  in  sending,  when  the  set  time  had 
come  and  all  things  were  ready,  his  Son 
into  the  world.  As  far  as  the  Bible  is 
concerned,  the  preservation  of  these 
genealogical  lists  was  for  the  authenti- 
cation of  Christ's  descent.  But  the  his- 
torical use  is  by  no  means  to  be  ignored; 
indeed,  in  proportion  as  we  grasp  its 
value  shall  we  attain  conviction  of  the 
perfect  reality  of  the  earthly  descent 
of  Christ  from  the  seed  of  David,  ac- 
cording to  prophecy. 

The  first  biblical  genealogy  is  Gen. 
4:16-24.  It  gives  the  descendants  of 
Cain.  The  following  chapter  gives  the 
family  of  Seth.  The  tenth  and  eleventh 
chapters,  though  the  ordinary  reader 
might  pass  them  over  because  they  seem 
to  consist  of  mere  unimportant  names, 
are  regarded  by  ethnologists  as  invalu- 
able, since  they  contain  a  history  of  the 
dispersion  of  the  nations  in  prehistoric 
times.  The  first  eight  chapters  of  1 
Chronicles  are  devoted  to  genealogical 
accounts,  beginning  with  Adam,  because, 
as  it  is  stated,  "  all  Israel  were  reckoned 
by  genealogies."  9:1.  It  is,  however, 
to  be  observed  that  these  several  lists 
are  not  in  all  cases  records  of  direct  de- 
scent, though,  perhaps,  in  the  majority 
of  instances,  they  are  unbroken.  Still, 
they  are  not  sufficient  to  determine  the 
length  of  any  period,  since  in  many 
cases  the  list  the  writer  has  transcribed 
contains  only  2>rciwi«e?i<  names.  Women 
are  named  occasionally,  when  there  is 
something  remarkable  about  them  or 
when  any  right  or  property  is  trans- 
mitted through  them.  See  Gen.  11 :  29  ; 
Ex.  6  :  28  ;  1  Chr.  2:4;  Luke  1 :  5,  etc. 
Another  feature  is  that  these  records  es- 
328 


pecially  concern  the  line  of  the  chosen 
seed  and  the  tribe  and  family  from  which 
our  Lord  sprung.  Seth's  family  is  more 
full}'  stated  than  Cain's,  Abraham's  than 
Lot's,  Isaac's  than  Ishmael's,  etc.  They 
are  both  ascending  and  descending.  For 
the  former,  see  1  Chr.  6  :  33-43  :  Ezr. 
7  :  1-5  ;  for  the  descending,  see  Ruth 
4  :  18-22  :  1  Chr.  3.  The  descending 
scale  is  likely  to  take  in  the  collateral 
branches.  There  are  many  clerical  er- 
rors in   these  lists. 

But  notwithstanding  these  alterations 
and  abridgments,  it  is  capable  of  proof 
that  the  Bible  presents  us  transcripts 
from  certain  official  records.  They  bear 
the  evidence  of  substantial  truth.  That 
such  records  existed  is  indicated  rather 
than  proved.  Thus,  the  assignments  of 
the  temple-service  by  David  were  gene- 
alogical. In  the  reign  of  Rehoboam, 
Iddo  wrote  a  book  on  genealogies.  2  Chr. 
12  :  15.  From  2  Chr.  31 :  16-19  we  learn 
that  in  Hezekiah's  day  there  existed  ge- 
nealogies— of  the  priests,  at  all  events. 
The  lists  in  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  prove 
that  such  lists  and  others  survived  the 
Captivity.  It  is  a  monstrous  assump- 
tion to  say  that  they  were  forged.  Lord 
Hervey  (in  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible)  points  out  an  incidental  allusion 
to  these  lists  at  the  time  of  Christ  in 
proof  that  the  census  went  upon  them  as 
a  basis,  since  Joseph  went  to  Bethlehem 
because  he  was  of  the  house  of  David. 
Manifestly,  Joseph  had,  in  the  genealogy 
of  his  family,  good  grounds  for  this  belief. 
Probably  "  the  registers  of  the  Jewish 
ti'ibes  and  families  perished  at  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem,  and  not  before, 
although  some  partial  records  may  have 
survived  the  event."  AVhcn  the  temple 
fell  there  was  no  longer  any  special  need 
of  these  lists.  The  Aaronic  priesthood 
was  no  more ;  the  nation  was  dispersed 
in  captivity  ;  the  Messiah  was  come. 

Genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ.  Matt. 
1:1-17;  Luke  3  :  23-38.  This  is  the  only 
genealogy  given  us  in  the  N.  T.  ''  We 
have  two  lists  of  the  human  ancestors  of 
Christ :  Matthew,  writing  for  Jewish 
Christians,  begins  with  Abraham  ;  Luke, 
writing  for  Gentile  Christians,  goes  back 
to  Adam,  the  father  of  all  men.  Accord- 
ing to  his  human  nature,  Christ  was  the 
descendant  of  Abraham,  David,  and 
Mary  ;  according  to  his  divine  nature, 
he  was  the  eternal   and   only    begotten 


GEN 


GEN 


Son  of  God,  begotten  from  tbe  essence 
of  the.  Father.  John,  1:1-18,  begins 
his  Gospel  by  setting  forth  his  divine 
genealogy.  In  hiin,  the  God-man,  all 
the  ascending  aspirations  of  human  na- 
ture toward  God  and  all  the  descending 
revelations  of  God  to  man  meet  in  perfect 
harmony.  Matthew  begins  at  Abraham, 
1.  To  prove  to  Jewish  Christians  that 
Jesus  of  Nazareth  was  the  promised 
Messiah ;  2.  To  show  the  connection 
between  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
through  a  succession  of  living  persons 
ending  in  Jesus  Christ,  who  is  the  sub- 
ject of  the  Gospel  and  the  object  of  the 
faith  it  requires.  Christ  is  the  fulfil- 
ment of  all  the  types  and  prophecies  of 
the  0.  T.,  the  heir  of  all  its  blessings 
and  promises,  the  dividing-line  and 
connecting-link  of  ages,  the  end  of  the 
old  and  the  beginning  of  the  new  history 
of  mankind.  In  the  long  list  of  his 
human  ancestors  we  have  a  cloud  of 
witnesses,  a  compend  of  the  history  of 
preparation  for  the  coming  of  Christ 
down  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  in  whom  cul- 
minated the  longing  and  hope  of  Israel 
for  redemption.  It  is  a  history  of  di- 
vine promises  and  their  fulfilment,  of 
human  faith  and  hope  for  the  desire  of 
all  nations.  In  the  list  are  named  illus- 
trious heroes  of  faith,  but  also  obscure 
persons  written  in  the  secret  book  of 
God,  as  well  as  gross  sinners  redeemed 
by  grace,  which  reaches  the  lowest 
depths  as  well  as  the  most  exalted 
heights  of  society.  Matthew's  table  is 
divided  into  three  parts,  corresponding 
to  three  periods  of  Jewish  preparation 
for  the  coming  of  Christ." — Schaff. 

The  differences  between  Matthew  and 
Luke  have  been  variously  explained. 
Both  lists  are  incomplete  and  names 
must  be  supplied  (there  are  only  nine 
names  for  a  period  of  833  years).  They 
coincide  until  David,  when  Matthew  takes 
the  reigning  line  through  Solomon,  Luke 
the  younger  and  inferior  line  by  David's 
son  Nathan.  A  more  serious  difiiculty 
is  that  names  do  not  appear  in  the  same 
place  in  the  two  lists.  The  greatest 
difference  is  that  Matthew  calls  Joseph 
the  son  of  Jacob,  while  Luke  calls  him 
the  son  of  Heli  or  Eli.  He  cannot  have 
been  naturally  the  son  of  both,  and  it  is 
not  likely  that  the  two  names  are  meant 
for  one  and  the  same  person.  Hence 
the  following  theories : 


1.  The  oldest  explanation  assumes 
one,  or  perhaps  two,  levirate  marriages 
in  the  family  of  Joseph — /.  e.  a  marriage 
of  a  man  to  the  childless  widow  of  his 
elder  brother,  the  children  of  the  second 
marriage  being  reckoned  as  the  legal 
descendants  of  the  first  husband.  Heli 
and  Jacob  may  have  been  brothers  or 
half-brothers  (sons  of  the  same  mother, 
but  of  different  fathers),  successively 
married  to  the  mother  of  Joseph,  who 
according  to  law  was  registered  by  Luke 
as  the  son  of  Heli,  though  naturally  the 
son  of  Jacob,  as  recorded  by  Matthew. 
But  this  view  involves  inaccuracy  in 
one  or  the  other  of  the  two  geneal- 
ogies. 

2.  Matthew  gives  the  legal  or  royal 
genealogy  of  Joseph,  Luke  the  private 
line  of  Joseph.  But  this  is  exposed  to 
the  same  objection. 

3.  Matthew  gives  the  genealogy  of 
Josej}h,  Luke  the  genealogy  of  Mary. 
Heli  may  have  been  the  father  of  Mary 
and  the  father-in-law  of  Joseph,  and 
consequently  the  grandfather  of  Jesus. 
Luke,  writing  for  Gentiles  and  proving 
that  Christ  was  the  seed  of  the  woman, 
traces  the  natural  or  real  pedigree  of 
Jesus  through  his  mother,  Mary,  in  the 
line  of  Nathan,  and  indicates  this  by  the 
parenthetical  remark,  *' Jesus  being  (as 
was  supposed)  the  son  of  Joseph  [but  in 
reality]  the  son  of  Heli,"  or  his  grand- 
son by  the  mother's  side.  Mary  is  al- 
ways called  by  the  Jews  "the  daughter 
of  Heli."  Matthew,  writing  for  Jews, 
gives  the  legal  pedigree  of  Jesus  (which 
was  always  reckoned  in  the  male  line) 
through  Joseph,  his  legal  father,  in  the 
line  of  Solomon.  This  explanation  is 
the  easiest,  and  has  been  adopted  by 
Luther,  Grotius,  Bengel,  Olshausen,  Eb- 
rard,  Wieseler,  Robinson,  Gardiner, 
Lange,  Plumptre.  It  is  supported  by 
the  fact  that  in  Matthew's  history  of  the 
infancy  Joseph  is  most  prominent ;  in 
Luke's  account,  Mary.  Jesus,  then,  was 
both  legally  and  really  the  son  and  heir 
of  David.  The  Davidic  descent  of  Je- 
sus is  a  mark  of  the  Messiah,  and  is 
clearly  taught  in  the  prophecv,  and  also 
in  Rom.  1  :  3  ;  2  Tim.  2:8;  Heb.  7  :  U; 
John  7:  42;  Acts  13:  23.  If  we  take  this 
explanation,  Jesus  was  in  a  double  sense 
the  son  of  David — in  law  and  in  fact, 
from  his  reputed  father  and  from  his 
natural  mother. 

§29 


GEN 


GEN 


GENERA'TION,  or  GENERA'- 
TIONS,  ''has  three  secondary  mean- 
ings in  the  A.  V. :  1.  A  genealogical 
register,  as  Gen.  5:1.  2.  A  family  his- 
tory, Gen.  6:9;  25  :  1,  since  early  his- 
tory among  the  Orientals  is  drawn  so 
much  from  genealogical  registers.  3.  A 
history  of  the  origin  of  things  as  well 
as  persons — e.  q.  of  the  earth." — Smith. 

GEN'ESIS,  the  first  book  of  the 
Bible,  and  by  far  the  most  interesting 
of  all  books  relating  to  the  primitive 
history  of  mankind.  The  term  signifies 
''beginning"  or  "origin." 

Contents. — Genesis  gives  us  a  history 
of  the  origin  of  the  world,  of  the  human 
family,  of  sin,  of  the  promise  of  redemp- 
tion, and  of  the  Jewish  people.  The 
first  eleven  chapters  are  occupied  with  a 
general  account  of  the  creation  of  all 
things,  and  with  the  history  of  Adam, 
of  the  first  inhabitants  of  the  earth,  of 
the  Deluge,  of  Noah,  and  finally  of  the 
confusion  of  tongues  at  Babel.  With 
the  twelfth  chapter  begins  the  history 
of  the  patriarchs  and  the  chosen  people. 
A  detailed  account  is  given  of  the  lives 
of  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  and  Joseph. 

There  are  no  good  grounds  for  doubt- 
ing Moses  to  be  the  author.  With  the 
use  of  older  documents  and  traditions, 
he  compiled,  under  divine  direction,  the 
history  as  we  have  it.  Much  criticism  has 
been  expended  upon  the  account  it  gives 
of  the  creation  of  man  and  of  the  world 
in  the  first  chapter.  Here  as  in  no 
other  ancient  account  God  is  sharply 
distinguished  from  matter,  and  is  made 
to  exist  before  the  world.  The  universe 
comes  into  being  at  his  command.  The 
order  of  created  things  in  Genesis  is 
substantially  the  order  of  geology  and 
biology.  Both  begin  with  the  formation 
of  the  earth  and  proceed  from  the  vege- 
table to  animal  life  ;  both  stop  with  man. 
The  word  translated  "  day "  probably 
means  an  indefinite  period.  The  "  sev- 
enth day,"  which  has  no  evening,  ch.  2  : 
2,  cannot  refer  to  a  day  of  24  hours,  but 
to  the  long  redemptive  period  in  which 
we  are  living.     See  Creatiox. 

Few  if  any  existing  documents  have 
a  more  venerable  age  than  has  Genesis. 
Covering  nearly  2500  years,  it  gives  us 
the  account  of  the  preparation  of  this 
planet  as  an  abode  for  man  and  the  first 
annals  of  the  race.  Its  value  cannot 
be  over-estimated  as  a  fragment  of  lite- 
330 


rature  or  as  a  work  of  history,  and  it 
has  been  well  observed  that  in  the  first 
page  of  Genesis  a  child  may  learn  more 
in  an  hour  than  all  the  philosophers  in 
the  world  learned  without  it  in  a  thou- 
sand years. 

GENNES'ARET,  LAKE  OF. 
Luke  5:1.     See  Galilee,  Sea  of. 

GENNES'ARET,  THE  LAND 
OF.  A  small  crescent-shaped  strip  of 
country  on  the  north-west  side  of  the 
Sea  of  Galilee  was  called  "  The  land  oi 
Gennesaret"  (though  often  inaccurately 
written  "  Gennesareth  ").  It  is  named 
only  twice  in  Scripture.  Matt.  14 :  34 ; 
Mark  6  :  53  ;  comp.  Luke  5:1.  It  is  gen- 
erally supposed  to  apply  to  the  plain 
called  by  the  Arabs  el-Ghtiiceir,  or  "  lit- 
tle Ghor."  It  lies  along  the  lake  for  3 
or  4  miles,  and  extends  back  about  a 
mile  or  more,  where  it  is  shut  in  by  the 
hills.  The  southern  part,  reaching 
nearly  to  Mejdel,  is  still  watered  by 
several  streams;  the  northern  portion, 
reaching  to  Khan  Mini/eh,  now  without 
water,  is  supposed  to  have  been  irrigated 
by  an  aqueduct  from  the  fountain  of  Ca- 
pernaum, probably  'Ain  Tdhighah. 

The  plain  was  formerly  very  rich  and 
fruitful,  according  to  Josephus,  and  is 
supposed  to  be  the  scene  of  the  parable 
of  the  Sower,  Matt.  13  :  1-8,  but  it  is 
now  fruitful  in  thorns.  The  banks  of 
the  lake  and  of  the  brook  running  from 
the  fountain  'Ain  Tdbighah  are  fringed 
with  oleanders.  Fish  still  abound  in  the 
stream,  as  in  the  adjacent  lake.  The 
fountain  el-Mtidawarah,  or  "round 
spring,"  about  30  yards  in  diameter  and 
2  feet  deep,  and  from  which  the  water 
bursts  forth  in  a  considerable  volume,  has 
by  Tristram  been  regarded  as  the  spring 
of  Capharnaum,  noticed  by  Josephus ; 
but  this  is  disputed  by  the  best  authori- 
ties, and  Tristram  himself  has  given  it 
up.     For  Map,  see  Galilee,  Sea  of. 

This  land  of  Gennesaret  has  been  held 
to  contain  three  important  cities,  Ca})er- 
naum,  Bethsaida,  and  Chorazin,  but 
none  of  these  were  in  the  "plain"  of 
Gennesaret,  unless  Capernaum  was  lo- 
cated at  Khan  Miuyeh.  See  Capernaum. 
Bethsaida  (Et  Tdbighah)  and  Chorazin 
(Kerazeh)  were  farther  north.  Mejdel, 
the  ancient  Magdala,  seems  to  have  been 
the  only  town  in  the  plain,  which,  like 
the  other  plains  (Esdraelon,  Sharon, 
etc.),  was  unoccupied,  people  preferring 


GEN 


GER 


for  comfort  and  safety  to  live  on  the 
mountains  and  hills. 

GEN'TILE.  This  was  the  name  by 
which  the  Jews  designated  all  men  but 
themselves — /.  e.  all  pagan  nations  who 
were  ignorant  of  the  true  God,  and  idol- 
aters. Luke  2:32;  Acts  26:17,  20; 
Rom.  2:9;  9  :  24,  etc.  In  opposition 
to  the  Gentiles,  the  Hebrews  regarded 
themselves,  and  were  in  fact,  the  chosen 
"people  of  God."  Sometimes  the 
"  Greeks,"  as  the  most  cultivated  among 
the  heathen,  stand  for  them.  Rom.  1:16; 
Acts  16  : 1,  3,  etc.  Paul  is  called  the 
"apostle  to  the  Gentiles"  on  account 
of  his  special  mission  and  work  among 
them. 

Court  of  the  Gentiles.    See  Temple. 

Isles  of  the  Gentiles,  Gen.  10  :  5, 
is  supposed  to  denote  Asia  Minor  and 
the  whole  of  Europe,  which  was  peopled 
by  the  children  of  Japheth. 

GENU'BATH  {theft),  the  son  of 
Hadad,  the  adversary  of  Solomon.  1 
Kgs.  11 :  20. 

GE'RA  {a  grain).  1.  A  son  or 
grandson  of  Benjamin.  Gen.  46:21;  1 
Chr.  8  :  3,  5,  7. 

2.  The  father  of  Ehud.  Jud.  3:15. 

3.  The  father  of  Shimei.  2  Sam.  16  : 
5;  19:16;  1  Kgs.  2:8. 

GE'RAH.     See  Measures. 

GE'RAR  {residence,  or  tvater-pots), 
a  city  and  district  in  the  south  of  Pal- 
estine, and  near  Gaza,  Gen.  10  :  19 ; 
visited  by  Abraham,  Gen.  20  :  1 ;  by 
Isaac,  Gen.  26  : 1 ;  Asa  pursued  the  de- 
feated Ethiopians  to  it.  2  Chr.  14:13. 
Eusebius  knew  of  Gerar  as  25  miles 
from  Eleutheropolis.  The  city  may  be 
Khiirhet  Umm  Jerrdr,  several  miles  south 
of  the  valley  of  Ghuzzeh,  which  runs 
from  Beersheba  to  the  sea.  Some  locate 
the  city  at  el-'Aujeh. 

GER'GESA,  AND  GER'GE- 
SENES.  The  "  country  of  the  Gerge- 
senes,"  Matt.  8  :  28 — probably  the  same 
as  "  Gadarenes,"  Mark  5:1;  Luke  8  : 
26 — was  on  the  east  side  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee.  The  scene  of  the  miracle  was, 
according  to  Thomson,  near  modern 
Khersa,  where  the  hills  approach  within 
40  feet  of  the  water.     See  Gadarenes. 

GER'IZIM,  MOUNT,  a  mountain 
in  Ephraim,  near  Shechem,  from  which 
the  blessings  were  pronounced,  as  the 
curses  were  from  Mount  Ebal,  Deut.  11 : 
29 ;  27 : 1-13  ;  Josh.  8 :  30-33,    Gerizim  is 


2855  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and 
about  800  feet  above  JSdhlns  (Shechem). 
It  is  separated  from  Ebal  by  a  narrow 
valley.  Six  tribes  were  placed  on  Geri- 
zim, and  six  on  Ebal,  Deut.  27  :  12, 13,  the 
ark  probably  in  the  valley  between  them, 
and  Joshua  read  the  blessings  and  curs- 
ings successively.  Josh.  8  :  33,  35.  The 
Levites  on  either  side  re-echoed  them, 
and  the  people  responded  "Amen!" 
Deut.  27  :  14,  15.  Gerizim  was  the  scene 
of  the  first  recorded  parable — that  of  the 
trees  and  brambles.  Jud.  9  :  7-21.  It 
was  the  site  of  the  Samaritan  temple, 
and  referred  to  by  the  woman  at  the 
well.  John  4  :  20.  Samaritan  tradition 
asserts  that  it  is  the  place  where  Abra- 
ham ofiFered  Isaac,  but  this  is  not  sus- 
tained by  the  best  authorities.  It  is  now 
Jebel  et  Tor.     See  Moriah. 

Present  Condition. — The  mountain  is 
composed  chiefly  of  limestone.  It  has 
a  large  plateau  on  its  summit,  covered 
with  ruins  of  cisterns,  paved  platforms, 
and  on  one  side  those  of  a  castle.  The 
whole  mountain-top  bears  traces  of  hav- 
ing once  been  covered  with  houses. 

The  small  remnant  of  the  Samaritan 
sect  at  Ndhlus  performs  annually  the 
paschal  sacrifice  on  the  top  of  Gerizim 
according, to  the  prescription  of  the 
book  of  Exodus  (ch.  12).  It  is  the  only 
spot  on  earth  where  this  Jewish  festival 
is  perpetuated  in  its  primitive  style. 
Dean  Stanley  and  other  travellers  have 
visited  the  scene,  and  point  out  the  strik- 
ing resemblance  to  the  Mosaic  prescrip- 
tion. The  amphitheatre  formed  by  these 
two  mounts,  Gerizim  and  Ebal,  is  most 
suitable  for  assembling  a  vast  body  of 
people  within  the  hearing  of  the  human 
voice,  and  where  all  could  see  what  was 
being  done.  There  is  no  other  place 
like  it  in  all  Palestine.  Numerous  trav- 
ellers have  repeated  the  experiment  of 
stationing  persons  on  the  opposite 
mounts,  and  heard  the  reading  of  the 
ten  commandments  by  each  party,  and 
they  were  also  heard  by  each  other  with 
great  distinctness.     See  Ebal,  Shechem. 

GER'SHOM  {expulsion).  1.  The 
first-born  son  of  Moses  and  Zipporah. 
Ex.  2:22;  18:3. 

2.  A  corruption  of  Gershon.  1  Chr.  6 : 
16,  17;  15:  7. 

3.  A  priest  with  Ezra.  Ezr.  8  :  2. 
GER'SHON  {cxjmlaion),  the  eldest 

of  Levi's   sons,  Gen.  46  :  11 ;  Ex.  6  :  16, 

331 


GER 


GEZ 


17 ;  1  Chr.  6  : 1,  and  founder  of  the  Ger- 
fihonites.  Num.  3  :  21. 

GER'ZITES.     See  Gezrites. 

GE'SHAM  (filth)/),  a  descendant  of 
Judah  :  also  improperly  written  Geshan. 
1  Chr.  2  :  47. 

GE'SHEM  (ram),  also  called 
GASH'MU,  an  Arabian  who,  with 
Sanballat  and  Tobiah,  opposed  Nehe- 
miah  while  the  wall  was  building.  Neh. 
2:19;  6:1,2. 

GE'SHUR  (bridge),  a  small  district 
or  principality  of  Syria,  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan and  north-east  of  Bashan.  It  was 
within  the  territory  allotted  to  Manasseh, 
Deut.  3  :  14  ;  2  Sam.  15  :  8  ;  1  Chr.  2  :  23  ; 
Josh.  13  :  13;  David  married  a  daughter 
of  its  king,  2  Sam.  3:3,-  Absalom  tied 
thither  after  the  murder  of  Amnon,  2 
Sam.  13  :  37.  Geshur  was  probably  a 
part  of  that  rocky  region  now  known  as 
*' the  Lejah,"  still  the  refuge  of  criminals 
and  outlaws.  Merrill  places  Geshur 
south  of  Mt.  Hermon,  east  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee  and  north  of  Bashan. 

GESH'URI,  AND  THE  GESH'- 
URITES.  1.  The  inhabitants  of 
Geshur.  Deut.  3  :  14;  Josh.  12  :  5  ;  13  : 
11,  13. 

2.  An  ancient  tribe  bordering  on  the 
Philistines  to  the  south.    Josh.  13  :  2. 

GE'THER  (ch-er/s  ?),  a  son  of  Aram. 
Gen.  10:  23;  1  Chr.  1  :  17. 

GETHSEM'ANE  (oH-press),  a 
place  across  the  Kedron  and  at  the  foot 
of  Olivet,  noted  as  the  scene  of  our  Lord's 
agony.  John  18  : 1 ;  Mark  14  :  26  ;  Luke 
22 :  39.  A  garden  or  orchard  was  at- 
tached to  it,  and  it  was  a  place  to  which 
Jesus  frequently  resorted.  Matt.  26  :  36  ; 
Mark  14:32;  John  18  :  2.  Tradition, 
which  since  the  fourth  century  has 
placed  it  on  the  lower  slope  of  Olivet, 
about  100  yards  east  of  the  bridge  over 
the  Kedron,  seems  to  agree  with  the  re- 
quirements of  the  Gospel  narratives.  It 
is  a  small,  irregular,  four-sided  spot,  en- 
closed by  a  high  wall,  and  about  70  paces 
in  circumference.  The  wall  was  built  in 
1847  by  Franciscan  monks,  who  say  it 
was  necessary  to  restrain  pilgrims  from 
injuring  the  olive  trees.  The  old  olive 
trees  are  seven  or  eight  in  number,  the 
trunks  cracked  from  age  and  shored  up 
with  stones.  The  trees  are  said  to  date 
back  to  the  time  of  Christ.  They  are 
surely  of  great  age  and  size  (19  feet  in 
circumference),  but  Titus  cut  down  all 
333 


the  trees  about  Jerusalem,  and  the  Cru- 
saders found  the  country  destitute  of 
wood,  and  we  have  no  mention  of  old 
olive  trees  before  the  sixteenth  century ; 
hence  it  can  only  be  stated  that  these  old 
olives  are  possibly  descendants  of  those 
which  grew  here  in  the  time  of  Christ. 
The  garden  now  has  younger  olives  and 
a  dozen  cypresses.  The  monks  keep  in 
it  a  flower-garden,  and  present  each  visi- 
tor with  a  bouquet  of  roses,  pinks,  and 
other  flowers,  for  which  one  franc  is  ex- 
pected in  payment.  Olive-oil  and  rosa- 
ries from  the  olive-stones  are  also  sold 
at  a  high  price. 

Tradition,  which  is  not  trustworthy, 
fixes  the  spot  of  Christ's  suffering  at 
the  so-called  Cavern  of  Agony,  a  grotto 
in  a  solid  rock,  near  the  garden.  The 
place  of  the  arrest  of  Christ  was  pointed 
out  in  the  Middle  Ages  at  the  above 
spot,  and  near  by  the  spot  where  Judas 
betrayed  Jesus  was  also  marked  by  tra- 
dition. Dr.  Thomson  and  some  others 
think  the  present  garden  too  near  the 
public  road  for  Gethsemane,  and  would 
place  it  farther  to  the  north-east.  The 
Latins  control  the  present  garden,  and 
the  Greeks  have  set  up  a  Gethsemane 
of  their  own,  farther  up  the  Mount  of 
Olives. 

GEU'EL  (majesty  of  God),  the  spy 
from  the  tribe  of  Gad.  Num.  13  :  15. 

GE'ZER  (steep  place),  called  also 
GAZER,  GAZA'RA,  GAZE'RA, 
and  GAD,  a  royal  city  of  Canaan,  and 
one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  the  land.  Josh. 
10  :  33  ;  12  :  12.  Gezer  was  in  Benjamin ; 
given  to  Kohath,  Josh.  21:21;  1  Chr. 
6:67;  noticed  iti  the  wars  of  Davidj 
1  Sam.  27  :  8  ;  2  S;un.  5  :  25  ;  1  Chr.  20 : 
4 ;  burned  by  Pharaoh  in  Solomon's 
days,  1  Kgs.  9:15-17;  given  to  Solo- 
mon's Egyptian  wife,  and  rebuilt  by 
him  ;  was  an  important  city  in  the  time 
of  the  Maccabees.  M.  Ganneau,  from 
a  hint  given  by  an  old  Arab  chronicler, 
has  identified  Gezer  with  Tell  el-Jezer, 
4  miles  from  Nicopolis.  Numerous  ruins 
were  found,  indicating  a  city  of  import- 
ance, and  inscriptions  in  Greek  and 
square  Hebrew  characters  giving  the 
name  and  noting  the  boundaries  of  the 
Levitical  city — a  discovery  of  great  im- 
portance, being  the  only  one  of  its  kind 
as  yet  brought  to  light. 

GEZ'RITES  (dwellers  in  a  barren 
land),  a  tribe  iu  the  time  of  Saul,  who 


fifilMiii 


"  ('• 


GHO 


GIB 


shared  with  the  Geshurites  and  Amalek- 
ites  the  land  between  the  south  of  Pal- 
estine and  Egypt,  1  Sam.  27  :  8.  The 
name  is  properly  Gerzites,  and  they  once 
dwelt  in  central  Palestine,  as  is  proven 
by  the  name  of  Mount  Gerizim. 

GHOST.  Gen.  25:  8.  To  "give  up 
the  ghost"  means  to  expire,  "Ghost" 
is  used  by  Shakespeare  and  other  Eng- 
lish writers  as  synonymous  with  "  spirit." 
The  words  in  Matt.  27 :  50  would  be 
better  translated  :  "  Christ  gave  up  his 
spirit." 

Holy  Ghost.  The  third  person  in 
the  Holy  Trinity.     See  God,  Spirit, 

GI'AH  (o  breaking  forth ;  here,  a 
waterfall),  near  the  hill  Arumah,  2  Sam. 
2:24. 

GI'ANT  denotes  men  of  extraordi- 
nary size  or  height.  Gen.  6  :  4.  The  sons 
of  Anak  are  usually  looked  upon  as  gi- 
ants, on  account  of  the  expression  of 
which  the  spies  made  use — that  they  were 
"  as  grasshoppers  ...  in  their  sight." 
Num.  13  :  33.  The  fright  of  the  Israelites 
makes  it  probable  that  they  were  refer- 
ring to  strength  rather  than  stature.  The 
king  of  Bashan,  Deut.  3:11,  and  Goliath, 
1  Sam.  17  :  4,  were  warlike  and  dreaded 
giants.     See  Rephaiji. 

GIB'BAR  (gigantic),  the  father  of 
some  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel. 
Ezr.  2  :  20. 

GIB'BETHON  (height),  a  town  of 
Dan :  given  to  the  Kohathites,  Josh. 
19  :  44 ;  21  :  23  ;  held  by  the  Philistines 
in  the  reigns  of  Jeroboam,  Nadab, 
Baasha,  Elah,  Zimri,  and  Omri.  1  Kgs. 
15:27;  16:  17.  The  siege  lasted  27 
years.  Conder  proposes  to  identify  it 
with  Gibhieh  or  Kihbieh,  between  Elte- 
kah  and  Baalath. 

GIB'EA  (hill),  a  name  in  the  gene- 
alogy of  Judah,  1  Chr.  2  :  49  ;  probably 
the  name  of  a  place  rather  than  of  a  per- 
son.    See  GiBEAH,  1. 

GIB'EAH  (a  hill),  the  name  of  sev- 
eral towns. 

1.  Gibeah  in  the  hill-country  of  Ju- 
dah, Josh.  15  :  57  ;  now  probably  Jeboh, 
10  miles  north  of  Hebron.  This  is 
doubted  by  Grove,  but  supported  by 
Kobinson,  Porter,  and  Conder. 

2.  Gibeah  of  Benjamin,  1  Sam.  13  :  2  ; 
first  mentioned  in  Jud.  19  ;  a  shameful 
crime  by  some  of  its  people  nearly  de- 
stroyed the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  Jud.  20| 
21.     It  is  generally  regarded  the  same 

334 


as  Gibeah  of  Saul,  and  located  at  Tuleil 
el-Fiil,  "  hill  of  beans,"  4  miles  north 
of  Jerusalem,  and  east  of  the  road  from 
Jerusalem  to  Ndbiilus  (Shechem). 

3.  Gibeah  of  Saul  is  held  by  most 
authorities  to  be  the  same  as  Gibeah  of 
Benjamin,  but  Baedeker's  Band-book 
assumes  that  they  are  distinct  cities,  and 
holds  that  Geba  and  Gibeah  were  some- 
times confounded.  For  in  1  Sam.  14: 
1-15,  Geba  near  Michmash,  or  Jeba, 
would  answer  the  conditions  of  Jon- 
athan's exploit,  but  V.  16  suddenly  takes 
us  back  to  Gibeah  of  Benjamin,  toward 
which  the  Philistine*  would  hardly  have 
retreated  if  any  other  route  was  open 
to  them.  Again,  in  1  Sam.  13:2,  15, 
Jonathan  is  at  Gibeah  of  Benjamin,  and 
Samuel  also,  but  in  v.  3  Jonathan  smites 
the  Philistines  at  Gebah,  and  he  and 
Saul  remain  at  "  Geba,"  as  many  ver- 
sions read,  and  Gibeah,  as  in  our  Eng- 
lish version.  For  notices  of  Gibeah  of 
Saul,  see  1  Sam.  10  :  26  ;  11  :  4  ;  15  :  34  ; 
22  :  6  ;  23  :  19  ,•  Isa.  10  :  29,  etc.  In  the 
first  passage  it  is  called  "  Gibeah  Elo- 
him,"  meaning,  in  the  Hebrew,  "  Gibeah 
of  God,"  or  "  the  hill,"  as  our  version 
reads  in  1  Sam.  7  : 1,  and  correctly. 

4.  Gibeah  in  Kirjath-jearim  was  no 
doubt  a  hill  in  that  city,  2  Sam.  6 : 3,  4, 
on  which  the  house  of  Abinadab  stood, 
where  the  ark  was  left. 

5.  Gibeah  in  the  field,  Jud.  20  :  31  ; 
probably  the  same  as  Geba. 

6.  Gibeah-haaraloth,  Josh.  5:3,  mar- 
gin.    See  GiLGAL. 

GIB'EATH  (hill),  probably  the 
same  as  Gibeah  of  Benjamin,  Josh.  18  : 
28.     See  Gibeah,  2. 

GIB'EON  (of  a  hill),  a  city  of  the 
Hivites,  Josh.  9  :  3-21,  about  6  miles 
north  of  Jerusalem. 

History. — Gibeon,  after  its  league  with 
Joshua,  was  attacked  by  the  Canaanites; 
secured  Joshua's  help ;  near  it  Joshua 
commanded  the  sun  to  stand  still.  Josh. 
10  :  12,  13  ;  Isa.  28  :  21  ,•  the  city  was 
given  to  Benjamin  and  to  the  Levites, 
Josh.  18  :  25  ;  21 :  17  ;  it  was  the  scene 
of  a  mortal  skirmish  between  twelve  of 
Abner's  and  twelve  of  Joab's  men,  also 
of  the  murders  of  Asahel  by  Abner,  and 
of  Amasa  by  Joab,  2  Sam.  2  :  12-24;  20  : 
8-10;  because  Saul  broke  the  covenant 
with  the  Gibeonites,  in  the  days  of  David 
a  famine  broke  out,  which,  after  three 
years,  stopped  by  the  hanging  of  seven  of 


GIB 


GIH 


Saul's  sons,  2  Sam.  21 :  1,  2-6 ;  the  tab- 
ernacle was  set  up  at  Gibeon,  1  Chr.  16: 
39;  and  Solomon  oftered  great  sacrifices 
there,  1  Kgs.  3  :  4,  5 ;  9:2;  2  Chr.  1  :  3, 
13;  Jehoram  recovered  captives  at  Gib- 
eon,  Jer.  41 :  12-16  ;  its  people  helped  to 
rebuild  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  after  the 
Captivity,  Neh.  3  :  7  ;  7  :  25  ;  Ezr.  2  :  20, 
margin.  It  is  now  called  d-J\h,  a  small 
village  in  the  midst  of  ancient  ruins,  and 
standing  on  a  low  circular  hill,  whose 
steep  sides  are  covered  with  vineyards. 
At  the  eastern  base  of  the  hill  is  a  fine 
spring;  the  water  runs  into  a  reservoir 
120  by  100  feet,  which  is  probably  the 
«  Pool  of  Gibeon." 

GIB'EONITES,  the  inhabitants 
of  Gibeon,  2  Sam.  21 :  1,  2,  3,  4,  9. 

GIB'LITES,  THE,  a  people  in- 
habiting Gebel,  Josh.  13  :  5. 

GIDDAL'TI  {Ilmve  trained  up),  a 
Kohathite  Levite,  head  of  the  twenty- 
second  course,  1  Chr.  25  :  4,  29. 

GID'DELi  {very  great),  names  of  two 
persons  whose  descendants  returned  with 
Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  2  :  47,  56;  Neh.  7  :  49, 
58. 

GID'EON  (a  hetoer),  the  son  of  Jo- 
ash  the  Abiezrite,  and  fifth  judge  of 
Israel.  He  first  comes  into  notice  when 
an  angel  appears  to  him  under  the  oak 
in  Ophrah  and  assures  him  of  God's 
special  favor,  Jud.  6:11, 12.  Subsequent- 
ly, God  commanded  him  to  off"er  as  a 
sacrifice  to  the  Lord  the  bullock  which 
his  father  had  set  apart  for  Baal,  and  to 
destroy  the  altar  of  Baal.  He  did  both 
of  these  things,  but  only  escaped  the 
murderous  wrath  of  his  fellow-citizens 
through  the  wily  intervention  of  his  fa- 
ther, Jud.  6  :  31. 

The  great  works  of  Gideon's  life  were 
the  abolition  of  idolatry,  Jud.  8  :  33,  and 
the  deliverance  of  the  land  from  the  in- 
vasions of  the  Midianites.  Before  un- 
dertaking the  latter  enterprise,  he  se- 
cured a  pledge  of  the  divine  favor  in 
the  phenomena  of  the  dew  and  the  fleece, 
Jud.  6:36-40.  God,  desirous  of  show- 
ing the  victory  to  be  the  immediate  re- 
sult of  supernatural  agency,  diminished 
Gideon's  army  from  32,000"to  300.  With 
this  small  force  Gideon  had  recourse  to 
stratagem,  and  in  an  assault  by  night 
completely  terrified  and  successfully 
routed  the  enemy,   Jud.  7. 

Gideon  refused  the  crown,  Jud.  8  :  23, 
from   the  whole  nation,  which   his   son 


Abimelech  afterward  received  from  a 
part.  He  judged  Israel  for  40  years,  8  : 
28,  and  the  nation  enjoyed  peace  and 
engaged  in  the  worship  of  God,  8  :  33. 
He  was  one  of  her  greatest  rulers,  and  is 
honorably  mentioned  Heb.  11 :  32. 

GIDEO'NI  (a  cutt!n;i  <lown),i\\G  fa- 
ther of  the  prince  of  Benjamin  in  the 
wilderness.  Num.  1 :  11 ;  2  :  22  ;  7  :  60,  65  ; 
10 :  24. 

GI'DOM  {cutting  dowv,  denolation), 
between  Gibeah  and  the  cliff  of  Rimmon, 
Jud.  20  :  45.    It  has  not  been  identified. 

GIER'-EAGLE  {racham  =  pnreu- 
tal  affection),  the  Egyptian  vulture,  an 
unclean  bird.  Lev.  11 :  18;  Deut.  14  :  17. 

GIFT,  The  practice  of  making 
presents  as  a  token  of  esteem  and  re- 
spect prevailed  very  extensively  in  the 
East.  They  were  frequently  made  to 
secure  favox",  as  in  the  case  of  Jacob 
and  Esau,  Gen.  32  :  13-15.  Kings  and 
princes  often  made  splendid  gifts.  Gen. 
45  :  22,  23,  and  subjects  approached 
their  kings  with  presents.  1  Kgs.  4 : 
21 ;  2  Chr.  17  :  5,  etc.  To  refuse  to 
make  presents  to  a  king  was  a  mark  of 
contempt,  1  Sam.  10  :  27.  The  articles 
thus  bestowed  were  very  various — cattle. 
Gen.  32:13;  garments,  2  Kgs.  5:23; 
money,  2  Sara.  18:11,  etc.  See,  for  a 
list  of  presents,  1  Kgs.  10  :  25.  The 
wise  men  from  the  East  presented  the 
infant  Jesus  with  the  most  costly  arti- 
cles of  the  Orient — "  gold,  and  frankin- 
cense, and  myrrh."  Matt.  2  :  11. 

The  peculiar  oflFerings  under  the  Law 
are  spoken  of  as  gifts.  Deut.  16  :  17 ; 
Matt.  5  :  23,  24.  And  it  is  with  singular 
force  that  the  blessings  of  the  gospel 
through  Jesus  Christ  are  called  gifts, 
inasmuch  as  they  cannot  be  purchased, 
and  nothing  can  be  given  in  return  for 
them. 

GIFTS.  The  word  "gifts"  is  em- 
ployed to  describe  those  graces  or  qual- 
ities with  which  Christ  endues  his  disci- 
ples. Eph.  4  :  8,  11,  12.  Some  of  these, 
which  were  bestowed  on  the  early  apos- 
tles, were  miraculous,  and  designed  to 
confirm  their  claims  to  apostolic  author- 
ity, such  as  the  gift  of  tongues,  of 
prophecy,  etc.  The  "ministry  of  gifts" 
ceased  with  the  apostles,  although  some 
hold  that  they  have  been  continued,  and 
are  still  dispensed;  as,  for  example,  the 
Irvingites. 

GI'HON    {fountain,   or   stream).      1. 

335 


GIL 


GIL 


The  name  of  the  second  river  of  Eden, 
Gen.  2  :  13.  Some  identify  it  with  the 
Nile.     See  Eden. 

2.  A  phice  near  Jerusalem  where  Sol- 
omon was  proclaimed  king,  1  Kgs.  1  : 
.33—45.  Hezekiah  stopped  the  upper  water- 
course of  Gihon,  and  Manasseh  built  a 
wall  on  the  west  side  of  Gihon  in  the  val- 
ley. 2  Chr.  32  :  30  ;  33  :  U.  Upper  Gihon 
has  been  identified  by  some  with  Birket 
Mamilla,  150  rods  west  of  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem,  which  is  a  pool  300  feet  long, 
200  wide,  and  20  deep.  Lower  Gihon  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  same  as  Bir- 
ket es-Sultan,  south-west  of  the  Jaffa 
gate,  a  pool  600  feet  long,  250  broad, 
and  40  deep.  Warren,  however,  pro- 
poses the  Pool  of  the  Bath  or  Hezekiah 
as  the  Lower  Gihon,  the  valley  being 
that  from  the  Jaffa  gate  to  the  temple- 
site,  now  filled  up,  while  Grove  and  Con- 
der  favor  the  pool  Siloam  as  the  site  of 
Gihon.     See  Jerusalem. 

GIL'ALAI  {dungy,  or  iceighty),  a 
musical  priest  in  Nehemiah's  day,  Neh. 
12:36. 

GILBO'A,  OR  GIL'BOA  {bubbling 
fountain),  a  mountain  east  of  the  plain 
of  Jezreel,  about  10  miles  long,  running 
east-south-east  and  west-north-west;  the 
northern  slope  is  steep  ;  the  southern 
was  probably  once  covered  with  foi-ests, 
though  it  is  now  inhabited  and  culti- 
vated. 

History. — Gilboa  was  a  place  where 
Saul  and  Jonathan  were  slain  in  battle, 
and  from  whence  Saul  went  to  consult  the 
witch  of  Endor.  1  Sam.  28  :  4  ;  31  :  6  ; 
1  Chr.  10  :  1 ;  2  Sam.  1  :  21.  The  moun- 
tain is  now  called  Jebel  FHkua' ;  the  place 
is  called  Jelbon. 

GIL'EAD  {hard).  1.  The  grand- 
son of  Manasseh,  Num.  26  :  29,  30,  etc. 

2.  The  father  of  Jephthah,  Jud.  11 : 
1,2. 

3.  A  Gadite,  1  Chr.  5  :  14. 
GILi'EAD  {rocky  region),  called  also 

MOUNT  GILEAD  kndLAND  OF 
GILEAD,  Gen.  31 :  25  ;  Num.  32  :  1, 
and  known  in  N.  T.  times  as  Peraja 
"  beyond  Jordan."  Matt.  4  :  15  ;  John 
1:28. 

1.  Gilead  was  a  region  of  country 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Bashan,  east 
by  the  Arabian  desert,  south  by  Moab 
and  Ammon,  and  west  by  the  Jordan. 
Gen.  31:21,-  Deut.  3:12-17;  1  Sam. 
13  :  7  ;  2  Kgs.  10  :  33.  It  was  about  60 
336 


miles  long,  and  20  miles  in   its  average 
breadth. 

Physical  Features. — The  region  of 
Gilead  combines  hills,  valleys,  fields, 
streams,  and  forests,  as  if  it  were  a  col- 
lection of  beautiful  parks.  Among  its 
mountains  are  fields  of  grass  and  wheat, 
and  forests  with  paths  winding  through 
them.  Of  these  mountains  named  in 
Scripture  are  Abarim,  Pisgah,  Nebo,  and 
Peor.  The  mountains  of  Gilead  are  2000 
to  3000  feet  above  the  valley  of  the  Jor- 
dan, gradually  sinking  away  to  the  east- 
ward into  the  Arabian  plateau.  The  sum- 
mits are  broad,  furnishing  rich  pasturage 
and  extensive  forests,  and  were  famous 
for  their  aromatic  gums  and  spices.  Num. 
32  :  1 ;  Gen.  37  :  25.  The  balm  of  Gilead 
was  held  in  high  favor,  Jer.  8  :  22  ;  46  : 
11  :  it  is  said  that  only  a  spoonful  could 
be  collected  in  a  day,  and  that  was  sold 
for  twice  its  weight  in  silver.  It  was 
found  along  the  Jordan  valley.  The  re- 
gion is  still  one  of  great  fertility.  Eleven 
living  streams  are  found  between  the 
Yarmuk  and  the  Jabbok,  and  canals  dug 
for  irrigating  the  fields  in  every  direction. 
South  of  the  .Jabbok  on  the  Jordan  the 
country  is  barren  and  desolate  from  want 
of  water  as  far  as  the  Wacly  Nimrin,  but 
beyond  that  are  three  streams  and  the 
land  is  again  fertile.  Several  hot  sul- 
phur-springs have  been  found  in  Gilead. 

History. — Jacob  fled  toward  Gilead, 
Gen.  31 :  21  ;  it  was  conquered  by  Israel, 
Num.  21 :  24  ;  Jud.  10  :  22  :  Josh.  12  :  2 ; 
Deut.  2  :  36  ;  was  given  to  Reuben,  Gad, 
and  Manasseh,  Josh.  17  :  6 ;  under 
Jephthah  it  defeated  the  Ammonites, 
Jud.  10  :  18  ;  was  a  refuge  for  Saul's 
son  and  for  David,  2  Sam.  2  :  9 ;  17  :  22, 
24 ;  the  home  of  Elijah,  1  Kgs.  17  :  1  ; 
taken  in  part  by  Syria,  2  Kgs.  10  :  33  ; 
by  Assyria,  15  :  25-29  ;  referred  to  in  the 
minor  prophets,  Hos.  6  :  8  ;  12  :  11  :  Am. 
1  :  3,  13  ;  Ob.  19  ;  Mic.  7  :  14  .  Zech. 
10  :  10.  It  is  now  under  nominal  Turkish 
rule,  with  a  Turkish  governor  residing  at 
es-Salt — Ramoth-gilead  of  Scripture — 
but  it  is  really  controlled  by  the  semi- 
barbarous  Arabs  and  overrun  by  Bed- 
ouins. 

2.  Mount  Gilead  of  Jud.  7  :  3  was 
probably  near  Mount  Gilboa;  a  trace 
of  the  name  is  found  in  Jdlud.  Some 
German  scholars,  however,  read  "Gil- 
boa "  for  "  Gilead "  in  this  passage. 
The  well  of  Ilcrod  was  near  this  mount. 


GIL 


GIT 


GIL'EADITES,  a  branch  of  the 
tribe  of  Manasseh,  descended  from  Gil- 
ead.  Num.  26  :  29,  etc. 

GIL'GAL  {rolliiuj).    1 .  The  name  of 
the  first    station    of  the  Israelites  after  | 
crossing  the  Jordan,  and  "  in   the  east 
border  of  Jericho,"  Josh.  4:19,  20,  the  i 
twelve  stones  were  set  up,  and  the  taber- 
nacle remained  at  Gilgal  until  removed 
to  8hiloh.  Josh.  18  :  1.     Samuel  judged  , 
and  Saul  was  made  king  there,  1  Sam. 
7:16;  10  :  8  ;  11  :  14,  15  ;  at  Gilgal  the  | 
people    gathered    for  war  ;    there   Agag  j 
was  hewn    in   pieces.    13  :  4-7  ;    15  :  3.3. 
Later  on,  Gilgal  became  a  seat  of  idol- 
atry, but  whether  this  one  or  the  Gilgal 
above  Bethel  is  yet  unsettled.     Gilgal  is 
not    named    in    the   N.    T.       Josephus 
places  this  Gilgal  10  furlongs  from  Jeri- 
cho and  50  from    the   Jordan ;  Jerome 
had  it  pointed  out  2  miles  from  Jericho  ; 
Thomson  and  others  locate  it  near  the 
modern   village  of  Riha ;  Zschokke,  at 
TellJeljiil,  north  oi  Wady  Kelt.    Conder 
favors  this,  and  gives  the  name  Jiljiilieh. 

2.  The  Gilgal  in  Elijah's  time  was 
probably  in  the  range  of  hills  beyond 
Bethel,  since  the  prophet  "  went  down  " 
from  that  Gilgal  to  Bethel,  2  Kgs.  2  : 2. 
As  Bethel  is  3300  feet  above  the  Jordan 
plain,  it  must  have  been  a  Gilgal  not  in 
that  plain,  but  one  higher  up  than  Bethel. 
It  has  been  identified  with  JUjilia,  8 
miles  north  of  Bethel,  where  the  school  of 
the  prophets  was  probably  established. 

3.  Gilgal  of  Josh.  12  :  23  is  supposed 
to  be  at  a  Jiljulieh,  4  miles  south  of 
Antipatris,  in  the  plain  of  Sharon. 
There  is  a  Kilkilieh — another  form  of 
Gilgal — also,  2  miles  east  of  Antipatris. 

GI'LOH  (exile),  a  town  in  the  hill- 
country  of  Judah  ;  the  home  of  Ahitho- 
phel.  Josh.  15  :  51  ;  2  Sam.  15  :  12  : 
17  :  23  ;  perhaps  now  Beit  Jala,  a  village 
of  3000  population,  about  2  miles  north- 
west of  Bethlehem. 

GI'LONITE,  a  native  of  Giloh,  2 
Sam.  15:  12;  23:  34. 

GIM'ZO  (fertile  in  sycamores),  a 
town  in  the  plain  of  Judah  ;  taken  by 
the  Philistines,  2  Chr.  28:18;  now 
Jimzu,  a  village  about  2i  miles  south- 
west of  Ludd  (Lydda). 

GIN,  a  trap  for  beasts  or  birds,  con- 
sisting of  a  net  ("  snare,"  Isa.  8  :  14), 
and  a  stick  to  act  as  a  spring  ("gin," 
Am.  3  :  5).     See  Huntixg. 

GI'NATH  (protection),  the  father 
22 


of  Tibni,  the  rival  of  Omri  for  the  throne 
of  Israel,  1  Kgs.  16:21,  22. 

GIN'NETHO  (gardener),  a  priest 
who  returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerub- 
babel,  Neh.  12  :  4. 

GIN'NETHON  (gardener),  a  priest 
who  "  scaled  the  covenant,"  Neh.  10  : 
6.  One  of  his  descendants,  mentioned  in 
12  :  Ifi. 

GIRD,  GIRD'LE.  Girdks  are 
worn  in  the  East  by  both  men  and  wo- 
men  for   binding  up  the  loose,  flowing 


Ancient  Girdles. 
1,  2,  Egyptian.    (From  Wilkinson  and  Rosellini.)   3,  4, 
Assyrian.    {From  Sculptures  in  the  British  Museum.) 

garments,  so  as  to  admit  of  their  moving 
about  freely.  The  girdles  were  usually 
of  leather  or  of  linen,  and  frequently 
were  highly  ornamented.  Daggers  were 
often  carried  in  the  girdle.    See  Clothes. 

GIR'GASITE,  Gen.  10  :  16,  or 
GIR'GASHITES,  Gen.  15:  21.  A 
tribe  of  the  Canaanites  who  are  sup- 
posed to  have  inhabited  a  section  of  the 
country  east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  whence 
the  name  of  the  city  of  Gergesa. 

GIS'PA  (caress),  one  of  the  rulers 
of  the  Nethinim  after  the  Captivity, 
Neh.  11  :  21. 

GIT  TAH-HE'PHER,  Josh.  19 : 
13.     See  Gath-Hepher. 

GIT'TAIM  (tiro  icine-jiresses),  a 
town,  probably  in  Benjamin.  2  Sam.  4: 
3  ;  Neh.  11  :  33. 

GIT'TITES.     See  Gath. 

GIT'TITH  (a  musical  instrument), 
a  word  found  in  the  titles  of  Ps.  8  ;  81 ; 
84.  The  derivation  of  the  word  is  dis- 
puted. It  may  be  associated  with  the 
city  of  Gath,  or  with  the  word  signify- 
ing "  wine-press,"  and  consequently  with 
the  vintage-season. 

337 


GIZ 


GLO 


GI'ZONITE,  the  epithet  given  to 
Hashem,  the  father  of  some  of  David's 
warriors.   1  Chr.  11  :  34, 

GIZ'RITES.     See  Gezrites. 

GLASS  was  discovered  by  the  Phoe- 
nicians, or  perhaps  earlier.     Represen- 


of  vision.  Deut.  14 :  13.  It  is  not  cer- 
tain what  particular  bird  is  meant,  but 
most  probably  one  of  the  buzzards,  of 
which  three  species  inhabit  Palestine. 
The  great  red  buzzard  {Buteo  ferox)  is 
most  common,  and  resembles  an  eagle  in 


Egyptian  Glass  Bottles.  {After  Wilkinson.) 
tations  of  the  process  of  glass-blowing  are 
found  on  Eyptian  monuments,  and  glass 
beads  and  fragments  of  glass  vases  have 
been  discovered  of  very  ancient  age. 
The  only  mention  of  glass  in  the  0.  T. 
is  in  Job  28  :  17,  where  it  is  translated 
"crystal."  The  mirrors  referred  to  by 
the  word  "glass"  in  1  Cor.  13  :  12  j  2 
Cor.  3:18;  Jas.  1:23  were  not  made 
of  glass.     See  Looking-glass. 

GLEAN.  Ruth  2:2.  In  the  joy- 
ful season  of  harvest  the  Jewish  farmer 
was  not  allowed  to  forget  the  poor  and 
the  stranger.  A  special  command  was 
given.  Lev.  19  :  9,  10,  that  he  should 
leave  some  of  the  fruits  for  them  to 
gather. 

GLEDE,  mentioned  among  the  un- 
clean birds  of  prey  by  a  Hebrew  name 
which   probably  indicates   its   keenness 
338 


Bottle  inscribed  witli  the 
Name  of  Thotlimes  III. 
(After  Wilkinson.) 

its  size  and  habits.  The  orig- 
inal word  is  rendered  "vul- 
ture" in  Lev.  11  :  14. 

GLORY,  GLORIFY,  terms  of 
frequent  occurrence  in  the  Bible. 

To  "  glorify  "  is  to  render  glorious  or 
to  exalt.  Dan.  5  :  23  ;  Acts  3  :  13  ;  John 
17  :  5.  Hence  the  comprehensive  pre- 
cept of  the  apostle,  1  Cor.  6  :  19,  20,  re- 
quiring the  devotion  of  our  whole  pow- 
ers and  faculties  to  this  one  great  end, 
"the  glory  of  God,"  1  Cor.  10:31,  or 
making  God  glorious.  To  "give  glory  " 
means  to  praise  or  exalt.  Luke  17  :  18. 

Glory  of  God.  This  expression  is 
almost  equivalent  to  "brightness"  or 
"  effulgence  "  of  God,  and  refers  to  the 
peculiar  and  absolute  perfection  of  all 
the  divine  attributes.  By  contrast,  men 
are  said  to  have  "  come  short  of  the  glory 
of  God,"  Rom.  3  :  23,  where  the  special 
reference,  no  doubt,  is  to  the  perfect  holi- 
ness of  the  Almighty. 


GNA 


GOA 


God  is  denominated  the  "  King  of 
glory,"  Ps.  24  :  8,  or  of  resplendent 
brightness.  The  glory  of  God  is  dis- 
played in  the  works  of  creation,  Ps.  19  : 
1,  in  the  redem])tion  of  the  world  through 
Christ,  2  Cor.  4  :  6,  and  in  the  person  of 
Christ.  Heb.  1 : 3.  He  is  said  to  be 
"  glorious  in  holiness."  Our  Lord  is 
called  the  "  Lord  of  glory,"  Jas.  2  :  1, 
and  the  "  hope  of  glory."  Col.  1 :  27. 

Different  objects  are  said  to  have  a 
glory,  1  Cor.  15  :  41,  and  regenerate  be- 
lievers are  said  to  have  awaiting  them 
the  glory  akin  to  that  they  have  lost. 
Col.  3:4;   Heb.  2:  10. 

GNASH,  GNASH'ING,  a  strik- 
ing or  grinding  of  the  teeth  in  the  par- 
oxysms of  anguish  or  desjmir.  Ps.  112  ; 
10  :  Matt.  8:12. 

GNAT.    Matt.  23  :  24.     This  insect. 


a  species  of  "  mosquito,"  is  common  in 
hot  countries.  In  the  passage  cited, 
the  words  "strain  at"  (a  typographical 
error)  should  rather  be  "strain  out;" 
the  phrase  will  then  better  express  the 
gross  inconsistencies  which  our  Saviour 
reproved. 

GOAD.  Jud.  3:31.  This  was  a 
rod  or  pole  about  8  feet  long,  armed  at 
the  larger  end  with  a  piece  of  iron,  with 
which  the  ploughshare  was  fieed  from 
clods  and  earth,  and  at  the  smaller  with 
a  sharp  spike,  by  which  the  oxen  were 
urged  on  in  their  labor.  In  the  hands 
of  a  powerful  man  like  Shamgar,  Jud. 
3  :  31,  it  would  be  a  formidable  instru- 
ment. The  goad  is  used  to  this  day  in 
Palestine. 

GOAT.  Lev.  3  :  12.  Goats  were 
among    the    chief    possessions    of    the 


Syrian  Goit      (After  TruUam  ) 


■wealthy  in  the  early  ages  of  the  world. 
Gen.  27  :  9  ;  1  Sam!  25  :  2  :  2  Chr.  17  : 
11.  Resembling  the  sheep  in  its  general 
structure  and  appearance,  it  is  covered 
with  hair  instead  of  wool,  and  is  much 
more  active,  bold,  and  wandering  in  its 
habits.      It  feeds   on  bark  and  tender 


twigs,  and  Us  feet  are  formed  for  leap- 
ing and  climbing  among  rocks  and 
mountains.  Its  milk  is  valuable  foi 
food,  Prov.  27  :  27,  the  hair  for  manu^ 
fnctures  of  various  kinds,  Ex.  25:4; 
Num.  31  :  20  ;  Heb.  11 :  37,  and  the  skin 
for  vessels   or  bottles,  Josh.  9:4;  Ps. 

339 


GOA 


GOD 


119:83;  Matt.  9:17,  and  in  modern 
times  for  leather. 

There  are  several  species  of  goat  in 
Palestine,  but  the  common  kind  {Capra 
mamhrica)  has  enormous  hanging  ears 
a  foot  long,  often  reaching  lower  than 
its  nose  and  its  stout  recurved  horns. 
Comp.  Am.  3  :  12. 

It  was  a  clean  animal  by  the  Jewish 
law,  Deut.  14  :  4,  and  was  much  used  in 
sacrifices.  Lev.  3:12;  Num.  15:27; 
Ezr.  6  :  17. 

The  peculiar  qualities  of  goats  occa- 
sion frequent  figurative  allusions  to 
them.  The  boldness  and  strength  of  the 
leaders  of  the  flocks  are  alluded  to,  Prov, 
30  :  31  ;  Zech.  10  :  3,  and  they  are  made 
to  represent  oppressors  and  wicked  men 
generally.  Eze.  34:17;  39:18;  Matt. 
25  :  33. 

Goat,  Wild  {the  climler).  This  an- 
imal is  quite  distinct  from  the  domestic 
goat.  The  high  hills  of  Palestine  and 
Arabia  are  still  a  refuge  for  this  very 
shy  and  wary  creature,  the  ibex  or 
mountain-goat  (beden  of  the  Arabs, 
Capra  heden).  Tristram  says :  "In  the 
neighborhood  of  En-gedi,  while  encamp- 
ed by  the  Dead  Sea  shore,  we  obtained 
several  fine  specimens,  and  very  inter- 
esting it  was  to  find  this  graceful  crea- 
ture by  the  very  fountain  to  which  it 
gave  name  {En-f/edi — i.  e.  '  Fountain  of 
the  Kid'),  and  in  the  spot  where  it  roam- 
ed of  old  while  David  wandered  to  es- 
cape the  persecutions  of  Saul  "  upon  the 
rocks  of  the  wild  goats.   I  Sam.  24  :  2. 

The  flesh  of  these  animals  is  nearly  of 
the  flavor  of  venison.  The  Bedouins 
make  bags  or  bottles  of  their  skins  and 
rings  of  their  horns.  When  they  are 
found  among  the  rocks  they  usually 
elude  the  pursuit  of  the  hunter,  some- 
times leaping  even  20  feet,  but  in  the 
plains  they  are  often  taken.  Their 
habits  are  alluded  to  in  Job  39  :  1 ;  Ps. 
104:18. 

Goat,  Scape,  Lev.  16  :  26,  one  of  the 
two  goats  oifered  on  the  day  of  atone- 
ment. The  ceremony  which  the  high 
priest  performed  over  the  scape-goat  is 
very  mysterious  and  very  significant. 

1.  The  priest  laid  his  hands  upon  the 
head  of  the  goat  and  confessed  over  it 
the  sins  of  Israel.  Lev.  16  :  21.  The  an- 
imal was  then  let  go  and  driven  off  into 
the  uninhabited  wilderness. 

2.  The  significance  of  this   event  is 

340 


beyond  dispute.  It  represents  the  cul- 
mination of  the  Mosaic  sacrifice  for  sin, 
and  is  at  the  same  time  a  most  ])erfect 
representation  of  vicarious  atonement. 
The  iniquities  of  the  nation  were  con- 
sidered as  having  been  transferred  to  the 
goat,  the  priest  having  put  them  upon 
its  head.  It  was  then  driven  off",  in  its 
uncleanness  and  pollution,  to  suff"er  foi 
crimes  it  had  not  committed,  in  the  des- 
olate wilderness.  This  is  a  beautiful 
type  of  the  atonement  of  Christ,  upon 
whom  was  laid  "the  iniquity  of  us  all," 
who  suff'ered  for  our  redemption,  Isa.  53. 

"Seape-goat"  is  the  A.  Y.  trans- 
lation of  "  Azazel."  Lev.  16  :  26.  The 
old  interpretation,  which  applied  the 
word  to  the  goat,  is  now  abandoned,  the 
best  scholars  agreeing  in  regarding  it  as 
expressive  of  the  person  to  whom  the 
goat  was  sent.  It  jirobably  comes  from 
a  root,  used  in  Arabic,  but  not  in  He- 
brew, meaning  to  "  separate."  But  who 
is  the  person  ?  The  best  opinion  is  that 
"  the  devil"  is  meant.  Both  goats  were 
parts  of  the  same  sin-off"ering,  both  be- 
longed to  Jehovah.  Hence  both  were 
typical  of  the  atonement  of  Christ.  The 
goat  that  was  slain  made  an  atonement 
for  the  holy  place.  The  goat  that  was 
sent  away  typified  the  removing  of  the 
guilt  of  the  people.  See  the  valuable 
and  interesting  excursus  upon  "Azazel" 
in  Bible  Commentary,  Lev.  16. 

GO'ATH  {lowitir/),  a  place  probably 
near  Jerusalem,  Jer.  31  :  39  ;  location  not 
known. 

GOB  {ditch,  or  cistern).  2  Sam.  21  : 
18,  19.  The  Greek  version  reads  Goth, 
while  in  the  account  of  this  encounter 
of  David's  men  in  1  Chr.  20  : 4  the 
name  is  Gezer, 

GOB'LET.     See  Cup. 

GOD  (good).  The  name  of  the 
Creator  of  all  things  and  the  supreme 
Governor  of  the  universe  and  the  Giver 
of  all  good  gifts.  He  is  "  a  S])irit,  infi- 
nite, eternal,  and  unchangeable  in  his 
being,  Avisdom,  power,  holiness,  justice, 
goodness,  and  truth."  He  is  revealed  to 
us  in  an  endless  variety  of  ways  in  his 
works  and  providential  government, 
Rom.  1 :  20,  but  more  fully  in  the  Holy 
Scriptures  and  in  the  person  and  work 
of  his  only  begotten  Son,  our  Lord. 

1.  Karnes. — There  are  three  principal 
designations  of  God  in  the  0.  T. — E/o- 
him,  Jehovah,  and  Adonai.     The  first  is 


GOD 


GOL 


used  exclusively  in  the  first  chapter  of 
Genesis ;  it  predominates  in  the  second 
book  of  Psalms  (Ps.  42-72,  called  the 
Elohim  Psalms),  and  occurs  alternately 
with  the  other  names  in  the  other  parts 
of  the  0.  T.  It  expresses  his  character 
as  the  almighty  Maker  and  his  relation  to 
the  whole  world,  the  Gentiles  as  well  as 
the  Jews.  The  second  is  especially  used 
of  him  in  his  relation  to  Israel  as  the 
(Jod  of  the  covenant,  the  God  of  reve- 
l.ition  and  redemption.  **'Adonai"  {i.e. 
i.iy  Lord)  is  used  where  God  is  reverent- 
ly addressed,  and  is  always  substituted 
by  the  Jews  for  "Jehovah,"  which  they 
never  pronounce.  These  three  words 
are  indiscriminately  translated,  in  the 
English  Version,  God,  Lord,  and  Je- 
hovah. 

2.  The  Nature  of  God. — God  is  reveal- 
ed to  us  as  a  trinity  consisting  of  three 
Persons  who  are  of  one  essence,  Matt. 
28  :  19  ;  2  Cor.  13  :  U  :  John  1  :  1-3— 
God  the  Father,  God  the  Son,  and  God 
the  Holy  Ghost.  To  the  Father  is  as- 
cribed the  work  of  creation,  to  the  Son 
the  redemption,  to  the  Holy  Spirit  the 
sanctification ;  but  all  three  Persons 
take  part  in  all  the  divine  works.  Al- 
though this  idea  of  God  is  not  brought 
out  as  prominently  in  the  0.  T.  as  in 
the  New,  it  is  nevertheless  there.  It  is 
intimated  in  Gen.  1,  Avhere  God,  the 
Word  ("God  spake,"  etc.,  compare  Ps. 
33  :  6;  John  1  :  1,  3),  and  the  Spirit  of 
God  are  mentioned  in  the  work  of  cre- 
ation. The  "  divine  Wisdom"  of  Prov.  8 
is  personified,  and  corresponds  to  the 
"Word "in  John  1,  nnd  refers  to  the 
second  Person  of  the  Trinity.  To  each 
of  these  Persons  of  the  Trinity  are  as- 
cribed the  essential  attributes  of  the 
supreme  God.  Thus,  the  Son  is  repre- 
sented as  the  Mediator  of  the  creation. 
John  1 :  3  ;   Col.  1:16  ;  Heb.  1 :  4. 

3.  The  idiify  of  the  Godhead  is  em- 
phasized in  the  0.  T.,  while  the  trinity 
is  only  shadowed  forth,  or  at  best  faintly 
brought  out.  The  grand  reason  for  the 
emphasis  of  the  unity  of  the  Godhead 
was  to  show  the  fallacy  of  polytheism 
and  to  discourage  idolatry,  which  the 
heathen  practised.  God  is  denominated 
"one  Lord,"  Deut.  6:4.  Over  against 
the  false  deities  of  the  heathen,  he  is 
designated  the  "living"  God.  This 
belief  in  God  as  one  was  a  chief  mark 
of  the  Jewish  religion. 


4.  The  attributes  of  God  are  those  of 
the  most  perfect  being.  He  is  holy, 
Josh.  24:19;  eternal,  1  Tim.  1:17; 
everywhere  present,  Ps.  139  :  7  ;  Acts  17  : 
24  :  almighty,  Gen.  17  :  1  ;  immutable, 
Ps.  102  :  20.  God  is,  moreover,  just,  Jer. 
9:24,  wise,  Job  12:13,  and  above  all 
he  is  Love,   1  John  4:16. 

GOD'HEAD.  Col.  2  :  9.  The  na- 
ture or  essential  being  of  God.  Acts  17  : 
29:  Rom.  1:20. 

GOD'LINESS,  piety  resulting 
from  the  knowledge  and  love  of  God, 
and  leading  to  the  cheerful  and  con- 
stant obedience  of  his  commands.  2  Pet. 
3:11.  In  1  Tim.  3  :  16  it  imports  the 
substance  of  revealed  religion. 

GODS.  Rulers  and  judges  are  so 
called  in  Ex.  22  :  28  ;  Ps.  82  :  6  ;  John 
10  :  34  because  thev  represent  God. 

GOG  AND  MA'GOG.  Eze.  38: 
2.  Magog  was  the  name  of  one  of 
Japheth's  sons.  Gen.  10  :  2.  It  was 
also  a  general  name  of  a  country  north 
of  the  Caucasus  or  Mount  Taurus,  or 
for  the  people  of  that  district.  Gog 
was  the  king  of  the  country.  This 
people  seems  to  have  sustained  rela- 
tions of  hostility  to  Israel,  and  is  asso- 
ciated with  Antichrist.  Rev.  20  :  8. 

GO'LAN  {circle),  one  of  the  six  cit- 
ies of  refuge  in  Manasseh  given  to  the 
Levites.  It  was  in  Bashan,  and  the  most 
northerly  of  the  three  cities  of  refuge 
east  of  the  Jordan.  Deut.  4:43;  Josh. 
20  :  8  ;  21  :  27  ;  1  Chr.  6:71.  It  was 
possibly  10  or  12  miles  north-east  of  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  in  the  centre  of  Gaulani- 
tis  ;  some  suggest  Nawa  as  the  site  of 
Golan. 

GOLD.  Gen.  2:11.  This  heaviest 
and  most  malleable  of  metals  is  found 
at  the  present  day  chiefly  in  California 
and  Australia.  Several  places  are  men- 
tioned by  the  sacred  writers  as  abound- 
ing in  gold  ;  such  as  Ophir,  Job  28  :  16, 
Parvaim,  2  Chr.  3  :  6,  Sheba,  and  Ra- 
amah.  Eze.  27  :  22.  Until  after  the  time 
of  David  gold  was  never  coined,  but 
was  sold  by  weight  as  a  precious  arti- 
cle of  commerce.  The  use  of  gold  was 
very  common  among  the  Hebrews.  Sev- 
eral parts  of  the  temple,  its  furniture 
and  utensils,  were  overlaid  with  this 
precious  metal.  Ex.  36:34-38;  1  Kgs. 
7:48-50.  And  many  of  the  vessels  of 
the  wealthy,  as  well  as  their  personal 
ornaments  and  insignia  of  office,  were 

341 


GOL 


GOS 


of  gold.  Gen.  41 :  42  ;  1  Kgs.  10  :  17-22  ; 
Esth.  1 :  6,  7  ;  Dan.  5:29;  Luke  15 :  22  ; 
Jas.  2  :  2. 

GOJLD'EN     CAN'DLESTICK. 

See  Candlestick. 

GOL'GOTHA  {.skull),  the  Hebrew 
name  of  the  spot  where  Jesus  was  ci'uci- 
fied.  Matt.  27  :  33.     See  Calvary. 

GOLI''ATH  (splendor),  a  renowned 
champion  of  the  Philistines  from  Gath. 
1  Sam.  17 :  4.  He  was  more  than  9  feet 
in  height.  Conscious  of  his  superior  stat- 
ure and  strength,  he  defied  the  armies 
of  Israel  to  produce  a  rival.  But  he 
was  met  and  slain  by  David,  who,  al- 
though a  pygmy  in  the  eyes  of  the 
giant,  was  mighty  through  the  assist- 
ance of  God. 

In  2  Sam.  21 :  19  another  Goliath  of 
Gath,  "  the  staflF  of  whose  spear  was 
like  a  weaver's  beam,"  is  mentioned  as 
being  slain  by  Elhanan.  He  may  have 
been  a  son  of  David's  antagonist.  2 
Sam.  21 :  22. 

GO'MER  (perfect).  1.  The  eldest 
son  of  Japheth,  progenitor  of  the  an- 
cient Cimmerians,  and  of  the  present 
Celtic  peoples  of  Europe.  Gen.  10  :2,  3; 

1  Chr.  1 :  5,  6. 

2.  The  wife  of  Hosea.  Hos.  1  :  3. 

GOMOR'RAH  (sahmersion),  one 
of  the  five  cities  in  the  vale  of  Siddim, 
Gen.  14:  1-11  ;  destroyed  for  its  Avicked- 
ness,  18 :  20  ;  19  :  24,  28  ;  made  a  warning 
by  Moses,  Deut.  29  :  23  ;  32  :  32  ;  referred 
to  by  Isaiah,  1:9,  10  ;  by  Jeremiah,  23  : 
14 ;  49  :  18  ;  50  :  40  ;  by  Amos,  4:11;  by 
Zephaniah,  2:9;  by  our  Saviour,  Matt. 
10:15;  Mark  6: 11;  by  Paul,  quoting 
Isaiah,  Rom.  9  :  29  ;  by  Peter  and  Jude, 

2  Pet.  2  :  6.  Its  site  is  disputed.  Some 
place  it  at  the  southern,  others    at  the 

•  northern,  end  of  the  Dead  Sea.  The 
name  Wady  'Amrtijeh,  at  the  north-west 
side  of  the  Dead  Sea,  is  like  the  Hebrew 
for  Gomorrah.   See  SoDO^r  and  Salt  Sea. 

GOODMAN  OF  THE  HOUSE 
is  the  master  of  the  house,  irrespective 
of  moral  character.  The  term  was  in 
common  use  when  the  A.  V.  was  made. 
Matt.  20:  11. 

GO'PHER-VVOOD.  The  ark  was 
constructed  of  this  material.  Gen.  6  :  14. 
There  are  many  theories  as  to  what  go- 
pher-wood was.  One  is  that  it  was  some 
resinous  wood,  such  as  cedar,  pine,  or  fir. 
Still  more  probable  is  the  opinion  that  it 
was  cypress,  which  was  considered  by  the 
342 


ancients  as  the  most  durable  wood,  and 
least  exposed  to  worms  and  natural  de- 
cay. It  abounded  in  Syria,  was  used 
very  commonly  for  shipbuilding,  and 
was  almost  the  only  wood  which  could 
furnish  suitable  timber  for  so  large  a 
vessel  as  the  ark. 

GO 'SHE  N.  1.  The  portion  of 
Egvpt  assigned  to  Israel.  Gen.  45  :  5, 10  ; 
46':  28;  47:27-50:8.  It  probably 
bordered  on  the  Tanitic  branch  of  the 
Nile,  hence  called  Zoan  or  Tauis,  Ps. 
78:12,  and  reached  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean to  the  Red  Sea.  It  was  suited 
to  shepherds,  abounded  in  vegetables. 
It  contained  the  treasure-cities  Rameses 
and  Pithom,  Goshen  was  near  the  roy- 
al capital.  Gen.  48  :  1,  2;  Ex.  5  :  20 ; 
appears  to  have  been  the  starting- 
place  of  the  Israelites  in  their  journey 
to  the  Land  of  Promise.  Ex.  12 :  37,  38. 

2.  A  district  in  Palestine,  perhaps 
between  Gibeon  and  Gaza.  Josh.  10 : 
41 ;  11 :  16. 

3.  A  city  in  the  hill-country  of  Judah, 
Josh.  15  :  51  ;  perhaps  now  Sekiyeh. 

GOS'PEL  (from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
rfod-spell,  ''good  tidings")  is  the  Eng- 
lish translation  of  the  Greek  euaggelion, 
which  signifies  "good"  or  ''glad  tid- 
ings." Luke  2  :  10;  Acts  13  :  32.  The 
same  word  in  the  original  is  rendered 
in  Rom.  10  :  15  by  the  two  equivalents 
"  gospel "  and  "  glad  tidings."  The  term 
refers  to  the  good  news  of  the  new  dis- 
pensation of  redemption  ushered  in  by 
the  life,  death,  and  resurrection  of  Jesus 
Christ.  The  "  good  news "  is  denomi- 
nated either  simply  the  "gospel,"  Matt. 
26  :  13,  or  else  "  tbe  gospel  of  the  king- 
dom," Matt.  9  :  35;  of  "Jesus  Christ," 
Mark  1:1;  of  "peace,"  Rom.  10: 
15;  Eph.  6:15,  of  "salvation,"  Eph. 
1  :  1 3  ;  of  "  God,"  1  Thess.  2  :  9 ;  and  of 
"  grace."  Acts  20  :  24. 

Gospels,  the  Four  Canonical.  The 
word  "  Gospels "  is  also  employed  to 
designate  the  four  biographies  of  our 
Lord  by  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and 
John.  These  are  the  only  faithful  ac- 
counts of  his  life  extant.  They  are  the 
independent  recitals  of  well-informed 
men  ;  and  there  is  no  evidence  that  either 
Evangelist  got  his  facts  from  another. 
But  the  Gospel  by  John,  while  it  is  com- 
plete on  its  own  peculiar  plan,  seems  to 
have  been  composed  in  part  with  the 
object  of  supplementing  what  was  lack- 


GOU 


GOU 


ing  or  only  partially  given  in  the  nar- 
rations of  the  first  three  Gospels.  In 
this  fourth  Gospel,  for  example,  the  di- 
vinity of  our  Lord  is  emphatically  as- 
serted and  dwelt  on  at  length,  and  of 
the  opposition  he  met  with  from  the 
Pharisees  a  full  account  is  given,  John 
6-12.  John  further  gives  in  detail  the 
discourses  of  our  Lord  in  the  last  week, 
chs.  13-17,  and  the  account  of  the  res- 
urrection of  Lazarus,  ch.  11.  On  the 
other  hand,  he  omits  the  circumstances 
of  our  Lord's  birth,  which  had  been  giv- 
en so  full)'  by  Matthew  and  Luke,  the 
account  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  related  by 
all  three  of  the  other  Evangelists,  the 
institution  of  baptism,  and  most  of  the 
miracles  and  all  the  parables  found  in 
the  first  three  accounts. 

There  are  differences  in  the  accounts 
of  the  same  events  as  given  by  the  va- 
rious Evangelists,  but  with  a  few  excep- 
tions they  are  verbal,  and  only  such  as 
we  would  naturally  expect  in  different 
descriptions  of  the  same  occurrences. 
These  very  differences  in  details  are  fa- 
vorable to  the  genuineness  of  the  Gos- 
pels, because  they  prove  the  absence  of 
collusion  or  secret  agreement  among  the 
writers. 

The  genuineness  of  these  records  of 
our  Lord's  life  is  as  strongly  supported, 
to  say  the  least,  as  that  of  any  other 
document  of  antiquity.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  they  were  all  written,  as  we 
have  them,  in  the  first  century  (the  first 
three  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem, A.  D.  70),  and  were  all  used  and 
known  as ''the  Four  Evangelists"  in 
the  Church  before  the  year  200,  if  not 
before  150.  Upon  both  these  points  the 
concurrent  evidence  is  so  strong  that 
the  opponents  must  resort  to  the  wild- 
est theories  and  hypotheses,  which  re- 
fute themselves  by  their  contradictions. 
There  is  good  evidence  scattered  all 
through  the  second  century  that  they 
were  in  general  use.  Justin  Martyr 
used  them  about  140.  His  pupil,  Ta- 
tian,  wrote  a  Harmony  of  the  Gospels 
about  170,  and  quite  recently  a  commen- 
tary of  Ephraem  Syrus  on  Tatian's  Din- 
tessaron  has  been  published  at  Venice 
(1876), which  settles  the  vexed  question  as 
to  the  character  of  this  work.  The  argu- 
ments for  the  genuineness,  as  varied  as 
they  are  convincing,  are  such  as  these  : 
(1)  The  direct  testimooies  of  writers  in 


the  second  century  and  later ;  (2)  the 
quotations  found  in  the  writings  of  the 
authors  known  as  the  Fathers;  (3)  an- 
cient translations,  as  the  Itala  and  Pesh- 
ito,  dating  from  the  second  century;  (4) 
the  attitude  of  heretic  and  heathen  oppo- 
nents, who,  like  Celsus  (180),  did  not 
call  in  question  the  genuineness  of  the 
records,  although  they  denied  the  cred- 
ibility of  a  part  of  their  contents. 
Basilides,  a  Gnostic  heretic,  knew  the 
Gospel  of  John  as  early  as  125,  and 
Marcion,  another  Gnostic,  about  150, 
made  use  of  a  mutilated  Gospel  of  Luke. 

The  language  in  which  the  Gospels 
were  written  was  the  Greek,  with  the 
probable  exception  of  Matthew  written 
in  Hebrew,  and  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  we  now  have,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  readings,  the  docu- 
ments as  they  left  the  hands  of  the 
writers. 

Gospels,  Apocryphal.  These  are  the 
spurious  accounts  of  our  Lord's  life. 
There  are  many  of  them  ;  as,  for  exam- 
ple, the  Gospel  according  to  James,  ac- 
cording to  Nicodemns,  etc.  The  earliest 
was  probably  composed  sometime  in  the 
second  century.  They  indulge  in  puer- 
ile accounts  of  the  parents  of  our  Lord, 
of  the  pretended  miracles  of  his  child- 
hood, and  of  his  experience  in  Hades. 
These  stories  were  invented  to  satisfy  a 
prurient  curiosity,  and  were  accepted  by 
the  credulous.  The  circumstances  re- 
lated carry  their  own  refutation  with 
them,  as  being  entirely  out  of  harmony 
with  the  spirit  of  our  Lord's  life.  They 
tend  to  confirm  the  canonical  Gospels  as 
the  counterfeit  presupposes  the  genuine 
coin. 

A  "harmony"  of  the  Gospels  is  an 
arrangement  of  these  four  biographies 
which  displays  the  chronology  of  the 
events  narrated,  the  variety  of  events, 
and  the  diversity  of  details.  The  object 
is  to  present  a  full  account  of  our  Lord's 
life  in  the  chronological  sequence  of  its 
events.  For  the  several  Gospels  see 
Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and  Joh\. 

GOURD.  Jon.  4:6.  Probably  the 
plant  which  shaded  the  prophet  was 
either  the  castor-oil  plant  [Ricinus  com- 
munis), which  in  the  East  grows  rapid- 
ly to  the  height  of  even  15  feet,  or,  ac- 
cording to  rapidly-prevailing  opinion,  it 
was  a  vine  of  the  cucumber  family  {Cu- 
cwbita  pepo),  similar  to  our  gourd,  and 

343 


GOU 


GOU 


still  used  for  shade  in  Palestine.     "  In 
the  gardens  about  Sidon  many  an  arbor 


Castor-Oil  Plant.     (Eicinus  Cominunis.) 


of  gourds  may  be  seen.  But  the  plant 
withers  as  rapidly  as  it  shoots,  and  af- 
ter a  storm  or  any  injury  to  the 
stem  its  fruit  may  be  seen  hang- 
ing to  the  leafless  tendrils  which 
so  lately  concealed  it — a  type  of 
melancholy  desolation."  —  Tris- 
truin. 

Some  have  regarded  the  ex- 
pression, '*  It  came  up  in  a  night 
and  perished  in  a  night,"  as  lit- 
eral, others  as  indicating  merely 
rapid  growth.  The  declaration 
that  the  Lord  ^jre;>«/-erf  a  gourd, 
and  jjrejiared  a  worm,  and  pre- 
pared an  east  wind,  indicates 
the  direct  and  special  interposi- 
tion of  his  providence  to  teach 
the  prophet  a  lesson  of  submis- 
sion to  the  divine  will. 

Gourd,  Wild.  The  wild  gourds 
eaten  by  the  sons  of  the  prophets, 
2  Kgs.  4  :  38-41,  were  doubtless 
the  handsome  yet  poisonous  fruit 
of  the  colocynth  {CitruUus  colo- 
cyiithus),  from  which  the  medi- 
cine of  that  name  is  obtained. 
This  vine  is  not  common  in  Pal- 
estine, yet  may  be  found  about 
Gilgal,  and  bears  a  fruit  resem- 
bling an  orange  in  size  and  shape, 
but  very  hard  and  having  its  yel- 
low rind  marbled  with  green  and 


344 


Colocynthus,  or  Wild  Gourd.    {Oitrullus  Colocynlhut.    After  Tristram.) 


GOV 


GRA 


white.  The  plant  resembles  the  water- 
melon, and  belongs  to  the  same  family. 
For  various  reasons  it  is  thought  that 
the  ''  knops "  used  in  the  ornamental 
work  of  Solomon's  temple  were  imita- 
tions of  the  colocynth.   1  Kgs.  6 :  18. 

GOVERNOR.  Matt.  27:2.  Af- 
ter Judc\ja  became  a  province  of  the 
Roman  empire,  governors  or  procurators 
were  appointed  and  sent  thither  from 
Rome.  This  was  the  office  held  by  Pon- 
tius Pilate  at  the  time  of  our  Saviour's 
crucifixion.  Sometimes  the  word  "gov- 
ernor "  is  used  as  a  general  title  for  a 
ruler  or  presiding  officer.  Gen.  42 : 6. 
See  Fkast. 

GO'Z  AN,  a  district  of  Mesopotamia, 
2  Kgs.  17  :  6  :  18  :  11  ;  19  :  12  ;  1  Chr.  5  : 
26  ;  Isa.  37  :  12  ;  probably  identical  with 
Gauzanitis  of  Ptolemy,  and  Mi/ydonui  of 
other  writers.  It  was  watered  by  the 
Habor,  the  modern  Khahour,  a  large 
branch  of  the  Euphrates  in  Mesopotamia. 

GRACE  denotes  the  love  of  God  as 
displayed  in  his  free  favor  toward  men 
as  sinners  and  destitute  of  all  claim  upon 
him.  1  Tim.  1 :  2.  Hence  the  N.  T.,  which 
reveals  the  plan  by  which  this  grace  is 
bestowed,  is  called  "  the  gospel  of  the 
grace  of  God."  Acts  20  :  24.  The  apos- 
tolic Epistles  begin  with  the  salutation, 
"  Grace  and  peace  be  with  you." 

GRAIN.     See  Corn. 

GRAPES,  the  fruit  of  the  vine. 
Gen.  49  :  11.  AVhen  fully  ripe  and  dried 
they  are  called  "  raisins."  1  Sam.  25  :  18  j 
30  :  12  ;  2  Sam.  16  :  1 ;  1  Chr.  12  :  40. 

The  soil  and  climate  of  Palestine  are 
pre-eminently  well  suited  to  the  growth 
of  the  vine,  and  it  has  always  been  among 
the  principal  productions  of  the  country. 
In  Judgea  especially  particular  districts 
were  famed  for  the  excellency  of  their 
grapes ;  as  En-gedi  and  the  vales  of 
Eshcol  and  Sorek.  The  word  "  Sorek  " 
is  not  only  the  name  of  a  region  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  but  also  signifies  the 
noblest  variety  of  the  vine  and  its  clus- 
ters, which  there  abounded.  This  grape 
was  white,  with  delicious  juice,  and  with 
seeds  so  small  and  soft  as  to  be  almost 
imperceptible.  In  Persia  the  best  rai- 
sins are  made  of  this  grape.  It  is  of  this 
that  the  celebrated  KishmiHli  wine  of 
Shiraz  is  made.  Very  fine  grapes  were 
in  old  times,  as  at  present.  ])roduced  on 
Mount  Lebanon  and  at  Helbon  or  Alep- 
po.     Travellers   agree  in  relating  that 


Palestine,  even  in  its  present  state  of 
subjugation  to  the  Mussulmans,  who  are 
forbidden  to  use  wine,  produces  clusters 
of  12  pounds'  weight  each,  the  single 
grapes  of  which  are  as  large  as  plums. 
They  tell  us  that  the  clusters  of  Juda?a, 
a  few  miles  westward  from  Jerusalem, 
are  larger  than  any  in  Europe,  and  that 
they  have  often  seen  clusters  of  such  size 
that  it  was  impossible  for  a  single  man 
to  carry  one  of  them  uninjured  for  any 
distance.  Brocard  informs  us  in  his 
Travels  that  the  best  vines  grow  in  the 
environs  of  Bethlehem,  in  the  vale  of 
Rephaim  (between  Bethlehem  and  Jeru- 
salem), and  in  the  traditional  vale  of 
Eshcol,  near  Hebron. 

The  grapes  of  the  Holy  Land,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Sorek,  above  mentioned, 
are  mostly  red  or  black.  Hence  the  juice 
is  called  "  the  blood  of  the  grape,"  trans- 
lated, in  our  version,  "  red  wine."  Isa. 
27  :  2. 

Besides  wine  and  raisins,  there  is  made 
from  grapes  a  syrup  called  dibs,  which 
"is  obtained  by  boiling  down  the  juice 
of  the  ripe  grapes  to  a  third  of  its  bulk, 
when  it  becomes  as  thick  as  treacle,  but 
is  of  a  lighter  color.  The  Moslems  are 
very  fond  of  dibs,  which  they  eat  with 
bread,  drink  with  water,  and  use  largely 
in  confectionery.  The  Hebrew  name 
debash  ('  honey ')  is  identical,  and  it  is 
this  syrup,  and  not  bees'  honey,  which 
is  understood  to  be  meant  by  the  honey 
which  Jacob  sent  down  as  a  present  to 
the  governor  of  Egypt,  Gen.  43  :  11,  and 
in  which  the  men  of  Tyre  traded  from' 
the  land  of  Israel.  Eze.  27  :  17." — Tris- 
tram. 

The  Jews  were  expressly  required  by 
their  law  not  to  gather  the  grapes  until 
the  vine  was  three  years  old,  Lev.  19  : 
23,  and  to  leave  some  on  the  vines  and 
some  on  the  ground.  Lev.  19  :  10  ;  and 
it  was  the  privilege  of  the  poor  and  de- 
pendent to  gather  these  for  their  own 
use,  provided  they  were  eaten  on  the 
ground.  They  were  not  allowed  to  take 
any  away.  Deut.  23:24;  24:21.  The 
grapes  thus  left  were  called  "  the  glean- 
ings," and  as  they  hung,  here  and  there 
one,  on  the  vines  or  lay  scattered  on  the 
ground,  they  were  strikingly  emblemat- 
ical of  the  depopulation  of  a  city  or 
country,  Isa.  17  :  fi  ;  24  :  13  ;  Jer.  6:9: 
49:9;  Ob.  5.  See  Vine,  Vineyard, 
Wine,  Winepress, 

345 


GRA 


GRE 


GRASS.  Isa.  51 :  12.  This  word  is 
frequently  applied  in  the  Scriptures  to 
herbage  generally,  Isa.  15 :  6,  though 
sometimes  distinction  is  made  between 
such  herbs  as  are  used  by  man  as  grain 
and  vegetables,  and  such  as  are  used 
chiefly  by  cattle.   Ps.  104  :  U. 

The  quick  growth  and  tenderness  of 
this  species  of  vegetation  furnish  sev- 
eral of  the  most  striking  illustrations  of 
the  Scriptures.  Ps.  90  :  5,  6  ;  92  :  7  j 
103  :  15.  16 ;  Isa.  40  :  6-8  ;  51  ;  12  ;  Jas. 
1:  10;  1  Pet.  1:24. 

The  passage  in  Prov.  "27  :  25  would  be 
more  accurately  rendered  thus :  "  The 
grass  {hay)  appeareth,  and  the  green 
herb  {tender  yi-as-i)  showeth  itself,  and 
the  plants  {herbs)  of  the  mountains  are 
gathered."  So  in  Isa.  15  :  6  :  "  The 
grass  {hai/)  withereth,  the  green  herb 
(grass)  faileth,  there  is  no  green 
thing." 

Nothing  can  exceed  in  beauty  and 
appropriateness  the  gradation  of  images 
employed  by  the  prophet,  2  Kgs.  19  : 
26 ;  the  weakness  and  tenderness  of  the 
first  shoots  of  any  green  herb  ;  the  frail- 
ty of  the  few  spires  of  grass  that  some- 
times spring  up  in  the  vegetable  mould 
or  shallow  earth  upon  the  housetop,  or 
the  withered  blade  of  corn  (grain)  blast- 
ed before  it  rises  into  a  stalk. 

Coarse  herbage  was  often  dried,  as  it 
is  still,  for  the  purpose  of  heating  ovens. 
Under  the  fierce  rays  of  a  Syrian  sun, 
joined  to  parching  winds,  it  often  hap- 
pens that  "  the  grass  of  the  field  which 
to-day  is,  .  .  .  to-morrow  is  cast  into 
the  oven."  Matt.  6  :  30  ;  13  :  30  ;  Luke 
12  •  28 

GRASS'HOPPER,  an  insect  of 
the  locust  sjjecies,  often  mentioned  in 
the  sacred  writings.  Eccl.  12  :  5.  The 
word  rendered  "  grasshopper "  in  the 
above-cited  passage  is  rendered  "  locust" 
in  2  Chr.  7  :  13. 

Grasshoppers  were  allowable  food  un- 
der the  Jewish  law.  Lev.  11  :  22.  Their 
timidity  is  proverbial.  Job  39  :  20. 
They  are  often  found  in  great  multi- 
tudes (hence  the  figurative  language, 
Jud.  6:5  and  7  :  12  ;  Jer.  46  :  23),  and 
prove  destructive  to  vegetation,  especi- 
ally in  its  early  stages.  Am.  7:  1. 

The  allusion  in  Nah.  3  :  15-17  is  to  a 

common  habit  of  these  insects.     When 

benumbed  with  the  cold,  they  assemble 

in   vast   numbers   upon   the   hedges  or 

346 


other  shrubbery ;  and  such  is  their  mul- 
titude that  the  places  they  occupy  are 
darkened,  and  resemble  the  encamping- 
ground  of  a  great  army.  As  soon,  how- 
ever, as  they  are  revived  by  the  warmth 
of  the  sun,  they  fly  away,  no  one  knows 
whither. 

The  grasshopper  is  used  to  illustrate 
comparative  insignificance.  Num.  13 : 
33  ;  Isa.  40  :  22  ;  and  in  the  passage 
from  Ecclesiastes  first  cited,  reference  is 
probably  made  to  that  degree  of  weak- 
ness and  infirmity  in  old  age  which 
makes  tlie  weight,  or  even  the  chirping, 
of  a  grasshopper  burdensome. 

GRATE,  BRA'ZEN.   See  Altar. 

GRAVE.  See  Burial,  Engrave, 
Hell. 

GREAT  SEA.  Num.  34:6.  The 
Mediterranean  Sea;  called  also  "utmost 
sea"  and  "  the  hinder  sea."  Joel  2  :  20  j 
Zech.  14:8.     See  Sea. 

GREAVES.     See  Armor. 

GRE'CIA.     See  Greece. 

GREECE,  or  HELLAS,  the 
well-known  country  in  the  south-east  of 
Europe.  It  is  named  four  times  in  the 
0.  T.  as  Greece  or  Grecia,  Zech.  9  :  13; 
Dan.  8  :  21 ;  10  :  20  ;  11 :  2,  and  once  in  the 
N.  T.,  Acts  20  :  2.  It  or  its  people  are 
referred  to  in  Hebrew  history  as  Javan, 
Isa.  66:19;  Eze.  27 :  13,  19,  and  in 
apostolic  history  as  Achaia.  Its  cities 
noticed  in  Scripture  are  Atliens,  Corinth, 
and  Cenchrea.  See  Greeks,  and  for  fur- 
ther notice  of  the  country,  see  Achaia 
and  MACEnoxiA. 

GREEKS,  GRECIANS.  These 
terms  should  be  more  distinguished. 
The  "  Greeks "  were  the  Greeks  by 
race.  Acts  16  : 1,  3  ;  18  :  17,  or  else  Gen- 
tiles as  opposed  to  Jews.  Rom.  2:  9,  10, 
marg.  But  "  Grecians "  were  foreign 
Jews  as  distinct  from  those  in  Pales- 
tine, who  were  called  "  Hebrews."  Acts 
11 :  20.  The  Greeks  and  Hebrews  first 
met  when  the  Tyrians  sold  the  Jews 
to  the  Greeks.  Joel  3:6.  ''Prophet- 
ical notice  of  Greece  occurs  in  Dan. 
8 :  21,  etc.,  where  the  history  of  Alexan- 
der and  his  successors  is  rapidly  sketch- 
ed. Zechariah,  9:13,  foretells  the  tri- 
umphs of  the  Maccabees  over  the  Grfeco- 
Syrian  empire,  while  Isaiah  looks  for- 
ward to  the  conversion  of  the  Greeks, 
amongst  other  Gentiles,  through  the  in- 
strumentality of  Jewish  missionaries. 
66:19."     "After   the   complete  subju- 


GRE 


GUR 


gation   of  the  Greeks  by   the   Roiians,  I  pire  of  the  kingdoms  which  were  form- 
and  the  absorption  into  the  Koman  em-  1  ed  out  of  the  dominions  of  Alexander, 


Sketch-Map 

the  political  connection  between  the 
Greeks  and  the  Jews  as  two  independ- 
ent nations  no  longer  existed." — Smith  : 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 

GREY'HOUND  is  the  A.  V.  trans- 
lation for  the  Hebrew  words,  meaning 
*'  one  girt  about  the  loins."  Prov.  30 : 
31.  That  a  "  gi-eyhound  "  does  not  an- 
swer to  the  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  is 
generally  agreed.  The  most  probable 
rendering  yet  suggested  is  that  of  a 
"wrestler"  girded  for  the  fight;  others 
explain  it  of  the  war-horse,  which  is  so 
poetically  described  in  the  book  of  Job 
(39  :  19-25). 

GRIND.     See  Mills. 

GRIND'ERS,  in  Eccl.  12  :  3,  repre- 
sent the  double  teeth  used  in  mastication. 

GRIZ'ZLED,  black  and  white  in- 
termingled in  small  spots.  Gen.  31 :  10  : 
Zeeh.  6  :  3.  6. 

GROVE.  The  translation,  except 
in  Gen.  21  :  33,  of  the  Hebrew  word 
ashernh  ;  but  since  nsherah  is  regarded 
by  the  best  interpreters  to  be  an  "  idol" 
or  an  idolatrous  pillar  (an  image  of  As- 
tarte,  and  not  a  "  grove,")  the  translation 
is  misleading,  as  in  1  Kgs.  18  :  19  ;  2  Kgs. 
13  :  6,  and  other  places.  See  Ashtoreth. 
But   it  is  likely  that  this  asherah  was 


of  Greece. 

often  set  up  in  a  grove,  because  thus 
would  be  given  that  seclusion  necessary 
to  the  cruel  and  indecent  rites  which 
marked,  among  Oriental  nations,  the 
worship  of  false  divinities. 

GUARD  -CHAM'BER,  the 
apartment  occupied  by  the  king's  guard. 

1  Kgs.  14:28. 
GUD'GODAH.    Deut.  10  :  7.     See 

Hor-Hagidgad. 

GUEST.     See  Hospitality. 

GUESTS-CHAMBER.  See 
Chamber. 

GUIL'TY  OF  BLOOD,  Num. 
35  :  27,  31 ;  GUIL  TY  OF  DEATH, 
Matt.  26  :  66  ,•  Mark  14  :  64.  This  phrase 
in  the  last  two  passages  means  "  deserv- 
ing of  death ;"  in  the  former  it  means 
simply  "  guilty  of  blood-shedding." 

GU'NI  (painted).  1.  A  son  of  Naph- 
tali.  Gen.  46:24;  Num.  26:48;  1  Chr. 
7:13. 

2.  Oneof  Gad's  posterity.  1  Chr.6:15. 

GUR  (whelp,  or  abode),  an  ascent  from 
the  plain  of  Jezreel.  2  Kgs.  9  :  27.  Drake 
suggests  Keft  Kud,  near  Jeniv,  as  its 
site. 

GUR-BA'AL  (abode  of  Baal),  a 
place  in  the  desert,  south-east  of  Judah. 

2  Chr.  26  :  7. 


347 


HAA 


HAD 


H. 


HAAHASH'TARI  {the  courier), 
a  Judite.   1  Chr.  4  :  6. 

HABA'IAH  {irhom  Jehovah  hides), 
a  priest,  the  ancestor  of  some  who  re- 
turned from   exile.    Ezr.  2:61;  Neh.  7: 

(;-3. 

HAB'AKKUK,  or  HABBAK'- 

KUK  {embrace),  one  of  the  twelve  mi- 
nor prophets,  of  whose  birth  we  know 
neither  the  time  nor  the  place.  He  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim  or  of  Josiah. 

Prophecy  of,  relates  chiefly  to  the  in- 
vasion of  Judaea  by  the  Chalditans,  ch.  1, 
and  the  subsequent  punishment  of  the 
Chaldajans  themselves,  ch.  2.  The  ])as- 
sage  2  :  4,  "the  just  shall  live  by  his 
faith,"  furnished  to  Paul  the  text  for 
his  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  Rom.  1:17; 
comp.  Gal.  3  :  11. 

The  third  chapter  is  an  eloquent  and 
sublime  psalm  upon  the  majesty  of  God. 
Bishop  Lowth  says,  "  This  anthem  is  un- 
equalled in  majesty  and  splendor  of  lan- 
guage and  imagerv." 

HABAZINI'AH  {light  of  Jehovah), 
a  Rechabite.  Jer.  35  :  3. 

HABERGEON.     See  Armor. 

HA'BOR  (perhaps  rich  in  vegeta- 
tion), a  river  of  Gozan,  2  Kgs.  17  :  6 ;  1 
Chr.  5:26;  probably  identical  with  the 
modern  Khabuur,  the  Aborrhas  and  Cha- 
boras  of  ancient  writers,  and  a  branch 
of  the  Euphrates. 

HACHALI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  af- 
flicts),  the  father  of  Nehemiah.  Neh.  1 : 
i;  10:1. 

HACH'ILAH,  HILL  OF  {the 
darksome  hill),  a  place  in  Judah  near 
Ziph,  and  where  David  with  his  600  fol- 
lowers hid.  1  Sam.  23:19;  comp.  14, 
15,  18  ;  26  :  3.  Conder  was  inclined  to 
locate  it  at  the  ruins  now  called  Yekin  : 
"  The  hill  Yekin  is  a  bold  promontory 
standing  just  at  the  edge  of  the  plateau. 
It  looks  over  the  whole  desert ;  the  cliffs 
of  En-gedi,  the  Dead  Sea,  and  the  heights 
of  Moab  are  in  full  view.  Just  beneath 
the  crest  of  the  hill  is  a  hollow,  with  an- 
other knoll  beyond.  It  is  tlie  head  of  a 
great  valley,  which  soon  becomes  precip- 
itous, running  down  into  the  desert.  In 
this  hollow  are  a  spring  and  a  cave.  This 
348 


I  imagine  is  what  is  meant  by  the 
'  trench.'  1  Sam.  26  :  5.  David  is  said 
to  have  crossed  over  to  the  other  side, 
and  we  may  imagine  him  standing  on 
one  or  other  of  the  hill-tops  and  looking 
down  on  the  king  and  his  sleeping  party 
in  the  hollow." 

HACH'MONI,  SON  OF.  The 
Hachmonites  Jehiel  and  Jashobeam  are 
so  spoken  of  1  Chr.  27:32;  11:11. 
Hachmon  was  their  ancestor. 

HA'DAD  {sharjyness),  one  of  the  sons 
of  Ishmael,  1  Chr.  1:30;  he  is  called 
Hadar  in  Gen.  25  :  15. 

HA'DAD  (a  different  name  in  He- 
brew, meaning  brave).  1.  King  of  Edom, 
who  won  a  great  victory  over  the  Mid- 
ianites  on  the  field  of  Moab.  His  cap- 
ital was  AviTH,  which  see.  Gen.  36:35; 
1  Chr.  1 :  46. 

2.  Another  king  of  Edom,  with  Pau 
for  his  capital,  1  Chr.  1  :  50  ;  called  Ha- 
dar in  Gen.  36  :  39. 

3.  A  member  of  the  royal  house  of 
Edom.  In  the  general  massacre  of  the 
males  of  Edom  by  Joab,  1  Kgs.  11 :  15, 
he  escaped,  and  fled  into  Egypt.  Pha- 
raoh received  him  with  peculiar  marks 
of  favor,  giving  him  his  daughter  in 
marriage.  Subsequently,  Hadad  re- 
turned to  Edom,  and  won  for  himself 
the  reputation  of  an  "  adversary "  of 
Solomon  by  the  border-warfare  he  car- 
ried on  against  Israel.  1  Kgs.  11  : 
14,  25. 

HADADE'ZER,  or  HADARE'- 
ZER  {Hadad's  help),  a  king  of  Zobah. 
He  was  twice  defeated  bv  King  David's 
armies.  2  Sam.  8:3;  10:16.  On  the 
first  occasion  20,000  of  the  enemy  were 
slain  and  1000  chariots  were  taken. 
Amongst  the  spoil  were  shields  of  gold, 
1  Chr.  18 :  7,  which  David  took  to  Jeru- 
salem. 

Some  years  afterward.  Hadadezer  and 
three  other  Syrian  princes  formed  an 
alliance  to  assist  the  Ammonites  against 
David  ;  but  the  whole  Syrian  army  was 
defeated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Jordan 
by  the  Israelites  under  the  command  of 
Joab.  Between  40,000  and  50,000  of 
the  enemy  were  killed,  including  their 


HAD 


HAG 


principal  general,  and  they  thenceforth 
became  tributary  to  David.  1  Chr.  19  : 
16-U). 

HA'DAD  -  RIM'MON,  a  place 
probably  named  from  two  Syrian  idols, 
Hadad,  the  sun-god,  and  Rimmon.  It 
was  in  the  valley  of  Megiddo,  Zech.  12  : 
11,  and  the  scene  of  a  great  lamentation 
over  the  death  of  Josiah.  2  Kgs.  23  :  29  ; 
2  Chr.  35  :  20-25.  It  is  identified  by 
Van  de  Velde  with  Rum  man  eh,  4  miles 
south  of  Lejun.     Conder  favors  this. 

HA'DAR  (roow).  l.Uen.  25:15. 
See  Hadap. 

2.  Gen.  36  :  39.     See  Hadad,  2. 

HADARE'ZER.  See  Hadadezer. 

HAD'ASHAH,  or  HADA'- 
SHAH  {neic),  a  town  in  the  plain  of 
Judah,  Josh.  15  :  37  ;  probably  the  Adasa 
of  the  Maccabgean  history,  and  corre- 
sponding well  in  name  and  position  to 
modern  Ahdm^. 

HADAS'SAH  {myrtle).  See  Es- 
ther. 

HADAT'TAH(»e?o),  a  town  named 
as  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah.  Josh. 
15  :  25.  Fuerst  proposes  to  read  Ilazor- 
hadattah  {New  Hazor),  as  distinct  from 
the  Hazor  in  v.  23 ;  Wilton  would  iden- 
tify it  with  an  imposing  ruin  called 
Ka^r  el-Adadah. 

HA'DES  (the  itnsccn  world,  the  sprrit- 
vjorld)  occurs  eleven  times  in  the  Greek 
Testament  (Matt.  11  :  23;  16:  18;  Acts 
2:31;  Rev.  1  :  18,  etc.),  and  ought  to 
have  been  retained  in  the  English  Ver- 
sion (as  it  probably  will  be  in  the  Re- 
vision) to  distinguish  it  from  Gehennn 
("hell").  The  word  is  used  in  Homer 
as  a  proper  noun  for  Pluto,  the  god  of 
the  unseen  or  lower  world,  next  brother 
to  Zeus  (Jupiter).  In  later  writers  it 
signifies  a  place,  viz.,  the  unseen  spirit- 
world,  the  realm  of  the  departed,  the 
abode  of  the  dead. 

1.  The  Greek  view  of  Hades  and  the 
Roman  view  of  Orcun  is  that  of  a  place 
for  all  the  dead  in  the  depths  of  the  earth 
— dark,  dreary,  cheerless  and  shut  up, 
inaccessible  to  prayers  and  sacrifices, 
ruled  over  by  Pluto. 

2.  The  Hebrew  Sheol  is  the  equivalent 
for  the  Greek  H((des,  a.nd  is  so  translated 
in  the  Septuagint.  It  is  likewise  the 
subterranean  abode  of  all  the  dead,  but 
only  their  temporary  abode  till  the  ad- 
vent of  the  Messiah  or  the  final  judg- 
ment, and  is  divided  into  two    dejtai't- 


ments,  called  2iaradi'fie  or  Abraham's 
bosom  for  the  good,  and  Gehenna  or  hell 
for  the  bad. 

3.  The  N.  T.  Hades  does  not  differ 
essentially  from  the  Hebrew  Sheol,  but 
Christ  has  broken  the  power  of  death, 
dispelled  the  darkness  of  Hades,  and 
revealed  to  believers  the  idea  of  heaven 
as  the  state  and  abode  of  bliss  in  im- 
mediate prospect  after  a  holy  life. 

The  English  Version  translates  Hades 
and  Gehenna  by  the  same  word  ("  hell"), 
except  in  1  Cor.  15  :  55  ("grave"),  and 
thus  obliterates  the  important  distinction 
between  the  realm  of  the  dead  or  spirit- 
world  and  the  place  of  torment.  Hades 
is  a  temporary  jail  or  prison-house; 
heaven  and  hell  are  permanent  and 
final.  Since  Christ's  descent  into  Hades, 
or  the  unseen,  the  spirit  world,  believers 
need  not  fear  to  enter  this  realm  through 
death.  Christ  declares,  ''  I  am  alive  for 
evermore,  Amen  ;  and  have  the  keys  of 
hell  [Hades]  and  of  death."    Rev.  1 :  18. 

HA'DID  (sharp),  a  place  near  Lod 
or  Lydda.  Ezr.  2:33;  Neh.  7  :  37  ;  11: 
34.  Its  site  is  ])robably  that  of  the  mod- 
ern village  el-Haditlieh,  3  miles  east  of 
Lydda.     See  Adida. 

HAD'LAI  (resting),  an  Ephraimite, 
father  of  the  chief  of  a  tribe  in  the  reign 
of  Pekah.  2  Chr.  28  :  12. 

HADO'RAM  (fire-worshippers  ?). 
1.  The  fifth  son  of  Jo'ktan.  Gen.  10  :  27  ; 

1  Chr.  1  :  21.  The  tribe  which  sprang 
from  him  were  probably  the  Adramita?, 
who  lived  on  the  south  coast  of  Arabia. 

2.  The  son  of  Tou  or  Toi,  king  of 
Hamath,  1  Chr.  18  :  10;  called  Joram  in 

2  Sam.  8:10. 

3.  The  tax-collector  stoned  after  Jer- 
oboam's rebellion,  2  Chr.  10  :  18  ;  called 
Adoniram,  1  Kgs.  4:  6,  and  Adoram,  2 
Sam.  20  :  24. 

HA'DRACH,  LAND  OF  (per- 
haps enclosure),  a  country  of  Syria,  Zech. 
9:1,2,  and  conjectured  to  be  the  region 
about  Damascus,  including,  perhaps,  all 
of  Coelo-Syria ;  or  it  may  refer  to  the 
region  around  Hamath. 

HA'GAB  (locust),  one  whose  de- 
scendants returned  from  Babylon  under 
Zerubbabel.   Ezr.  2:46. 

HAG'ABA  (locust),  one  whose  sons 
were  among  the  Nethinim  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel,  Neh.  7:48;  called 
Hagabah  in  Ezr.  2  :  45. 

HA'GAR  {flight),  an  Egyptian  wo- 

349 


HAG 


HAI 


man  who  lived  in  the  family  of  Abra- 
ham as  bond-woman.  At  Sarah's  own 
suggestion,  she  became  the  concubine 
of  Abraham.  When  she  conceived,  her 
mistress  was  "  despised  in  her  eyes." 
Gen.  16  :  4.  In  consequence  of  it,  Ha- 
gar  was  harshly  treated  and  fled  away 
from  the  house  of  Abraham.  She  made 
her  way  toward  Egypt,  her  native  coun- 
try, through  the  wilderness  of  Shur,  and 
while  resting  herself  near  a  fountain  by 
the  wayside  she  was  visited  by  an  angel, 
who  promised  her  an  innumerable  seed 
and  a  son  whose  name  was  to  be  Ish- 
mael.  The  angel  at  the  same  time  di- 
rected her  to  return  home  and  submit 
herself  to  her  mistress.  The  place  of 
this  manifestation  was  afterward  known 
as  Beer-lahai-roi,  "  well  of  the  living  and 
seeing  [God]."  Gen.  16  :  14. 

We  lose  sight  of  Hagar  entirely  from 
this  time  on  till  the  festival  of  Isaac's 
weaning.  On  that  occasion  Sarah  saw 
Ishmael  mocking  or  making  sport  of 
her  child.  She  immediately  demanded 
the  banishment  of  Ishmael  and  his 
mother  from  their  home.  Abraham  was 
pained  by  the  demand ;  but  being  di- 
vinely admonished  to  comply,  he  rose 
up  early  in  the  morning,  and  supplying 
Hagar  with  bread  and  a  bottle  of  water 
sent  her  and  her  child  away.  She  found 
her  way  to  the  wilderness  of  Beer-sheba  ; 
but  her  supply  of  water  was  exhausted. 
Placing  the  child  under  one  of  the 
shrubs  that  she  might  not  see  it  die, 
she  mingled  her  prayers  with  its  cries. 
God  heard  the  prayer,  and  disclosed  to 
her  a  fountain.  She  at  the  same  time 
received  again  the  promise  (fulfilled  in 
the  Arabs)  that  Ishmael  would  be  the 
father  of  a  great  nation.  Gen.  21 :  9-21. 

Paul  refers  to  Hagar,  Gal.  4 :  25,  as  a 
type  of  the  Law  and  its  bondage. 

HAGARENES',  or  HA'GAR- 
ITES  {Jiiijht),  a  people  dwelling  east 
of  the  Jordan.  1  Chr.  5 :  10,  19,  20  ;  27  : 
31.  They  seem  to  be  distinguished  from 
the  Ishmaelites,  Ps.  83  :  0,  but  are  usu- 
ally regarded  as  having  been  named  after 
Hagar,  though  some  identify  them  with 
the  Agrfei.  in  the  north-east  of  Arabia. 

HAG'GAI  {/eiifive),  a  prophet  whose 
prophetic  activity  fell  after  the  Captiv- 
ity, in  the  second  year  of  Darius  Hystas- 
pes,  or  B.  c.  520,  ch.  1 : 1.  Nothing  is 
known  of  his  life. 

The  Prophecv  of,  which  is  prosaic 
350 


in  style,  concerns  the  repair  of  the  tem- 
ple, 1  :  1-12  ;  2  :  10-20,  the  glory  of  the 
second  temple,  2  :  1-9,  and  the  triumph 
of  Zerubbabel  over  his  enemies.  2 :  20- 
23.  The  prophet  severely  rebukes  the 
people  for  their  neglect  to  build  the 
house  of  the  Lord,  and  for  their  sel- 
fishness in  living  in  the  luxury  of  ceil- 
ed (or  panelled)  houses,  while  the  tem- 
ple was  neglected.  1 : 4.  The  people 
obeyed  the  prophet,  and  received  the 
promise  of  God's  presence.  1:13.  The 
second  chapter  contains  a  Messianic 
reference,  and  alludes  to  Christ  as  the 
"  Desire  of  all  nations,"  v.  7,  or,  as 
others  render  the  passage,  "the  desira- 
ble things  of  all  nations."  The  He- 
brew reads,  "  They  shall  come,  the  de- 
sire of  all  nations,  and  I  will  fill  this 
house  with  glory,  saith  the  Lord  of 
hosts." 

HAG'GERI  (loanderer),  one  of 
David's  mighty  men.  1  Chr.  11 :  38. 

HAG'GI  {festive),  the  second  son 
of  Gad,  Gen. '46  :  16;  Num.  26  :  15; 
founder  of  the  Haggites. 

HAGGI'AH  {festival  of  Jehovah), 
a  Merarite  Levite,  1  Chr.  6  :  30. 

HAG'GITH  (a  dancer),  one  of 
David's  wives,  and  the  mother  of  Ado- 
nijah.  2  Sam.  3:4;   1  Kgs.  1 :  5,  etc. 

HAI   {heap  of  ruins).     See  Ai. 

HAIL.  When  a  very  cold  current 
of  air  encounters  a  hot  and  humid  one, 
the  vapor  of  the  latter  is  suddenly  con- 
densed into  drops,  and  sometimes  these 
are  frozen  into  irregular  spheroids  of 
porous  ice,  which  fall  to  the  earth  as 
hail.  This  phenomenon  is  more  fre- 
quent in  temperate  than  in  tropical  re- 
gions, and  usually  occurs  in  summer 
and  at  the  hottest  hour  of  the  day. 
Hail  rarely  falls  except  during  thunder- 
storms;  and  hence  the  Bible  commonly 
mentions  it  in  connection  with  fire  (light- 
ning), as  in  Ps.  148  :  8.  As  rain  was  al- 
ways rare  in  Egypt,  the  fall  of  hail  men- 
tioned as  the  seventh  plague,  Ex.  9, 
must  have  been  singularly  frightful,  as 
it  was  greatly  destructive  to  man,  beast, 
and  herb.  God  used  a  storm  of  hail- 
stones to  utterly  rout  and  destroy  the 
Amorites  who  fought  with  Joshua  at 
Gibeon,  Josh.  10. 

In  modern  times  stones  of  ice  have 
been  known  to  fall  of  half  a  pound  in 
weight,  and  even  eighteen  ounces ;  and 
were  it  not  that  hail-storms  are  exceed- 


HAI 


HAI 


ingly  local  and  rarely  continue  more 
than  five  or  ten  minutes,  incalculable 
destruction  would  result.  The  largest 
hail  falls  in  hot  countries,  whero  hail  is 
less  frequent. 

Inspiration  often  uses  this  agency  fig- 
uratively to  picture  the  awful  judgments 
of  God.  In  Rev.  16  :  21  hail-stones  are 
mentioned  of  a  talent  in  weight,  or,  if 
the  language  were  literal,  of  55,  and 
perhaps  11  o,  pounds,  according  as  the 
Attic  or  Jewish  talent  be  intended;  in 
all  probability  the  former. 

HAIR.  The  difference  between  the 
Hebrews  and  their  neighbors,  the  Egyp- 
tians, in  the  matter  of  wearing  their  hair 
is  early,  though  incidentally,  alluded  to 
in  the  Bible.  Thus  Joseph,  on  being 
summoned  into  the  presence  of  Pha- 
raoh, "shaved  himself,"  while  in  most 
other  countries  it  would  have  been  sufii- 
cient  to  comb  his  hair  and  trim  his 
beard.  But  the  Egyptian  men — out  of 
notions  of  cleanliness  perhaps — shaved 
their  heads ;  the  priests  shaved  their 
whole  bodies  every  third  day.  The 
women,  however,  wore  their  natural 
hair  long  and  plaited.     In  place  of  the 


Egyptian  mode  of  weaiiiifj  tlie  hair.       (From  a 
painting.    British  Museum.)  j 

natural  hair,  wigs  were  worn  by  the  men  ; 
and  these  were  so  constructed  as  to  afford 
more  protection  against  the  sun  than  the 
more  modern  turbans. 

The  Assyrians,  and  the  Asiatics  gen- 
erally, the  neighbors  of  the  Hebrews  on 
the  east,  had  opposite  customs  in  regard 
to  the  hair  of  meh.  On  the  Assyrian 
sculptures  the  hair  appears  long  and 
combed  closely  down  upon  the  head; 
the  beard  is  also  full  length.    False  hair 


seems  to  have  been  plaited  in  to  make 
the  greater  show.  Much  care  was  given 
to  the  hair. 

The  (J reeks  were  great  admirers  of 
long  hair  in  both  men  and  women.  Their 
manner  of  wearing  it  varied.  The  Ro- 
man men  at  the  time  of  Christ  wore 
their  hair  short.  Shaving  was  also  cus- 
tomary, and  a  long  beard  was  regarded 
as  slovenly. 

The  Hebrews  were  accustomed  to  cut 
the  hair  very  much  as  we  do,  and  must 
have  used  a  kind  of  scissors,  2  Sam.  14: 
26.  But  in  the  case  of  a  vow  or  relig- 
ious obligation  they  let  it  grow,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Nazarites.  Num.  6:5;  Jud. 
13  :  5.  See  Nazaritks.  The  precept  to 
the  priests,  Eze.  44  :  20,  requires  an 
avoidance  of  extremes ;  so  that  the 
"  Israelites  "  should  neither  resemble  the 
priests  of  the  heathen  gods,  who  shaved 
their  hair  close,  nor  yet  the  Nazarites, 
who  did  not  cut  the  hair  at  all.  It 
was  prohibited,  Lev.  19 :  27,  to  round 
the  corners  of  the  head — that  is  (as  it  is 
generally  understood),  to  shave  off  the 
hair  about  the  tem])les.  The  hair  (espe- 
cially black  or  dark  hair)  was  consider- 
ed an  ornament,  and  it  was  anointed 
with  aromatic  oil,  particularly  on  festi- 
vals and  other  joyous  occasions.  Ruth 
3:3;  2  Sam.  14:2;  Ps.  23  :  5  ;  92:10: 
Eccl.  9:8;  Luke  7  :  46.  Combs  and 
hair-pins  are  mentioned  in  the  Talmud 
as  in  use  among  the  Jews. 

The  hair  is  spoken  of  by  the  apostle 
as  a  natural  veil  or  covering  to  women, 
which  it  is  a  shame  to  put  off,  1  Cor. 
11 :  15.  It  was  plaited  or  braided,  as  is 
the  custom  at  this  day  among  the  Asiat- 
ic women.  The  excessive  care  bestowed 
upon  the  head-dress  led  to  the  apostolic 
rebuke.  1  Tim.  2  :  9 ;  1  Pet.  3  :  3.  See 
Head-dress, 

The  practice  of  shaving  the  head  in 
token  of  great  affliction  and  humiliation 
for  sin  was  common  among  the  Hebrews 
even  as  early  as  Job's  day,  Job  1 :  20. 
So  that  the  exhortation  to  cut  off  the 
hair  is  equivalent  to  an  exhortation  to 
begin  a  course  of  deep  mourning  and  sor- 
row, Jer.  7  :  29.  A  change  in  the  color  of 
the  hair  was  one  of  the  earliest  indica- 
tions of  the  leprosy,  and  hence,  after  re- 
covery, the  removal  of  the  hair  as  the  seat 
of  disease  was  particularly  enjoined.  Lev. 
13  :  4, 10,  31,  32  ;  14  :  8,  9.  See  Leprosy. 
Baldness  disqualified  for  the  priesthood ; 

351 


HAK 


HAM 


artificial  baldness   was  forbidden,  Lev. 
21 :  5.     See  Baldness. 

Hair  was  employed  by  the  Hebrews  as 
an  image  of  what  was  least  valuable  in 
man's  person,  1  Sam.  14  :  45  :  2  Sam.  14  : 
11  ;  Matt.  10  :  30  ;  Luke  13  :  7  ;  Acts  27  : 
34,  as  well  as  of  what  was  innumerable 
Ps.  40  :  12  ;  69  :  4,  or  particularly  fine. 
Jud.  20:  If). 

HAK'KATAN  (the  small,  oryoumj), 
the  father  or  chief  of  the  sons  of  Azgad, 
Ezr.  8  :  12. 

HAK'KOZ  {the  thorn),^  the  head  of 
the  seventh  course  of  priests.  1  Chr. 
24:10. 

HAKU'PHA  {hent),  one  mention- 
ed Ezr.  2:51:  Neh.  7  :  53. 

HA'LAH,  a  place  in  Assyria  to 
which  the  ten  tribes  were  carried  cap- 
tive. 2  Kgs.  17  :  6  ;  18  :  11 ;  1  Chr.  5  :  26. 
It  is  now  identified,  with  great  probabil- 
ity, as  the  Chalcitis  of  Ptolemy,  and  in 
the  north-west  of  Gauzanitis.  Layard 
found  a  remarkable  mound  near  the 
Khabour  called  Gla  or  Kcdah,  ''castle," 
which  covers  the  site  of  an  ancient  for- 
tress or  town.  The  SejDtuagint  and  Vul- 
gate versions  appear  to  regard  Halah  as 
a  river,  and  it  may  have  been  the  name 
of  a  river  and  of  a  town.  The  river  was 
perhaps  the  Nahr  al  Hnali,  which  is  a 
branch  of  the  Khabour. 

HA'LAK,  THE  MOUNT  {the 
smooth  or  the  bald  mountain),  the  name 
of  a  mountain  marking  the  southern 
limit  of  Joshua's  conquests.  Josh.  11 : 
17;  12  :  7.  It  has  been  variously  iden- 
tified with  the  range  of  hills  parallel 
with  Beer-sheba,  with  the  modern  Jebel 
el-Mukreh,  60  miles  south  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  with  the  range  of  white  hills 
8  miles  south  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  which 
divides  the  Ghor,  to  the  north,  from  the 
Arabah,  to  the  south. 

HALE  means  to  haul,  to  drag  by 
force,  before  magistrates.  Luke  12  :  58  ; 
Acts  8  :  3. 

HAL^HUIj  (trembling),  a  town  in 
the  mountains  of  Judah,  Josh.  15  :  58. 
Its  ruins,  having  the  same  name,  Halhul, 
are  found  on  the  eastern  slope  of  a  hill 
4  miles  north  of  Hebron,  where  is  also 
an  old  mosque  dedicated  to  Neby  Yunas, 
the  prophet  Jonah. 

HA'LI  (necklace),  a  town  in  Asher, 
Josh.  19  :  25 ;  now  'Alia. 

HALL,   in    Luke    22  :  55,   was    the 
court  of  the  high  priest's  palace. 
352 


HALLELU'JAH.    See  Alleluia. 

HALLO'HESH     (the     enchanter), 

one  who  sealed  the  covenant,  Neh.  10 : 
24. 

HAL'LOW  means  to  make  holy,  to 
consecrate. 

HALO'HESH  {the  enchanter),  one 
who  helped  repair  the  wall,  Neh.  3:12. 

HAM  (hot,  or  multitude),  the  son  of 
Noah.  He  is  known  for  his  irreverence 
to  his  father.  Gen.  9  :  22,  and  as  the  pa- 
rent of  Gush,  Mizraim,  Phut,  and  Ca- 
naan, Gen.  10  :  6,  who  became  the 
founders  of  large  nations.  Cush  seems 
to  have  been  the  father  of  the  peoples 
dwelling  in  Babylonia,  southern  Arabia, 
and  Ethiopia;  Nimrod  was  his  son.  Gen. 
10  :  8.  Mizraim,  the  Hebrew  word  for 
Egypt,  was  the  ancestor  of  the  Egyp- 
tians. Phut  was  also  the  ancestor  of 
an  African  people,  as  apjiears  from  the 
association  of  his  name  with  the  de- 
scendants of  Cush  and  the  Lydians, 
Jer.  46:9;  see  margin.  Canaan  was 
the  ancestor  of  the  Phoenicians  and 
other  tribes  inhabiting  Palestine. 

Egypt  is  called  "the  land  of  Ham/' 
Ps.  78  :  51  ;  105  :  23-27  ;  106  :  22. 

HA'MAN  {celebrated),  prime  min- 
ister of  Ahasuerus,  the  Persian  mon- 
arch. Esth.  3:1.  His  pride  being  hurt 
because  Mordecai,  the  Jew,  refused  to 
bow  and  do  him  reverence,  Esth.  3  : 
2,  he  secured  a  royal  decree  for  the 
extermination  of  all  Jews  in  the  Per- 
sian dominions.  He  was,  however, 
thwarted  through  the  influence  of  Es- 
ther, and  executed  on  the  very  gallows 
he  had  ]irepared  for  Mordecai.  Esth.  7  : 
10.  The  Jews,  on  the  mention  of  his 
name  on  the  day  of  Purim,  hiss.  Like 
Sejanus  in  Koman  history,  his  name  will 
always  suggest  the  contrast  of  power 
and  disijrace. 

HA'MATH  (fortress,  citadel),  one 
of  the  most  important  cities  of  Syria, 
and  one  of  the  oldest  in  the  world.  It 
was  founded  by  a  son  of  Canaan,  Gen. 
10  :  18  ;  Num.  34  :  8.  and  was  situated 
in  the  valley  of  the  Orontes,  between  its 
source  and  the  site  of  the  city  of  An- 
tioch.  It  thus  commanded  the  route  to 
the  Euphrates  from  Phoenicia,  and  may 
be  called  the  "key  "  of  northern  Pales- 
tine. It  was  165  miles  in  a  straight 
line  north  of  Jerusalem,  and  was  the 
capital  of  a  kingdom  or  province  of 
which    little  is  known.     It  was  visited 


HAM 


HAM 


by  the  spies,  Num.  13  :  21,  and  it  is  fre- 
quently noticed  as  the  northern  boun- 
dary of  Palestine.  Num.  34  :  8  ;  Josh. 
13  :  5.  Its  king,  Toi,  blessed  David  for 
his  victory  over  Zobah,  2  Sam.  8  :  9-12  ; 
Solomon  extended  his  kingdom  to  Ha- 
math,  1  Kgs.  8  :  6a  ;  2  Chr.  8  :  i,  and 
built  store-cities  in  that  region  ;  after- 
ward the  city  and  country  became  inde- 
pendent, but  were  again  subdued  by 
Jeroboam  II.,  2  Kgs.  14  :  25,  28.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Assyrians,  2  Kgs.  18:34; 
Isa.  10 :  9  ;  Amos  calls  it  *'  Ilamath  the 
great,"  and  speaks  of  its  desolation. 
Am.  6 : 2. 


Later  ffiston/. — The  name  of  Ilamath 
was  changed  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
to  Epiphania,  though  the  old  name 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  lost,  since 
it  was  known  as  Hamath  in  the  time  of 
Jerome.  The  place  was  taken  by  the 
Moslems,  A.  D.  639  ;  by  the  Franks,  a.  d. 
1108  ;  by  the  Turks,  a.  d.  1115;  was  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake  in  which 
15,000  persons  perished,  a.  d.  1157;  and 
taken  by  Saladin,  a.  d.  1178.  Its  mod- 
ern name  is  Hamah,  and  it  is  now  a 
place  of  30,000  inhabitants.  Porter  re- 
gards it  as  a  town  where  life  has  been  at 
a  standstill  for  30  centuries.     It,  how- 


Inscription  discovered  at  Hamath.    (From  a  report  of  the  Am,  Palestine  Exploration  Society.) 


ever,  has  large  bazaars,  baths,  mosques, 
and  hydraulic  works,  and  carries  on  an 
active  trade  with  Aleppo  and  other 
towns  of  Asia  and  Africa.  The  Persian 
water-wheels,  which  creak  and  groan  as 
they  raise  the  water  for  the  supply  of 
the  city,  are  great  curiosities.  The  Ha- 
math inscriptions,  which  have  in  late 
years  excited  the  attention  of  scholars, 
were  first  seen  by  Burckhardt,  but  at- 
tracted little  notice  until  1870.  The 
stones  are  four  in  number,  and  are  in- 
scribed in  hieroglj'phics  of  a  very  an- 
cient character  ;  they  have  not  yet  been 
satisfactorilv  deciphered. 

HAMATH  -  ZOBAH     (fortress 
23 


of  Zohah),  a  city  which  Solomon  con- 
quered, 2  Chr.  8  :  3,  which  cannot  have 
been  Ilamath,  "the  great,"  but  must 
have  been  another  Hamath,  not  yet 
identified. 

HAM'MATH  [wnrm  Rprinrin),  a  for- 
tified city  in  Naphtali,  Josh.  19  :  35,  and 
probably  identical  with  Hummam,  or 
"  Warm  Springs,"  about  1  mile  south 
of  Tiberias.  It  is  still  noted  for  its  hot, 
sulphurous  waters,  which  are  too  nause- 
ous to  drink,  but  are  used  for  bathing 
and  are  regarded  as  possessing  great 
medicinal  qualities.  The  walls  of 
an  old  town  can  be  traced  near  the 
baths.     Hammath  is  probably  Ihe  same 

363 


HAM 


HAN 


aa  Hammon,  No.  2,  and  as  Hammoth- 
dor. 

HAMMED' ATU A  {double  r),  Ha- 
inan's father,  Estli.  3  :  1. 

HAM'MELECH  (the  king),  the 
father  of  Jerahmeel  and  Malchiah.  Jer. 
36  :  26  ;  38  :  6. 

HAM'MER,  the  English  translation 
of  four  different  Hebrew  words.  The  ham- 
mers mentioned  by  Isaiah,  44  :  12  "  seem 
to  have  been  the  heaviest  instruments  of 
the  kind  for  hard  blows."  Jael's  ham- 
mer, Jud.  4  :  21,  was  properly  a  mallet, 
such  as  the  Bedouin  use  at  the  present 
day  to  drive  the  wooden  tent-pins  into 
the  ground.  The  "  battle-axe,"  Jer.  51 : 
20,  and  the  "  maul,"  Prov.  25  :  18y  were 
species  of  hammers  used  for  warlike 
pui'poses.  The  tool  probably  resembled 
that  of  the  present  day.  The  word 
"hammer"  is  also  used  symbolically  for 
mighty  force.  Jer.  23  :  29  ;  50  :  23. 

HAMMOL'EKETH  {the  queen), 
the  sister  of  Gilead,  1  Chr.  7  :  17,  18. 

HAM'MON  {warm  springs).  1.  A 
place  in  Asher,  near  Zidon,  Josh.  19  :  28. 
It  is  identified  with ' Ain  Hdmul,  10  miles 
below  Tyre. 

2.  A  Levitical  city  in  Naphtali,  1  Chr. 
6  :  76  ;  probably  the  same  as  Hammath 
and  Hammolh-dor  ;  now  el  Hummdm. 

'H.AM'MOTU'T}On{iDarm  springs, 
dwelling),  a  Levitical  city  and  a  city  of 
refuge  in  Naphtali,  Josh.  21 :  32.  See 
Hammath  and  Hammon,  No.  2. 

HAM'ONAH,  OR  HAMO'NAH 
{multitude),  a  city  apparently  near  where 
the  multitudes  of  Gog  should  be  buried, 
Eze.  39  :  16. 

HA'MON-GOG  {multitude  of  Gog), 
a  name  given  to  a  ravine  or  valley  in 
which  multitudes  of  the  slain  of  Gog 
were  to  be  buried,  Eze.  39  :  11, 15.  The 
Targums  regard  it  as  near  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  and  probably  on  the  great  road 
from  Syria  and  the  East  to  Egypt. 

HA'MOR  {ass),  the  father  of  She- 
chem,  who  ravished  Dinah,  Gen.  33  :  19. 
He  was  killed  by  Jacob's  sons,  Gen.  34  : 
26.     He  is  called  Emmor  in  Acts  7  :  16. 

HAMU'EL  {wrath  of  God),  a  Sime- 
onite,  1  Chr.  4:26. 

HA'MULi  {pitied),  the  younger  son 
of  Pharez,  and  ancestor  of  the  Hamul- 
ites.  Gen.  46  :  12  ;  1  Chr.  2:5;  Num. 
26:21. 

HAMU'TAL     {aJcin    to    the    dew), 
daughter  of  Jeremiah  of  Libnah,  a  wife 
354 


to  King  Josiah,  and  mother  of  Jehoahaz 
and  Zedekiah.  2Kgs.  23:31;  24:18; 
Jer.  52  :  1. 

HANAM'EEL  {whom  God  has 
given),  son  of  Shallum,  and  Jeremiah's 
cousin,  Jer.  32  :  6-12. 

HA'NAN  {merciful).  1.  A  prominent 
Benjamite,  1  Chr.  8:23. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Saul.  1  Chr.  8  :  38 ; 
9:44. 

3.  One  of  David's  guard,  1  Chr.  11  :  43. 

4.  One  of  the  ancestors  of  the  Nethinim 
who  returned  with  Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  2  : 
46  ;  Neh.  7  :  49. 

5.  A  Levite  who  assisted  Ezra  in  ex- 
plaining the  Law,  Neh.  8 :  7,  and  sealed 
the  covenant,  10  :  10. 

6.  A  chief  who  sealed  the  covenant, 
Neh.  10  :  22. 

7.  Another  sealer,  Neh.  10:26. 

8.  The  tithe-keeper  appointed  by  Ne- 
hemiah  to  represent  the  laitj^,  Neh.  13  : 
13.  The  four  storekeepers  represented 
the  four  classes  of  the  people — priests, 
scribes,  Levites,  and  the  laity. 

9.  One  whose  sons  had  a  chamber  in 
the  temple,  Jer.  35  :  4. 

HANAN'EEL  {graciously  given  of 
God),  a  tower  which  formed  a  part  of 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem.  Neh.  3:1;  12 : 
39  ;  Jer.  31 :  38  ;  Zech.  14  :  10.  It  ap- 
pears to  have  been  between  the  fish- 
gate  and  the  sheep-gate,  but  can  scarcely 
be  identified  with  the  tower  of  Meah,  as 
some  have  proposed.  Dr.  Barclay  sug- 
gested that  in  the  projection  at  the  north- 
east corner  of  the  harem  enclosure  are 
to  be  found  the  remains  of  the  tower  of 
Han  an  eel. 

HANA'NI  {gracious).  1.  A  son  of 
Heman,  appointed  by  David  to  share 
with  his  eleven  kinsmen  the  charge  of 
the  eighteenth  division  of  the  Levitical 
musicians,   1  Chr.  25  :  4,  25, 

2.  A  seer  who  rebuked  King  Asa  for 
neglect  to  trust  in  God.  He  was  im- 
prisoned for  his  boldness,  2  Chr.  16  :  7- 
10.  He  was  probably  the  father  of  Jehu 
the  prophet,  1  Kgs.  16  :  1 ,  2  ;  2  Chr.  19  :  2. 

3.  A  brother  of  Nehemiah,  who  brought 
him  the  melancholy  report  of  the  condi- 
tion of  Jerusalem  which  induced  Nehe- 
miah to  make  his  journey  thither,  Neh. 
1:2.  Hanani  was  afterward  appointed 
by  Nehemiah  to  have  charge  of  the  city 
gates,  B.  c.  446,  Neh.  7  :  2. 

4.  A  priest  who  had  a  foreign  wife, 
Ezr.  10:20. 


HAN 


HAN 


HA  IVAN  I 'AH  {whom  God  hath 
giveit).  lo  A  false  prophet  and  contem- 
porary with  Jeremiah.  He  prophesied 
that  the  vessels  of  the  Lord's  house 
would  be  brought  back  from  Babylon 
two  years  after  the  date  of  the  prophecy, 
Jer.  28  :  3.  In  token  of  deliverance 
from  the  bondage  of  Babylon,  he  broke 
the  wooden  j^oke  which  Jeremiah  Avore 
in  accordance  with  the  divine  command. 
Jeremiah  was  deceived  by  his  preten- 
sions, but  subsequently  called  him  a  de- 
ceiver to  his  face,  and  prophesied  his 
early  death.  He  died  that  year,  Jer. 
28  :  17.  Hananiah's  case  is  an  instance 
of  the  false  prophets  with  whom  the 
true  prophets  came  into  conflict. 

2.  A  Benjamite  chief,  1  Chr.  8 :  24. 

3.  One  of  the  sons  of  Heman,  1  Chr. 
25  :  4,  23. 

4.  One  of  Uzziah's  captains,  2  Chr. 
26 :  11. 

5.  One  who  had  a  foreign  wife,  Ezr. 
10 :  28. 

6.  7.  Two  repairers  of  the  wall  of  Je- 
rusalem, Neh.  3  :  8,  30. 

8,  The  "ruler  of  the  palace,"  whom 
Nehemiah  appointed  to  share  with  his 
brother  the  charge  ofi  the  gates  of  Jeru- 
salem, Neh.  7 :  2. 

9,  One  who  signed  the  covenant,  Neh. 
10:23. 

10,  11.  Two  priests,  Neh.  12  :  12,  41. 

12.  A  son  of  Zerubabbel,  1  Chr.  3  : 
19,  21. 

13.  The  father  of  one  of  Jehoiakim's 
princes,  Jer.  36  :  12. 

14.  Grandfather  of  the  captain  who 
arrested  Jeremiah,  Jer.  37:13. 

15.  Original  Hebrew  name  of  Shad- 
rach,  Dan.  1  :  6,  7. 

HAND  is  a  symbol  of  human  action  ; 
'•  pure  hands  "  are  pure  actions  ;  "  un- 
just hands"  are  deeds  of  injustice; 
"  hands  full  of  blood,"  actions  stained 
with  cruelty  ;  and  the  like.  Ps.  24 :  4  ; 
Eze.  23 :  37.  It  is  likewise  a  term  for 
the  vengeance  of  God  exercised  upon 
any  one,  1  Sam.  5  :  6,  7.  "To  pour 
water  on  any  one's  hands"  was  to  serve 
him.  So  Elisha  is  said  to  have  done  for 
Elijah,  2  Kgs.  3:11.  "To  wash  one's 
hands"  in  public  was  a  way  of  express- 
ing innocency,  Deut.  21  :  6,  7  ;  Matt.  27  : 
24;  "to  kiss  one's  hand"  is  an  act  of 
adoration,  Job  31  :  27  ;  "to  lift  up  one's 
hands  "  is  to  take  an  oath.  Gen.  14  :  22. 
Also  it  is  a  posture  in  blessing,  Lev.  9  : 


22  ,•  also,  to  rebel,  2  Sam.  20  :  21.  "  To 
stretch  out  the  hand  "  is  sometimes  a  ges- 
ture that  denotes  mercy,  Isa.  65  :  2  j  "to 
put  it  forth  unto  anything"  is  to  steal, 
Ex.  22  :  8,  11.  "To  smite  the  hands 
together  over  the  head"  was  a  gesture 
of  despairing  grief.  2  Sam.  13  :  19  ;  Jer. 
2  :  37.  Hand  in  general  is  the  symbol 
of  power  and  strength — the  right  hand 
particularly  so.  "  To  be  on  one's  right 
hand"  is  to  be  in  one's  favor.  The  He- 
brews, in  reckoning  the  four  quarters, 
faced  the  east;  consequently  to  "the  right 
hand  "  signified  to  the  south,  the  south- 
ern quarter  ;  "  to  the  left  hand  "  signi- 
fied to  the  north,  the  northern  quarter. 
Job  23  :  9  ;  1  Sam.  23  :  19,  see  margin  ; 
2  Sam.  24:5.  These  are  a  few  out  of 
the  many  uses  of  the  word  hand.  One 
more  use  will  be  given  :  "  To  lay  the 
hands  upon  any  one,"  or  the  imposition 
of  hands,  was  at  an  early  period  "  a 
part  of  the  ceremonial  observed  on  the 
appointment  and  consecration  of  per- 
sons to  high  and  holy  undertakings." 
In  Num.  27 :  18  we  read  that  Moses  was 
commanded  to  lay  his  hand  upon 
Joshua.  This  act  did  not  confer  any 
new  grace  upon  Joshua,  but  merely 
gave  formal  and  public  confirmation  of 
Jehovah's  choice,  and  confirmed  and 
strengthened  the  spiritual  gifts  already 
bestowed.  Comp.  Deut.  34  :  9.  The 
phrase  is  not  used  in  the  N.  T.  in  ex- 
actly the  same  sense.  Acts  8  :  15-17  ; 
1  Tim.  4  :  14  ;  2  Tim.  1 :  6.  The  apostles 
confirmed  the  grace  the  convert  had  re- 
ceived, as  in  the  case  of  Cornelius,  Acts 
10  :  44-48,  and  in  other  cases  conferred 
spiritual  gifts  and  qualifications. 

HAND-BREADTH,  the  palm  ; 
used  as  a  measure  of  four  fingers,  equal 
to  about  4  inches.  Ex.  25  :  25  ;  1  Kgs.  7  : 
26.  In  Ps.  39  :  5  the  expression  "  Thou 
hast  made  my  days  as  an  hand-breadth  " 
means  "verv  short." 

HANDICRAFT.  The  following 
is  in  the  main  a  condensation  of  the  ar- 
ticle in  Ayre's  Treasury  of  Bible  Know- 
led  f/e  : 

the  primitive  condition  of  man  being 
that  of  agriculturists,  his  wants  were 
few  and  easily  supplied.  Yet  even  he 
would  want  some  tools,  and  as  the  race 
became  older  and  extended  itself  its  ne- 
cessities would  stimulate  it  to  greater 
inventiveness.  Hence  we  find  that  the 
Cainites,    who    were    more    progressive 

355 


HAN 


HAN 


than  the  Sethites,  early  possessed  iron 
articles,  Gen.  4:22.  See  Tubal-cain. 
From  this  incidental  biblical  notice  we 
are  able  to  form  an  idea  of  that  early 
mode  of  life.  Our  notices  are,  however, 
extremely  scanty.  Still,  by  putting 
them  together,  we  get  this  enumeration 
of  tradesmen  among  the  Hebrews  and 
the  other  peoples  mentioned  in  the 
Bible. 

1.  Apothecaries,  or,  rather,  perfumers. 
Ex.  30  :  25,  35  ;  2  Chr.  16  :  14  ;  Neh.  3  : 
8;  Eccl.  10:1. 

2.  Bakers.    See  Bake,  Bread,  Ovex. 

3.  Barbers.  Eze.  5:1;  Num.  6 :  5,  19. 

4.  Carpenters.  The  building  of  Noah's 
ark  impli.es  considerable  knowledge  of 
this  trade.  The  various  structures  or- 
dered by  the  Lord  for  his  service,  such 
as  the  tabernacle  and  its  contents,  Ex. 
25 :  10,  etc.,  and  the  houses  of  the  peo- 
ple, prove  that  this  useful  trade  was 
early  practised  and  afterward  main- 
tained among  the  Hebrews.  But  when 
particularly  fine  work  had  to  be  done, 
foreign  artists  were  employed.  2  Sam. 
5:11;  1  Kgs.  5  :  6.  Yet  it  is  doubtless 
true  that  many  of  the  Hebrew  carpen- 
ters were  good  and  skilful  workmen. 
Isa.  44:13-17;  Ezr.  3:7.  Among 
the  carpenters'  tools  are  mentioned  in 
the  Bible  the  rule,  the  measuring-line, 
the  plane,  the  compass,  the  hammer, 
nails,  the  saw,  the  axe,  Isa.  10:15,  the 
awl,  Ex.  21  :  6.  Our  Lord's  reputed 
father,  Joseph,  and  our  Lord  himself 
were  carpenters.     See  Carpenter. 

5.  Carvers  in  wood  and  stone.  Beza- 
leel  and  Aholinb,  who  were  proficient 
therein,  are  individually  mentioned  in 
Exodus  as  leading  in  the  building  of  the 
tabernacle  in  the  wilderness,  Ex.  31:  5. 
So  a  man  sent  by  Huram  is  credited  with 
the  superintendence  of  the  carved  work 
of  the  temple,  2  Chr.  2  :  13,  etc. 

6.  Dyers  were  also  known.  This  fact 
is  easily  inferred  from  the  prevalent  use 
of  colored  fabrics  on  the  part  of  the 
early  Hebrews. 

7.  Engravers,  both  upon  stone  and 
metal,  Ex.  28:9-11.     See  Engrave. 

8.  Fullers  were  probably  numerous, 
in  consequence  of  the  prevalence  of 
white  in  dress.  See  Fuller. 

9.  Masons.  Cities  antedate  the  Flood, 
Gen.  4:17.  The  Israelites  built  cities 
for  their  Egyptian  master  (Rameses), 
Ex.  1 :  11.     It  is  reasonable  to  conjec- 

356 


ture  that  the  Phoenician  masons  men- 
tioned as  building  Solomon's  temple 
were  the  master-masons,  but  that  He- 
brew workmen  were  also  employed,  1 
Kgs.  5  :  17,  18.  The  skill  of  these  ma- 
sons is  shown  in  so  exactly  fitting  the 
stones  of  the.  temple  that  the  building 
rose  without  the  sound  of  a  hammer, 
1  Kgs.  6:7.  Plastering  was  customary 
within  and  without,  mortar  being  uSed. 
Lev.  14  :  40-42  ;  Matt.  23  :  27.  The  un- 
tempered  mortar  was  perhaps  mere  mud, 
Eze.  13:10-15. 

10.  Mining  must  have  been  early 
practised,  Job  28  : 1-6.     See  Metals. 

11.  Potters  are  frequently  spoken  of; 
e.  (J.  Jer.  18  :  2-6.     See  Potter. 

12.  Ship-builders.  This  trade  was 
perhaps  only  carried  on  for  a  short  peri- 
od. The  Tyrians  were  the  prominent 
ship-builders,  and  were  the  teachers  of 
other  nations.  1  Kgs.  10  :  22  ;  22  :  48, 
49.     See  Commerce. 

13.  Smiths  or  workers  in  metal  were 
of  various  kinds,  from  the  diggers  or 
smelters  of  ore  to  the  skilled  artificers 
in  gold  and  silver.  They  existed  before 
the  Flood,  Gen.  4:22.  Much  work  of 
this  sort  was  doi-ue  in  the  wilderness. 
Ex.  25:11-13;  26:6,21.  Bronze  was 
the  metal  most  employed — iron  much 
less  so.  The  jewelry  worn  so  commonly, 
the  vessels  of  the  tabernacle,  the  gold 
and  silver  utensils,  the  ornamentation 
so  profusely  used, — all  show  that  the 
smiths  of  the  various  sorts  were  much 
employed  by  the  Hebrews. 

14.  Tanners  and  dressers  of  leather 
were  found  in  all  parts  of  the  land.  It 
was  at  a  tanner's  house  that  Peter  lodged 
when  in  Joppa,  Acts  9  :  43. 

15.  Tent-makers.  This  trade  seems 
to  have  been  a  lucrative  one.  Paul  fol- 
lowed it,  and  supported  himself  by  it, 
Acts  18 :  3. 

16.  Weavers,  particularly  women,  are 
mentioned  frequentiv.  2  Kgs.  23  :  7  ;  1 
Chr.  4:21  ;   Prov.  3l':  13,  19. 

A  trade  was  indispensable  to  a  Jewish 
citizen  after  the  Captivity,  but  all  trades 
were  not  held  in  equal  honor.  It  is 
probable  that  as  in  the  East  at  the 
present  day,  so  formerly,  each  trade  had 
its  own  special  locality.  Be  it  ever  re- 
membered to  the  honor  of  the  Jews  that 
they,  almost  alone  among  ancient  na- 
tions, regarded  a  trade  as  a  fit  occupa- 
tion of  a  freeman,  that  therefore  their 


HAN 


HAR 


highest  citizens  could  earn  their  bread 
if  necessary,  and  that  slaves  were  not 
depended  upon,  as  in  Greece,  for  the 
doing  of  all  manual  work.  Trades 
among  the  Jews  were  also  not  neces- 
sarily hereditary.  It  was  a  saying  of 
the  Rabbins  :  "  He  who  does  not  teach 
his  son  a  trade  makes  out  of  him  a  foot- 
pad." 

HANDKERCHIEF,  NAPKIN, 
A'PRON,  These  articles  were  pretty 
much  alike,  differing  mainly  in  use.  See 
Clotiiks. 

HANDS,  LAYING  ON  OF.  See 
Hand. 

HAND'STAVES,  darts  or  jave- 
lins. Eze.  39  :  9. 

HA'NES,  a  city  of  Egypt,  Isa.  30  : 
4,  and  generally  identified  with  Heracle- 
opolis,  '•  Hercules'  city,"  in  middle  Egypt, 
on  the  west  of  the  Nile  ;  but  the  Chal- 
dee  paraphrast  reads  Tahpanhes,  thus 
identifying  it  with  that  city. 

HANG'ING.  According  to  Jewish 
law,  the  criminal  was  first  strangled  and 
then  hanged.  Num.  25  :  4  ;  Deut.  21  : 
22.  The  body  was  to  be  taken  down 
before  sunset.  It  was  a  special  mark  of 
infamy  and  a  curse,  Deut.  21 :  23.  Jesus 
is  said  to  have  been  "  hanged  on  a  tree  ;" 
literally,  "  on  a  beam  of  wood."  Acts  5  : 
30  ;  Gal.  3  :  13.  But  the  expression  re- 
fers to  his  crucifixion. 

HANGING,  HANGINGS.  The 
words  are  not  the  singular  and  plural 
of  the  same  word  in  the  Hebrew,  but 
are  translations  of  quite  different  words. 

1.  The  "  hanging  " — literally,  "  a  cov- 
er"— is  the  word  for  the  curtain  before 
the  door  of  the  tabernacle,  Ex.  26 :  36, 

37  ;  39  :  38,  and  for  the  curtain  before 
the  entrance  of  the  court.  Ex.  27  :  16  ; 

38  :  18  ;  Num.  4  :  26.  The  same  Hebrew 
word  is  several  times  translated  cor- 
rectly in  the  expression,  ''veil  of  the 
coverinr,."  Ex.  35  :  12  ;  39  :  34  ;  40  :  21  ; 
Num.  4:  5. 

2.  The  "  hangings  "—literally,  "that 
which  is  in  motion  " — were  the  cover- 
ings upon  the  walls  of  the  coui-t  of  the 
tabernacle.  Ex.  27  :  9  ;  35  :  17  ;  38  :  9  ; 
Num.  3:26;  4:6,  26. 

3.  The  word  "hangings"  is  used  in  2 
Kgs.  23  :  7,  but  the  Hebrew  word  may 
more  properly  be  translated  "  tents," 
such  as  were  used  in  the  impure  rites  of 
Ashtoreth. 

HAN'IEL  {r/racc  of  Qod),  a  SOU  of 


Ulla,  and  a  prince  of  Asher,  1  Chr.  7 : 
39. 

HAN'NAH  [grace),  one  of  the  wives 
of  Elkanah,  and  the  mother  of  Samuel, 
whom  she  received  in  answer  to  prayer. 
Her  song  of  praise  on  this  occasion,  1 
Sam.  2:  1-10,  is  a  magnificent  hymn  to 
the  holiness  and  justice  of  Jehovah,  and 
has  been  compared  with  the  song  of 
Marv.  Luke  1 :  46-55. 

HAN'NATHON  {;/n(cio„sly  re- 
<l<irded),  a  place  on  the  north-eastern 
border  of  Zebulon,  Josh.  19:14.  Con- 
der  proposes  to  identify  it  with  Kcfr 
Anan,  the  Caphar  Hananiah  of  the 
Talmud. 

HA'NOCH  {initiated).  1.  A  son 
of  Midian,  Gen.  25  :  4 ;  called  Henoch. 
1  Chr.  1 :  33. 

2.  Eldest  son  of  Reuben  ;  founder  of 
the  family  of  the  Hanochites.  Gen.  46: 
9;   Ex.  6*:  14;  Num.  26:5. 

HANOCHITES,  THE,  the  de- 
scendants of  Hanoch,  Num.  26  :  5. 

HA'NUN  {(jraeious).  1.  A  king  of 
Ammon  who  is  known  for  the  indignities 
he  showed  to  the  messengers  sent  to 
him  by  David  to  comfort  him  at  the 
death  of  his  father,  2  Sam.  10  : 1-6. 

2.  A  man  of  Jerusalem.  Neh.  3  :  13. 

3.  Another  repairer  of  the  wall.  Neh. 
3  :  30. 

HAPHRA'IM  {two  pits),  a  city  of 
Issachar,  apparently  near  Shunem.  Josh. 
19  :  19.  Eusebius  and  Jerome  place  it  6 
miles  north  of  Legio.  About6miles  north- 
east of  Lejun  and  2  miles  west  of  S(dam 
(Shunem)  is  the  modern  village  of  el- 
Afaleh,  which  may  represent  Haphraim. 

HA'RA  {mountain-land),  a  place, 
evidently  in  western  Assyria,  to  which 
the  Israelites  east  of  the  Jordan  were 
carried  captive,  1  Chr.  5  :  26.  It  is  gen- 
erally regarded  as  a  variation  of  Haran. 
From  the  connection  in  which  it  is 
named,  it  must  have  been  on  or  near  the 
Khabour  River. 

HAR'ADAH  {fear),  a  desert-sta- 
tion of  the  Israelites,  Num.  33:24,  25, 
and  may  be  identical  with  Jehel-Aradah, 
in  Wadi/  el-'Ain,  a  day's  march  from 
'Ain  Hiiderah. 

HA'RAN  {a  mountaineer).  1.  The 
brother  of  Abraham,  and  the  father  of 
Lot,  Gen.  11 :  26. 

2.  A  Levite,  1  Chr.  23  :  9. 

HA'RAN  {parrhed),  a  son  of  Caleb 
by  his  concubine  Ephah,  1  Chr.  2:46.  . 

357 


HAR 


HAR 


HA'RAN  {parched,  dry),  called  also 
CHAR'RAN,  Acts  7  :  2,  4,  the  place  to 
which  Terah  removed  from  Ur  of  the 
Chaldees,  taking  with  him  his  two  sons, 
Abram  and  Nahor,  and  his  grandson, 
Lot.  Terah  died  there,  Gen.  11 :  31,  32  ; 
Abram  and  Lot  moved  to  Canaan,  Gen. 
12  :  4,  while  Nahor  remained  at  Haran, 
which  was  called  the  city  of  Nahor,  Gen. 
24 :  10.  It  was  the  early  home  of  Rebekah, 
and  Jacob  afterward  resided  there  with 
Laban,  Gen.  27  :  43.  The  city  was  in 
Mesopotamia,  and  more  definitely  in  Pa- 
dan-aram,  Gen.  24:  10  ;  25 :  20,  and  also 
\n  western  Assyria.  It  is  generally  identi- 
fied with  the  modern  Haran,  the  Roman 
Carras,  situated  on  the  river  Belik  (the 
ancient  Bilichus),  about  50  miles  above 
its  entrance  into  the  Euphrates.  It  is 
now  a  small  Arab  village,  containing 
within  its  ruined  walls  the  traditional 
tomb  of  Terah,  the  father  of  Abraham. 
About  20  miles  distant  is  Or/ah,  which 
some  claim  to  be  Ur  of  the  Chaldees. 

There  is  a  Harran  on  the  border  of 
Lalce  Anfeibeh,  east  of  Damascus,  which 
Dr.  Beke  would  identify  with  Haran  of 
Abram,  but  his  view  is  not  accepted  by 
biblical  scholars. 

HA'RARITE,  THE  {the  moun- 
taineer), the  designation  of  three  persons 
in  connection  with  David's  guard. 

1.  Agee,  2  Sam.  23:  11. 

2.  Shammah,  2  Sam.  23  :  33. 

3.  Sharar,  2  Sam.  23  :  33  ;  called  Sacar, 
1  Chr.  11 :  35. 

HARBO'IVA  {ass-driver),  a  eu- 
nuch of  Ahasuerus,  Esth.  1:10. 

HARBO'NAH,  the  same  per- 
son as  above,  Esth.  7  :  9. 

HARE,  Deut.  14  :  7.  Of  the 
hare,  which  resembles  the  rabbit, 
five  species  or  varieties  are  found 
in  Palestine.  This  animal  was  de- 
clared unclean  by  the  Jewish  law, 
Lev.  11  :  6,  '"  because  he  cheweth  the 
cud,  but  divideth  not  the  hoof."  For 
popular  guidance  this  description 
was  better  than  a  more  scientific- 
one,  and  is  explained  under  Conev. 

HA'REPH  (  plucking  off),  a  son 
of  Caleb.  1  Chr.  2:51. 

HA'RETH  {thicket?),  a  forest 
of  Judah  to  which  David  fled  from 
Saul,  1  Sam.  22  :  5.      Conder  sup- 
poses that  by  a  transposition  of  letters 
it  should  read  "the  city  of  Hareth  "  (?), 
as  in  Josephus   and   in  two   important 
358 


manuscripts,  and  finds  the  site  of  the 
place  in  the  small  modern  village  of 
Kharas,  on  the  north  side  of  Wady  Ar- 
neba,  near  Kileh  (Keilah). 

HARHAI'AH  {Jehovah  is  angry), 
father  of  a  repairer  of  the  wall,  Neh. 
3:8. 

HAR'HAS  {very  jioor),  an  ancestor 
of  Shallum,  2  Kgs.  22:14;  called  Has- 
rah  in  2  Chr.  34:22. 

HAR'HUR  {injlamynation),  one 
whose  descendants  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel.  Ezr.  2:51;  Neh.  7:53.      . 

HA'RIM  {flat-nosed),  a  priest  who 
headed  the  third  course  of  priests.  1 
Chr.  24  :  8.  His  descendants  returned 
with  Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  2:39;  Neh.  7: 
42.  Some  of  them  had  foreign  wives, 
Ezr.  10  :  21.  The  name  was  signed  to 
the  covenant,  Neh.  10  :  27.  The  name 
occurs  again  Neh,  12: 15. 

2.  One  whose  son  repaired  part  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem,  Neh.  3  :  11. 

3.  A  non-priestly  ancestor  of  others 
who  returned,  and  whose  strange  wives 
were  discarded.  His  sons  signed  the 
covenant.  Ezr.  2  :  32  ;  Neh.  7  :  35  ;  Ezr. 
10:31;  Neh.  10:27. 

HA'RIPH  {plucking  off),  ancestor 
of  some  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel, 
Neh.  7:  24. 

HAR'LOT.  The  first  mention  of 
harlots  is  in  the  case  of  Tamar,  Gen.  38  : 
15,  but  we  frequently  meet  with  them  later 
in  the  books  of  the  Bible.     The  Mosaic 


,c^^ 


Hare  of  Mt.  Sinai. 


Law  forbade  fathers  to  hire  out  their 
daughters  as  harlots,  Lev.  19  :  29,  and 
the  severe  punishment  by  burning  was 


HAR 


HAR 


ordained  for  the  priest's  daughter  guilty 
of  fornication,  Lev.  21  :  9. 

The  harlot  was  regarded  as  unclean, 
and  is  mentioned  in  the  same  breath 
with  the  dog,  Deut.  23:18.  The  book 
of  Proverbs  compares  the  harlot  to  a 
deep  ditch  and  a  narrow  pit,  Prov.  23  : 
27,  and  represents  in  strong  language 
the  perils  attending  an  association  with 
her,  Prov.  7:10-27. 

The  term  is  also  used  of  wicked  cities; 
as  Nineveh,  Nah.  3  : 4,  and  Jerusalem, 
Isa.  1:21;  of  Israel,  to  represent  her 
alienation  from  God.  The  marriage  re- 
lation is  looked  upon  as  subsisting  be- 
tween it  and  God,  The  nation  became 
a  harlot  when  she  practised  idolatry. 
Jer,  2  :  20  ;  3  : 1 ;  Eze.  16  :  15  ;  Hos.  2:2; 
4:15. 

In  the  N.  T.  harlots  are  classed  with 
publicans.  Matt.  21 :  32,  and  Paul  ad- 
monishes against  the  sin  of  fornication, 
especially  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Corinth- 
ians. 1  Cor.  5  : 1  ;  2  Cor.  12  :  21.  In  the 
book  of  Revelation,  (heathen)  Rome, 
under  the  mystic  name  of  Babylon,  is 
called  "the  mother  of  harlots,"  17:5. 

HAR'NEPHER  {2mnting  ?),  an 
Asherite  chieftain,  1  Chr.  7 :  36. 

HARDNESS,  1  Kgs.  20:11.  In 
this  passage  and  some  others  the  word 
denotes  armor.  The  phrase  "made 
ready  his  chariot,"  Ex.  14 :  6,  literally 
means,  in  modern  phraseology,  "  tack- 
led," or  "  put  to,  his  horses."  That 
bridles  with  bits  were  very  early  known 
as  part  of  the  harness  of  a  horse  is  ob- 
vious from  Isa.  37:29;  Prov.  26  :  3  ;  Ps. 
32  :  9.  The  ancient  harness  was  often 
very  elaborate,  as  the  monuments  testify. 

HA'ROD  {tremhling),  a  well  or 
spring  by  which  Gideon  and  his  army 
encamped  before  the  battle  with  the 
Midianites,  and  apparently  where  the 
Lord  caused  to  be  applied  the  test  of 
the  warriors  by  their  mode  of  drinking. 
Jud.  7 :  1.  Saul  may  have  encamped 
there.  1  Sam.  28  :  4 ;  29  :  1.  Stanley 
located  it  at  'Ain  JdJud,  a  spring  2  miles 
south-east  of  Jezreel ;  Conder  at  'Ain 
Jemdiii,  a  copious  spring  from  a  rock,  3 
miles  west  of  Scythopolis  {Beisdn).  The 
name  Jemdln  means  "  Two  companies." 

HATRODITE,  THE,  the  des- 
ignation of  two  of  David's  warriors,  2 
Sam.  23:25. 

HAR'OEH  {the  seer),  OR  REAI'- 
AH,  a  name,  1  Chr.  2:  52, 


HA'RORITE,  1  Chr.  11 :  27.  See 
Hakodite. 

HARO'SHETH  (icorking  in  wood, 
etc.)    OF    THE    GENTILES,    so 

called  from  the  mixed  people  who  dwelt 
there.  A  place  in  the  north  of  Palestine, 
the  home  of  Sisera,  Jud.  4 : 2,  13,  16, 
and  the  place  of  assembling  of  Jabin's 
army.  Dr.  W.  M.  Thomson  locates 
Harosheth  in  the  pass  between  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon  and  Acre,  at  the 
base  of  Mount  Carmel,  where  the  Kishon 
flows  through  the  ravine.  A  village 
and  mound  covering  ruins,  both  bear- 
ing a  name  very  similar  to  Harosheth, 
are  found  in  this  vicinity.  Conder  pro- 
poses with  greater  probability  to  identity 
it  with  El-Hdrith%i)eh,  a  miserable  uii.tl 
hamlet  about  11  miles  west  of  Nazareth. 

HARP,  a  musical  instrument  in- 
vented by  Jubal,  and  used  by  the  Jews 
in  seasons  of  thanksgiving  to  God, 
mirth,  and  joy.  Gen.  4:21;  31 :  27  ;  Ps. 
81 :  2  ;  Isa.  24  :  8.  The  instrument  sug- 
gested any  other  thought  than  mourn- 
ing and  sorrow.  In  the  hour  of  cap- 
tivity the  harp  is  hung  upon  the  wil- 
lows, Ps.  137  :  2.  David  was  pai'ticu- 
larly  skilful  in  the  use  of  it,  1  Sam. 
16:16,23.     See  Psaltery. 

The  harp  was  played  with  the  fingers, 
1  Sam.  16  :  23,  but  perhaps  also  with  & 
key,  as  Josephus  suggests.     The  same 


Egyptian  Haip. 

author  ascribes  ten  strings  to  the  harp, 
which  would  lead  us  to  infer  its  identi- 
ty with  the  "instrument  of  ten  strings," 
Ps.  92  :  3.  Sometimes  it  had  only  eight 
strings,  and  was  called  "the  harp  on  the 
Sheminith."  1  Chr.  15  :  21  ;  Ps.  6  :  12, 
title.  Harps  were  of  different  sizes,  for 
some  played  on  them  while  walking,  1 

359 


HAR 


HAS 


Sam.  10  :  5,  David  played  before  Saul. 
1  Sam.  16  :23;  18  :  10.  There  are  dif- 
ferent accounts  of  the  shape  of  the  harp. 
The  preceding  cut  is  found  represented 
on  Egyptian  monuments. 

HAR'ROW.  The  verb  meaning 
"  to  break  the  clods "  is  employed  in 
Job  39:10;  Isa.  28:24;  and  Hos.  10 : 
11,  and  is  believed  to  indicate  the  use, 
occasionally  at  least,  of  an  instrument 
analogous  to  our  harrow.  This  may 
have  been  a  plank  or  log  of  wood,  upon 
which  stones  were  heaped  and  the  labor- 
er sat,  and  which  was  drawn  over  the 
ground  by  oxen,  to  break  in  pieces  the 
clods  and  level  the  surface ;  or  the  pres- 
ent custom  may  have  been  employed : 
"In  modern  Palestine  oxen  are  some- 
times turned  in  to  trample  the  clods,  and 
in  some  parts  of  Asia  a  brush  of  thorn  is 
dragged  over  the  surface,  but  all  these 
processes,  if  used,  occur  (not  after,  but) 
before  the  seed  is  committed  to  the  soil." 
— Smith  :  Bib.  Diet.  The  word  rendered 
"  harrow  "  in  2  Sam.  12  :  31 ;  1  Chr.  20  : 
3,  means  a  Threshing-instrument, which 
see. 

HAR' S  HA  {deaf),  ancestor  of 
some  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel. 
Ezr.  2:52;  Neh.  7:54. 

HART,  HIND,  Ps.  42:1.  The 
former  is  the  male  stag,  one  of  the 
most  graceful  and  beautiful  of  all  ani- 
mals. It  was  clean  by  the  Levitical 
law,  Deut.  12  :  15  ;  14  :  5,  and  the  grace 
and  agilitv  of  its  motions  are  alluded  to 
in  Song  Sol.  2:9;  Isa.  35  :  6.  The  stag 
lolls  or  pants  like  the  dog,  and  is  soon 
exhausted  by  hunger.  Jer.  14  :  5 ;  Lam. 
1:6. 

It  is  uncertain  whether  this  word  de- 
notes the  true  fallow-deer,  the  red  deer, 
or  the  Barbary  deer,  or  whether  it  em- 
braces all  of  them.  These  three  species 
doubtless  formerly  lived  in  Palestine  or 
adjoining  districts.  The  fallow-deer 
alone  is  still  seen,  and  that  rarely,  in 
the  wooded  districts  of  the  country. 

The  hind  is  the  female  stag.  She  is 
smaller  and  weaker  than  her  mate,  the 
hart,  and  has  no  horns.  She  is  sure  and 
swift  of  foot,  and  leaps  fearlessly  among 
the  rocks  and  precipices.  2  Sam.  22  : 
34  ;  Ps.  18  :  33  ;  Hab.  3:19.  The  in- 
stinctive affection  of  the  hart  and  hind 
is  alluded  to  Prov.  5:  18,  19  and  Song 
Sol.  2:7;  3:5. 

The  figurative  prediction  of  Ja,cob  re- 
360 


specting  Naphtali,  Gen.  49  :  21,  would 
be  more  appropriately  rendered,  "  Naph- 
tali  is  a  deer  roaming  at  large ;  he  shoot- 
eth  forth  noble  antlers."  The  antlers  or 
horns  indicate  the  strength  and  health  of 
the  stag,  and  the  whole  metaphor  ex- 
presses the  increase  of  the  tribe  and 
the  fertility  of  their  portion  in  Judaea. 
See  Fallow-deer,  Roe. 

HA'RUM  {lofty),  a  Judite,  1  Chr. 
4:8. 

HARU'MAPH  {slit-nosed),  one 
whose  son  helped  to  repair  the  wall, 
Neh.  3  :  10. 

HAR'UPHITE,  THE,  a  name 
of  Shephatiah,   1  Chr.  12  :  5. 

HA'RUZ  {zealous),  the  maternal 
grandfather  of  King  Amon,  2  Kgs.  21 :  19. 

HAR'VEST  occurred  in  the  months 
of  March  and  April,  and  the  term  is  fre- 
quently employed  to  designate  this  sea- 
son of  the  year.  Josh.  3  :  15  ;  Prov.  6  : 
8.  The  harvests  of  the  different  grains 
happened  in  regular  succession,  and  are 
known  as  the  "  wheat-harvest,"  1  Sam. 
12:17,  and  the  "barley-harvest,"  Ruth 
1 :  22.  The  grain  was  reaped  with  sick- 
les, Jer.  50:16,  gathered  in  handfuls, 
Ruth  2;  16,  and  done  up  into  sheaves. 
Ps.  129 :  7.  It  was  then  conveyed  to 
the  barns  or  threshing-floors,  sometimes 
in  carts.  Am.  2:  13,  where  it  was  thresh- 
ed or  winnowed.  One  mode  of  thresh- 
ing was  by  the  treading  of  oxen,  which 
it  was  forbidden  to  muzzle,  Deut.  25  :  4. 
Harvest  was  a  season  of  great  joy  and 
merriment,  Isa.  9:3.  In  the  book  of 
Ruth  we  pass  through  it  as  in  a  pano- 
ramic vision. 

In  the  N.  T.  our  Lord  refers  to  the 
end  of  the  world  under  the  term  of  har- 
vest. Matt.  13  :  39,  whose  reapers  will 
be  the  angels.  The  angel  is  represented 
figuratively  as  at  that  time  thrusting  in 
his  sickle,  "  for  the  harvest  of  the  earth 
is  ripe,"   Rev.  14  :  15. 

Feast  of.     See  Pentecost. 

HASADI'AH  (fchom  Jehovah  loves), 
a  descendant  of  the  royal  line  of  David, 
1  Chr.  3  :  20. 

HASENU'AH  {the  hated),  a  Ben- 
janiite,   1  Chr.  9  :  7. 

HASHABI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  re- 
gards). 1,  2.  Merarite  Levites.  1  Chr. 
6  :  45  :  9  :  14. 

3.  The  head  of  the  twelfth  course  of 
Levitical  musicians,  1  Chr.  25:3,  19. 

4,  A  Hebronite  Levite,  1  Chr.  26 :  30, 


HAS 


HAU 


5.  Prince  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  in  Da- 
vid's time,  1  Chr.  27  :  17. 

6.  A  chief  Levite  in  Josiah's  time,  2 
Chr.  35 :  i>. 

7.  A  Merarite  Levite  who  accompa- 
nied Ezra  from  Babylon,  Ezr.  8:19. 

8.  A  priest  in  the  same  company,  Ezr, 
8  :  24, 

9.  A  repairer  of  the  wall,  Neh.  3:17. 

10.  A  Levite  who  sealed  the  covenant, 
Neh.  10:  11. 

11.  A  Levite,  Neh,  11 :  22, 

12.  A  Levite,  Neh.  11:15, 

13.  A  priest,  Neh.  12  :  24. 

HASHAB'NAH  {whom  Jehovah  re- 
gards), one  who  sealed  the  covenant, 
Neh.  10  :  25. 

HASHABNI'AH  {ichom  Jehovah 
regardfi).  1.  One  whose  son  repaired 
the  wall,  Neh,  3:10. 

2.  A  Levite,  Neh.  9  :  5. 
HASHBAD'ANA    {considerate 

jnd</e  f),  one  who  stood  on  Ezra's  left 
while  he  read  the  Law  to  the  people, 
Neh.  8  :  4. 

HA'SHEM  {fat),  father  of  some  in 
David's  guard,  1  Chr.  11 :  34,  or  Jashen, 

2  Sam.  23  :  32,  33. 
HASHMO'NAH,  a  station  of  the 

Israelites  near  Mount  Hor,  Num.  33  : 
29,  and  probably  identical  with  Hesh- 
MON,  which  see. 

HA'SHUB  {intelligent).  1,  2.  Two 
of  the  repairers  of  the  wall,  Neh.  3  :  11,  23. 

3.  One  who  sealed  the  covenant,  Neh. 
10  :  23. 

4.  A  Merarite  Levite,  Neh.  ll:15j 
called  ITasshub  1  Chr.  9  :  14, 

HASHU'BAH  {intelligent),  a  de- 
scendant of  David,  1  Chr,  3  :  20, 

HA'SHUM  {rich).  1.  One  whose 
descendants  returned  with  Zerubbabel. 
Ezr.  2  :  19;  Neh.  7  :  22.  Several  of 
these  descendants  had  married  foreign 
women,  Ezr.  10  :  33.  Representatives  of 
them  sealed  the  covenant,  Neh.  10  :  18. 

2.  One  who  stood  on  Ezra's  left  hand 
while  he  publiclv  read  the  Law,  Neh.  8  :  4. 

HASHU'PHA  (stripped),  one  of 
the  ancestors  of  the  Nethinim  who  re- 
turned with  Zerubbabel.  Neh,  7  :  46,  In 
Ezr.  2  :  43  more  accurately  Hasupha. 

HAS'RAH  {rer,/poo)').  See  Haroas, 

HASSENA'AH  (thom-edgc),  Neh, 

3  :  3,  one  whose  sons  built  the  fish-gate. 
If  the  name  of  a  town,  which  is  not  cer- 
tain, it  must  be  identical  with  Senaah, 
6ee  Senaah, 


HAS'SHUB.     See  Hashub,  No,  4, 
HASU'PHA.     SeellASHUPHA. 

HAT.     See  Head-dress, 

HA'TACH,  a  Persian  eunuch, 
Esth.  4:5.  6,  9,  10. 

HATE,  Gen.  24  :  GO.  To  hate  is  to 
regard  with  a  passion  contrary  to  love, 
Jcr.  44  :  4.  God's  hatred  is  toward  all 
sinful  thoughts  and  ways.  It  is  a  feel- 
ing of  which  all  holy  beings  are  con- 
scious in  view  of  sin.  and  is  wholly  un- 
like the  hatred  which  is  mentioned  in 
the  Scripture  among  the  works  of  the 
flesh,  Gal.  5  :  20.  We  must  hate  the 
evil,  but  love  and  bless  our  enemy,  Matt. 
5  :  43.  To  hate  sometimes  means  to  love 
in  a  less  degree.  When  our  Saviour 
says  that  he  who  would  follow  him 
must  hate  father  and  mother,  he  means 
that  even  these  dearest  earthly  friends 
must  be  loved  in  a  subordinate  degree; 
and  in  the  same  sense  the  follower  of 
Christ  is  to  hate  his  own  life,  or  be  will- 
ing to  sacrifice  it  for  the  love  and  ser- 
vice of  the  Redeemer.  A  careful  exam- 
ination of  the  passages  and  the  connec- 
tion in  which  these  words  occur  will  best 
show  their  true  force  and  meaning, 

HA'THATH  {/earful),  a  son  of 
Othniel,  1  Chr.  4:13. 

HAT'IPHA  (captive),  one  of  the  an- 
cestors of  the  Nethinim  who  returned  with 
Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  2  :  54  ;  Neh,  7  :  56, 

HAT^TA  (exploring),  one  of  the 
ancestors  of  temple-porters  who  return- 
ed. Ezr.  2:42;  Neh.  7  :  45, 

HAT'TIIj  (wavering),  one  of  the 
ancestors  of  the  Nethinim  who  return- 
ed, Ezr.  2:57;  Neh.  7:59. 

HAT'TUSH  [assemhled).  1.  One  of 
David's  descendants,  and  another  de- 
scendant who  returned  with  Zerubbabel. 
1  Chr.  3  :22:  Ezr.  8:2. 

2.  A  repairer  of  the  wall,  Neh.  3:10. 

3.  A  priest  who  accompanied  Zerub- 
babel and  afterward  sealed  the  covenant, 
Neh.  10:4;  12:2. 

HAU'RAN  (caves,  caverns),  a  coun- 
try east  of  the  Jordan  ;  the  north-eastern 
boundary  of  Palestine,  Eze.  47  :  16,  18, 
and  the  Auranitis  of  the  Greeks,  and  now 
known  as  the  Hauran.  For  situation  of 
the  country  .see  Map  at  end  of  this  volume. 

History. — Little  was  known  of  the 
Hauran  previous  to  1854.  The  works  of 
Porter.  1855,  Graham,  1858,  Wetzstein, 
I860,  Burton  and  Drake,  1872,  and  Selah 
Merrill  ofthe  Am.  Pal.  Explor.Soc,  1877, 

361 


HAV 


HAW 


have  thrown  much  light  on  its  extent,  na- 
ture, and  history,  but  a  thorough  explo- 
ration of  the  country  yet  remains  to  be 
made.  When  the  Israelites  conquered 
the  land,  the  whole  of  this  region  appears 
to  have  been  subject  to  Og,  the  king  of 
Bashan,  Num.  21 :  33-35  ;  Deut.  3  :  1-5, 
and  a  large  portion  of  it  was  allotted  to 
Manasseh.  The  district  would  then  in- 
clude the  Argob,  the  slope  of  the  Hauran 
Mountains,  where  the  Israelites  found 
60  fortified  cities  with  walls  and  gates 
and  a  fertile  tract.  See  Bashan.  In 
the  Roman  period  the  country  was  di- 
vided into  5  provinces,  Itursea,  Gau- 
lanitis,  Batanaea  (applied  also  to  the 
whole  region),  Trachonitis,  and  Auran- 
itis.  The  ruins  scattered  over  the 
region  are  very  extensive  and  remark- 
able ;  those  built  in  the  caverns  are  re- 
garded by  Wetzstein  as  the  most  an- 
cient, and  possibly  reaching  back  to 
the  times  of  the  Rephaim,  Gen.  14  : 
5;  15  :  20,  and  Deut.  3  :  11.  The 
villages  are  chiefly  of  stone  houses, 
having  gates  and  doors  of  large  slabs 
of  dolerite ;  the  gateways  of  the  larger 
buildings  are  ornamented  with  sculp- 
tured vines  and  inscriptions.  The 
Arabs,  according  to  Wetzstein,  from 
near  Yemen  settled  in  the  Hauran  at 
about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era;  later,  a  second  immigration  from 
south  Arabia  took  place,  and  these  con- 
trolled the  country  for  five  centuries, 
and  they  probably  erected  most  of  the 
stone  buildings  now  in  so  good  a  state 
of  preservation.  A  large  number  of 
inscriptions  in  various  characters  are 
yet  to  be  deciphered,  which  will  throw 
much  light,  no  doubt,  upon  the  ancient 
history  of  this  wild  region.  Wetzstein 
states  that  the  eastern  section  of  the 
Lejah  and  the  slopes  of  the  Hauran 
Mountains  contain  at  least  300  ruined 
cities  and  towns.  Selah  Merrill  says 
that  an  important  ruin  is  found  in  every 
half  hour  of  travel,  and  that  among 
these  ruins  he  has  himself  visited  and 
examined  60  ruined  churches,  and  eleven 
of  thirteen  theatres,  including  one  vast 
naumachia  where  mock  sea-fights  were 
held.  And  he  concludes  a  paper  read 
before  the  American  Geographical  So- 
ciety in  New  York,  Nov.  8,  1877  {Bul- 
letin, No.  5),  with  the  following  remarks  : 
"  In  every  age  previous  to  the  Moslem 
conquest  in  a.  d.  635 — running  clear 
363 


back  to  the  time  of  the  giants — this 
land  has  been  thickly  inhabited,  gene- 
rally by  intelligent  and  wealthy  people. 
Churches,  theatres,  palaces,  temples,  cas- 
tles, baths,  porticos,  splendid  roads,  a 
multitude  of  inscriptions,  remains  of  a 
perfect  system  of  irrigation,  historical 
notices  of  .cathedrals,  bishops,  and  a 
widespread  Christian  influence,  notices 
of  conquests  and  vast  spoils  falling  into 
the  hands  of  the  victors,  authentic  no- 
tices of  many  successive  and  powerful 
races  that  have  flourished  here,  and  the 
surface  of  the  whole  country  dotted  with 
ruined  towns,  cities,  and  villages, — are 
convincing  proofs  that  the  statements 
found  in  the  0.  T.  respecting  the  num- 
bers of  their  armies  and  people  may  be 
accepted,  so  far  as  the  capacities  of  the 
soil  for  supporting  such  a  population 
are  concerned,  as  the  literal  truth."  See 
also  Argob,  Bashan,  and  Gilead. 

HAV'ILAH.  1.  A  son  of  Cush, 
Gen.  10:7. 

2.  A  son  of  Joktan,  Gen.  10  :  29. 

HAV^IL AH,  OR  HAVI  LAH  (cir- 
cle, district),  a  country  abounding  in 
gold,  bdellium,  and  onyx-stone,  Gen. 
2  :  11.  Havilah  is  mentioned  as  a 
boundary  of  the  children  of  Ishmael, 
Gen.  25:18.  Kalisch  supposes  that  it 
was  a  country  between  the  Persian  and 
the  Arabian  gulfs ;  others  hold  that  the 
"  country  of  Havilah  "  in  1  Sam.  15  :  7 
refers  to  the  region  about  Mount  Seir, 
and  that  it  was  not  probably  identical 
with  the  Havilah  of  Gen.  2 :  11.  See 
Eden. 

HA'VOTH- JA'IR(tn7%e»o/ 
Jair),  a  title  applied  to  certain  villages 
east  of  the  Jordan  which  Jair  captured 
and  held.  Num.  32  :  41 ;  Jud.  10  :  4. 
The  towns  of  Jair  are  included  with  the 
60  cities  given  to  Manasseh,  Josh.  13 : 
30  ;  1  Chr.  2  :  23  ;  but  the  word  rendered 
"villages"  usually  means  a  small  col- 
lection of  hovels  in  a  country  place. 
These  towns  were  a  part  of  one  of  the 
revenue-districts  of  Solomon,  1  Kgs.  4: 
13. 

HAWK,  a  general  name  for  a  well- 
Rnown  group  of  fierce  and  rapacious 
birds,  unclean  by  the  Levitical  law, 
Lev.  11  :  16  ;  Deut.  14  :  15,  but  so  sacred 
among  the  Greeks  and  Egj^ptians  that 
to  kill  one,  even  unintentionally,  was  a 
capital  crime.  Of  the  ten  or  twelve 
species  of  these  falcons  foimd  in   P^l- 


HAY 


HAZ 


estine, 
2G. 


most 


migratory, 


Kestrel,  or  Hawk.    (Tinnunculus  alaudarius.  After  Tristram.) 

HAY,  Prov.  27  :  25.     We  are  not  to 

suppose  that  this  word,  as  used  in  the  Bi- 
ble, denotes  dried  grass,  as  it  does  with 
us.  The  management  of  grass  by  the  He- 
brews as  food  for  cattle  was  entirely  dif- 
ferent from  ours.  It  was  never  dried  and 
stored  for  winter  use,  but  was  cut  green 
as  it  was  wanted  ;  and  the  phrase  "  mown 
grass,"  Ps.  72:  6,  would  be  more  proper- 
ly rendered  ''grass  that  has  just  been 
fed  off."  So  in  Prov.  27  :  25  the  word 
translated  "  hay"  means  the  first  shoots 
of  the  grass ;  and  the  whole  passage 
might  properly  be  rendered,  "  The  grass 
appeareth,  and  the  green  herb  showeth 
itself,  and  the  plants  of  the  mountains 
are  gathered."  And  in  Isa.  15  :  6  *'  hay  " 
is  put  for  "  grass,"  and  "  grass  "  is  put 
for  the  "  green  herb."  The  tenderness 
of  grass,  the  rapidity  of  its  growth,  and 
the  early  period  at  which  it  is  cut  down 
and  consumed  afford  the  sacred  writers 
some  striking  and  beautiful  illustrations. 
Ps.  103  :  15  ;  Isa.  40  :  6  ;  Jas.  1:11.  See 
Mowings. 

HAZ'AEIj  (God  sees),  an  officer  in 
the  court  of  Syria,  and  subsequently  its 
powerful  king.     Elijah  was  commanded 


to  anoint  him  king  but  left  this  duty  to 
Elisha ;  and  so  when  Ilazael  was  des- 
patched by  his  king,  Benha- 
dad,  to  Elisha  to  inquire  about 
the  results  of  the  disease  with 
which  he  was  afflicted,  the 
prophet  predicted  the  eleva- 
tion of  Hazael  to  the  throne 
of  Syria,  and  a  series  of  the 
most  horrible  cruelties  of 
which  he  would  be  guilty  to- 
ward the    children    of   Israel, 

1  Kgs.  19  :  15.  Hazael  ex- 
pressed the  utmost  abhorrence 
of  such  conduct,  but  on  the 
next  day  he  smothered  Benha- 
dad  to  death  and  ascended  the 
throne,  2  Kgs.  8  :  7-16.  He 
warred  against  the  kingdom 
of  Israel,  2  Kgs.  10 :  32,  and 
against  Judah.  He  took  Gath, 
and  was  averted  from  entering 
Jerusalem  only  by  a  rich  bribe, 

2  Kgs.  12  :  17, 18.  He  reigned 
forty-six  years,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Benhadad. 
The  conquests  of  Hazael's  reign 
were  lost  during  that  of  his  son 
and  successor,  2  Kgs.  13  :  25. 

HAZAEL,  HOUSE 
OF,  either  family  or  palace  of  Hazael, 
Am.  1:4. 

HAZA'IAH  (whom  Jehovah  sees),  a 
Judite,  Neh.  11 :  5. 

HA'ZAR-AD'DAR  (village  of 
Adar,  or  greatness),  called  Adar  in  Josh. 
15  : 3  ;  to  the  west  of  Kadesh-barnea,  and 
on  a  ridge  between  Canaan  and  the  des- 
ert; now  ' Ain  el-Kudeirat. 

HA'ZAR-E'NAN  (fountain,  vil- 
lage), a  boundary  of  the  Promised  Land. 
Num.  34  :  9,  10  ;  Eze.  47  :  17  ;  48  :  1. 
Porter  would  identify  it  with  Kuryetein. 
60  miles  east-north-east  of  Damascus, 
where  are  large  fountains,  fragments  of 
columns,  and  other  ruins,  but  this  is  too 
far  north;  Canon  Cook  suggests  Jy*.« 
ed-Dara,  a  fountain  in  the  heart  of  the 
central  chain  of  Anti-Libanus. 

HA'ZAR-GAD'DAH  (village  of 
fortune),  a  town  in  the  south  of  Judah, 
Josh.  15  :  27,  which  Wilton  would  identify 
with  Wady  Miihughik,  where  are  exten- 
sive ruins  of  great  antiquity  ;  Grove  with 
el-Ghnrrah,  about  9  miles  east  of  Beer- 
sheba;  Conder  with  Judeideh,  the  name 
of  a  spring  near  Hebron. 

HA'ZAR-HAT'TICON    (middle 

363 


HAZ 


HEA 


village),  a  place  on  the  border  of  the 
Hauran,  Eze.  47  :  16, 

HA'ZARx^A'VETH  (court  of 
death),  the  third  of  Joktan's  sons.  Gen. 
10  :  26  ;  1  Chr.  1  :  20.  He  was  the  pro- 
genitor of  the  inhabitants  of  modern 
Hadramaut,  a  province  in  South-east- 
ern Arabia.  This  province  abounds  in 
frankincense  and  myrrh,  but  the  climate 
is  very  unhealthy ;  whence  its  singular 
name. 

HA'ZAR-SHU'AL  {village  ov  en- 
closure of  jackals),  a  town  in  the  south- 
ern portion  of  Judah  ;  given  afterward 
to  Simeon,  Josh.  15:28;  19:3;  1  Chr. 
4  :  28,  and  repeopled  after  the  Captivity, 
Neh.  11  :  27.  Wilton  suggested  Beni- 
Shail,  near  Gaza,  as  its  site,  but  Van  de 
Velde  and  Conder,  with  greater  pi-oba- 
bility,  locate  it  at  Saxceh,  between  Beer- 
sheba  and  Moladah.  The  ruins  are  on  a 
high  bluff;  a  wall  built  of  flint  blocks 
surrounds  the  site,  and  justifies  the  name 
Hazar  ("enclosure"). 

HA'ZAR-SU'SAH,  and  HA'- 
ZAR-SU'SIM  {village  of  horses),  a 
city  of  Simeon,  in  the  southern  border 
of' Judah.  Josh.  19:5;  1  Chr.  4:31. 
Wilton  believes  it  was  in  Wady  es-Sn- 
iiieh,  near  Gaza,  but  Conder  proposes 
Belt  Siisiii,   south   of  Beit  Jihrin. 

HA'ZEL,  Gen.  30:  37.  It  is  gen- 
erally supposed  tbat  the  almond  tree  is 
intended  in  this  passage.  The  original 
•word  is  thought  to  be  susceptible  of  this 
rendering. 

HAZ'ELELPO'NI  {shade  coming 
upon  ine),  a  sister  to  some  descendants 
of  Judah,  1  Chr.  4:3. 

HA'ZER,  same  as  Hazar ;  used 
only  in  composition. 

HAZE'RIM  {the  villages).  In  Deut. 
2  :  28  we  read  that  the  Avim  dwelt  in 
Hazerim,  even  unto  Azzeh  or  Gaza;  and 
the  notice  of  the  Avites  in  Josh.  13  :  3,  4 
as  the  most  southern  of  the  tribes  inhab- 
iting the  Canaanitish  country  clearly 
identifies  their  land  with  the  mountains 
of  Azazimeh.  See  Palmer's  Desert  of 
the  E.rodits  (Amer.  ed.),  p.  360. 

HAZE'ROTH  (villages,  or  enclos- 
ures), the  second  station  of  the  Israelites, 
Num.  11 :  35 ;  12  :  16  ;  33  :  17, 18  ;  Deut. 
1:1,  and  identified  with  'Ain  Hudherah, 
40  miles  north-east  of  Sinai. 

HAZ'EZON-TA'MAR,  and 
HAZ 'ANON- TA'MAR  (felling  of 
palm  trees),  the  old  name  of  En-gedi, 
364 


Gen.  14  :  7  ;  2  Chr.  20  :  2  ;  a  city  as  old. 
as  the  oldest  in  Syria,  the  contemporary 
of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  and  already  a 
city  when  Hebron  was  first  founded. 
See  Tristram's  Land  of  Israel,  p.  285, 
and  also  Ex-gedi. 

HA'ZIEL  (vision  of  God),  a  Levite 
in  the  time  of  David,  1  Chr.  23 :  9. 

HA'ZO  (vision),  a  son  of  Nahor, 
Gen.  22:22. 

HA'ZOR  (enclosure).  1.  The  city  of 
King  Jabin  ;  destroyed  by  Joshua,  Josh. 
11:1,  10,  11:  given  to  Naphtali,  19: 
36  ;  again  possessed  by  the  Canaanites, 
Jud.  4 :  2,  who  had  for  its  king  Jabin 
— a  generic  title,  probably,  like  Pha- 
raoh in  Egypt — who  reigned  in  Ha- 
zor  and  whose  general  was  Sisera.  It 
was  fortified  by  Solomon,  1  Kgs.  9  : 
15  ;  its  people  were  carried  into  cap- 
tivity by  Tiglath-pileser.  2  Kgs.  15  :  29. 
The  city  appears  to  have  been  situated 
on  a  hill  in  the  midst  of  a  plain,  and 
was  a  stronghold.  Josh.  11 :  4  ;  Jud.  4  : 
3.  Several  places  have  been  suggested 
as  the  site :  Tell  Khureibeh,  a  rocky  peak 
near  Kedesh,  by  Robinson,  and  Conder 
points  out  the  name  Hadireh,  the  Ara- 
bic equivalent  of  Hazor,  near  this  ;  mod- 
ern Hazere,  where  are  ruins,  by  Thom- 
son ;  but  doubtless  it  is  to  be  found  at 
Khurbet  Hurrah,  2^  miles  south-east  of 
Kedesh,  as  proposed  by  the  Palestine 
Memoirs.  Remains  of  ancient  walls, 
towers,  and  a  fortress  are  to  be  found, 
and  also  broken  glass  and  pottery. 

2.  A  city  in  the  south  of  Judah  ;  prob- 
ably should  be  written  Hazor-ithman, 
Josh.  15  :  23. 

3.  Another  town  of  Judah;  called 
Hazor-hadattah,  or  New  Hazor,  Josh. 
15  :  25.  Robinson  proposes  el-Hudherah  ; 
Conder,  el-Hazzdrah,  near  Beit  Jibrin, 
iis  its  site. 

4.  Hezron,  which  is  Hazor,  Josh.  15  : 
25  ;  rendered  by  Canon  Cook  "  Kerioth 
Hezron,  which  is  Hazor."  He  would 
identify  it  with  el-Kuryetein,  where  are 
large  ruins  seen  by  De  Saulcy.  It  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  home  of 
Judas  Iscariot,  the  man  of  Kerioth, 
Matt.  10  :  4  ;  Conder  suggested  Khesh- 
ram,  north  of  Beer-sheba,  as  the  site 
of  this  Hazor. 

HEAD'-BANDS  were  perhaps  fil- 
lets for  the  hair.  Isa.  3  :  20.     See  Head- 


dress. 
HEAD'-DRESS, 


Hats  were  un- 


HEA 


HEA 


known  to  the  Hebrews.  The  attempt  of 
Jason  to  introduce  them  was  regarded  as 
a  grievance,  2  Mace.  4  :  12.  "  Coverings 
for  the  head  were  not  in  ordinary  use. 
Thus,  it  was  a  token  of  mourning  to 
cover  the  head,  2  Sam.  15  :  30  ;  Jer.  14  : 
3,  4,  and  the  mantle  seems  to  have  been 
employed  for  the  purpose,  1  Kgs,  19  :  13. 
The   head-dresses   that  were  then  used 


Head-dress  of  Assyrian  Kinw  and  Queen. 
{From  Nineveh  Marbles.) 

were  rather  for  ornament.  This  was 
specially  the  case  with  the  high  priest's 
mitre  and  the  '  bonnets '  of  the  ordinary 
priests,  which  are  expressly  said  to  have 
been  *  for  glory  and  for  beauty.'  Ex. 
28  :  36-40.  And  those  which  were  in- 
tended by  the  Hebrew  words  tzamph  and 
peer  seem  to  have  been  worn  only  by 
eminent  persons  or  on  festive  occasions. 
The  former  word  implies  wrapping 
around,  after  the  fashion  of  a  turban  ; 
it  is  described  as  used  by  men,  Job  29  : 


Syrian  Head-dresses.    Damascus.    {Ayre.) 

14  (in  our  version  'diadem');  by  wo- 
men, Isa.  3  :  23  ('hoods');  as  belong- 
ing to  kings,  62:3  ('diadem');  to  the 
high  priest,  Zech.  3  :  5  ('mitre').  The 
latter,  peer,  conveying  the  idea  of  or- 
nament or  beauty,  is  said  to  have  been 
worn  by  priests,  Ex.  39  :  28  ;  Eze.  44  : 
18  ('bonnets'),  by  females,  Isa.  3  :  20, 
by  a  bride-groom,  Isa.  61:10,  and  by 
others  in  gala-dress.  Isa.  61 :  3  ;  Eze. 
24:17,  23."— ^yre. 


The  Assyrian  head-dress  is  described 
in  Eze.  23  :  15  as  consisting  of  a  high 
turban.  The  word  rendered  "hats"  in 
Dan.  3  :  21  properly  applies  to  a  cloak. 

HEAP.     See  Stonks. 

HEART,  Acts  16  :  14.  The  seat 
of  the  affections,  desires,  hopes,  and 
motives.  John  14  : 1  ;  Esth.  1 :  10.  The 
term  is  also  used  by  the  Bible  writers  to 
designate  the  understanding,  1  Cor.  2: 
9,  and  intellectual  perceptions.  It  is 
further  a  general  term  for  the  spiritual 
nature  of  man.  Isa.  1:5;  2  Cor.  4 : 6. 
In  the  latter  passage  the  apostle  speaks 
of  the  light  shining  in  our  hearts, 
teaching  us  of  Christ  as  the  One  who  re- 
veals God.  The  heart  is  declared  to  be 
corrupt  and  full  of  evil,  Eccl.  9  :  3,  and 
deceit,  Jer.  17  :  9,  the  seat  of  sin  and 
crime.  Matt.  15 :  19,  as  also  of  faith. 
Rom.  10:10.  The  Lord  "looketh  on 
the  heart,"  1  Sam.  16  :  7,  in  contrast  to 
the  outward  appearance,  and  we  are 
commanded  to  cultivate  it,  as  the  most 
important  part  of  our  nature,  rather 
than  external  appearances.  Prov.  4:4; 
Joel  2:13.  The  expression  "to  speak 
in  the  heart,"  1  Sam.  1:13,  is  synony- 
mous with  "to  think." 

HEARTH.  The  Hebrew  words  so 
translated  do  not,  any  of  them,  mean 
what  we  call  a  hearth.  Thus,  the 
"  hearth  "  of  Gen.  18  :  6  was  the  heap  of 
ashes  covering  the  hot  stones  on  which 
the  bread  was  baked,  according  to  the 
Eastern  custom.  See  Bread.  The 
"hearth"  of  Ps.  102  :  3  means  &  fagot 
as  fuel ;  in  Isa.  30  :  14,  not  the  hearth, 
but  the  burning  mass.  AVhen  we  read 
that  King  Jehoiakim  threw  the  cut  leaves 
of  .Jeremiah's  prophecy  into  the  fire  that 
was  on  the  hearth,  we  are  to  understand 
that  before  him  was  a  portable  furnace 
or  brazier  of  charcoal,  Jer.  36  :  22,  23. 

HEATH.  Jer.  17  :  6  ;  48  :  6.  No 
true  heath  is  found  in  Palestine.  There 
is  great  probability  that  the  dwarf  juni- 
per or  savin  (Jimiperus  sabiua),  which 
grows  in  the  most  sterile  and  desolate 
parts  of  the  desert,  is  the  plant  intended. 
"  Its  gloomy,  stunted  appearance,  with 
its  scale-like  leaves  pressed  close  to  its 
gnarled  stems  and  cropped  close  by  the 
wild  goats,  as  it  clings  to  the  rocks  about 
Petra,  gives  great  force  to  the  contrast 
suggested  by  the  prophet  between  him 
that  trusteth  in  man,  naked  and  desti- 
tute, and  the  man  that  trusteth  in  the 

365 


HEA 


HEB 


Lord,  flourishing  as  a  tree  planted  by 
the  waters." — Tristram, 

HEA'THEN,  Ps.  2:1.  This  term 
(from  heath,  one  who  lives  on  the  heaths 
or  in  the  woods,  like  pagans,  /.  e.  vil- 
lagers) is  applied  in  the  English  Bible 
to  all  idolaters  or  to  all  nations  except 
the  Jews.  See  Gentile.  It  now  denotes 
all  nations  except  Christians,  Jews  and 
Mohammedans, 

HEAVEN.  The  general  idea  ex- 
pressed by  the  word  in  the  Bible  is  of 
a  realm  different  from  the  earth  and 
hell.  Under  this  general  realm  are  in- 
cluded two  realms — the  one  the  mate- 
rial, the  other  the  spiritual  heaven.  The 
plural  is  often  used  in  both  cases,  most 
frequently  in  Matthew,  and  always  in 
the  phrase  "the  Father  in  the  heavens," 
"  the  kingdom  of  the  heavens." 

1.  The  heavens  or  heaven  is  con- 
trasted with  the  earth,  Gen.  1:1;  Ps. 
115  :  15  ;  Matt.  5  :  18  ;  24  :  35,  and  is  rep- 
resented as  above  us.  This  is  the  mate- 
rial world  of  air  and  the  firmament.  It 
is  looked  upon  by  the  Hebrews  as  a 
solid  expanse,  Gen.  1 :  11,  Heb.,  which 
has  windows,  Gen.  7:  11  ,•  2  Kgs.  7  :  2, 
19,  and  doors.  Ps.  78 :  23,  The  rain  de- 
scends from  it,  Jas,  5:18;  2  Sam.  21: 
10,  and  the  frost,  Job  38  :  29.  The 
stars  are  called  the  "  stars  of  heaven," 
Nah.  3 :  16,  the  "  host  of  heaven,"  Deut. 
4:19,  or  the  "lights  in  the  firmament," 
Gen.  1 : 1-1,  and  the  fowls  fly  in  the  midst 
of  it,  Rev.  19  :  17.  This  material  and  stel- 
lar heaven  will  be  dissolved  at  the  final 
consummation,  Rev.  6  :  14  ;  2  Pet.  3  :  10, 
and  with  the  earth  give  place  to  a  new 
heaven  and  a  new  earth.  Rev.  21  :  1. 

2.  The  term  refers  also  to  a  realm  be- 
yond this  material  universe,  and  differ- 
ent from  it — an  invisible  realm  of  holi- 
ness and  bliss.  This  heaven  is  the  pecu- 
liar abode  of  God,  who  is  described  as 
the  God  of  heaven  and  the  God  in  heav- 
en. 1  Kgs.  8  :  30  ;  Dan.  2  :  28  ;  Matt.  5  : 
45.  Christ  is  said  to  be  the  "  Lord  from 
heaven,"  1  Cor.  15  :  47,  and  to  have 
"come  down  from"  or  to  have  descend- 
ed from  heaven,  John  3  :  13,  etc.  Into 
this  heaven  he  has  again  ascended.  Luke 
24  :  51 ;  Acts  1:9;  Eph.  4 : 8  ;  1  Pet.  3  :  22. 
Here  God  has  his  throne,  here  the  angels 
dwell.  Matt.  22  :  30.  It  is  the  place 
where  God's  will  is  done.  Matt.  6  :  10, 
and  where  joy,  Luke  15:7,  and  peace 
reign,  19  :  38.      It  is  here   that    Christ 

366 


has  prepared  the  many  mansions,  John 
14:2,  and  into  which  Elijah  passed,  2 
Kgs.  2  :  1.  Believers  have  an  inherit- 
ance in  this  realm,  1  Pet.  1 :  4,  and  may 
lay  up  treasures  in  it.  Matt.  6  :  20. 
Heaven  is  in  this  signification  contrast- 
ed with  hell,  Ps.  139  :  8,  into  which  Satan 
fell,  Luke  10  :  18  ;  2  Pet.  2  :  4. 

The  terms  "  paradise,"  Luke  23  :  43, 
and  "  Abraham's  bosom,"  Luke  16  :  22, 
designate  a  state  of  bliss  in  the  other 
world,  but  not  the  highest  and  ultimate 
state. 

The  third  heaven,  2  Cor.  12 :  2,  into 
which  Paul  was  rapt  in  a  vision,  is 
probably  only  another  expression  for 
the  highest  heaven.  The  later  rabbins 
distinguished  seven  heavens :  the  first 
three  belong  to  the  material  universe; 
the  other  four  to  the  spiritual  world, 
where  God,  the  saints,  and  angels  dwell. 

That  the  believer's  heaven  is  not 
merely  a  state,  but  also  a  world  of  space, 
is  abundantly  testified  to  not  only  by 
many  of  the  above  passages,  but  also  by 
such  expressions  as  "  heavenly  places," 
Eph.  1 :  3.  The  bliss  of  heaven  is  be- 
yond our  conception.  This  is  indicated 
by  the  many  forms  and  figures  used  to 
give  us  an  impression  of  its  joys.  John 
14 :  2,  3  ;  Heb.  4  and  11 ;   Rev.  3,  21,  22. 

Heaven,  Kingdom  of.     See  Kingdom. 

HEAVE-  OF  FERING.  See 
Offering. 

HE'BER  (alliance).  1.  Grandson 
of  Asher.  Gen.  46  :  17  ;  Num.  26  :  45; 
1  Chr.  7  :  31. 

2.  A  Judite,  1  Chr.  4  :  18. 

3.  A  Gadite,  1  Chr.  5  :  13. 

4.  A  Benjamite,  1  Chr.  8:17. 

5.  Another  Benjamite,  1  Chr.  8  :  22. 

6.  Heber  the  Kenite,  the  husband  of 
Jael,  who  slew  Sisera,  Jud.  4  :  22.  See 
Jael,  Sisera.  Heber  appears  to  have 
led  a  life  apart  from  the  rest  of  his  tribe. 
He  must  have  been  a  person  of  conse- 
quence, from  the  fact  that  it  is  stated 
that  there  was  peace  between  him  and 
the  powerful  king  Jabin,  Jud.  4  :  17. 

7.  For  Eber,  Luke  3  :  35. 
HE'BERITES,  THE,  descend- 
ants of  Heber,   Num.  26  :  45. 

HE'BREWESS,  a  Hebrew  wo- 
man. .Ter.  4  :  39. 

HEBREW  LANGUAGE.     See 

BiBI-E. 

HE'BREWS.  The  term  is  prob- 
ably derived  from  the  Hebrew  verb  eber, 


HEB 


HEB 


which  means  "  to  pass  over,"  to  cross  a 
stream,  or  from  the  proper  nonn  Eher, 
one  of  the  ancestors  of  Abraham  (other- 
wise unknown).  Gen.  10  :  24;  11  :  13. 
(Compare  our  words  transalpine,  cisal- 
pine, ultramontane,  transjorclanic.)  It 
was  first  applied  by  the  Canaanites  to 
Abraham,  Gen.  14:13,  who  had  immi- 
grated from  the  east  side  of  the  Eu- 
phrates (and  hence  might  be  called  a 
trans-Euphratian,  a  stranger  come  from 
the  other  side  of  the  Euphrates),  and  then 
to  all  the  descendants  of  Abraham.  The 
Egyptians,  Gen.  39  :  14  ;  41  :  12,  and  the 
Philistines,  1  Sam.  4  :  6,  knew  the  peo- 
ple by  this  title,  and,  as  we  may  infer, 
all  foreigners.  But  they  sometimes  use 
it  of  themselves,  but  only  when  foreign- 
ers are  thought  of.  Gen.  40  :  15  ;  Ex.  2  : 
7.  The  favorite  name  was  "  Israelites," 
and  after  the  Captivity  the  title  ''Jews" 
came  into  vogue,  but  the  title  "  Hebrews  " 
was  still  used  for  the  more  strict  Jews, 
who  preferred  the  Hebrew  language,  in 
distinction  from  the  Hellenists  or  Greek- 
ish  Jews. 

1.  Their  Origin. — Abram  was  chosen 
by  God  in  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  to  be  the 
father  of  this  people,  and  made  recipient 
of  the  promise  to  be  the  founder  of  a 
great  nation.  Gen.  12  :  1.  The  Hebrew 
people  were  descended  directly  from  him 
through  Isaac  and  Jacob,  and  are  fre- 
quentlv  called  the  "  seed  of  Abraham," 
Ps.  105  :  6  ;  John  8  :  37,  or  "  children  of 
Abraham,"  Gal.  3:7,  or  "children  of 
Israel,"  Ex.  1 :  13. 

2.  Their  Government. — (1.)  For  the 
first  three  generations  it  was  a  patri- 
archal form.  Jacob  and  his  sons  then 
followed  Joseph  into  Egypt,  where  for 
400  years  the  Hebrews  were  subject  to 
the  Pharaohs,  and,  after  the  first  gene- 
ration, in  a  state  of  bondage,  which  be- 
came excessively  oppressive,  Ex.  1  :11- 
14.  God  finally  raised  up  a  deliverer  to 
them  in  the  person  of  Moses,  in  whose 
lifetime  the  (2)  theocracy,  or  theocratic 
form  of  government,  was  established. 
Israel  was  compacted  into  a  nation  in 
the  wilderness.  Here  it  first  learned  its 
strength  :  here  it  received  the  two  tables 
of  the  Law  and  the  moral,  political,  so- 
cial, and  religious  institutions  peculiar 
to  it :  and  here  it  was  reassured  of  the 
familiar  relation  of  God  to  it :  "I  will  .  . 
be  your  God,  and  ye  shall  be  my  peo- 
ple." Lev.  26  :  12 ;  Ex.  6  :  7.     The  cha- 


racteristic feature  of  this  form  of  gov- 
ernment is  found  in  God's  intimate  rela- 
tion with  the  affairs  of  the  nation  and 
his  special  superintendence  of  them. 
And  although  the  nation  subsequently 
had  its  judges  and  kings,  yet  God  in  a 
peculiar  sense  presided  over  its  desti- 
nies. He  guided  the  nation  by  the  pillar 
of  cloud  and  fire;  he  gave  them  the 
manna,  and  the  victory  over  Amalek, 
Ex.  17  :  14;  he  gave  the  Law,  Ex.  20  : 
1  ;  he  led  them  across  the  Jordan  and 
into  Canaan,  Josh.  3  :  7.  and  appointed 
Joshua  successor  of  Moses,  Josh.  1:3; 
he  instructed  them  how  to  fight  against 
Jericho  and  Ai,  Josh.  8:1;  he  gave 
victory  to  Deborah,  Jud.  4  :  14  ;  he  called 
Saul,  i  Sam.  10  :  1,  and  deposed  him,  1 
Sam.  16  :  1,  etc.  God  thus  presided  in  a 
very  personal  manner  over  the  national 
affairs  of  the  Hebrews. 

3.  Their  Relir/ion. — God  was  the  im- 
mediate author,  by  special  revelation,  of 
the  Hebrew  religion.  Revealing  him- 
self particularly  to  Abraham  and  Jacob, 
he  deferred  the  full  revelation  of  it  for 
the  period  of  Moses.  This  religion  con- 
sisted in  the  worship  of  God,  Deut.  6  :  4, 
as  one  and  as  holy.  Ex.  15  :  11 ;  Ps.  89  : 
35.  The  Israelitish  nation  was  thus 
made  the  receptacle  for  two  distinct  con- 
ceptions which  were  not  shared  in  by  any 
of  the  surrounding  nations,  who  broke 
the  deity  up  into  fragments  and  attrib- 
uted the  most  flagrant  vices  as  well  as 
human  passions  to  their  gods  (as  the 
Greeks  and  Romans).  Their  religion 
also  taught  them  that  God  is  the  Creator 
of  all  things,  Gen.  1:1;  all-wise,  Prov. 
15  :  3  ;  everywhere  present,  Ps.  139  :  7  ; 
almighty,  Ps.  115  :  3  ;  eternal.  Ps.  90  :  2. 
He  is  also  represented  as  love,  Ex.  34  : 
6  :  Isa.  63  :  16,  etc.,  though  not  as  fully 
as  afterward  by  Christ  and  his  apostles. 
Their  religion  taught  the  spiritual 
worship  of  God,  without  the  aid  of 
images  of  metal,  wood,  and  stone,  Ex. 
20  :  4.  Idolatry  was  condemned  and  the 
practice  of  it  punished,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  golden  calf,  Ex.  32  :  35.  It  further 
included  in  its  code  the  moral  law  and 
the  duty  of  man  to  his  fellow,  Ex.  20  : 
12-17.  It  was,  however,  not  the  final  or 
••  perfect  religion,  but  provisional  and  tem- 
I  porary.  Heb.  8:7:  10  :  1  ;  1  Pet.  1:11, 
12.  it  commanded  a  vast  number  of 
merely  external  and  ceremonial  rites 
I  which  were  at  once  typical  and  symbol- 

367 


HEB 


HEB 


ical.  The  religion  of  Christ  did  away 
with  the  temple,  the  sacrifices,  etc.,  and 
established  spiritual  ordinances. 

Thus  looking  at  the  Hebrew  religion, 
we  find  it,  in  contrast  with  the  heathen 
religions,  free  from  falsehood  and  con- 
serving great  eternal  truths,  which  have 
become  the  heritage  of  all  modern  civil- 
ized nations,  but,  in  contrast  with  the 
religion  of  Christ,  temporary,  imperfect, 
a  typical  and  prophetical  preparation 
for  Christianity. 

4.  Their  political  history  may  be  di- 
vided into  seven  periods : 

(1)  From  Abraham  to  Moses.  This 
embraces  the  patriarchal  period  and  the 
sojourn  in  Egypt.  Abraham's  descend- 
ants increase  in  numbers  in  the  land 
of  Canaan  till  Jacob  in  his  old  age  goes 
with  his  sons  to  Egypt.  Here  they  spend 
400  years,  first  under  the  favor,  and  then 
under  the  oppressive  tyranny,  of  the  Pha- 
raohs. 

(2)  From  Moses  to  Saul.  The  marvel- 
lous deliverance  from  the  bondage  of 
Egypt,  the  founding  of  the  theocracy 
at  Mount  Sinai,  and  the  life  in  the  wil- 
derness. After  wandering  40  years  in  the 
wilderness,  the  people  cross  over  the  Jor- 
dan into  the  land  of  their  fathers.  Moses 
dies  after  seeing  it  from  Mount  Pisgah, 
but  without  having  trodden  it.  Joshua 
is  appointed  the  successor  of  Moses,  and 
becomes  their  military  captain.  The 
most  of  the  land  is  taken  after  hard 
fighting,  and  apportioned  between  the 
twelve  tribes.  Fourteen  judges  follow 
Joshua,  among  them  a  woman — Debo- 
rah. Lawlessness  reigned  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  and  might  was  right, 
Jud.  17  :  6.  The  last  and  the  greatest 
of  the  judges  was  Samuel,  whose  life 
marks  the  transition  to  the  third  period. 
See  Judges. 

(3)  From  Saul  to  the  Dicision  of  the 
Kingdom  [about  120  years). — This  pe- 
riod includes  the  greatest  prosperity  Is- 
rael ever  attained,  under  the  reigns  of 
David  and  Solomon.  Her  territory  was 
extended,  foreign  nations  acknowledged 
her  glory,  1  Kgs.  5:1;  10  :  1,  and  lit- 
erature and  the  sciences  were  cultivated, 
1  Kgs.  4  :  33.  The  reign  of  Solomon 
(40  years)  marks  the  highest  prosperity, 
but  also  the  beginning  of  the  decline. 
See  Saul,  David,  Solomon,  the  Temple. 

(4)  From  the  Division  of  the  Kingdom 
{975)  to  the  Close  of  the  Canon  (about  500 

368 


years). — This  period  is  marked  by  the  de- 
cline of  the  nation,  and  embraces  the  Exile 
and  the  Return.  At  Solomon's  death  the 
kingdom  was  divided  between  Rehoboam 
and  Jeroboam,  and  the  history  of  each 
would  be  a  monotonous  account  of  fall- 
ing away  and  recovery  from  idolatry  if 
it  were  not  for  the  periodical  appearance 
of  great  prophets.  The  two  kingdoms 
come  into  conflict  with  the  surrounding 
nations  and  grow  weaker  and  weaker, 
till  the  upper  kingdom  is  destroyed  and 
the  people  led  away  captive  in  B.  c.  721 ; 
the  lower  kingdom,  b.  c.  588.  Subse- 
quently, a  part  of  the  nation  returns  un- 
der Zerubbabel  and  other  leaders,  Ezr.  2  : 
2.  The  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah 
give  an  account  of  the  Return  and  of  the 
subsequent  restoration  of  the  temple. 

(5)  From  the  Return  to  the  Advent  of 
Christ. — Although  many  Jews  were  car- 
ried captive  into  Babylon,  many,  of  their 
own  accord  and  conti'ary  to  the  counsel 
and  warning  of  Jeremiah,  went  down 
into  Egypt.  There  they  built  in  Leon- 
topolis  a  temple,  in  which  the  ritual  of 
the  Law  was  observed,  and  which  would 
act  as  a  damper  upon  the  enthusiasm 
after  the  services  in  Jerusalem.  In 
Alexandria  the  Jews  "  were  in  such 
numbers  as  to  be  known  as  '  The  Tribe.' 
They  were  a  separate  community  under 
their  own  chief,  entitled  ethnarch  or 
alabarch,  and  represented  more  than  a 
third  of  Alexandria,  with  a  council  cor- 
responding to  that  which  ultimately 
ruled  at  Jerusalem." — Stanley.  By  their 
scholars  the  translation  of  the  0.  T.  into 
Greek  called  the  Septuagint  Avas  made, 
being  begun  under  the  patronage  of 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  b.  c.  285.  The 
school  of  philosophers  of  which  Philo  is 
the  chief  exercised  a  great  influence  on 
Gentile  as  well  as  Jewish  thought.  It 
answered  the  useful  purpose  of  mediat- 
ing between  Platonism  and  Christianity, 
and  thus  was  a  bridge  from  one  to  the 
other.  After  the  Return,  b.  c.  538,  the 
Jews  remained  under  the  yoke  of  Persia ; 
but  when  Alexander  the  Great  subverted 
that  monarchy,  he  granted  them  many 
favors.  Their  prosperity  was  of  short 
duration.  The  death  of  the  world-con- 
queror, B.  c.  323,  led  to  the  disruption  of 
his  empire  into  four  kingdoms,  but  led 
likewise  to  a  wrangle  which  involved  all 
lands.  "  In  this  world's  debate,"  says 
Stanley,  "  Palestine    was   the   principal 


HEB 


HEB 


stage  across  which  'the  kings  of  the 
south' — the  Alexandrian  Ptolemies  — 
and  '  the  kings  of  the  north ' — the  Se- 
leucidte  from  Antioch — passed  to  and 
fro.  with  their  court-intrigues  and  in- 
cessant armies,  their  Indian  elephants, 
their  Grecian  cavalry,  their  Oriental 
pomp.  It  was  for  the  larger  part  of  the 
century  and  half  that  succeeded  Alex- 
ander's death  a  province  of  the  Graeco- 
Egyptian  kingdom." 

In  the  early  part  of  the  third  cen- 
tury B.  c.  the  Jews  threw  off  the  Egyp- 
tian allegiance  and  put  themselves 
under  Antiochus  the  Great,  king  of 
Syria;  but  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  his 
youngest  son,  persecuted  them,  pro- 
scribing their  religion  and  profaning 
their  temple,  erecting  an  altar  in  the 
temple  to  the  Olympian  Jupiter,  and  or- 
dering divine  honors  to  be  paid  to  the 
idol.  But  the  Jews  were  monotheists 
of  a  positive  type.  The  outrage  was 
not  to  be  silently  borne,  nor  were  they 
to  be  forced  to  do  what  their  conscience 
forbade.  War  broke  out.  The  roman- 
tic jjeriod  of  Jewish  history  begins.  The 
Jews  ranged  themselves  for  the  inevit- 
able conflict.  On  the  one  side  were  the 
infamous  priests  Jason  and  Menelaus, 
their  followers  the  Hellenists,  who  were 
renegade  Jews  backed  by  Antiochus. 
On  the  other  side  were  the  great  mass 
of  the  people,  stung  into  madness  by 
the  cruelties  of  their  king,  but  most 
of  all  settled  in  their  determination  not 
to  submit  to  pagan  rites.  They  were 
led  by  the  Maccabsean  family,  who  were 
high  priests  as  well  as  pi-inces,  and  after 
a  thirty  years'  struggle  they  gained  their 
independence.  Under  John  Hyrcanus, 
of  this  family,  peace  was  made  with 
Syria,  B.  c.  133.  In  B.  c.  107,  Aristob- 
ulus,  his  son,  assumed  the  royal  title. 
See  Maccabees. 

But  the  Jews  at  last  fell,  like  the  rest 
of  the  civilized  world,  under  the  Roman 
power.  Pompey  took  Jerusalem  in  b.  c. 
63  :  Antipater,  the  father  of  Herod,  was 
made  procurator  of  Judaea  in  b.  c.  47. 
He  was  murdered  shortly  after,  and 
Herod  at  length  became  king  of  Judaea, 
B.  c.  37.  For  the  history  of  the  Jews 
from  this  date  to  the  destruction  of  Je- 
rusalem see  the  biographies  of  the  suc- 
cessive monarehs. 

(6)  From  the  Advent  of  Christ  to  the 
Destruction  of  Jerusalem. — The  Gospels 
24 


inform  us  as  to  the  Jews'  hatred  and  re- 
jection of  the  Messiah.  And  so  they 
prepared  their  downfall.  Matt.  23  :  37. 
The  long-suffering  of  God  was  abused; 
his  offers  of  mercy  were  often  rejected, 
and  at  last  the  time  for  their  final  over- 
throw came.  Josephus  tells  the  story. 
The  city  of  Jerusalem,  whither  they  had 
gathered,  was  besieged  by  Titus,  and 
after  much  suffering,  borne  with  fanat- 
ical courage,  taken.  The  temple  was 
burnt,  the  whole  city  demolished.  The 
prophecy  of  Christ  was  literally  fulfilled. 
Matt.  23  :  34-39  ;  Luke  21  :  20-24.  See 
Jerusalem. 

(7)  From  the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem 
to  the  Present  Time. — The  Jews  were  no 
longer  a  nation,  but  their  religion  re- 
mained unchanged,  and  retained  a  hos- 
tile attitude  to  Christianity.  The  peo- 
ple that  prepared  the  way  for  the  com- 
ing of  the  Messiah  crucified  the  true 
Messiah,  and  wait  in  vain  for  a  new 
Messiah.  After  the  capture  of  Jerusa- 
lem the  Jews  were  sold  in  large  num- 
bers into  slavery,  and  scattered  all  over 
the  Roman  world.  Many  returned  to 
the  ruins  of  the  Holy  City.  The  empe- 
ror Claudius  admitted  them  to  citizen- 
ship, but  they  were  very  differently 
treated  by  successive  emperors.  In  a.  d. 
135,  under  the  emperor  Hadrian,  a  fa- 
natical impostor,  Bar-cochba,  announced 
himself  in  Palestine  as  the  Messiah.  An 
immense  multitude  hastened  to  his 
standard  of  revolt.  The  Romans, 
however,  completely  vanquished  them. 
Jerusalem  was  again  completely  de- 
stroyed, and  became  a  Roman  colony 
under  the  name  of  ^lia  Capitolina. 
The  Jews  were  forbidden  to  enter  it. 
The  emperor  Julian  (a.  d.  331-363), 
from  hostility  to  Christianity,  endeav- 
ored to  rebuild  the  temple,  but  in  vain. 
Since  the  downfall  of  the  Western 
Roman  Empire  (a.  d.  476)  the  Jews 
have  had  very  varying  fortunes  under 
different  masters,  and  much  cruel  per- 
secution. They  have  spread  themselves 
over  all  the  earth,  but  have  always  re- 
mained separate  and  distinct.  This  re- 
markable fact  is  a  plain  indication  of 
the  hand  of  God.  who  will  yet  do  great 
things  for  and  with  them.  They  are  a 
standing  proof  of  divine  prophecy  and 
a  living  argument  for  the  truth  of  Chris- 
tianity. For  an  account  of  their  literary 
activity,  see  Talmud. 

369 


HEB 


HEB 


The  Jews  by  their  talents  and  indus- 
try exert  great  influence  among  Chris- 
tian nations.  They  have  long  been  the 
great  bankers  of  the  world.  The  Roths- 
child family  with  its  immense  wealth 
has  controlled  the  money-market.  The 
Jews  have  furnished  great  scholars  and 
statesmen.  Neander,  the  Church  his- 
torian, and  Stahl,  the  jurist,  were  con- 
verted Jews  :  the  great  musician,  Men- 
delssohn-Bartholdy,  Lord  Beaconsfield, 
Gambetta,  Castelar,  are  of  Jewish  ex- 
traction. They  have  distinguished  them- 
selves in  all  the  occupations  except  ag- 
riculture and  manufactures.  They  are 
divided  into  orthodox,  and  liberal  or  re- 
form Jews,  who  differ  from  each  other 
as  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees  of  old. 
The  former  prevail  in  Russia,  Poland, 
and  the  East;  the  latter  in  Germany 
and  America.  Many  of  the  Jews  to-day 
are  deists,  or  even  atheists.  The  mod- 
ern epoch  is  marked  by  the  name  of 
Moses  Mendelssohn  (died  1786),  whose 
German  translation  of  the  Pentateuch 
was  the  groundwork  of  reform.  The  in- 
fidel Jews  exert  a  pernicious  influence  on 
the  German  political  press.  The  poet 
Heine  was  a  Jew.  In  America  they 
enjoy  full  liberty,  which  until  recently 
had  been  denied  them  in  Europe.  They 
are  also  increasing  of  late  in  Jerusalem, 
where  they  are  strictly  orthodox,  issue 
newspapers  in  the  Hebrew  language, 
and  bewail  every  Friday  at  the  founda- 
tion of  the  temple-wall  the  sins  of  their 
forefathers.  The  number  of  Jews  in 
the  world  is  estimated  at  9,000,000,  of 
whom  50,000  live  in  New  York  city, 
where  they  accumulate  great  wealth. 

The  last  word  of  Christ  and  the  apos- 
tle concerning  this  wonderful  people — 
which,  like  the  burning  bush,  are  never 
consumed — is  a  word  of  promise  and 
hope  that  their  blindness  will  be  re- 
moved, and  that  after  the  fulness  of  the 
Gentiles  has  come  in  "  all  Israel  will  be 
saved."  Rom.  11 :  26. 

Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews,  Phil.  3  : 
6,  denotes  that  the  individual  so  called 
had  both  a  Hebrew  father  and  mother — 
was  one  whose  Hebrew  extraction  was 
Derfect. 

HE'BREWS,  EPISTLE  TO 
THE,  was  written  about  the  years  62 
to  64  in  Italy,  13  :  24,  and  addressed  to 
the  believing  Jews  of  Palestine  and  the 
East.  The  design  of  the  author  was  not, 
370 


primarily,  to  make  new  converts  or  to 
console  old  ones,  but  to  guard  them 
against  apostasy  and  to  strengthen  their 
faith  by  an  exhibition  of  the  evidence  in 
favor  of  the  pre-eminence  of  the  religion 
of  Christ  over  that  of  Moses,  One  gets 
the  impression  of  peculiar  temptations 
to  apostasy  or  a  weakening  in  the  faith 
against  which  the  Hebrew  Christians 
are  continually  warned  in  the  Epistle, 
ch.  2:1;  4:1,  14;  10:23. 

The  Epistle  at  once  exhibits  the  unity 
and  the  characteristic  difference  of  the 
Old  and  the  New  Testament  economy 
and  revelation.  Both  were  alike  of  di- 
vine origin,  1  :  1,  2,  but  the  former  was 
imperfect  and  defective,  chs.  8:6,  7; 
10:  1.  This  is  proved  by  an  extended 
consideration  of  the  character  of  Christ, 
the  Mediator  of  the  new  covenant,  and 
of  the  mediators  (Moses  and  Aaron)  of 
the  old  covenant,  and  by  a  consideration 
of  the  prophecy  of  Jeremiah  concerning 
a  new  covenant,  ch.  10  :  16,  and  its  spir- 
itual character,  chs.  9, 10.  In  the  com- 
parison thus  instituted  we  discover  a 
marked  contrast  between  the  old  and 
new  covenants,  so  far  as  both  their  na- 
ture and  their  founders  are  concerned. 

The  Epistle  exhibits  the  person  of 
Christ,  the  Author  of  the  new  cove- 
nant, as  superior  in  dignity  to  the  angels, 
ch.  1,  and  proves  it  by  the  0.  T.  itself. 
Christ  was  the  very  brightness  of  God's 
glory  and  the  express  image  of  his  per- 
son, ch.  1  :  3.  Therefore  the  conclu- 
sion is  drawn  that  the  revelation  made 
by  him  is  of  greater  authority  than  that 
made  by  angels,  which  was  accepted,  ch. 
2  :  2.  He  is  then  represented  as  of  su- 
perior dignity  to  Moses,  ch,  3  :  3,  and  as 
our  High  Priest,  ch.  3  :  1,  who  belongs 
to  the  order  of  Melchisedek,  ch.  5  :  16; 
7  :  21.  In  order  to  perform  the  high- 
priestly  functions,  it  was  necessary  for 
him  to  endure  the  sufferings  and  temp- 
tations incident  to  the  humanity  he  in- 
tended to  save,  2:17;  4  :  15  ;  12:  2,  and 
to  assume  human  nature,  ch.  2  :  14.  He 
thus  becomes  the  Author  of  salvation, 
ch.  5:9,  by  the  shedding  of  his  blood, 
2:9;  9:12.  The  superiority  of  his 
high  priesthood  is  shown  not  only  by 
his  super-angelic  nature,  but  in  his 
freedom  from  sin,  4:15;  7:27,  The 
Aaronic  priests  were  sinful,  7  :  28. 
Christ  has  thus  purchased  an  eternal 
salvation  for  all  who  believe  in  him  in  a 


View  of  Hebron  fiom  the  South.     (After  Fhotoyraph  by  Bonfils.) 


Mount  Hermou,  with  liuius  of  au  Aucieut  Temple.    {Aj'ter  Fhotogra^h  by  Good.) 


HEB 


HEB 


special  sense,  ch.  7  :  25,  and  for  every 
man,  ch.  2:9,  He  has  entered  into  the 
holy  of  holies,  the  divine  presence,  and  is 
seated  on  the  right  hand  of  God.  10  :  12. 

The  latter  part  of  the  Epistle  is  taken 
up  with  practical  exhortations  and  a 
profound  definition  and  telling  illus- 
tration of  faith,  ch.  11,  The  apostle 
thus  establishes,  by  a  remarkably  clear 
and  lucid  argument,  the  divine  yet  tem- 
porary character  of  the  old  revelation 
and  the  super-eminent  dignity  of  the 
High  Priest,  Christ,  whose  manifestation 
is  "the  better  thing"  which  God  has 
provided  for  us,  11  :  40.  The  Epistle 
corroborates  the  divine  origin  of  the  old 
covenant,  and  at  the  same  time  is  calcu- 
lated to  reconcile  the  Jew  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  his  temple,  the  loss  of  his  priest- 
hood, the  abolition  of  his  sacrifices,  the 
devastation  of  his  country,  and  the  ex- 
tinction of  his  name,  because  it  exhibits 
a  nobler  temple,  a  better  priesthood,  a 
more  perfect  sacrifice,  a  heavenl}'  inher- 
itance, and  a  more  durable  memorial. 

The  authorship  of  this  anonymous 
Epistle  is  a  matter  of  dispute ;  some 
ascribe  it  to  Paul,  who  for  special  reasons 
concealed  his  name,  others  to  Luke  or 
Barnabas,  or  to  Apollos.  It  was  certainly 
inspired  by  the  genius  of  Paul,  and  may 
have  been  written  by  him  in  Hebrew 
and  translated  or  reproduced  in  its  pres- 
ent Greek  form  by  Luke  or  some  other 
disciple  of  the  great  apostle  of  the  Gen- 
tiles. This  hypothesis  would  account 
for  the  difference  of  style  as  well  as  the 
unity  of  sentiment. 

HE'BRON  (afHance).  1.  A  son  of 
Kohath,  and  therefore  grandson  of  Levi, 
Ex.  6:18;  Num.  3:19;  1  Chr.  6  :  2, 18  : 
23  :  12. 

2,  A  name  in  the  genealogical  lists  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah.  1  Chr,  2  :  42,  43. 

HE'BRON  {friendship),  an  ancient 
town  of  Palestine,  about  20  miles  south 
of  Jerusalem,  and  the  same  distance 
north  of  Beer-sheba ;  first  called  Kirjath- 
arba,  or  '•'  city  of  Arba,"  the  father  of 
Anak.  Josh.  21  :  11  ;  15:  13,  14:  Jud.  1: 
10.  Some  interpret  the  name  to  mean 
"a  city  of  four,"  or  as  having  four  dis- 
tinct quarters.  It  lies  about  .SOOO  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is  one  of 
the  oldest  towns  in  the  world  and  men- 
tioned before  Damascus,  Gen.  13:18; 
15  :  2,  and  was  built  7  years  before  Zoan, 
or  Tanis,  in  Egypt,  Num.  13  :  22. 
372 


History. — Hebron  is  named  about  40 
times  in  the  0.  T.,  but  nowhere  in  the 
New.  Abraham  pitched  his  tent  under 
the  oaks  of  Mamre,  near  Hebron,  Gen. 
13  :  IS,  and  he  bought  the  cave  of  Mach- 
pelah,  as  a  burial-place.  23  :  17-20.  See 
Machpelah.  Hebron  was  taken  by 
Joshua,  Josh,  10:36,37;  12:10,  and 
tlie  region  given  to  Caleb,  Josh,  14  :  13 ; 
was  rebuilt  and  made  a  Levitical  city 
and  a  city  of  refuge,  Josh.  20  :  7  ;  21  : 
11  ;  was  the  royal  residence  of  David,  2 
Sam.  2  : 1-14;  1  Kgs.  2:11;  became  the 
headquarters  of  the  rebellious  Absalom, 
2  Sam.  15  :  10  ;  was  fortified  by  Rehobo- 
am  and  re-peopled  after  the  Captivity.  2 
Chr.  11  :  10  ;  Neh.  11  :  25.  Judas  Mac- 
cabajus  re-captured  it  from  the  Edomites; 
it  was  destroyed  by  the  Romans  ;  for 
about  20  years  it  was  the  seat  of  a  Latin 
bishopric,  A.  D.  1167-1187,  but  at  the 
latter  date  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Sala- 
din,  and  has  since  been  held  by  the  Mos- 
lems. A  pool  is  still  shown  over  which 
tradition  says  that  David  hung  the  mur- 
derers of  Ishbosheth,  and  the  tomb  of 
Abner  and  Ishbosheth  is  also  pointed 
out  within  an  Arab  house. 

Present  Condition. — Hebron  is  in  a 
narrow  part  of  a  valley  and  surrounded 
by  fertile  lands,  vineyards,  olive-groves, 
and  almond  and  fig  trees.  The  town 
has  many  spacious  houses,  built  of  stone, 
and  numbers  about  10,000  souls,  includ- 
ing 500  Jews  ;  but  there  is  not  a  single 
Christian  family  there.  The  city  is  di- 
vided into  several  quarters,  in  one  of 
which  is  the  great  mosque,  a  massive 
structure,  about  200  by  150  feet  on  the 
ground  and  nearly  50  feet  high,  with 
two  minarets.  This  mosque  is  known 
to  conceal  the  noted  cave  of  Machpelah, 
the  burial-place  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob  and  their  wives,  except  Rachel, 
The  mosque  is  closed  against  visitors 
and  guarded  with  the  strictest  care  by 
the  Moslems.  Only  three  times  have 
Europeans  been  permitted  to  enter  it — 
the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1862,  the  marquis 
of  Bute  in  1866,  and  the  crown-prince  of 
Prussia  in  1869.  These  visitors  were  ac- 
companied by  Dean  Stanley,  Fergusson, 
Rosen,  and  others,  Hebron  is  a  hotbed 
of  Moslem  fanaticism. 

About  two  miles  west  of  the  city,  on 
the  road  toward  Gaza,  is  the  famous  oak 
of  Abraham,  a  majestic  and  venerable 
tree  whose  trunk  measures  32  feet  in  cir- 


HEB 


HEL 


cumference,  and  at  the  height  of  19  feet 
it  divides  into  four  huge  branches,  form- 
ing a  crown  upwards  of  275  feet  in  cir- 
cumference. The  tree  is  surrounded  by 
a  wall,  and  on  the  hill  above  it  the  Rus- 
sians have  built  a  line  hospice,  A  large 
terebinth  or  oak  was  shown  there  in  the 
days  of  Josephus  which,  tradition  says, 
*•  has  continued  since  the  creation  of  the 
world." — Jewish  War,  iv.  9,  7.  For  view 
of''Abraham's  Oak,"  see  under  Abraham. 

The  town  carries  on  a  brisk  trade  with 
the  Bedouins,  and  manufactures  water- 
skins  from  goats'  hides,  and  pretty  glass 
ornaments.  Glass  was  made  there  early 
in  the  Middle  Ages. 

2.  A  city  of  Asher,  Josh.  19  :  28;  per- 
haps Abdon  of  Josh.  21 :  30  ;  now  'Ahdeh, 

HE'BRONITES,  THE,  a  fam- 
ily of  Kohathite  Levites  descended  from 
Hebron.  Num.  3:27;  26:58;  1  Chr. 
26  : 2.3. 

HEDGE,  Hos.  2  :  6.  Travellers  tell 
us  that  such  hedges  as  are  mentioned  in 
this  passage  are  often  found  in  Eastern 
countries  at  this  day,  and  that  they  are 
especially  useful  as  defences  against  the 
incursions  of  the  Arabs  on  horseback. 
The  hedge  is  sometimes  figuratively 
used  to  denote  protection.  Comp.  Job 
1:10. 

HEG'AI,  OR  HE'GE,  a  eunuch  of 
the  court  of  Ahasuerus,  Esth.  2  :  3,  8, 15. 

HEIF'ER,  Hos.  10  :  11.  The  fig- 
urative allusions  of  the  sacred  writers  to 
the  wildness,  sportiveness,  and  indocil- 
ity  of  this  animal,  especially  when  well 
fed,  are  very  striking.  Jer.  46  :  20  ;  50  : 
11 ;  Hos.  4  :  16.  In  Isa.  15  :  5  allusion 
is  probably  made  to  the  lowing  of  a 
heifer — a  mournful  sound  that  can  be 
heard  at  a  great  distance ;  so  should  the 
lamentation  of  the  Moabites  be  in  the  day 
of  their  visitation. 

The  heifer  was  used  in  sacrifice  on  a 
particular  occasion,  Num.  19  :  1-10; 
comp.  Heb.  9:13,  14,  the  manner  and 
design  of  which  are  fully  stated  in  the 
passage  cited. 

HEIR.     See  Inheritance. 

HE'LAH  {rust),  a  wife  of  Ashur,  1 
Chr.  4  :  5. 

HE'JLAM  {stronghold),  usually  re- 
garded as  the  place  where  David  gained 
a  victory  over  the  Syrians,  2  Sam.  10  : 
16,  17,  and  by  some  identified  with  Al- 
manethn,  west  of  the  Euphrates  ;  but  this 
is  merely  conjecture.    The  Latin  Aversion 


does  not  regard  the  word  as  a   proper 
name,  but  renders  it  "  army  "  or  "  host." 

HEL'BAH  {fertile),  a  city  of  Asher, 
Jud.  1  :  31,  in  the  plain  of  Phoenicia;  the 
same  as  Hebel.  Rendered  "the  coast" 
in  Josh.  19  :  29. 

HEL'BOX  (fertile),  a  Syrian  city 
celebrated  for  its  wine,  Eze.  27  :  18,  and 
formerly  identified  with  Aleppo,  but 
later  with  Helbon,  in  a  wild  glen  high 
up  in  the  Anti-Lebanon.  This  valley  is 
celebrated  for  its  fine  grapes  and  vine- 
yards. Robinson  says  ''  the  wine  of 
Helbon "  is  the  best  and  most  famous 
wine  in  the  country,  while  Aleppo  pro- 
duces none  of  any  special  reputation. 

HEL'DAI  {worldly).  1.  The  chief 
of  the  twelfth  division  of  David's  forces, 
1  Chr.  27  :  15. 

2.  One  who  returned  from  captivity, 
Zech.  6  :  10.  In  v.  14  his  name  is  writ- 
ten Helem. 

HE'LEB  {milk),  OR  HEALED 
{transient),  one  of  David's  warriors.  2 
Sam.  23  :  29  ;  1  Chr.  11 :  30. 

HE'LiEK  {portion),  the  founder  of 
the  Helekites,  a  Manassite  family.  Num. 
26  :  30. 

HE'LEM  {hammer).  1.  An  Asher- 
ite,  1  Chr.  7  :  35. 

2.  A  name  mentioned  in  Zech.  6  :  14. 

HE'LEPH  {exchange),  a  place  on 
the  borders  of  Naphtali,  Josh.  19  :  33, 
and  which  Van  de  Velde  proposes  to 
identify  with  Beitlif ;  Clark,  with  the 
"  white  promontory  "  south  of  Tyre;  but 
these  are  conjectural. 

HE'LEZ  {loins?).  1.  One  of  Da- 
vid's "  thirty."  2  Sam.  23  :  26 ;  1  Chr. 
11:27;   28:10. 

2.  A  Judite,  1  Chr.  2  :  39. 

HE''LI  {elevation),  the  father  of  Jo- 
seph, the  husband  of  Mary,  Luke  3  :  23. 
The  same  word  as  Eli. 

HEJj'KAI  {whose  portion  is  Jeho- 
vah), a  priest  in  the  days  of  Jehoiakim 
the  high  priest,  Neh.  12  :  15. 

HEL'KATH  (portion),  a  Levitical 
city  of  Asher,  Josh.  19  :  25  ;  21  :  31,  and 
called  Hukok  in  1  Chr.  6  :  75  ;  probably 
the  modern  Yerka,  a  village  7  miles 
north-west  of  Acre. 

HE  L'K  A  T  H  -  H  A  Z'Z  U  R I  M 
{field  of  swords),  a  place  near  Gibeon  ; 
so  called  from  the  deadly  combat  men- 
tioned in  2  Sam.  2  :  13-17.  Drake  pro- 
poses to  place  it  in  the  broad,  smooth 
valley  el-Aakar. 

373 


HEL 


HEM 


HELL.  1.  The  Old  Testament.— 
The  Hebrew  word  for  hell  is  Sheol, 
which  corresponds  to  the  Greek  Hades, 
and  means  the  under-world  or  the  realm 
of  the  dead.  It  is  derived  by  some  from 
the  root "  to  demand  "  (hence  the  "  grasp- 
ing "  or  ''  insatiable  "),  by  others  from  the 
root  ''to  make  hollow"  (comp.  the  Ger- 
man Holle  with  Hbhle),  so  as  to  mean 
the  vast  subterranean  receptacle  and 
resting-place  of  the  dead.  Sheol  is  va- 
riously translated  in  our  English  Bible 
by  the  terms  "  hell,"  "  pit,"  and  ''grave." 
In  many  places  it  is  rightlv  translated 
"grave."  1  Sam.  2:6;  Job  14 :  13,  etc. 
Sheol  is  represented  as  in  the  depths  of 
the  earth,  Job  11  :  8 ;  Prov.  9:18,  dark, 
Isa.  38  :  10,  all-devouring,  Prov.  1:12, 
destitute  of  God's  presence,  Ps.  88 :  10- 
12,  a  state  of  forgetfulness,  Ps.  6  :  5,  in- 
satiable, Isa.  5  :  14,  remorseless,  Cant. 
8 : 6,  and  a  place  of  silence,  Eccl. 
9:10.  The  Hebrew  notions  about  it 
were  vague  and  indefinite.  It  was  re- 
garded as  the  place  where  worldly  oc- 
cupations, good  or  bad,  did  not  enter. 
Eccl.  9:10;  Job  3  :  13-20.  It  can  by 
no  means  be  made  out  that  the  term  re- 
fers exclusively  or  definitely  to  infernal 
anguish.  But  it  no  less  certainly  repre- 
sented terror  and  repulsiveness  to  the 
Hebrew  mind. 

2.  The  New  Testament. — The  two  words 
translated  "hell"  are  Hades  and  Gehen- 
na. Hades  occurs  eleven  times,  and  is 
once  rendered  "  grave,"  1  Cor.  15  :  55 ; 
in  all  other  places  *'  hell."  It  evidently 
does  not  refer  to  the  ultimate  abode  of 
the  impenitent  and  the  final  gtate  of  ex- 
clusion from  God,  but  to  the  disembodied 
state  between  death  and  the  final  judg- 
ment of  the  Son  of  man,  when  he  shall 
come  in  his  glory,  Matt.  16  :  27.  After 
the  crucifixion,  our  Lord  descended  into 
hades,  Acts  2  :  27,  and  this  is  an  article 
of  the  Apostles'  Creed,  where,  however, 
we  use  wrongly  the  word  "hell."  It  was 
in  this  realm  that  our  Lord  "  preached  to 
the  spirits  in  prison,"  1  Pet.  3:19.  See 
Hades. 

The  term  Gehenna,  which  occurs  twelve 
times,  more  nearly  corresponds  to  our 
word  "  hell."  It  signified  primarily  the 
valley  of  Hinnom  or  the  deep,  narrow 
valley  south  of  Jerusalem  which  had 
been  the  seat  of  the  worship  of  Moloch. 
Jer.  7:31;  2  Chr.  33  :  6  ;  2  Kgs.^3  :  10. 
It  afterward  was  turned  into  a  place  for 
374 


the  deposit  of  the  filth  and  dead  animals 
of  the  city.  Hence  this  term  was  applied 
to  the  final  state  and  abode  of  lost  souls. 
Matt.  5  :  29  ;  10  :  28  ;  23  :  15  ;  Jas.  3  :  6, 
etc.  It  is  here  that  "  their  worm  dieth 
not"  and  the  "fire  is  not  quenched," 
Matt.  17  :  9.  Into  this  realm  the  rebel- 
lious angels  were  cast,  2  Pet.  2  :  4  (where 
the  word  is  a  derivative  from  "  Tarta- 
rus"). At  the  great  day  of  judgment 
the  cursed  shall  go  away  into  this  abode 
and  receive  the  everlasting  punishment. 
Matt.  25  :  46. 

HELLENISTS,  THE,  were  the 
Jews  who  had  lost  their  strict  and  ex- 
clusive spirit  by  constant  intercourse 
with  the  Gentiles,  who  habitually  spoke 
Greek,  and  who  read  the  Septuagint. 
They  were  much  better  qualified  for  the 
larger  views  of  the  gospel  than  were 
their  Jewish  brethren  who  lived  in  Pal- 
estine and  spoke  the  Hebrew  language. 
In  the  A.  Y.  the  term  is  rendered  "  Gre- 
cians." Acts  6:1;  9  :  29  ;  11 :  20.  They 
were  not  necessarily  outside  of  Palestine. 
The  class  was  formed  by  habits  of  thought 
quite  as  much  as  by  language.  The  term 
must  not  be  confounded  with  Hellens, 
who  were  native  Greeks  in  religion  as 
well  as  language. 

HELM'ET.     See  Armor. 

HE'LON  {strong),  father  of  Eliab, 
the  chief  of  Zebulon.  Num.  1:9;  2:7; 
7:24,  29;  10:16. 

HELPS,  the  translation  in  the  A. 
V.  of  a  word  which  occurs  onlj'  in  this 
place  in  the  N.  T.,  1  Cor.  12 :  28.  The 
"helps"  are  a  gift  of  the  Spirit.  This 
gift  doubtless  comprehends  the  various 
duties  of  the  deacons  and  deaconesses  of 
the  apostolic  Church,  especially  the  care 
of  the  poor  and  the  sick.  It  is  found 
also  among  the  laity,  especially  the  fe- 
male portion,  in  all  ages  and  all  branches 
of  Christendom. 

HELPS,  THE,  used  in  the  storm, 
Acts  27:17,  were  chains,  cables,  etc., 
which  were  passed  under  the  keel  of  the 
vessel,  in  order  to  bind  the  planks  to- 
gether. 

HEM  OF  GARMENT.  See 
Clothes. 

HE'MAM  {exterminating),  a  son  of 
Lotan,  Gen.  36:22;  called  Homam  in 
1  Chr.  1 :  39. 

HE'MAN  {trnsty).  1.  A  son  of 
Zerah  eminent  for  wisdom.  I  Chr.  2:6; 
1  Kgs.  4:  31. 


HEM 


HER 


2.  Grandson  of  Samuel  the  prophet. 
1  Chr.  6:33;  15:17,  19;  16:  41,  42; 
25:1,  4,  5,  6;  2  Chr.  5:12:  29:14;  35: 
15.    Ps.  88  is  attributed  to  him. 

HE'MATH  {heat),  a  person  or 
place  mentioned  in  1  Chr.  2  :  55. 

HE'MATH  {fortress-).  1  Chr.  13: 
5;   Am.  6:14.     See  Hamath. 

HEM'DAN  {pleasant),  the  eldest 
son  of  Dishon,  Gen.  36  :26;  called  Am- 
ran  in  1  Chr.  1 :  41. 

HEM'LOCK,  Hos.  10  :  4.  A  well- 
known  bitter  and  poisonous  herb,  a 
species  of  which  is  common  in  the 
United  States.  The  word  rendered 
"hemlock"  in  the  above  passage  and 
in  Am.  6  :  12  is  elsewhere  rendered 
'•'gall."  The  figurative  use  of  it  is  ex- 
plained by  comparing  the  above  pas- 
sage with  Dcut.  29  : 1 8  ;  Am.  5:7;  Heb. 
12:15.  The  evils  of  perverted  judg- 
ment resemble  the  springing  up  of  use- 
less and  poisonous  plants  where  we  look 
for  and  expect  valuable  and  nutritious 
vegetation. 

HEIV  {favor),  a  son  of  Zephaniah, 
Zech.  6  :  14. 

HEN.  The  only  place  in  which  this 
word  occurs  is  in  our  Lord's  lament :  "  0 
Jerusalem,  Jerusalem,  thou  that  killest 
the  prophets,  and  stonest  them  which 
are  sent  unto  thee,  how  often  would  I 
have  gathered  thy  children  together, 
even  as  a  hen  gathereth  her  chickens 
under  her  wings,  and  ye  would  not !" 
Matt.  23  :  37  ;  Luke  13  :  34.  But  hens 
must  have  been  common  barnyard  fowls, 
as  they  are  to-day  in  Syria,  where  they 
form  a  chief  article  of  food.  Hen's  eggs 
are  probably  meant  in  Luke  11 :  12,  and 
if  so  they  were  very  abundant.  The 
rabbinical  prohibition  to  keep  fowls  in 
Jerusalem  was  probably  never  enforced. 
The  cock  is  mentioned  in  connection 
with  Peter's  denial.     See  Cock-crowing. 

HE'NA  {trouhlinff),  a  city  conquered 
by  a  king  of  Assyria,  2  Kgs.  18:34; 
19:13;  Isa.  37:13;  believed  to  be 
Anak,  on  the  Euphrates,  20  miles  from 
the  site  of  Babylon. 

HEN'ADAD  {favor  of  Hadad), 
the  head  of  a  Levitical  family  who  were 
prominent  in  rebuilding  the  temple  and 
repairing  the  wall.  Ezr.  3:9;  Neh.  3  : 
IS,  24;  10:9. 

HE'NOCH,  1.  1  Chr.  1:3.  See 
Enoch. 

2.  1  Chr.  X  :  33.     See  Hanoch. 


HE'PHER  (a  toell).  1.  A  Manas- 
site.  Num.  26:32,  33;  27:1;  Josh.  17: 
2,  3. 

2.  A  Judite,  1  Chr.  4 :  6. 

3.  One  of  David's  warriors,  1  Chr. 
11:36. 

HE'PHER  {well,  pit),  a  district  in 
Palestine,  probably  in  Judah  ;  possibly  el- 
Mesh-hed  ;  taken  by  .Joshua,  Josh.  12  :  17. 

HE'PHERITES,      THE,      de 
scendants  of  Hepher,  1.  Num.  26:32. 

HEPH'ZIBAH  {my  delujht  is  in 
her).  1.  The  wife  of  Hezekiah,  and 
mother  of  Manasseh,  2  Kgs.  21 :  1. 

2.  A  symbolical  name  for  restored  Je- 
rusalem, Isa.  62  : 4. 

HER'ALD,  one  who  makes  a  public 
and  formal  announcement.  The  only  ref- 
erence in  the  A.  V.  to  this  ofiicer  is  in  Dan. 
3:4;  but  in  the  N.  T.  the  familiarity 
of  Paul  with  the  Grecian  games  induced 
him  to  speak  of  the  gospel-preachers  as 
heralds  ;  e. «/.  1  Tim.  2:7;  2  Tim.  1 :  11. 
So  Peter.  2  Pet.  2  :  5.     See  Games. 

HERB,  a  plant  which,  in  distinc- 
tion from  the  shrub  or  tree,  is  without 
true  woody  tissue.  Herbs  die  to  the 
ground,  if  not  entirely,  during  the  dry 
Oriental  summer.  But  those  of  them 
that  are  biennials  or  perennials  revive 
with  the  fall  rains  or  in  the  spring. 
Six  Hebrew  words  are  translated  by 
the  general  term  before  us,  five  of  them 
with  unquestionable  correctness.  The 
word  thus  rendered  in  2  Kgs.  4:39; 
Isa.  18  :  4;  26  :  19  involves  the  idea  of 
brightness,  and  is  perhaps  some  partic- 
ular plant.  If  so,  the  most  probable 
opinion  is  that  it  is  eolewort  or  some 
plant  of  the  cabbage  tribe.     See  Grass. 

HERD,  HERDSMAN.  Nothing 
more  strikingly  brings  out  the  contrast 
between  the  Egyptians  and  the  Hebrews 
than  their  different  estimation  of  the 
pursuit  of  cattle-raising.  AVhile  the 
latter  had  large  herds  and  flocks,  and 
considered  their  possession  and  kee|) 
honorable,  the  former,  quite  as  depend- 
ent upon  them  for  food  and  labor,  de- 
spised the  herdsman  as  "  an  abomina- 
tion," Gen.  46  :  34.  By  the  influence 
of  Joseph  his  brethren  were  made  Pha- 
raoh's chief  herdsmen,  Gen.  47  :  6.  The 
patriarchs  were  great  herdsmen.  The 
occupation  was  not  inconsistent  with 
state  honors  ;  thus,  Doeg,  "  the  chiefest 
of  th§  herdsmen,"  was  high  in  Saul's 
favor,  1  Sam.  21 :  7.     David's  herdmas- 

375 


HER 


HER 


ters  were  among  his  chief  officers  of 
state.  In  Solomon's  time,  although  com- 
merce decreased  its  relative  importance, 
the  pursuit  was  still  extensive.  Eccl.  2  : 
7  ;  1  Kgs.  4 :  23.  "  It  must  have  sufiFer- 
ed  greatly  from  the  inroads  of  the  ene- 
mies to  which  the  country,  under  the 
later  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel,  was  ex- 
posed. Uzziah,  however,  2  Chr.  26  :  10  ; 
and    Hezekiah,   32  :  28,    29,    resuming 


command  of  the  open  country,  revived 
it.  Josiah  also  seems  to  have  been  rich 
in  herds,  35 :  7-9.  The  prophet  Amos 
at  first  followed  this  occupation,  Am.  1 : 
1 ;  7  :  14." 

The  wealth  of  the  Jews  at  all  times 
consisted  largely  of  cattle.  The  terri- 
tory of  the  tribes  across  the  Jordan  was 
particularly  adapted  for  grazing-pur- 
poses.     West  of  the  river  the  principal 


/f^  "/£  [^^'^^ 


%f^ij? 


Egyptian  Herdsmen  treating  sicli  Animals.     (After  Wilkinson.) 


feeding-grounds  were  Sharon,  1  Chr. 
27:29,  the  Carmel,  1  Sam.  25:2,  and 
Dothan,  Gen.  37  :17  ;  but  doubtless  all 
the  uncultivated  lands  were  used  for 
this  purpose.  But  for  food  they  did  not 
use,  as  we  do,  full-grown  beeves,  but 
killed  the  calves.  Fattening  for  beef  is 
indeed  not  practised  in  the  East.  The 
oxen  were  broken  for  service  in  the 
third  year,  Isa.  15  : 5.  When  the  heat 
had  dried  up  all  the  pasture,  then  the 
oxen  were  stalled,  Hab.  3:17.  Hence 
the  figure  "  a  stalled  ox "  for  stately 
magnificence,  which  is  used  in  Prov.  15  : 
17.  "  Calves  of  the  stall  "  were  watch- 
fully cared  for,  Mai.  4  :  2.  Cattle  feed 
upon  foliage  as  well  as  upon  grass,  Ps. 
50:10.  A  mixture  of  various  grains, 
as  also  chopped  straw,  is  fed  when  the 
pasture  gives  out.  See  Job  6  :  5,  "  fod- 
der;" Isa.  30  :  24,  "provender;"  Gen. 
24  :  25  ;  Isa.  11 :  7  ;  65  :  25.  See  Agri- 
culture. Ox. 

HE'RES  (sun).  1.  Mount  Heres, 
Jud.  1 :  35  ;  possibly  the  same  as  Ir-she- 
mesh  ;  perhaps  at,  Jve/r  Hdris. 

2.  Heres,  Isa.  19:18  (margin),  but 
the  text  reads  "  city  of  destruction." 
Calvin  did  not  regard  it  as  a  proper 
name;  Poole  regards  it  as  an  Egyptian 
citv  inhabited  by  the  Jews. 

HE'RESH  [artificer),  a  Levite,  1 
Chr.  9:  15. 

HER'ESY,     Acts    24  :  14.  _    This 
term,  as  generally  used  by  the   sacred 
376 


writers,  implies  no  judgment  respecting 
the  truth  or  error  of  the  peculiar  tenets 
but  signifies  a  party  or  division.  It  is 
derived  from  a  word  meaning  ''to 
choose."  The  Pharisees,  Acts  15:5; 
26  :  5,  and  the  Sadducees,  Acts  5  :  17,  as 
well  as  the  Nazarenes,  Acts  24  :  5  ,  12, 
14,  were  denominated  heresies.  In 
these  passages  the  word  is  translated 
"  sects."  In  Acts  24 :  14,  where  Paul 
speaks  of  the  Christian  religion  as  "the 
way  which  they  call  heresy,"  he  un- 
doubtedly means  to  imply  that  the 
Christian  organization  was  not  a  sepa- 
ration from  the  0.  T.  Church,  but  the 
true  Church  itself.  In  1  Cor.  11:19; 
Gal.  5  :  20,  and  2  Pet.  2 : 1  heresies  are 
referred  to  in  connection  with  the  apos- 
tolic Church,  and  in  the  last  two  cases 
the  implication  is  that  they  are  depart- 
ures from  the  fundamental  truth  of  the 
gospel,  and  to  be  condemned.  Early  in 
the  history  of  the  Christian  Church  the 
word  acquired  the  signification  it  now 
has,  of  a  departure  from  the  fundamen- 
tals of  gospel  truth. 

HER'MAS  [Mercury,  the  god  of 
gain,  and  the  messenger  of  the  gods),  a 
Roman  Christian  whom  Paul  greets, 
Rom.  16 :  14.  Some  of  the  fathers  at- 
tributed to  him  the  book  called  "  The 
Shepherd  of  Hermas,"  a  sort  of  Pil- 
grim's Progress,  consisting  of  three 
parts :  the  first  has  4  visions ;  the  sec- 
ond,   12    spiritual   precepts ;    the  third, 


HER 


HER 


10  similitudes,  each  setting  forth  some 
truth. 

HER'MES  {Mercanj),  according  to 
tradition,  one  of  the  Seventy,  and  after- 
ward bishop  of  Dalinatia,  Rom.  16  :  14. 

HERMOG'ENES  {begotten  of 
Mercury),  one  who  forsook  Paul.  2  Tim. 
1:15. 

HER'MON  (prominent  snmntit, 
peak,  or  perhaps  from  a  root  signifying 
"unapproachable"  or  ''holy;"  by  the 
Sidonians  Sir  ion,  "to  glitter,"  and  by 
the  Amorites  Shenir,  and  by  the  He- 
brews Sion,  Dent.  4:48;  Ps.  133:3), 
the  high  southern  pai't  of  Anti-Libanus, 
about  40  miles  east  of  north  of  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  and  30  miles  south  of 
west  of  Damascus,  and  now  called  Jehel- 
esk-Sheikh,  or  "the  chief  mountain." 
It  has  three  i^eaks  or  summits,  hence 
called  "the  Herinons;"  incorrectly  ren- 
dered "  the  Ilermonites,"  Ps.  42  :  6. 
Hermon  was  the  northern  limit  of  the 
territory  of  Israel  beyond  the  Jordan, 
Deut.  3  :  8  ;  4  :  48  ;  Josh.  11 : 3,  1 7 ;  13  :  11. 
Hermon  and  Tabor  are  the  representa- 
tives of  all  the  mountains  of  the  Prom- 
ised Land,  Ps.  89  :  12  ;  42  :  6  ;  133:3. 
Some  of  the  names  of  Hermon  may  re- 
fer to  different  peaks  of  the  mountain, 
Deut.  3:9;  Song  Sol.  4:8;  1  Chr.  5 : 
23.  Hermon  rises  to  an  elevation  of 
9000  feet  above  the  Mediterranean. 
The  top  is  partially  crowned  with  snow, 
or  rather  ice,  during  the  whole  year, 
which,  however,  lies  only  in  the  ravines, 
and  thus  presents  at  a  distance  the  ap- 
pearance of  radiant  stripes  around  and 
below  the  summit.  The  high  ridge 
Jebel-ed-Duhy,  on  the  north  of  the  val- 
ley of  Jezreel,  is  sometimes  called  the 
Little  Hermon,  but  Jebel-esh-Sheikh  is 
the  true  and  only  Hermon  of  the  Scrip- 
tures.    See  cut  p.  371. 

Physical  Features. — SchaflF  calls  Her- 
mon "  the  Mont  Blanc  of  Palestine."  The 
mountain  constitutes  a  part  of  the  great 
Anti-Lebanon  range,  running  from  north- 
east to  south-west  for  over  30  miles.  Its 
rock-formation  is  hard  limestone,  cover- 
ed at  places  with  soft  chalk,  while  ba- 
salt appears  in  some-spurs.  The  top  of 
the  mountain  may  be  described  as  con- 
sisting of  three  peaks  or  summits,  of 
which  two  are  approximately  north  and 
south,  about  400  yards  apart,  and  of 
almost  equal  height,  being  joined  by  a 
flat   plateau    depressed    in    the   middle. 


The  third  peak,  600  yards  to  the  west, 
is  about  100  feet  lower,  and  divided  by 
a  valley-head  from  the  former.  This  is 
called  El  Mntabkhiydt,  "place  of  cook- 
ing." The  two  principal  peaks  are  each 
9053  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  and 
11,000  feet  above  the  Ghor  or  Jordan 
depression.  No  ruins  are  found,  except 
on  the  southern  peak,  where  is  a  hollow 
bounded  by  an  oval  enclosure  of  stones 
well  hewn.  At  its  southern  end  is  a  sn- 
cellnm,  or  temple,  nearly  destroyed. — See 
Our  Work  in  Palestine,  p.  245.  In  win- 
ter the  snow  extends  down  the  moun- 
tain-side for  about  5000  feet ;  it  melts 
as  summer  advances,  until  in  September 
only  a  little  is  left  in  the  crevices  and 
shaded  hollows.  In  November  the  snow 
begins  to  cover  the  mountain  again. 
Hence  the  best  time  for  the  ascent  is 
from  June  to  early  autumn.  Bears  are 
frequently  seen  on  Mount  Hermon,  and 
foxes,  wolves,  and  various  kinds  of  game 
abound.  Porter  describes  the  sides  and 
top  of  Hermon  as  the  acme  of  barren 
desolation;  but  Tristram,  visiting  it  at 
a  different  season,  found  "  many  boreal 
forms  of  life  both  in  fauna  and  flora," 
and  from  Hermon  added  50  species  to 
his  catalogue  of  jilants. — See  Tristram, 
Land  of  Israel,  p.  613.  The  view  from 
the  summit  is  one  of  vast  extent,  em- 
bracing a  great  part  of  the  Holy  Land, 
"  which  lies  far  below,  spread  out  like  a 
gigantic  relief-map."  The  traveller  may 
look  down  upon  Sidon,  Tyre,  the  Medi- 
terranean, Mount  Carmel,  Gerizim,  the 
hills  about  Jerusalem  and  the  Dead  Sea, 
Gilead  and  Nebo,  the  Jordan  Valley, 
Gennesaret,  Damascus,  Lebanon,  etc. 

Bible  History. — Mount  Hermon  was  a 
great  landmark  to  the  Israelites,  as  it 
marked  their  north-eastern  boundary. 
Deut.  3:8;  Josh.  12  :  1.  Joshua  ex- 
tended his  conquest  nearly  to  that 
point.  Josh.  11  :  17.  The  Hebrews  ex- 
tolled its  majestic  height,  Ps.  89  :  12, 
and  its  copious  dew,  Ps.  133  : 4.  Mod- 
ern travellers  note  the  abundant  dews, 
which  drench  everything,  and  from 
which  tents  aff'ord  small  protection. 
These  abundant  dews  are  accounted  for 
by  the  fact  that  in  the  daytime  the  hot 
air  comes  streaming  up  the  Ghor  from 
Lake  Huleh,  while  Hermon  arrests  the 
moisture  and  deposits  it  congealed  at 
night. 

Hermon  is  not  mentioned  in  the  N.  T., 

377 


HER 


HER 


but  it  is  probably  the  site  of  the  trans- 
figuration of  Christ,  Matt.  17;  Mark  9, 
and  answers  the  description  of  ''a  high 
mountain  apart."  Conder  notes  it  as  a 
curious  observation  that ''on  the  sum- 
mit of  Hermon  there  is  often  a  sudden 
accumulation  of  cloud,  as  quickly  again 
dispersed,  often  visible  when  the  re- 
mainder of  the  atmosphere  is  perfectly 
clear.  .  .  .  We  cannot  fail  to  be  reminded 
in  this  phenomenon  of  *  the  cloud  that 
overshadowed  '  the  apostles."  C^esarea 
Philippi,  where  Christ  was  just  before 
the  transfiguration,  is  at  the  foot  of 
Hermon,  and  there  are  several  retired 
places  on  the  mountain-side  where  it 
might  well  have  occurred.  It  fits  into 
the  points  of  the  narrative  in  the  Gos- 
pels far  better  than  Tabor,  where  the 
monastic  tradition  (Greek  and  Latin) 
locates  this  wonderful  event.  See  Tabor. 

HERMONITES,  THE,  prop- 
erly "  the  Hermons,"  referring  to  the 
three  peaks  of  Hermon,   Ps.  42:6,  7. 

HER'OD.  1.  Herod  the  Great, 
king  of  Judtea,  b.  c.  40- b.  c.  4.  In  his 
reign  Christ  was  born.  Matt.  2  :  1-18. 
He  was  a  man  of  unusual  executive  abil- 
ity, of  iron  will,  of  consummate  shrewd- 
ness and  cunning,  but  of  violent  pas- 


Bronze  Coin  of  Herod  the  Great. 

sions,  and  cruel  and  unscrupulous  in 
the  choice  of  means  to  accomplish  his 
designs.  He  was  by  descent  an  Idu- 
maean  and  the  son  of  Antipater,  who 
had  been  appointed  by  Julius  Caesar 
procurator  of  Judaea,  B.  c.  47.  At  the 
age  of  25,  Herod  was  made  governor  of 
Galilee,  subsequently  appointed  tetrarch 
of  Judaea  by  Antony,  b.  c.  40,  and  after- 
ward, by  the  Roman  senate,  king  of 
Judaea.  He  was  obliged  to  fight  for  his 
kingdom,  and  with  the  aid  of  the  Ro- 
mans wrested  it  out  of  the  hands  of  his 
enemies.  Antigonus,  the  high  priest, 
and  the  last  representative  of  the  As- 
monaean  family  in  that  office,  was  taken 
and  executed,  a.  d.  37, 
378 


Herod's  reign  was  in  one  sense  a  most 
brilliant  one.  Following  the  example 
of  the  Roman  emperor  Augustus,  he 
lavished  vast  sums  of  money  on  public 
works.  He  founded  and  built  a  beauti- 
ful city  on  the  coast,  which  he  named, 
after  his  royal  master,  Cassarea.  He 
also  rebuilt  the  city  of  Samaria,  which 
had  been  completely  destroyed,  b.  c.  109, 
and  gave  it  the  new  appellation  Sebaste. 
In  Jerusalem  and  its  vicinity  he  erected 
a  theatre  and  an  amphitheatre,  and  on 
the  borders  of  his  kingdom  built  some 
strong  fortresses,  as  Herodeion.  His 
magnificence,  however,  did  not  confine 
itself  to  his  own  kingdom,  but  over- 
leaping its  boundaries  founded  temples 
in  various  parts  of  the  Roman  empire. 
But  the  most  important  building  to 
which  Herod  gave  his  money  was  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem.  Out  of  deference 
to  the  prejudices  of  the  Jewish  people 
he  engaged  1000  priests  to  work  upon 
the  temple  itself,  while  hundreds  of 
other  workmen  were  employed  upon  the 
other  parts.  The  work  was  begun  b.  c. 
20,  and  continued  long  after  his  death. 
John  2  :  20.  AVhile,  by  a  shrewd  respect 
for  the  prejudices  of  his  subjects,  Herod 
flattered  them  into  periodical  displays 
of  contentment,  he  was  not  a  popular 
sovereign.  He  was,  after  all,  a  for- 
eigner, and  the  Hebrew  people  could 
not  become  reconciled  to  his  dominion 
and  that  of  Caesar.  In  many  ways  he 
offended  them,  as  by  the  introduction  of 
the  theatre  and  of  games  after  the  model 
of  the  Grecian  games. 

In  his  family  life  Herod  displayed 
the  most  cruel  and  barbarous  nature. 
He  had  ten  wives  and  several  sons; 
and  in  reference  to  his  conduct  toward 
them  Augustus  made  the  remark,  "  I 
would  rather  be  his  swine  than  his 
son."  He  committed  the  most  revolt- 
ing murders  amongst  his  nearest  kin. 
Among  the  victims  of  his  rage  and  sus- 
picion were  the  brother,  grandfather 
(Hyrcanus,  B.  c.  30),  and  mother  of 
Mariamne,  his  wife,  Mariamne  herself, 
B.  c.  29,  his  two  sons  by  her,  Aristobulus 
and  Alexander,  B.  c.  7,  and  his  son  by 
Doris,  Antipater,  only  a  few  days  before 
his  death.  To  this  frightful  list  must 
be  added  the  innocent  children  of  Beth- 
lehem, whom  he  had  murdered  in  the 
hope  to  thus  do  away  with  Jesus,  Matt. 
2 :  16.     When  he  was  dying  he  ordered 


HER 


HER 


that  the  chief  men  of  all  the  cities  of 
Judaea  should  be  killed,  in  order  that 
there  might  be  some  mourning  at  his 
death. 

After  a  long  reign  of  37  years,  Herod 
died  a  miserable  death  in  Jericho.  His 
feet  swelled,  and  his  bowels  became  the 
victim  of  ulcers  which  gave  him  intense 
pain.  He  removed  to  Callirhoe,  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Jordan,  hoping  to  get 
relief  in  the  baths.  All  was  of  no  avail, 
and  he  died,  nearly  70  years  of  age,  and 
unregretted  by  his  family,  much  less  by 
his  subjects. 

The  wise  men  of  the  East  had  an  au- 
dience with  Herod  on  their  arrival  in 
Jerusalem,  and,  alarmed  by  their  inter- 
est in  One  ''born  King  of  the  Jews,"  he 
took  the  precautions  which  cunning 
could  suggest,  and  cruelty  execute  to  do 
away  with  his  rival.  Matt.  2  :  8,  16. 

2.  Herod  Antipas,  tetrarch  of  Gali- 
lee and  Peraea,  Luke  3  : 1,  b.  c.  4-a.  d. 
39.  He  was  the  second  son  of  Herod 
by  his  fourth  wife,  Malthace.  Like  his 
father,  he  was  ambitious  and  fond  of 
ostentation.  Our  Lord  refers  to  his 
cunning  when  he  terms  him  "that  fox," 
Luke  13  :  32.  He  also  lavished  large 
sums  of  money  on  public  works,  and 
built  Tiberias,  so  called  after  the  Roman 
emperor  Tiberius.  Induced  thereto  by 
his  wife,  Herodias,  he  went  to  Rome  to 
secure  the  title  of  king.  Charged,  how- 
ever, with  crimes,  he  was  deposed  from 
his  office  by  Caligula,  and  banished  to 
Lyons. 

Herod  Antipas  is  mentioned  at  least 
five  times  in  the  N.  T.  He  is  brought 
the  most  prominently  forward  in  the 
history  of  John  the  Baptist.  The  proph- 
et denounced  the  adulterous  relation  in 
which  he  was  living  with  Herodias,  the 
legal  wife  of  Herod  Philip  (not  the  te- 
trarch Philip,  who  married  Salome),  his 
brother.  Herod  listened  with  pleasure 
to  John,  but,  instigated  by  his  wife,  he 
put  him  in  prison,  and  in  obedience  to  a 
rash  oath  to  Salome,  although  with  hesi- 
tating will,  had  him  beheaded,  Mark  6  : 
16-28.  Herod  was  also  one  of  the 
judges  before  whom  our  Lord  appeared 
at  his  trial.  He  happened  to  be  at  Je- 
rusalem for  the  feast  of  the  Passover, 
and  Pilate  sent  Christ  to  him,  as  he  was 
a  Galilean.  Herod  was  very  desirous  to 
see  Jesus,  having  heard  of  him  before, 
Mark  6  :  14,  and  asked  many  q[uestions, 


none  of  which,  however,  were  answered, 
Luke  23:7-12.  This  incident  is  again 
referred  to  Acts  4  :  27.  From  the  Gos- 
pels we  get  his  character  as  a  votary  of 
pleasure  and  debauchery,  Mark  6  :  22  ; 
superstitious,  Mark  6:16;  and  cunning, 
Luke  13  :  32. 

3.  AuCHliLAUS,    B.  C.    4— A.  D.     6,    eth- 

narch  of  Judaea,  Samaria,  and  Iduma^a. 
He  was  the  son  of  Herod  by  Malthace, 
and  elder  brother  of  Antipas.  Herod 
the  Great,  his  father,  left  the  "  king- 
dom "  to  him,  but  Augustus  refused  to 
ratify  the  will,  and  put  him  off  with  the 
inferior  title  ethnarch.  He  was  tyranni- 
cal toward  his  subjects  and  regardless 
of  their  prejudices,  marrying  his  step- 
brother's wife,  Glaphyra,  in  violation  of 
the  Mosaic  Law.  He  was  accused,  and, 
cited  to  appear  at  Rome,  was  deposed  from 
his  office  and  banished  to  Vienne  in  Gaul. 
There  is  only  one  mention  of  Archelaus 
in  the  N.  T.,  Matt.  2:22. 

4.  Philip,  tetrarch  of  Gaulonitis,  Au- 
ranitis,  etc.,  b.  c.  4-a.  d.  34.  He  was  the 
son  of  Herod  the  Great  by  his  fifth  wife, 
Cleopatra,  but  unlike  the  rest  of  his 
family  was  distinguished  for  justice  and 
moderation.  He  married  his  niece  Sa- 
lome, the  daughter  of  Herodias  and  his 
brother  Herod  (Philip),  who  was  the 
young  woman  that  danced  before  Herod 
Antipas.  Philip  is  referred  to  once  in  the 
N.  T.,  Luke  3:1. 

5.  Herod  Philip  was  the  son  of  Her- 
od the  Great  and  Mariamne,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Simon  the  high  priest.  He  was 
the  first  husband  of  Herodias,  and  is 
called  Philip  in  Mark  6:  17.  He  seems 
to  have  occupied  a  private  station, 

6.  Herod  Agrippa  I.,  king,  A.  d.  37- 
44,  first  of  the  tetrarchy  of  Philip  and  Ly- 


Coin  of  Herod  Agrippa  I. 

sanias,  and  finally  of  a  dominion  equal 
in  extent  to  that  of  Herod  the  Great. 
He  was  the  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great, 
and  son  of  Aristobulus  (murdered  u.  c. 
7).  Educated  at  Rome  and  thrown 
into  prison  by  Tiberius,  he  gained  the 
favor  of  the  emperor  Caligula,  who  made 

379 


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HES 


him  king.  He  observed  the  ceremonial 
of  the  Pharisees  and  affected  piety.  As 
the  representative  of  the  Jewish  spirit, 


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he   persecuted    the    apostles,    beheaded 
James,    and    sought   to    execute    Peter, 
Acts  12 : 1-19. 
380 


7.  Herod  Agrippa  II.,  a.  d.  50-100, 
king  of  the  tetrarchies  formerly  under 
Philip  and  Lysanias.  He  was  the 
brother  of  Bernice  and  Drusilla.  Paul 
appeared  before  him  and  narrated  the 
history  of  his  conversion.  His  words  in 
answer  to  Paul's  question  have  become 
proverbial:  "Almost  thou  persuadest 
me  to  be  a  Christian,"  Acts  26  :  28. 

HERO'DIANS,  a  Jewish  political 
party,  originating  probably  in  devotion 
toward  the  Roman  emperor  and  Herod, 
his  deputy.  Matt.  22:16.  They  were 
the  court-party  and  submitted  willingly 
to  the  government  of  Rome,  and  were 
thus  at  the  opposite  pole  from  the  Phari- 
sees. It  may  be  that  some  of  them  were 
among  those  who  regarded  Herod  as  the 
Messiah.  They  coalesced  with  the  Phari- 
sees in  the  attempt  to  destroy  Christ, 
Mark  3:6;  Matt.  22  :  16,  and  are  prob- 
ably referred  to  in  the  expression  "lea- 
ven of  Herod,"  Mark  8  :  15. 

HERO'DIAS,  the  granddaughter 
of  Herod  the  Great,  and  mother  of 
Salome,  Matt.  14  :  3.  She  first  mar- 
ried her  uncle,  Herod  Philip,  and  after- 
ward Herod  Antipas,  another  uncle,  and 
that  too  during  her  first  husband's  life- 
time. For  this  urilawful  and  scandalous 
connection  John  the  Baptist  faithfully 
reproved  the  parties,  and  his  fidelity 
cost  him  his  life,  Matt.  14  :  3-10.  When 
her  husband,  Antipas,  was  banished  to 
Lyons,  she  shared  his  banishment  with 
him. 

HERO'DION,  a  "kinsman"  of 
Paul,  whom  he  greets,  Rom.  16:11. 

HEREON.  Lev.  11 :  19  ;  Deut.  14 : 
18.  At  least  seven  species  of  heron  are 
found  in  Palestine.  These  well-known 
birds  frequent  marshes  and  rivers,  in 
which  their  long  legs  fit  them  to  wade, 
and  from  which  they  obtain  their  food 
of  fish,  frogs,  and  insects.  Most  critics 
hold  that  the  bird  of  the  above  references 
was  not  the  heron,  but  Tristram,  one  of 
the  latest  and  best,  sustains  the  reading 
of  the  A.  V. 

HE'S  ED  (kinduesa),  the  father  of 
one  of  Solomon's  commissariat  ofiicers, 
1  Kgs.  4:10. 

HESH'BON  (rea807i,  device),  a  city 
originally  belonging  to  the  Moabites, 
but  taken  by  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amor- 
ites,  and  made  his  capital;  captured 
and  occupied  by  the  Israelites,  Num. 
21 :  25,  26 ;    situated   on   the   boundary 


HES 


HEZ 


between  Reuben  and  Gad ;  rebuilt  by 
Reuben  and  made  a  Levitical  city,  then 
being  territorially  a  Gadite  city.  Num. 
32  :  3,  37  ;  Deut.  1:4;  2  :  24-;50  ;  3  :  2, 
()  ;  4  :  4(5 ;  29  :  7  ;  Josh.  9:10;  12  :  2,  5  ; 
13  :  10-27  ;  21  :  39  ;  Jud.  11 :  ID,  26  ;  1 
Chr.  6  :  81.  In  later  times  the  Moabites 
regained  possession  of  lleshbon,  so  that 
it  is  mentioned  as  a  Moabitish  town  in 
the  prophetic  denunciations  against  that 
people,  Isa.  15  :  4  ;  16  :  8,  9  ;  Jer.  48  :  2, 
34,  45  ;  49  :  3. 

The  ruins  of  the  city  still  exist  some 
15  miles  east  of  the  northern  end  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  on  the  great  table-land  of 
Moab.  A  small  hill  rises  200  feet  above 
the  general  level,  and  upon  this  is  Hesh- 
bon,  now  called  Heshdn.  The  whole 
city  must  have  had  a  circuit  of  about  a 
mile.  The  hill  is  described  as  "  one  heap 
of  shapeless  ruin."  "  Jewish  stones,  Ro- 
man arches,  Doric  pillars,  and  Saracenic 
arches  are  all  strangely  mingled." — See 
Tristram,  Land  of  Israel,  p.  544.  The  site 
was  admirably  adapted  for  the  capital  of 
a  wai'like  people.  It  was  the  key  both  to 
the  plain  of  the  Jordan  and  to  the  moun- 
tains of  Gilead.  East  of  the  city  are 
the  remains  of  water-courses  and  an 
enormous  cistern,  or  "fish-pond,"  which 
illustrates  Cant.  7:4. 

HESH'MON  {fertility),  a  town 
named  with  others  as  lying  in  the  south 
of  Judah,  Josh.  15  :  27.  Wilton  con- 
nects it  with  Husham,  an  Edomite  king, 
Gen.  36  :  34,  35,  and  with  ' Ain  Hash, 
perhaps  Hashmonah  of  Num.  33  :  29, 
30,  but  Conder  identifies  Heshmon  with 
a  site  called  el-Meshash  ("the  pits"), 
which  has  two  wells  and  is  on  the  road 
from  Beer-sheba  to  Moladah. 

HES'RON,  HES'RONITES. 
See  Hezrox,  Hezronites. 

HETH  {terror),  one  of  the  sons  of 
Canaan,  of  the  family  of  Ham,  and 
progenitor  of  the  Hittites.  Gen.  10  :  15  : 
23:3,5,7,10,16,18,20;  25  :  10;  27:46; 
49  :  32  ;   1  Chr.  1  :  13.     See  Hittites. 

HETH'LOIV  (hiding-place),  the 
name  of  a  place  on  the  northern  border 
of  Palestine,  Ezr.  47  :  15  ;  48  : 1.  In  all 
probability  the  "way  of  Hethlon"  is 
the  pass  at  the  northern  end  of  Lebanon, 
and  is  thus  identical  with  "the  entrance 
of  Hamath"  in  Num.  34:8.     See  Ha- 

MATH. 

HEZ'EKI  {strong),  a  Benjamite,  1 
Chr.  8  :  17. 


HEZEKI'AH  {strength  of  Jehovah). 
1.  A  distinguished  king  of  Judah,  the 
son  and  successor  of  the  apostate  Ahaz. 
He  ascended  the  throne  B.  c.  726,  at  the 
age  of  25,  and  ruled  29  years,  till  u.  c.  697. 
He  was  one  of  the  three  best  kings  of 
Judah,  and  an  eminently  godly  man. 
2  Kgs.  18  :  5  ;  2  Chr.  29  :  2.  He  re- 
stored the  Mosaic  institutions  to  honor. 
He  accomplished  the  abolition  of  idol- 
worship    in    his    kingdom,    2    Kgs.  18  : 

4,  22,  and  tore  down  the  high  places, 
which  had  been  dedicated  to  idolatry. 
He  also  broke  in  pieces  the  brazen 
serpent  of  Moses,  which  had  become 
the  object  of  idolatrous  regard,  2  Kgs. 
18  :  4.  During  his  reign  the  temple 
was  repaired,  2  Chr.  29 : 3  sqq.,  and 
the  Passover  celebrated  with  festivities 
that  had  not  been  equalled  for  magnifi- 
cence and  solemnity  since  the  days  of 
Solomon  and  David,  2  Chr.  30  :  26.  A 
proclamation  was  sent  from  Dan  to  Beer- 
sheba  inviting  the  tribes  to  come  to  Je- 
rusalem to  keep  the  Passover,  2  Chr.  30 : 

5,  and  as  a  result  of  the  convocation  a 
national  religious  zeal  broke  out,  2  Chr. 
31 : 1.  Another  illustration  of  Hezekiah's 
godly  zeal  in  the  cause  of  religion  is  found 
in  the  high  esteem  in  which  he  held  Isa- 
iah the  prophet,  whom  he  frequently 
consulted,  2  Kgs.  19  :  3 ;  Isa.  37  :  2. 

The  ^jfj/j7ica/  career  of  Hezekiah  was 
an  active  one.  He  warred  against  the 
Philistines,  and  regained  what  his  father 
had  lost,  2  Kgs.  18  :  8.  He  rebelled 
against  the  domination  of  Assyria,  2 
Kgs.  18  :  7.  In  the  fourteenth  year 
of  his  reign  Sennacherib  invaded  his 
kingdom  with  an  immense  army.  Rab- 
shakeh  was  sent  out  in  advance,  and 
endeavored  to  intimidate  Hezekiah  into 
submission,  and  insolently  insulted  him 
under  the  walls,  2  Kgs.  18  :  19  sqq. 
Hezekiah  had  recourse  to  Isaiah,  who 
gave  assurance  of  the  assistance  of  the 
Lord,  2  Kgs.  19  :  6.  The  prediction 
came  true,  and  by  a  sudden  judgment 
of  the  Almighty  the  Assyrian  host  was 
decimated  and  put  to  flight,  2  Kgs.  19  : 
35.  This  event  is  referred  to  by  the 
three  historians  of  Hezekiah's  reign  as 
a  supernatural  event.  2  Kgs.  19  :  35  ;  2 
Chr.  32  :  21 ;  Isa.  37  :  36.  Hezekiah 
formed  an  alliance  with  Egypt,  2  Kgs. 
18:21,  and  was  rich  and  prosperous.  2 
Kgs.  18  :  7  ;  2  Chr.  32  :  27-29. 

In  the  events  of  his  private  life,  one 

381 


HEZ 


HID 


is  noted  of  peculiar  significance.  The 
king  became  sick  unto  death,  and  Isaiah 
uttered  his  doom  in  the  words,  "  Thou 
shalt  die,  and  not  live,"  2  Kgs.  20  :  1. 
Turning  his  face  to  the  wall,  he  lamented 
the  event  and  prayed  God  to  avert  it. 
Isaiah,  passing  out  into  the  court,  was 
checked  by  the  word  of  the  Lord,  and 
comnjanded  to  return  and  to  announce 
the  prolongation  of  the  king's  life  15 
years,  2  Kgs.  20  :  5.  As  a  sign  of  the 
cure  the  dial  was  made  to  go  back  ten 
degrees,  2  Kgs.  20  :  10.  Another  event 
of  note  in  Hezekiah's  life  was  the  pun- 
ishment pronounced  upon  his  house  by 
Isaiah,  2  Kgs.  20  :  17,  for  the  display 
he  made  of  his  riches  to  the  messengers 
of  the  king  of  Babylon,  who  had  come 
to  congratulate  him  upon  his  recovery. 
Hezekiah  died  in  honor  and  was  buried 
in  the  "  highest  of  the  sepulchres  of  the 
sons  of  David,"  2  Chr.  32  :  33. 

2.  A  descendant  of  the  royal  house 
of  Judah,  1  Chr.  3  :  23. 

3.  Ezr.  2  :  16j  Neh.  7  :  21.  See 
Ater. 

HE'ZION  (sight),  grandfather  of 
Benhadad,  and  king  of  Aram  (Syria),  1 
Kgs.  15  :  18. 

HE'ZIR  (a  swine).  1.  A  priestly 
chief,   1  Chr.  24:15. 

2.  One  who  sealed  the  covenant,  Neh. 
10  :  20. 

HEZ'RAI  {encIo-<ied),  one  of  David's 
warriors,  2  Sam.  23  :  35 ;  called  Ilezro 
in  1    Chr.  11 :  37. 

HEZ'RON.  1.  A  son  of  Reuben. 
Gen.  46  :  9 ;  Ex.  6  :  14 ;   1  Chr.  5  :  3. 

2.  A  son  of  Phares.  Gen.  46:  12; 
Ruth  4:18;   1   Chr.  2:9. 

HEZ'RON,  Josh.  15:25.    See  Ha- 

ZOR.  4. 

HEZ'RONITES,    THE.      1,  2. 

Two  families  in  Reuben  and  Judah, 
Num.  26:  6.  21. 

HID'DAI  {joyful),  one  of  David's 
warriors,  2  Sam.  23:30j  in  1  Chr.  11: 
52  called  Hurai. 

HID'DEKEL  [rapid  Tigris),  a  cel- 
ebrated river  of  western  Asia,  the  third 
of  the  rivers  which  issued  from  the  gar- 
den of  Eden.  It  is  said  to  flow  east  to 
Assyria,  Gen.  2:14;  Dan.  10  :  4 ;  is  call- 
ed in  the  ancient  Zend  language  Teger 
("  stream  "),  whence  the  name  "  Tigris." 
Like  its  twin  river,  the  Euphrates,  it 
has  in  the  Armenian  territory  numerous 
sources.  The  western  branches,  which 
382 


form  the  principal  stream,  spring  from 
the  southern  slope  of  the  Anti-Taurus, 
at  no  great  distance  from  the  sources 
of  the  Araxes,  the  Euphrates,  and  the 
Halys,  and  form  a  junction  not  far  from 
Diarbekir.  The  eastern  branch  is  form- 
ed by  the  union  of  several  streams  hav- 
ing their  sources  in  the  districts  of  Mu- 
kus  and  Shattak,  and  farther  eastward, 
in  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan.  The 
eastern  and  western  branches  of  the 
Tigris  unite  at  Tilleh,  whence  the  river 
rushes  through  a  long,  narrow,  and  deep 
gorge  to  the  low  country  of  Assyria.  At 
Mosul,  opposite  the  site  of  Nineveh,  the 
river  is  about  300  feet  wide,  and  when 
swollen  by  rains  or  the  melting  of  the 
mountain  snows  becomes  impetuous, 
flooding  the  lower  country,  and  some- 
times destroying  the  bridges  of  boats. 
The  river  receives  several  important 
tributaries,  and  between  Mosul  and 
Baghdad  passes  over  several  ledges  of 
limestone  rocks,  which  form  ra]»ids  of 
greater  or  less  importance.  In  the  lat- 
ter part  of  its  course  it  averages  600 
feet  in  width,  frequently  15  or  20  feet 
in  depth,  and  during  a  sudden  rise  flows 
about  5  miles  an  hour;  but  in  passing 
over  the  alluvial  plain,  the  current  is 
often  less  than  1  mile  an  hour.  At  Kur- 
nah  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris  unite; 
the  combined  stream  receives  the  name 
of  Shat-el-Arah,  which,  after  a  course  of 
about  120  miles,  falls  into  the  Persian 
Gulf.  The  whole  course  of  the  Tigris  to 
its  junction  with  the  Euphrates  is  about 
1146  miles.  The  Tigris  is  navigable  for 
vessels  drawing  from  3  to  4  feet  of  water, 
from  the  Persian  Gulf  almost  as  far  as 
Tekrit,  a  distance  of  nearly  600  miles. 
There  is  an  active  commerce  along  the 
river  between  Basrah  and  Baghdad  by 
means  of  the  large  country-boats,  which 
go  in  fleets ;  above  the  latter  city  it  is 
chiefly  carried  on  by  rafts  from  Mosul. 
The  Euphrates  expedition  ascended  the 
Tigris  to  beyond  Dokhalah,  and  the  Eu- 
phrates steamer  passed  from  the  Euphra- 
tes to  the  Tigris  by  the  ancient  canal, 
which  leaves  the  former  several  miles 
below  Hit,  and  enters  the  latter  a 
short  way  below  Baghdad.  The  banks 
of  the  Tigris,  on  which  stood  Nineveh  and 
other  populous  cities  once  the  seats  of 
high  culture  and  the  residence  of  mighty 
kings,  are  now  covered  with  mounds  and 
ruins,  the   relics   of  ancient  greatness. 


HIE 


HIG 


There  is  scarcely  one  permanent  settle- 
ment on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris  from 
Jezivah  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
Baghdad,  with  the  exception  of  Mosul 
and  Tekrit.  See  Assyria,  Euphrates, 
and  Tigris. 

HI'EL  {God  lives),  a  Bethelite  who 
rebuilt  Jericho  in  the  reign  of  Ahab,  and 
in  whom  Joshua's  curse,  Josh.  6  :  26,  was 
fulfilled.  1  Kgs.  16  :  34. 

HIERAP'OLIS(s«crec?c%),acity 
in  Proconsular  Asia,  Col.  4:13,  near  the 
river  Lycus,  and  in  sight  of  Laodicea, 
which  was  about  5  miles  to  the  south.  It 
stood  on  a  high  blufiF,  with  a  high  moun- 
tain behind  it.  In  the  city  was  the  famous 
temple  of  Pluto,  remains  of  which  are  still 
to  be  seen.  The  ruins  of  the  city  are 
extensive,  among  which  are  the  remains 
of  temples,  churches,  a  triumphal  arch,  a 
theatre,  gymnasium,  baths,  and  highly- 
ornamented  sarcophagi.  Hierapolis  was 
celebrated  for  its  warm  sp^-ings,  which 
hold  in  solution  carbonate  of  lime,  de- 
positing incrustations  on  anything  with 
which  the  waters  come  in  contact.  It  is 
now  called  Pamhnuh  Kelessi. 

HIGGA'ION,  a  term  occurring 
three  times,  Ps.  9:16;  Ps.  19  :  14 
(translated  ''meditation"),  and  Ps.  92: 
3  (translated  "solemn  sound").  It 
probably  was  originally  a  musical  term 
which  acquired  the  additional  signifi- 
cation of  solemn  thought  or  medita- 
tion. 

HIGH'  PLACES.  The  notion  of 
heaven  as  the  dwelling-place  of  God 
led  naturally  to  the  thought  that 
the  higher  one  rose  above  the  level 
ground  the  nearer  one  came  to  God. 
This  deduction  lay  at  the  base  of  the 
systematic  use  of  hills  and  mountain- 
tops  for  religious  worship,  Trojans 
sacrificed  to  Zeus  (Jupiter)  on  Mount 
Ida;  Greeks,  Persians,  Germans,  and 
many  other  nations  followed  the  cus- 
tom. We  are  therefore  prepared  to  find 
the  Bible  containing  notices  of  the 
"high  places,"  as  these  altars  were  call- 
ed. The  patriarchs  oflered  their  sacri- 
fices wherever  they  pitched  their  tents. 
Gen.  12  :  7,  8  ;  26  :  25 ;  28  :  18,  but  even 
they  sometimes  sacrificed  upon  the 
mountains.  Gen.  22  :  2  ;  31  :  54.  The 
Moabites,  Num.  22:41;  23:14,  28; 
Isa.  15  :  2  ;  Jer.  48  :  35,  and  the  Canaan- 
ites.  Num.  33  :  52  ;  Deut.  12  :  2,  are  often 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  habitual  sac- 


rificers  upon  the  high  places.  But  not 
only  these  idolaters,  but  Moses  also — al- 
though it  might  seem  to  be  an  imitation 
of  the  heathen — at  the  command  of  God 
or  of  his  own  accord,  chose  the  moun- 
tains for  religious  purposes.  Ex.  17  :  15  ; 
Num.  20  :  25.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  the  first  altar  erected  to  Jehovah  in 
the  Holy  Land  was  upon  Mount  Ebal. 
Deut.  27  :  5  ;  Josh.  8  :  30.  The  Israel- 
ites found  that  all  prominent  points  had 
been  consecrated  by  the  former  inhabit- 
ants for  idol-worship,  and  they  used  the 
same  localities  in  the  Jehovah-wor- 
ship. There  was,  however,  an  express 
direction  given  in  respect  to  selecting 
places  of  worship.  Deut.  12  :  11-14. 
But  their  course,  (though  in  the  be- 
ginning innocent)  was  a  fatal  snare. 
It  was  perhaps  impossible  to  worship 
Jehovah  purely  amidst  the  suggestions 
of  the  former  impurity  which  those  high 
places  called  up,  so  in  the  books  of  Mo- 
ses we  find  strict  commands  to  destroy 
them.  Lev.  26  :  30  ;  Num.  33  :  52  ;  Deut. 
33  :  29.  Israel  is  directed  to  repair  unto 
the  one  altar  of  burnt-off"ering.  Deut. 
12:5,  6;  16:21.  But  on  the  other 
hand,  an  earlier  law,  Ex.  20  :  24  ff.,  gave 
the  people  directions  how  to  build  altars, 
as  if  there  might  be  really  more  than 
one.  And  it  is  certain  that  the  Deutero- 
nomic  regulation  was  violated,  at  least  in 
letter,  for  Gideon,  Jud.  6  :  25,  26,  Samuel 
at  Mizpeh,  1  Sam.  7  :  10,  at  an  unnamed 
high  place,  9  :  12,  and  at  Bethlehem,  16  : 
5  ;  Saul  at  Gilgal,  13  :  9,  David,  1  Chr. 
21:26,  Elijah  on  Mount  Carmel,  1  Kgs. 
18  :  30,  and  other  prophets,  1  Sam.  10  :  5, 
offered  sacrifices  away  from  the  taber- 
nacle, and  even  upon  high  places.  To 
account  for  this  strange  anomaly  some 
suggest  that  the  command  already  al- 
luded to  was  '^prospective,  and  was  not 
to  come  into  force  until  such  time  as 
the  tribes  were  settled  in  the  Promised 
Land,  and  had  rest  from  all  their  neigh- 
bors round  about."  Others  plead  the 
inconvenience,  or  in  all  probability  at 
times  the  impossibility,  of  coming  up  to 
Jerusalem,  as  an  excuse.  But  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  in  the  above-men- 
tioned incidents  there  was  either  a  di- 
vine command  or  a  divine  satiction. 
The  Rabbins  declare  that  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  time  before  the  building  of 
the  temple  it  was  allowable  to  offer  sac- 
rifices upon  the  high  places.  2  Sam.  15 : 

383 


HIG 


HTG 


32 ;  cf.  1  Kgs.  3  :  2.  Whatever  may  be 
the  explanation,  the  worship  on  the  high 
places  gratified  a  popular  demand,  and 
God  did  not  punish  them  for  this  viola- 
tion of  the  command  in  Deuteronomy. 
Elijah,  indeed,  complains  because  so 
many  altars  of  Jehovah  were  thrown 
down,  1  Kgs.  19  :  10.  They  formed 
local  centres  of  religion ;  indeed,  there 
is  a  resemblance  in  this  respect  between 
them  and  the  synagogues.  Solomon, 
however,  took  a  step  downward  in  this 
matter,  lie  gave  the  sanction  of  his 
example  to  the  erection  of  high  places, 
not  only  for  Jehovah,  but  for  heathen 
divinities,  1  Kgs.  11 :  7,  8.  The  idol- 
atry of  the  capital  found  imitators. 
When  Jeroboam  would  strengthen  him- 
self against  the  attraction  of  Jerusalem, 
he  erected  calves  at  the  high  places  of 
Dan  and  Bethel,  1  Kgs.  12  :  29-31. 
From  that  time  the  Jews  of  the  north- 
ern kingdom  used  the  high  places 
as  places  of  worship,  both  of  Jehovah 
and  of  false  gods.  In  Judah  the  worship 
of  Jehovah  on  the  high  places  contin- 
ued. Even  the  pious  kings — Asa,  1  Kgs. 
15  :  14,  Jehoshaphat,  22  :  43,  Jehoash,  2 
Kgs.  12  :  3,  Aniaziah,  14  :  4,  Azariah, 
15  :  4,  Jotham,  15  :  35 — made  no  attempt 
to  remove  it,  although  their  failure  to  do 
so  constitutes  a  stock  charge  against 
them  by  the  writers  of  the  books  of  the 
Kings.  But  in  Chronicles,  Asa  and  Je- 
hoshaphat, 2  Chr.  14  :  3  ;  17  :  6  :  20  :  33, 
are  both  stated  to  have  taken  away  the 
high  places.  The  discrepancy  is  re- 
moved by  supposing  these  kings  really 
did  remove  the  high  places  used  for 
idolatrous  worship,  but  found  them- 
selves unable  to  remove  those  dedicated 
to  Jehovah.  Meanwhile,  the  prophets, 
among  whom  were  Amos,  7:9;  Hosea, 
10 :  8.  and  Micah,  1  :  5,  lifted  up  their 
denunciations  against  the  practice.  At 
last  Hezekiah  set  himself  vigorously 
against  the  high  places,  2  Kgs.  18  :  4. 
But  it  was  reserved  to  Josiah  to  uproot 
the  evil.  The  nation,  under  the  recent- 
ly-discovered book  of  the  Law  (Deuter- 
onomy), for  the  first  time,  perhaps,  real- 
ized how  sinful  their  practice  had  been, 
and  therefore  joined  the  king  in  destroy- 
ing all  traces  of  it.  2  Kgs.  23  :  5.  After 
the  time  of  Josiah  there  is  no  mention 
of  Jehovistic  high  places,  although  the 
later  prophets  speak  of  idolatrous  high 
places.  Jer.  17  :  3;  Eze.  6  :  6. 
384 


The  high  places  had  their  particular 
priests.  1  Kgs.  12  :  31 ;  2  Kgs.  17  :  32  ; 
23  :  8  fi".  The  worship  thereat  consisted 
both  in  sacrifices  and  offerings.  Upon 
them  was  an  altar,  which  is  distin- 
guished from  the  high  place,  2  Kgs. 
23 :  15,  and  about  them,  in  some  cases 
at  least,  a  structure  called  the  "■  house 
of  the  high  place."  1  Kgs.  12  :  31  ;  13  : 
32;  2  Kgs.  23:19.  This  gave  them  a 
temple-like  appeai-ance.  The  word  for 
"high  place"  was  occasionally  trans- 
ferred to  such  a  temple  or  shrine,  and 
therefore  a  "high  place"  in  a  valley, 
Jer.  7  :  31,  or  in  the  city's  streets  is 
spoken  of.  Eze.  16  :  31. 

HIGH'  PRIEST,  the  head  of  the 
Jewish  priesthood,  Lev.  21 :  10.  Aaron 
was  the  first  to  hold  the  ofiice,  Ex.  28  : 1, 
and  his  descendants  filled  it  after  him. 
Eleazar  was  his  immediate  successor, 
Num.  3  :  32  ;  20  :  28  ;  Deut.  10  :  6,  and 
the  priesthood  remained  in  his  family 
till  Eli,  1  Chr.  24 :  3,  6,  who  was  of  the 
house  of  Ithamar. 

The  office  of  the  high  priest  was  orig- 
inally held  for  life.  This  rule  was  dis- 
regarded by  Solomon,  who  appointed 
Zadok  and  deposed  Abiathar,  1  Kgs.  2  : 
35,  because  he  had  espoused  the  cause 
of  Adonijah,  1  Kgs.  1  :  7,  25. 

In  the  years  succeeding  the  close  of 
the  canon  the  ofiice  became  a  tool  in  the 
hands  of  the  rulers  of  the  land.  Herod 
particularly  and  his  successors  disre- 
garded the  tradition  of  the  Jews  on  this 
point.  This  people,  who  held  the  ofiice 
so  sacred,  now  often  begged  their  rulers 
to  remove  the  incumbents,  who  were 
parasites  of  the  throne.  Herod  appoint- 
ed no  less  than  five  high  priests  himself, 
and  one  of  them,  Simon,  as  the  price  of 
his  daughter  in  marriage.  AA"e  conse- 
quently read  in  the  N.  T.  of  several  high 
priests  living  at  the  same  time,  and  An- 
nas and  Caiaphas  are  particularly  men- 
tioned, Luke  3  :  2. 

The  services  of  consecration  were  pro- 
longed, lasting  7  days,  Ex.  29  :  35.  and 
elaborate.  They  consisted  of  sacrifices, 
Ex.  29  ;  of  anointing  with  oil,  Ex.  29  :  7  ; 
30  :  22-33  ;  Lev.  21  :  10  ;  and  of  putting 
on  of  garments,  Ex.  29  :  5,  6,  8,  9. 

The  dress  of  the  high  priest  was  much 
more  costly  and  magnificent  than  that 
of  the  inferior  order  of  priests.  It  is 
described  Ex.  39  :  1-9.  In  the  cut  are 
seen  the  robe  and  ephod,  the  latter  of 


HIG 


HIL 


which  is  outermost  of  all,  and  is  curi- 
ously wrought  with  gold  wire  and  blue, 
purple,  and  scarlet  thread.  Upon  either 
shoulder  is  seen  an  onyx-stone,  on  each 
of  which  were  engraved  the  names  of  six 
of  the  tribes  of  Israel.  The  breastplate 
is  also   seen,  with  a  wrought  chain   of 


High  rriest. 


Priest. 


gold  attached  to  each  corner,  and  pass- 
ing under  the  arms  and  over  the  shoul- 
der.    See  Breastplate, 

The  mitre,  or  head-di'ess,  is  formed 
of  eight  yards  of  fine  linen,  in  circular 
folds,  and  inscribed  in  front,  upon  a 
plate  of  pure  gold,  Holiness  to  the 
Lord.  The  fringe  or  hem  of  the  robe, 
and  the  bells  suspended  from  it,  are 
also  seen. 

The  dress  of  the  high  priest  on  the 
day  of  expiation  was  very  plain  and 
simple,  consisting  only  of  plain  linen, 
with  a  sash  or  girdle.  Hence  these 
were  called  by  the  Jews  the  priest's 
*'  white  garments,"  etc. ;  the  former, 
"garments  of  gold." 

Functions. — The  high  pi'iest's  most 
solemn,  peculiar,  and  exclusive  duty 
was  to  oflBciate  in  the  most  holy  place 
on  the  great  day  of  atonement,  Heb. 
9  :  7,  25.  See  Atonement,  Day  of.  In 
Lev.  16  we  have  a  full  account  of 
this  most  interesting  service  and  the 
imposing  ceremonies  which  preceded 
it.  The  high  priest  might  at  any 
time  perform  the  duties  assigned  to  the 
ordinary  priests.  He  was  in  general  the 
overseer  of  the  temple,  2  Kgs.  12:10. 
and  at  the  time  of  our  Lord  presided 
25 


over  the  Sanhedrin.  Acts  5:17;  John 
18:13,  14,  etc. 

Jesus  is  the  great  High  Priest,  who 
once  for  all  sprinkled  with  his  own  blood 
the  threshold  of  the  holy  of  holies  (hea- 
ven), where  he  ever  liveth  to  make  inter- 
cession for  us.  Heb.  4  :  14 ;  7  :  25 ;  9  :  1 2, 
etc. 

HIGH'WAYS.  At  the  present 
time  there  are  no  roads  in  Palestine 
except  the  remains  of  those  the  Romans 
made.  But  inasmuch  as  the  ancient 
Jews  used  carts  and  chariots,  there  must 
have  been  roads  in  that  day.  Gen.  45  : 
19,  20  ;  Josh.  17  :  16 ;  Jud.  4":  13 ;  2  Kgs. 
10  :  16  ;  Acts  8  :  28.  The  highways  or 
more  frequented  tracks  are  distinguished 
from  the  hedges  or  the  narrow  paths  be- 
tween the  hedges  of  a  vineyard  by  our 
Lord  in  the  familiar  parable  of  the  Mar- 
riage-supper, Luke  14  :  23.  See  Hedge, 
Field. 

HI'LEN  {jilace  of  caves  ?),  a  city  of 
the  sons  of  Aaron  in  Judah,  1  Chr.  6 : 
58  ;  named  Holon  in  Josh.  15  :  51 ;  21 :  15. 

HILKI'AH  {the Lord  is  my  iJortion). 
1.  The  father  of  Eliakim.  2  Kgs.  18  :  18  ; 
Isa.  22  :  20  ;  36  :  3,  22. 

2.  The  high  priest  in  the  reign  of  Jo- 
siah,  who  accidentally,  while  "summing 
up  "  the  silver  in  the  temple,  found  the 
book  of  the  Law,  2  Kgs.  22  :  8. 

3,  4.  Two  Merarite  Levites.  1  Chr. 
6:45;  26:11. 

5.  One  who  stood  by  Ezra  during  the 
reading  of  the  Law,  Neh.  8  :  4. 

6.  A  priest  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel,  Neh.  12:7,  21. 

7.  The  father  of  the  prophet  Jere- 
miah, Jer.  1  :  1. 

8.  The  father  of  one  of  Zedekiah's  am- 
bassadors to  Nebuchadnezzar,  Jer.  29  :  3. 

HILL-COUNTRY.     See  Hill. 

HIL'LEL  {praise),  father  of  Abdon, 
one  of  the  judges  of  Israel,  Jud.  12  :  13, 
15. 

HILL,  HILLS.  There  is  some 
confusion  in  the  use  of  "  hill "  and 
"mountain"  in  the  A.  V.  Thus  the 
"  hill  country "  of  Luke  1:39  is  the 
"mountain  of  Judah,"  Josh.  20  :  7. 
Again,  precisely  the  same  elevation  is 
called  both  mountain  and  hill,  Luke  9: 
28;  cf.  37.  But  the  original  text  is  ex- 
act, employing  words  of  quite  different 
meaning  to  express  the  different  eleva- 
tions of  hills  and  mountains.  See  Pal- 
estine, Mountain. 

385 


HIL 


HIR 


HILL  OF  ZION.  See  Zion,  Je- 
rusalem. 

HIX.     See  Measures. 

HIND.     See  Hart. 

HING'ES.  The  translation  of  two 
Hebrew  words.  The  hinges  of  Prov. 
26  :  14:  were  probably  the  pivots  inserted 
in  sockets,  both  above  and  below,  upon 
which  Oriental  doors  are  even  now  hung. 
The  hinges  of  1  Kgs.  7 :  50  were  •'  prob- 
ably of  the  Egyptian  kind,  attached  to 
the  upper  and  lower  sides  of  the  door." 

HIN'NOM,  a  valley  to  the  south  and 
west  of  Jerusalem,  called  also  "  the  val- 
ley of  the  son,"  or  ''children,  of  Hin- 
nom,"  or  "  valley  of  the  children  of 
groaning,"  a  deep  and  narrow  ravine 
with  steep,  rocky  sides  separating  Mount 
Zion  to  the  north  from  the  "  hill  of  evil 
counsel,"  and  the  sloping  rocky  plateau 
of  the  "  plain  of  Rephaim  "  to  the  south. 
The  south-eastern  portion  of  the  valley 
was  called  Tophet,  or  "  place  of  fire," 
Jer.  7:31;  2  Kgs.  23  :  10,  and  the  "  val- 
ley of  slaughter,"  Jer.  7 :  32  ;  19 :  6. 

The  earliest  mention  of  the  Valley  of 
Hinnom  is  in  Josh.  15  :  8  ;  18  :  16,  where 
the  boundary-line  between  the  tribes  of 
Judah  and  Benjamin  is  described  as 
passing  along  the  bed  of  the  ravine.  On 
the  southern  brow,  overlooking  the  val- 
ley at  its  eastern  extremity,  Solomon 
erected  high  places  for  Molech,  1  Kgs. 
11 : 7,  whose  horrid  rites  were  revived 
from  time  to  time  in  the  same  vicinity 
by  the  later  idolatrous  kings.  Ahaz 
and  Manasseh  made  their  children  "pass 
through  the  fire"  in  this  valley,  2  Kgs. 
16 :  3  ;  2  Chr.  28:3:33:  6,  and  the  fiendish 
custom  of  infant  sacrifice  to  the  fire-gods 
seems  to  have  been  kept  up  in  Tophet. 
To  put  an  end  to  these  sacrifices,  Josiah 
polluted  the  place  by  spreading  over  it 
human  bones  and  other  corruptions,  2 
Kgs.  23:10,  13,  14;  2  Chr.  34:4,  5, 
from  which  time  it  appears  to  have  be- 
come the  common  cesspool  of  the  city, 
into  which  its  sewage  was  conducted,  to 
be  carried  off"  by  the  waters  of  the  Ke- 
dron. 

From  its  ceremonial  defilement,  and 
from  the  detested  and  abominable  fire 
of  Molech,  if  not  from  the  supposed 
ever-burning  funeral  piles,  the  later 
Jews  applied  the  name  of  this  valley, 
Ge  Hinnom,  Gehenna,  to  denote  the  place 
of  eternal  torment.  In  this  sense  the 
word  is  used  in  the  Gospels.  Matt.  6 : 
386 


29;  10:28;  23:15;   Mark  9:43:   Lul.e 
12  :  5.     It  is  now   Wddi/  liabdOeh. 

The  valley  has  usually  been  de- 
scribed as  beginning  at  the  north-west 
of  Jerusalem  and  extending  south  IJ 
miles,  turns  east  between  Zion  and  the 
hill  of  evil  counsel,  passing  through 
a  deep  gorge  and  joining  the  Kedron. 
South  of  the  valley  is  a  steep  hillside, 
rocky  and  full  of  sepulchres,  the  tradi- 
tional site  of  Aceldama,  or  "  field  of 
blood."  Warren,  however,  identifies 
Hinnom  with  the  Kedron  valley  east  of 
Jerusalem  {Recovery  of  Jerusalem,  p. 
239),  and  Stanley  accepts  this  view 
{Ihid.,^.  14).  Prof.  Socin  in  Baedeker's 
Handbook,  1876  dissents  from  this  loca- 
tion, and  holds  to  the  former  identifi- 
cation of  Hinnom. 

HI'RAH  {noble  birth),  an  Adullam- 
ite,  the  friend  of  Judah,  Gen.  38 :  1,  12, 
20. 

HI'RAM  {noble).  1.  A  distinguish- 
ed king  of  Tyre.  He  was  contemporary 
with  David  and  Solomon,  and  on  terms 
of  political  and  personal  friendship  with 
them.  Under  his  reign  the  city  of  Tyre 
became  celebrated  for  its  wealth  and 
magnificence,  and  the  vast  supplies  he 
furnished  to  the  kings  of  Israel  show  the 
greatness  of  his  resources.  He  aided 
David  with  materials  for  a  palace,  2 
Sam.  5:11;  1  Chr.  14 :  1,  and  Solomon 
in  the  construction  of  the  temple,  1  Kgs. 
5  : 1-12  ;  9  :  11-14,  furnishing  workmen 
as  well  as  materials.  He  also  allowed 
Solomon  to  send  ships  with  the  Tyrian 
ships  under  Tyrian  management.  1  Kgs. 
9:26-28;  10:  11-28. 

2.  An  eminent  artificer  of  Tyre  who 
was  employed  by  Solomon  on  some  of 
the  most  difiicult  of  the  fixtures  and  fur- 
niture of  the  temple,  1  Kgs.  7  :  13. 

HIRE'LING,  one  who  is  employed 
on  hire  for  a  limited  time,  as  a  day  or 
year,  Job  14  :  6.  By  the  Levitical  law 
such  a  one  was  to  be  paid  his  wages 
daily.  Lev.  19  :  13.  "  The  years  of  a 
hireling  "  were  years  exactly  reckoned, 
since  the  hireling  would  know  the  day 
of  his  release,  and  the  master  would  not 
let  him  go  a  day  too  soon.  Isa.  16  :  14; 
21  :  16.  The  little  interest  which  would 
be  felt  by  such  a  temporary  laborer, 
compared  with  that  of  the  shepherd  or- 
permanent  keeper  of  the  flock,  furnishes 
a  striking  illustration  in  one  of  our 
Lord's  discourses,  John  10  :  12,  13. 


HIS 


HOD 


HIS  is  often  used  in  the  A.  V.  instead 
of  its.  In  one  sentence  this  fact  has 
misled  many.  Thus  :  "  Seek  ye  first  the 
kingdom  of  God  and  his  righteousness," 
Matt.  6  :  33.  The  "  his  "  refers  to  God, 
7iot  to  kingdom. 

HISS.  To  hiss  at  one  is  used  as  an 
expression  of  insult  and  contempt,  1  Kgs. 
9:8;  Jer.  19  :  8 ;  Eze.  27  :  36  ;  Mic.  6  : 
16.  and  also  denotes  "to  call  by  whis- 
tling." Isa.  5:26;  7:18;  Zech.  lO  :  8. 

HIT'TITES,  the  posterity  of  Heth, 
the  second  son  of  Canaan.  Their  settle- 
ments were  at  first  in  the  southern  part 
of  Judasa,  near  Hebron,  Gen.  23  :  3,  and 
later,  when  the  spies  enter  the  land,  they 
find  them  dwelling  in  the  mountains.  It 
was  from  the  Hittites  that  Abraham  pur- 
chased Machpelah  for  a  sepulchre.  Gen. 
23  :  3-13 ;  and  in  this  transaction  they 
are  represented  as  a  commercial  rather 
than  a  warlike  people.  Esau  married 
two  Hittite  women.  Gen.  26  :  34,  35 ; 
from  all  which  we  gather  that  they  were 
on  terms  of  intimacy  with  the  family  of 
Abraham.  Later  in  the  history  of  Israel 
they  seem  to  have  lost  their  national  in- 
tegrity, although  the  name  was  not  for- 
gotten, Ezr.  9:1,2. 

HIT  TITES,  LAND  OF  THE, 
the  region  peopled  by  the  descendants 
of  Cheth  (A.  V.  "Heth"),  the  second 
son  of  Canaan.  They  were  first  settled 
about  Machpelah,  at  a  place  named  Kir- 
jath-arba,  afterward  called  Hebron.  Gen. 
23  :  19  ;  25  :  9.  When  the  Israelites  en- 
tered the  Promised  Land  the  Hittites 
took  part  against  the  invaders  in  equal 
alliance  with  the  other  Canaanite  tribes. 
Josh.  9:1;  11  :  3.  After  this  the  notices 
of  the  Hittites  are  very  few.  Of  the  ex- 
tent of  their  country  nothing  is  known, 
except  that  it  covered  the  portion  of  Ca- 
naan between  the  wilderness  of  Paran 
on  the  south  and  the  region  occupied  by 
the  Jebusites  on  the  north.  Notices  of  the 
nation  have  recently  been  found  in  As- 
syrian inscriptions,  and  occur  in  Egyp- 
tian annals.     See  Canaan. 

HI'VITES,  a  people  descended  from 
Canaan,  Gen.  10  :  17.  When  Jacob  re- 
turned to  the  land  of  his  fathers  he 
found  them  settled  there.  One  of  them, 
Hamor,  defiled  Dinah,  for  which  a  speedy 
retribution  was  visited  upon  their  city  by 
Simeon  and  Levi,  Gen.  34  :  25.  We 
again  meet  them  at  the  conquest  of  Ca- 
naan, Josh.  11 :  3, 19.    This  people  dwelt 


at  this  time  in  the  north-western  part  of 

Palestine,  under  Mount  Hcrmon,  Josh. 

11  :  3,  and  in  Mount  Lebanon,  Jud.  3  :  3. 

HI'VITES,  LAND  OF  THE,  a 

region  in  Canaan,  along  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean,  j)eo})led  by  some  of  the 
descendants  of  Canaan,  the  son  of  Ham. 
Gen.  10  :  17  ;  1  Chr.  1 :  15.  On  Jacob's 
return  to  Canaan,  Shechem  was  in  pos- 
session of  the  Hivites,  Hamor  tVie  Hivite 
being  the  "prince  of  the  land,"  Gen.  34: 
2.  They  voluntarily  surrendered  their 
country  to  Joshua.  Josh.  9:7;  11  :  19. 
The  main  body  of  the  Hivites  were  then 
living  on  the  northern  confines  of  western 
Palestine — "  under  Hermon  in  the  land 
of  Mizpeh,"  Josh.  11 :  3 ;  "  in  Mount  Leb- 
anon, from  Mount  Baal-hermon  unto  the 
entering  in  of  Hamath,"  Jud.  3 :  3.  They 
paid  tribute  to  Solomon.  1  Kgs.  9  :  20 ; 
2  Chr.  8  :  7.  Their  country  appears  to 
have  been  afterward  absorbed  by  the 
surrounding  nations. 

HIZKI'AH  {strength  of  Jehovah), 
an  ancestor  of  the  jDrophet  Zephaniah, 
Zeph.  1  :  1. 

HIZKI'JAH  {strength'of  Jehovah), 
one  who  sealed  the  covenant,  Neh.  10  : 
17. 

HO'BAB  {love),  the  son  of  Jethro, 
and  brother-in-law  of  Moses.  Num.  10  : 
29-32. 

HO'BAH  {hiding-place),  a  place  be- 
yond Damascus  to  which  Abraham  pur- 
sued the  confederate  kings.  Gen.  14  :  15. 
Two  miles  to  the  north  of  Damascus  is 
Johai',  which  the  Jews  regard  as  the 
Hobah  of  Scripture.  There  they  had  a 
synagogue  dedicated  to  Elijah.  Others 
fix  the  site  at  Buzrah,  3  miles  north  of 
Damascus :  Delitszch  suggests  ffoha,  a 
fountain  near  Karzetan,  as  Hobah. 

HOD  {splendor),  an  Asherite.  1  Chr. 
7  :  37. 

HODAI'AH  {splendor  of  Jehovah), 
a  member  of  the  royal  line  of  Judah,  I 
Chr.  3  :  24. 

HODAVI'AH  {splendor  of  Jeho- 
vah).    1.  A  Manassite,  1  Chr.  5:24. 

2.  A  Benjamite,  1  Chr.  9  :  7. 

3.  A  Levite,  Ezr.  2  :  40. 
HO'DESH  {new  ;//ooh),  a  woman  of 

Benjamin,   1  Chr.  8  :  9. 

liODE'VAH  {splendor  of  Jehovah), 
a  Levite  family  who  returned  from  cap- 
tivitv  with   Zerubbabel,  Neh.  7  :  43. 

HODI'AH  {splendor  of  Jehorah),  a 
woman,  the  wife  of  a  Judite,  1  Chr.  4  : 

387 


HOD 


ttOO 


19  ;  perhaps  same  as  Jehudijah.  1  Chron. 
4 :  18. 

HODI'JAH  {splendor  of  Jehovah), 
the  name  of  three  Levites  in  the  time  of 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  Neh.  8:7;  9:5; 
10:10.  13,  18. 

HOG'LAH  {imrtri(hje),  one  of  the 
daughters  of  Zelophehad.  Num.  26  :  33  ; 
27:1:  36:11;  Josh.  17  :  3. 

HO'HAM  (ivhom  Jehovah  incites), 
king  of  Hebron,  Josh.  10  :  3. 

HOXON  {saudy).  1.  A  town  in  the 
mountains  of  Judah,  one  of  the  first  group, 
of  which  Debir  was  apparently  the  most 
considerable,  Josh.  15  :  51 ;  21  :  15  ;  call- 
ed Hilen  in  1  Chr.  6  :  58.  Conder  pro- 
poses Beit  'Alam,  as  its  site. 

2.  A  city  of  Moab,  Jer.  48  :  21,  in  the 
plain-country,  east  of  the  Jordan. 

HOLY,  HOLINESS.  Ex.  16  : 
11  :  Lev.  27  :  14.  Holiness,  or  perfect 
freedom  from  sin,  and  immaculate  pur- 
ity are  distinguishing  attributes  of  the 
divine  nature,  Isa.  6  :  3.  These  words 
in  their  primitive  meaning  imply  a  sepa- 
ration or  setting  apart  from  secular  and 
profane  uses  .to  sacred  and  divine  uses. 
They  sometimes  denote  the  purity  of  the 
angelic  nature,  Matt.  25  :  31  :  the  com- 
parative freedom  from  sin  which  results 
from  the  sanctification  of  the  human 
heart,  as  in  the  case  of  Christians,  Heb. 
3:1;  Col.  3  :  12;  and  the  consecrated 
character  of  things,  Ex.  30  :  25 ;  Lev. 
16  :  4,  and  places,   Ex.  3  :  5. 

The  conception  of  God  as  holy  was 
characteristic  of  the  religion  of  the  0.  T. 
While  the  nations  of  antiquity  were  at- 
tributing to  the  divine  Being  human  pas- 
sions and  human  sins,  the  Hebrews  alone 
held  firmly  to  the  idea  of  God  as  abso- 
lutely holv. 

HO'LY  CITY.     See  Jerusalem. 

HO  LY  DAY.     See  Feasts. 

HOLY  GHOST,  HO'LY 
SPIRIT.     See  Spirit. 

HOLY  LAND.     See  Canaan. 

HO'MAM  [extermination),  1  Chr.  1 : 
39.     See  Hemam. 

HOME- BORN  SLAVE.  See 
Servant. 

HO'MER.     See  Measures. 

HON'EST  occurs  frequently  in  its 
original  sense  of  "  honorable,  comely." 
Like  the  Latin  honestus,  it  denotes  what 
is  morally  beautiful  in  character  and 
conduct.   1  Pet.  2:12. 

HONEY,  HON'EYCOMB,  Ps. 
388 


19  :  10.  Palestine  still  is,  almost  with- 
out metaphor,  "  a  land  flowing  with 
milk  and  honey,"  Ex.  3  :  8,  17.  It  is 
remarkable  for  the  variety  of  its  flowers, 
reminding  us  of  the  promise :  "  With 
honey  out  of  the  rock  should  I  have 
satisfied  thee,"  Ps.  81 :  16.  With  such 
provision  was  John  the  Baptist  fed. 

Besides  these  wild  swarms,  bee-keep- 
ing is  carried  so  far  in  this  country'  that 
almost  every  house  possesses  its  hives. 
The  syrup  obtained  from  dates  is  sup- 
posed to  be  sometimes  intended  by  the 
word  "  honey,"  2  Chr.  31  :  5.  Dibs,  or 
the  syrup  made  from  Grapes,  which  see, 
is  also  included  under  the  term  "honey." 
The  figurative  allusions  of  the  sacred 
writers  to  honey  and  the  honeycomb  are 
striking  and  beautiful.  Ps.  19  :  10  ;  Prov. 
5:3;  27  :  7.  Milk  and  honey  were  the 
chief  dainties  of  the  earlier  ages,  as  they 
are  now  of  the  Bedouins,  and  butter  and 
honey  are  also  mentioned  among  articles 
of  food.  2  Sam.  17  :  29 ;  Isa.  7:15.  In 
South  Africa  bees  deposit  their  honey  on 
the  surface  of  the  cliffs  of  rocks,  and  for 
its  protection  cover  it  with  a  dark-col- 
ored wax.  This,  by  the  action  of  the 
weather,  becomes  hard  and  of  the  com- 
plexion of  the  rock.  The  traveller  makes 
an  incision  in  this  wax  covering,  and  by 
applying  his  mouth  to  the  aperture  sucks 
out  as  much  honey  as  he  wants,  Deut. 
32  :  13.  They  also  cover  trees  in  the 
same  manner.     See  Bee.  Grapes. 

HOOD,  a  turban,  Isa.  3:23.  See 
Head-dress. 

HOOKS.  Various  kinds  of  hooks 
are  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 

1.  Fish-hooks.  See  Fish-hooks. 

2.  The  ''hook"  of  2  Kgs.  19:28; 
Eze.  29  :  4  was  probably  a  ring  put 
through  the  nose  of  wild  beasts,  or,  ac- 
cording to  the  inhuman  practice  of  the 
ancient  Orientals,  of  human  beings.  In 
Job  41  :  2  such  a  ring  is  spoken  of,  called 
" thorn." 

3.  Pruning-hooks,  knives  hooked  at 
one  end.  Isa.  2:4;  18  :  5. 

4.  Flesh-hooks,  for  getting  the  flesh 
out  of  the  caldrons.  Eze.  27  :  3  :  1  Sam. 
2  :  13,  14. 

5.  Hooks  to  which  the  carcass  was 
suspended  while  being  flayed,  Eze.  40  : 
43.     This  meaning  is,  however,  disputed. 

6.  Hooks  by  which  the  curtains  of  the 
tabernacle  were  suspended,  Ex.  26 :  32, 
37. 


HOP 


HOR 


HOPH'NI  {a fighter),  AND  PHIN'- 

£11  AS  {hrazen-moHthed),  the  two  sons 
of  Eli,  united  in  their  office,  their  crimes, 
and  their  death.  The}'  are  examples  of 
the  evils  of  lax  family  government.  They 
were  licentious,  exacting,  and  impious. 
They  were  slain  in  the  battle  when  the 
ark  of  God  was  taken.  See  1  Sam.  1:3; 
2:  12-17.  22-26,  34;  4:  11.     See  Eli. 

HOR,  MOUNT  {the  mountain).  1. 
Now  called  by  the  Arabs  Jehel  Nehy 
Harun,  "mountain  of  the  prophet 
Aaron."  It  was  the  halting-place  of  the 
Israelites  between  Kadesh,  Num.  20  : 
22  ;  33  :  37,  and  Zalmonah,  33  :  41,  when 
they  were  journeying  ''  by  the  way  of  the 
Red  Sea  to  compass  the  land  of  Edom," 
Num.  21 :  4,  and  where  Aaron  died.  Num. 
20  :  24-29  ;  33  :  38,  39  ;  Deut.  32  :  50. 

"  It  is  one  of  the  very  few  spots  con- 
nected with  the  wanderings  of  the  Israel- 
ites which  admit  of  no  reasonable  doubt. 
There  Aaron  died  in  the  presence  of 
Moses  and  Eleazar,  there  he  was  buried, 
and  there  Eleazar  was  invested  with  the 


priesthood  in  his  stead.  The  mountain 
is  marked  far  and  near  by  its  double  top, 
which  rises,  like  a  huge  castellated  build- 
ing, from  a  lower  base,  and  on  one  of  these 
is  the  Mohammedan  chapel,  erected  out 
of  the  remains  of  some  earlier  and  more 
sumptuous  building,  over  the  supposed 
grave.  There  was  nothing  of  interest 
in  the  chapel ;  only  the  marks  of  Mus- 
sulman devotion,  ragged  shawls,  ostrich 
eggs,  and  a  few  beads.  These  were  in 
the  upper  chamber.  The  great  high 
priest,  if  his  body  be  really  there,  rests 
in  a  subterraneous  vault  below,  hewn  out 
of  the  rock,  and  in  a  niche  now  cased 
over  with  stone,  wood,  and  plaster. 
From  the  flat  roof  of  the  chapel  we  over- 
looked his  last  view — that  view  which 
was  to  him  what  Pisgah  was  to  his 
brother." — Dean  Stanley. 

Situation  and  Physical  Features. — The 
Scriptures  describe  Mount  Hor  as  "in 
the  edge  " — i.  e.,  on  the  boundary-line — 
of  Edom.  Num.  20  :  23  ;  33  :  37.  Edom 
or  Mount  Seir  comprehended  the  whole 


Hor  and  Aaron's  Tomb. 


of  the  sandstone  range  of  mountains 
which  bounds  the  Arabah  on  the  east 
and  extends  nearly  from  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  Gulf 
of  Akabah.  About  midway  between 
these  two  points,  some  50  miles  distant 
from  each,  is  the  highest  and  most  con- 
spicuous mountain  of  the  range,  which 
is  Avithout  doubt  the  Mount  Hor  upon 
which  Aaron  died.  Mosera,  Deut.  10  : 
6,  must  have  been  close  to  the  mountain. 
The  altitude  of  the  summit  is  4800  feet 
above  the  Mediterranean,  4000  feet 
above  the  Arabah,  and  6000  feet  above 


the  surface  of  the  Dead  Sea.  These  are 
the  English  measurements.  The  moun- 
tain, which  is  ascended  by  an  exceed- 
ingly steep  path,  has  two  peaks,  and  on 
the  eastern  of  these  (4360  feet  above  the 
Mediterranean,  according  to  Baedeker) 
is  situated  the  tomb  of  Aaron  {Kabr 
Harun),  to  which  pilgrimages  are  made. 
Here  the  Arabs  formerly  off'ered  sacri- 
fices, and  Stephens,  an  early  American 
traveller,  saw  the  remains  of  an  altar 
and  indications  of  such  sacrifices.  The 
tomb  of  Aaron  is  a  small  building  meas- 
uring 28  by  33  feet  and  surmounted  by 

389 


HOR 


HOR 


a  white  dome,  as  is  usual  over  saints' 
tombs.  The  interior  consists  of  two 
chambers,  one  above  the  other.  In  the 
upper  are  four  hirge  pilhirs  and  a  stone 
sarcophagus.  Steps  lead  down  to  the 
lower  chamber,  which  is  perfectly  dark. 
At  the  end  is  a  recess  covered  by  grat- 
ing, which  purports  to  be  the  real  tomb. 
The  impression  of  one  on  the  spot  is  that 
Aaron's  death  took  place  in  the  small 
basin  between  the  two  peaks.  Trumbull 
proposes   Jehel   Madurah    for   Mt.   Hor. 

Since  Aaron  had  his  last  view  of  earth 
from  the  summit  of  Hor,  as  Moses  did 
fi'om  Pisgah,  the  prospect  is  regarded 
with  great  interest.  The  view  includes 
the  Arabah,  the  mountains  of  southern 
Palestine  and  Edom,  and  the  Dead  Sea. 
Beneath  the  mountain,  on  the  eastern 
side,  is  Petra,  a  place  of  great  historic 
interest.     See  Sela. 

2.  Mount  Hor,  evidently  distinct  from 
the  one  above,  is  once  mentioned,  Num. 
34  :  7,  8,  as  one  of  the  northern  bounda- 
ries of  the  Promised  Land.  Some  would 
understand  by  this  the  whole  of  the  Leb- 
anon range  as  marking  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  country-.  Porter  makes 
it  the  extreme  northern  summit  of  the 
Lebanon  range,  which  bounds  "  the  en- 
trance of  Hamath  "  on  the  south.  It  is 
10,000  feet  high,  emphatically  Hor-ha- 
har,  "  the  mountain  of  the  mountain," 
the  loftiest  mountain  in  Syria. 

HO'RAM  (elevated),  king  of  Qezer 
at  the  time  of  the  Conquest,  Josh.  10  :  33. 

HO'REB  {dry,  desert),  a  mountain 
or  range  frequently  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture. The  special  application  of  Horeb 
and  Sinai  in  the  0.  T.  has  been  much 
discussed.  Robinson  and  Hengsten- 
berg  think  that  Horeb  is  the  name  for 
the  whole  range,  Sinai  for  a  particular 
peak;  Gesenius  and  others  hold  pre- 
cisely the  opposite  view.  Stanley  sug- 
gests that  there  is  more  a  distinction  of 
usage  than  of  place.  (1)  In  Leviticus 
and  Numbers,  Sinai  is  exclusively  used  of 
the  scene  of  the  giving  of  the  Law ;  (2) 
in  Deuteronomy,  Horeb  is  substituted 
for  Sinai:  (3)  in  the  Psalms  the  two  are 
used  indiiferently.  See  Sinai  and  Pal- 
estine, p.  31.  The  Arabs  now  apply  the 
name  Jehel  et-Tur  to  the  whole  central 
granite  region,  while  the  peaks  of  which 
it  is  composed  are  called  by  various 
names.  The  mountain  of  Sinai  and  its 
wilderness  are  distinguished  as  the  the- 
390 


atre  of  events  that  took  place  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Horeb,  and  the  whole  of  Horeb 
is  called  "the  mountain  of  God."  Ex. 
3:  1,  12;  4:27;  17:6;  18:5;  33  :  6. 
Hence,  sometimes  ''  Sinai "  alone  is 
spoken  of.  Ex.  19:11,19,23;  24:16; 
31  :  18  ;  34  :  29,  32  ;  Lev.  7  :  38 ;  25  :  1 ; 
26  :  46  ;  27  :  34 ;  Num.  1:1;  3:1,14: 
33  :  15.  But  frequently  ''  Horeb  "  alone 
is  named,  and  the  same  events  are  spoken 
of  as  occurring  on  Horeb  which  are  de- 
scribed as  taking  place  on  Sinai.  Deut. 
1:2,  6,  19;  4  :  10,  15  ;  5:2;  9:8;  18: 
16;  29:1.  Later  sacred  writers  employ 
both  names ;  e.  g.  "  Horeb,"  1  Kgs.  8:9; 
19:8;  2  Chr.  5:10;  Ps.  106:19;  Mai. 
4:4;  "  Sinai,"  Jud.  5:5;   Ps.  68  :  8,  17. 

In  the  N.  T.  "  Sinai "  became  a  gen- 
eral name,  as  at  the  present  day.  Acts 
7  :  30,  38  ;  Gal.  4  :  24,  25.  In  more  mod- 
ern times,  and  ever  since  the  Crusades, 
the  a[)plication  of  the  names  Sinai  and 
Horeb  to  the  particular  mountains  or 
peaks  has  varied  greatly  among  travel- 
lers. The  range  of  Horeb  spreads  over 
an  extensive  field,  and  may  be  divided 
into  two  groups,  exhibiting  rugged  and 
venerable  mountains  of  dark  granite, 
stern,  naked,  splintered  peaks  and 
ridges,  some  of  them  of  indescribable 
grandeur,  rising  in  frowning  majesty 
high  above  the  general  level  of  the 
range.  The  following  heights  of  sev- 
eral peaks  are  given  by  the  British  Ord- 
nance Survey:  Jebel  Musa,  7375  feet; 
Jebel  Serbal,  6735  feet;  Jebel  Kathe- 
rin,  8537  feet;  Um  Shaumer,  8450  feet. 
See  SixAi. 

HO'REM  (devoted),  a  place  in 
Naphtali,  Josh.  19  :  38.  Van  de  Yelde 
locates  it  at  Barak,  west  of  the  waters 
of  Merom. 

HOR-HAGID'GAD  (mountain  of 
the  cleft),  a  camping-place  of  the  Israel- 
ites in  the  desert,  Num.  33  :  32;  appar- 
ently the  same  as  Gudgodah,  Deut.  10  : 
7,  though  Wilton  regards  the  latter  as  a 
valley  and  the  former  as  a  mountain 
near  it ;  Robinson  notes  on  his  map  a 
Wadi/  Ghudoffhnh  west  of  the  Arabah  ; 
possibly  identical  with  this  place. 

HO'RI  (cave-diceller).  1.  A  Horite. 
Gen.  36:22,  30;   1  Chr.  1:39. 

2.  A  Simeonite,  Num.  13  :  5. 

HO'RITES,  HO'RIMS.  These 
were  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Mount 
Seir,  Gen.  14  :  6,  from  which  they  were 
driven    by   the    descendants     of    Esau, 


HOR 


HOR 


Deut.  2  :  12,  22.  The  term  means  a 
''cave,"  and  probably  indicates  the  cha- 
racter of  this  people's  habitations. 

HOR'MAH  {place  desolated),  a 
royal  city  of  the  Canaanites ;  assigned 
to  Simeon.  Num.  14  :  45  ;  21 : 1-3  ; 
Deut.  1 :  44  ;  Josh.  12  :  14 ;  19  :  4. 
It  was  first  known  as  Zephath  or 
''watch-tower,"  Jud.  1  :  17 ;  was 
destroyed  after  the  Conquest ; 
was  rebuilt.  1  Sam.  30  :  30 ;  1 
Chr.  4  :  30.  Robinson  identified 
Zephath  with  the  pass  es-Sufah, 
but  Palmer  and  Drake,  with 
greater  certainty,  locate  it  at 
Sebaiteh,  the  equivalent  for  the 
Hebrew  "watch-tower."  The 
ruins  are  50ji  yards  long  by  200 
or  300  yards  wide,  and  comprise 
churches,  a  tower,  and  two  res- 
ervoirs of  water.  The  streets 
can  also  be  traced.  It  is  about 
20  miles  from  'Ain  Gadis  (Ka- 
desh),  and  a  ruined  fort  3  miles 
from  the  town  commands  the  only 
pass  through  which  the  city  could  be  ap- 
proached. Palmer  suggests  that  the  for- 
tress was  the  zephath,  or  ''  watch-tower," 
and  Sebaista  the  city.  Conder  suggests 
Hordn  as  ancient  Hormah,  but  until  fur- 
ther exploration  Palmer's  view  seems  the 
most  probable. 

HORN.  This  word  is  employed  in 
the  0.  T.  as  an  emblem  of  power,  honor, 
or  glory.  Deut.  33  :  17;  Job  16  :  15  ; 
Lam.  2  :  3.  "  To  exalt  the  horn  "  was 
the  same  as  to  prosper ;  so  "  to  cut  ofi" 
the  horn,"  Jer.  48  :  25 ;  Lam.  2  :  3,  is  to 
render  worthless,  to  ruin.  "  To  defile 
the  horn  in  the  dust"  is  to  humble  most 
deeply,  Job  16  :  15.  The  horn  was  like- 
wise the  symbol  of  victory.  Hence  its 
use  by  the  false  prophet  Zedekiah,  1 
Kgs.  22  :  11,  and  in  the  Revelation  of 
John,  5:6.  So  elsewhere.  It  is  also 
frequently  employed  in  prophetic  visions 
instead  of  *'  kings  "  and  "  kingdoms," 
Dan.  7  :  20-24 ;  Zech.  1 :  18.  Horns  were 
used  as  vessels  for  liquids,  especially  oil 
and  perfumes,  1  Sam.  16  :  1 ;  1  Kgs.  1 : 
39,  and  also  for  trumpets,  Josh.  6 :  8,  13. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  think  they  were 
always  actual  horns,  but  rather  horn- 
shaped  articles.  The  horn  being  the 
chief  defence  and  strength  of  many 
beasts,  to  break  or  cut  off  the  horn  of  a 
king  or  people  is  to  abridge  or  destroy 
their  power,  and  to   raise  or  exalt  the 


horn  is  to  establish  or  increase  power 
and  prosperity.  So  also  among  the 
aborigines  of  this  country  a  like  custom 
prevailed.  The  chief  of  the  council 
which  negotiated  the  treaty  with  Wil- 


Horns  worn  as  head-ornaments  by  modern  Orientals. 

Ham  Penn  opened  the  business  by  pla- 
cing on  his  own  head  a  crown  with  a 
horn  in  it,  significant  of  supreme  au- 
thority, by  which  the  covenants  of  the 
treaty  were  made  binding. 

Dr.  Livingstone  describes  how  the 
natives  of  South  Africa  ornament  their 
heads  with  buffalo-horns.  The  married 
women  of  the  Druses  of  Mount  Lebanon 
formerly  wore  on  their  head  horns,  orig- 
inally of  paste-board  or  pottery,  but, 
through  pride  and  rivalry,  from  a  few 
inches  they  became  of  enormous  length 
and  the  material  was  of  greater  cost, 
until  the  Druse  rich  women  "  sported 
gold  horns  decked  with  jewels,  and  so 
long  that  a  servant  had  to  spread  the 
veil  over  them." 

Horns  of  the  Altar.     See  Altar. 

HOR'NET,  a  very  large,  strong, 
and  bold  insect  of  the  wasp  family,  re- 
markable for  its  irritability  and  for  the 
severity  of  its  sting.  Deut.  7  :  20.  Hor- 
nets were  employed  as  the  instruments 
of  the  divine  judgments  upon  the  ene- 
mies of  Israel,  'Ex.  23  :  28  ;  Josh.  24  :  12. 
The  furious  attack  of  these  insects  often 
drives  horses  or  cattle  to  madness,  and 
profane  history  tells  of  districts  render- 
ed almost  uninhabitable  by  them.  Capt. 
Warren  says  :  "  The  hornets  in  Palestine 
are  very  numerous,  and  attack  human 
beings  in  the  most  furious  manner.     I 

391 


HOE 


HOS 


can  readily  conceive  the  rout  of  an  army 
being  occasioned  by  them." 

HORONA'IM  {two  caverns),  a  city 
of  Moab  on  an  eminence.  Isa.  15  :  5  ; 
Jer.  48  :  3,  5,  34.  Merrill  locates  it  at 
Kharnneh,  south-east  of  Hesban. 

HOR'ONITE,  THE,  the  desig- 
nation, of  uncertain  derivation,  given  to 
Sanballat,  the  determined  foe  to  Xehe- 
miah.  Neh.  2  :  10,  19  ;  13  :  28.  He  may 
have  come  from  Horonaim  or  Beth-horon. 

HORSE,  Gen.  49  :  17,  one  of  the 
noblest  of  animals,  of  which  Job  gives 
a  most  poetic  description,  ch.  39  :  19-25. 
In  the  early  periods  of  the  world  the 
laboring-beasts  were  chiefly  oxen  and 
asses,  while  horses  were  used  by  kings 
and  warriors,  either  mounted  or  har- 
nessed to  chariots.  Ex.  14  :  9,  23  ;  Esth. 
6  :  8.  The  use  of  horses  by  the  Israel- 
ites was  discouraged.  Deut.  17  :  16  ;  Josh. 
11 :  6.  The  reason  is  perhaps  explained 
in  Isa.  31  :  1,  3.  In  Solomon's  time, 
however,  horses  were  common  among 
them,  and  he  probably  imported  them 
from  Syria  and  Egypt.  1  Kgs.  4 :  26 ; 
10:26,  29;  2  Chr.l:  14-17;  9:25.  At 
the  present  day  the  horse  is  the  usual 
conveyer  of  travellers  through  Palestine 
and  Syria,  as  the  camel  is  in  the  desert 
and  the  donkey  in  Egypt.  Horses  were 
conseci-ated  to  idol-gods,  2  Kgs.  23  :  11, 
and  are  often  employed  by  the  prophets, 
under  different  colors,  to  denote  the  cha- 
racter of  future  dispensations,  Zech.  1  : 
8  ;  6  :  2-6  ;  and  so  also  are  angels  repre- 
sented under  the  figure  of  horses,  2  Kgs. 
2:11;  6  :  15-17,  because  of  the  charac- 
teristic strength,  fleetness,  and  courage 
of  that  animal. 

HORSE'-LEECH  {the  adherer), 
a  well-known  kind  of  worm  very  com- 
mon in  all  the  stagnant  waters  of  Pal- 
estine, Prov.  30:15.  It  fastens  itself 
within  the  nostrils  or  mouths  of  animals 
as  they  drink,  and  will  suflTer  itself  to  be 
nearly  torn  in  two  before  relaxing  its 
hold.  Its  thirst  for  blood,  never  satis- 
fied till  its  body  is  completely  filled,  may 
illustrate  the  insatiable  cravings  of  lust, 
avarice,  and  cruelty. 

HO'SAH  {place  of  refuge),  a  Me- 
rarite  Levite  chosen  by  David  to  keep 
the  gate  Shallecheth.  1  Chr.  16:38; 
26:10,  16. 

HO'SAH   {refuge),  a  city  of  Asher, 
Josh.  19  :  29,  the  landmark  on  the  coast 
next  to  Tyre  ;  probably  el-Ezziyah. 
392 


HOSAN'NA  {Save,  we  beseech!), 
the  exclamation  with  which  Christ  was 
greeted  at  his  last  entry  into  Jerusalem, 
Matt.  21 :  9.  It  is  taken  from  Ps.  118  : 
25,  which  was  recited  as  a  part  of  the 
Great  Hallel,  Ps.  113-118,  at  the  feast 
of  tabernacles,  and  which  was  therefore 
familiar  to  the  Jews. 

HOSE'A  {God  is  help)  called  Osee 
in  Rom.  9  :  25,  one  of  the  twelve  Minor 
Prophets,  who  prophesied  between  790 
and  725  b.  c.  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel, 
under  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II.,  when 
the  kingdom  had  reached  the  zenith  of 
its  earthly  prosperity,  and  was  fast  ripen- 
ing for  ruin.  He  was  a  contemporary  of 
Isaiah.  We  know  nothing  of  his  life. 
His  character  appears  in  his  book,  which 
reveals  a  heart  full  of  sadness  and  sym- 
pathy in  view  of  the  sins  of  the  people, 
yet  full  of  hope.  He  has  been  called  the 
Jeremiah  of  Israel. 

The  Book  of  Hosea  consists  of  14 
chapters,  and  relates  to  the  kingdom  of 
Israel.  The  first  part  (chs.  1-3)  belongs 
to  the  first  period  of  his  active  life  under 
Jeroboam  ;  the  second  (chs.  4-14)  pre- 
sents his  later  labors,  when  judgment 
had  already  set  in.  The  discourses  are 
partly  threatening,  partly  hortatory  and 
comforting.  He  is  one  of  the  most  ob- 
scure among  the  prophets.  ''  He  delivers 
his  message  as  though  each  sentence  burst 
with  a  groan  from  his  soul,  and  he  had 
anew  to  take  breath  before  he  uttered 
each  renewed  woe.  Each  verse  forms  a 
whole  for  itself,  like  one  heavy  toll  in  a 
funeral-knell." 

The  greatest  difficulty  in  the  book  is 
the  marriage  of  the  prophet  with  Gomer, 
"  a  wife  of  whoredoms,"  by  divine  com- 
mand, and  the  names  of  the  offspring  of 
this  marriage — Jezreel,  Lo-ruhamah,  and 
Lo-ammi  (1 :  2-9).  The  literal  interpre- 
tation (of  several  of  the  Fathers,  Dr. 
Pusey,  Kurtz,  and  others)  is  scarcely 
reconcilable  with  the  law  which  forbids 
a  priest  to  marry  an  vmchaste  woman, 
Lev.  21  :  7-14.  It  is  better,  therefore, 
to  explain  the  marriage  (with  many 
modern  commentators)  figuratively,  as 
a  vision  or  as  a  symbol  of  the  monstrous 
sin  of  spiritual  whoredom  or  apostasy 
from  the  true  God.  Lo-ruhamah  means 
"  unpitied,"  and  Lo-ammi,  "  not-my- 
people."  Immediately  afterward  the 
future  acceptance  is  announced,  where 
the  people  will   know  God   by  the  term 


HOS 


HOS 


Ishi,  "  my  husband  "  (2  :  16).  The  pas- 
sages 1  :  10  and  2  :  23  are  quoted  by 
Paul,  Rom.  9  :  25,  as  a  prophecy  of  the 
conversion  of  the  heathen.  The  second 
section  is  free  from  symbolical  acts. 

The  style  of  Hosea  is  highly  poetical, 
bold,  vigorous,  terse,  and  pregnant,  but 
abrupt  and  obscure.  "  Ilosea  is  concise," 
says  Jerome,  "  and  speaketh  in  detached 
sayings."  "  In  Hosea,"  says  Ewald, 
"there  is  a  rich  and  lively  imagination, 
a  pregnant  fulness  of  language,  and 
great  tenderness  and  warmth  of  expres- 
sion. His  poetry  is  throughout  purely 
original,  replete  with  vigor  of  thought 
and   purity   of  presentation." 

HO'SEN  (plural  of  hose),  Dan.  3  : 
21.  The  word  originally  meant  short 
trousers  or  trunk-hose,  as  well  as  stock- 
ings. It  stands  in  our  translation  for  a 
Chaldee  word  signifying  "tunics." 

H  O  S  H  A  I '  AH  {lohom  Jehovah 
saved).  1.  A  repairer  of  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem,  Neh.  12  :  32. 

2.  A  prominent  Jew's  father,  Jer.  42 : 
1;  43:2. 

HOSH^A-DHA.  {whom  Jehovah  hears), 
a  son  of  Jehoiachin,  the  last  king  of  Ju- 
dah.  1  Chr.  3  :  18. 

HOSHE'A  (God  is  help).  1.  The 
same  with  Joshua,  Deut.  32  :  44. 

2.  The  son  of  Elah,  and  the  last  and 
best  of  the  kings  of  Israel.  2  Kgs.  15 : 
30.  In  the  ninth  year  of  his  reign  the 
Assyrian  king,  provoked  by  an  attempt 
which  Hoshea  made  to  form  an  alliance 
with  Egypt,  and  so  throw  oif  the  Assyr- 
ian yoke,  marched  against  Samaria,  and 
after  a  siege  of  three  years  took  it,  and 
carried  the  people  away  into  Assyria.  2 
Kgs.  17  :  1-6  ;  Hos.  13  :  16  ;  Mic.'l  :  6. 

3.  An  Ephraimite  chief,  1  Chr.  27 : 
20. 

4.  One  who  sealed  the  covenant,  Neh. 
10 :  23. 

HOSPITALITY  is  the  free  (un- 
remunerated)  provision  of  lodging  and 
board  to  a  stranger.  Our  word  "  guest," 
in  its  original  form,  is  the  "Sanscrit  rjhas, 
meaning  "  to  eat."  We  come  as  stran- 
gers into  this  world,  and  are  from  our 
birth  thrown  upon  the  hospitality  of  our 
friends.  God,  too,  regards  us  as  his 
guests,  and  himself  sets  the  most  beau- 
tiful example  of  lavish  and  noble  hos- 
pitality. Ps.  5  :  7,  8 ;  23  :  5  flF.  The  joys 
of  heaven,  both  in  parable  and  vision, 
are  pictured  under  the  figure  of  a  feast. 


The  invitation  is  given  to  every  one 
— to  the  poor,  indeed,  rather  than  the 
rich.  Luke  14  :  15  flF. ;  Rev.  19  :  9.  God's 
Son  was  in  this  respect  his  exhibition, 
for  he  fed  the  multitudes  who  waited 
upon  his  ministry  not  only  with  spir- 
itual but  with  natural  food.  When, 
therefore,  the  N.  T.  writers  enjoin  hos- 
pitality upon  believers,  they  are  only 
calling  upon  them  to  do  what  God  so 
constantly  does.  Rom.  12  :  13  ;  1  Tim. 
3:2;  5  :  'lO ;  1  Pet.  4  :  9.  In  Heb.  13  : 
2  we  are  encouraged  to  the  duty  by 
the  fact  that  some  have  entertained  an- 
gels unawares,  referring  to  Gen.  18,  19. 
The  story  of  Abraham's  treatment  of  his 
guests  there  related  is  a  faithful  descrip- 
tion of  an  Oriental's  conduct,  and  is  illus- 
trated by  the  hospitality  of  the  Bedouins. 
For  to-day,  as  in  the  hoary  past,  the  sheikh 
sits  in  his  tent  to  receive  the  passers-by; 
he  rejoices  to  dispense  his  kindness  ;  pay- 
ment is  refused;  the  host  considers  him- 
self sufficiently  repaid  by  the  gratitude 
of  his  guest. 

The  exercise  of  hospitality  is  com- 
manded, Lev.  19:33,  34;  25  :  14  ff. ; 
Deut.  15  :  7.  Instances  are  given  in- 
cidentally in  the  histories  of  Abra- 
ham, Lot,  Jethro,  Ex.  2  :  20,  Manoah, 
Jud.  13  :  15,  the  old  man  of  Gibeah, 
Jud.  19  :  17  flF.  By  a  study  of  these 
chapters  an  accurate  understanding  of 
the  practice  can  be  derived.  The  host 
was  surety  for  the  safety  of  his  guest, 
even  as  to-day  to  have  eaten  salt,  al- 
though accidentally,  with  a  Bedouin  is 
to  have  his  protection.  National  hatred 
and  fanaticism,  however,  occasionally 
suppressed  this  kindly  feeling.  Thus 
the  Jews  had  no  dealings  with  the  Sa- 
maritans, John  4  :  9,  and  therefore  the 
Samaritans  refused  to  give  our  Lord 
lodgment,  Luke  9  :  53.  In  the  early 
Christian  Church  the  command  of  uni- 
versal brotherly  love,  Gal.  6  :  10,  was 
implicitly  obeyed.  Their  readiness  in 
discharging  the  duty  of  hospitality  won 
the  admiration  of  the  heathen.  "  Be- 
lievers scarcely  ever  travelled  without 
letters  of  communion,  which  testified  the 
purity  of  their  faith  and  procured  for 
them  a  favorable  reception  wherever  the 
name  of  Jesus  Christ  was  known."  It 
was  thought  disgraceful  for  a  Christian 
to  be  obliged  to  stop  at  an  inn  if  there 
were  Christians  in  the  place.     See  Inn. 

HOST.     See  Hospitality,  Inn. 

393 


HOS 


HUN 


HOS'TAGES  are  spoken  of  2  Kgs. 
14:14;  2  Chr.  25:24. 

HO'THAM  (signet-ring),  an  Asher- 
ite,  1  Chr.  7  :  32. 

HO'THAN  {signet-ring),  father  of 
two  of  David's  guard,  1  Chr.  11 :  44.  The 
same  name  as  the  preceding. 

HO'THIR  {fulness),  a  Kohathite 
Levite,  son  of  Heman,  1  Chr.  25  :  4,  28. 

HOUGH  (pronounced  hok),  to  dis- 
able by  cutting  the  sinews  of  the  ham 
(hamstring),  Josh.  11 :  6,  9. 

HOUR.  The  term  is  employed  to 
indicate  an  indefinite  period  of  time,  as 
in  Dan.  3:6;  4:19,  and  Matt.  9:22; 
John  7  :  30,  etc.  It  also  indicates  a  def- 
inite period.  At  the  time  of  our  Lord 
the  Jews  reckoned  the  hours  from  sun- 
rise to  sunset,  and  divided  the  night  into 
watches.  Six  in  the  morning  was  count- 
ed the  first,  noon  the  sixth,  and  6  p.  m. 
the  twelfth  hour  of  the  day.  In  the 
parable  of  the  laborers,  Matt.  20  :  1- 
10,  this  division  into  hours  is  clearly 
shown.  The  husbandman  engages  la- 
borers early  in  the  morning,  and  sub- 
sequently during  the  day  at  the  third, 
sixth,  ninth,  and  eleventh  hours.  Jesus 
was  crucified  at  the  third  hour,  Mark  15  : 
25,  or  about  9  A.  m.,  and  the  darkness 
continued  from  the  sixth  to  the  ninth 
hour  (12-3  P.M.),  Matt.  27:45.  This 
mode  of  reckoning  is  employed  in  the 
Acts,  as  is  plainly  seen  in  ch.  2  :  15. 
There  were  thus  twelve  hours  in  every 
day  between  the  sun's  rising  and  setting, 
and  the  hours  varied  in  length  with  the 
brevity  or  length  of  the  day. 

The  Romans  computed  time  from  mid- 
night to  noon,  and  divided  this  period 
into  equal  portions,  whose  beginning 
was  indicated  by  the  expressions  first, 
third,  sixth,  and  ninth  hour.  It  is  al- 
together probable,  although  opinions 
differ,  that  John's  Gospel  observes  this 
method.  The  tenth  hour,  therefore,  of 
ch.  1 :  39  coincides  with  10  A.  M. ;  the 
sixth  hour,  ch.  4  :  6,  with  6  p.  M.  The 
period  mentioned  for  the  last  scene  in 
the  trial  of  our  Lord,  John  19  :  14,  as 
the  sixth  hour  was  6  a.  m.  The  exact 
expression  must  be  emphasized,  "about 
the  sixth  hour."  If  we  take  into  account 
the  necessary  delay  before  arriving  at 
Calvary,  an  almost  exact  harmony  is 
made  out  between  John  and  the  other 
evangelists.     See  Day. 

HOUSE.  See  Dwellings.  The  word 
394 


"  house  "  is  also  used  to  denote  a  family, 
Gen.  12  :  17 ;  1  Tim.  5  :  8,  a  race  or  lin- 
eage, Luke  2  : 4,  and  projjerty,  1  Kgs. 
13:8. 

"  House  of  the  rolls,"  Ezr.  6 :  1,  and 
"treasure-house,"  Ezr.  5  :  17,  both  refer 
to  the  same  depository  of  public  docu- 
ments. 

HOUSE  OF  GOD,  a  translation 
in  the  A.  V.  of  the  place  Bethel.  It  is 
i\iQ  place  where  the  ark  was,  and  not  the 
ark,  which  is  called  "  the  house  of  God." 
See  Bethel.  Jud.  20:18,  26;  21:2; 
cf.  Jud.  20  :  27. 

HUK'KOK  {ditch,  moat),  a  city  on 
the  borders  of  Asher  and  Naphtali,  Josh. 
19  :  34;  now  Yakuk,  north  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  and  7  miles  south  of  Sa/ed. 

HU'KOK.     See  Helkath. 

HUIj  (circle),  a  grandson  of  Shem, 
Gen.  10  :  23.  His  descendants  maj'  have 
peopled  part  of  the  Lebanon  country. 
The  point  is  disputed. 

HUL'DAH  (weasel),  the  wife  of 
Shallum,  and  a  well-known  prophetess. 
When  the  book  of  the  Law  was  found, 
Josiah  sent  to  her  to  inquire  of  the  Lord. 
Her  answer  is  found  in  2  Kgs.  22  :  15-20. 

HUMII/ITY  is  the  opposite  of 
pride,  and  one  of  the  cardinal  graces  of 
the  renewed  heart.  It  consists  in  a  man's 
not  thinking  of  himself  more  highly 
than  he  ought  to  think,  and  in  giving 
all  glory  to  God  alone.  It  is  urged 
with  great  force  upon  all  who  profess  to 
be  Christ's  disciples,  1  Pet.  5:5.  In 
this  as  in  all  other  respects  our  divine 
Saviour's  life  furnishes  us  with  a  perfect 
example,  Phil.  2  :  5-8.  The  sacred 
Scriptures  abound  with  promises  of 
grace  and  favor  to  the  humble  and 
threatenings  of  sorrow  and  punishment 
to  the  proud. 

HUM'TAH  (2)l(ice  of  lizards),  a  city 
in  the  mountains  of  Judah,  the  next  to 
Hebron,  Josh.  15  :  54. 

HUNT'ING  is  the  necessity  of  man 
in  the  wild  state,  and  his  recreation  when 
civilized.  Before  the  Flood  animal  food 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  eaten,  but 
the  killing  of  animals,  both  tame  and 
wild,  was  expressly  permitted  to  Noah, 
Gen.  9  :  3.  Nimrod  achieved  a  repu- 
tation as  "  a  mighty  hunter  before  the 
Lord,"  Gen.  10  :  9.  In  Palestine  the 
patriarchs  probably  lived  very  quietly 
with  their  flocks  and  herds,  but  they 
may  have  occasionally  indulged  in  the 


HUP 


HUS 


pleasures  of  the  hunt;  at  all  events,  we 
know  that  Isaac  was  very  fond  of  veni- 
son, Gen.  27  :  3,  4.  After  the  Exodus 
we  have  proof  in  the  promise  of  God  to 
drive  out  the  wild  animals  that  Pales- 
tine was  at  that  time  plentifully  sup- 
plied with  beasts  of  the  chase,  Ex.  23  : 
29.  But  their  utter  destruction  was  pro- 
vided against.  Ex.  23  :  11 ;  Lev.  25  :  7. 
We  find  mention  made  of  lions,  Jud.  14: 
5  ;  1  Sam.  17  :  34 ;  bears,  1  Sam.  17  :  34 ; 
2  Kgs.  2  :  24 ;  jackals,  Jud.  15  :  4 ;  foxes. 
Song  Sol.  2:15;  hart,  roebucks,  and 
fallow-deer,  Deut.  12  :  15  ;  1  Kgs.  4  :  23. 
The  manner  of  catching  these  animals 
was  either  by  digging  a  pitfall,  which 
was  the  usual  manner  with  the  larger 
animals,  as  the  lion,  2  Sam.  23  :  20  ;  Eze. 
19  :  4,  8,  or,  secondly,  by  a  trap,  which, 
set  under  ground.  Job  18  :  10,  in  the  run 
of  the  animal,  Prov.  22  :  5,  caught  it  by 
the  leg.  Job  18  :  9,  or,  lastly,  by  a  net 
stretched  across  a,  ravine,  into  which 
the  animals  were  driven  and  then  des- 
patched. The  game  was  for  food, 
Prov.  12  :  27,  and  the  blood  of  these 
wild  animals  was  poured  out  in  the 
same  manner  as  that  of  the  tame.  Lev. 
17:13. 

Birds  were  eaten  by  the  Hebrews,  Lev. 
17  :  13,  who  exercised  considerable  inge- 
nuity in  the  capture  of  them.  The  most 
usual  method  was  by  the  trap,  which  was 
"a  net  strained  over  a  frame,  and  a  stick 
to  support  it,  but  so  placed  that  it  should 
give  way  at  the  slightest  touch."  Job 
18:9;  Eccl.  9:12;  Prov.  7:23.  Be- 
sides the  trap,  a  snare,  by  which  the 
bird's  leg  was  caught.  Job  18  :  10,  a  net 
to  close  with  a  string,  and  a  decoy,  Jer. 
5  :  26,  27,  were  occasionally  used. 

HU'PHAM  {coast-dweller),  a.  son  of 
Benjamin,  Num.  26  :  39, 

HU'PHAMITES,  THE,  de- 
scendants of  the  preceding. 

HUP^PAH  [covering),  a  priest,  head 
of  the  thirteenth  course,  1  Chr.  24  :  13. 

HUP'PIM  (protection),  a  Ben- 
jamite.  Gen.  46  :  21 ;  1  Chr.  7  :  12. 

HUR  (hole).  1.  The  man  who  with 
Aaron  held  up  the  hands  of  Moses  on 
the  mountain  at  the  battle  with  Amalek, 
and  one  of  the  chief  men  of  the  Israel- 
ites. Ex.  17:10;  24  :  14. 

2.  Grandfather  of  Bezaleel.  Ex.  31 :  2  ; 
35:30;  38:22. 

3.  A  Midianite  chief.  Num.  31  :  8 ; 
Josh.  13  :  21. 


4.  Father  of  one  of  Solomon's  com- 
missariat officers,    1  Kgs.  4  :  8. 

5.  One  whose  son  helped  to  repair  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem,  Neh.  3  :  9. 

HU'llAI  [iinen-iveaver),  one  of  Da- 
vid's guard,  1  Chr.  11  :  32. 

HU'RAM  [nohle-born).  1.  A  Ben- 
jamite,  1   Chr.  8  :  5. 

2.  The  form  of  the  name  Hiram  which 
is  used  in  Chronicles — both  that  of  the 
king  and  the  artificer. 

HU'RI  {linen-weaver),  a  Gadite,  1 
Chr.  5  :  14. 

HUS'BAND,  a  man  lawfully  join- 
ed to  one  woman  in  marriage,  Gen.  3  : 
16,  the  house-band.  A  man  betrothed, 
but  not  married,  was  called  a  husband, 
as  the  betrothals  were  considered  sacred 
and  inviolable.  Matt.  1 :  16. 

The  husband  is  the  head  of  the  wife, 
Eph.  5  :  23,  inasmuch  as  he  is  the  head 
of  the  household  (though  she  is  associ- 
ated with  him),  and  as  such  he  is  enti- 
tled to  the  respect  and  aflfection  of  all. 
See  Marriage. 

HUS'BANDMAN,  one  whose  pro- 
fession and  labor  is  to  cultivate  the 
ground,  John  15  :  1.  It  is  among  the 
most  ancient  and  honorable  occupations. 
Gen.  9:20;  Isa.  28  :  24-28. 

Our  Lord  used  the  term  in  parables 
and  elsewhere  figuratively  to  designate 
God's  relation  of  Disposer  and  Guardian 
of  human  affairs  and  destiny.  See  Ag- 
riculture. 

HU'SHAH  (haste),  a  name  in  the 
genealogy  of  Judah,  1  Chr.  4  :  4, 

HU'SHAI  (rapid),  an  Archite,  and 
a  particular  and  faithful  friend  of  David, 
2  Sam.  16  :  16.  He  gained  such  influence 
over  Absalom  as  to  prevail  with  his  advice 
over  Ahithophel,  2  Sam.  17: 14.  During 
this  time  he  remained  David's  friend. 

HU'SHAM  (haste),  one  of  the 
earlier  kings  of  Edom  before  the  Israel- 
itish  monarchy.  Gen.  36:  34,  35;  1  Chr. 
1:45,46. 

HU'SHATHITE,  THE,  the  des- 
ignation of  two  of  David's  guard.  1. 
Sibbechai,  2  Sam.  21  :  18;  1  Chr.  11 :  29. 
2.  Mebunnai,  2  Sam.  23  :  27.  But  prob- 
ably the  latter  name  is  a  mere  corruption 
of  the  former. 

HU'SHIM  (haste).  1.  The  son  of  Dan, 
Gen.  46  :  23;  called  Shuham,  Num.  26  :  42. 

2.  A  Benjamite,  1   Chr.  7  :  12. 

3.  The  wife  of  a  Benjamite,  1  Chr.  8: 
8,  11. 

395 


HUS 


HYM 


HUSKS,  Luke  15  :  16.  Undoubted- 
ly the  fruit  of  the  carob  tree  {Ceratonia 
siliqua),  which  is  common  in  Palestine, 
and  is  used  for  food  by  the  poor,  and  for 
the  fattening  of  cattle  or  swine.  When 
ripe  it  is  like  a  crooked  bean-pod,  6  to 
10  inches  in  length,  brown,  glossy,  and 
filled  with  seeds.  Miss  M.  E,  Rogers 
says:  "I  found  it  when  new  rather  too 
sweet  to  suit  my  taste.  Children  seem 
to  enjoy  it,  and  they  thrive  on  it,  eating 


Husks.     Fruit  of  the  Carob  Tree. 


the  sbell  as  well  as  the  seeds 
carob  tree  belongs  to  the  same  family  as 
the  American  "  locust,"  and  is  often 
called  by  that  name  by  English  au- 
thors. Some  suppose  that  it  was  upon 
these  "locusts"  that  John  the  Baptist 
subsisted.  Hence  this  fruit  is  often 
called  "St.  John's  bread."  But  the 
better  critics  reject  this  opinion. 

HUZ  {the  strong),  the   eldest  son  of 
Nahor  and  Milcah,  Gen.  22  :  21. 

HUZ'ZAB  appears  in  the  A.  V.  as 
396 


(Ceratonia  siliqua.) 

The 


a  proper  name,  a  queen  of  Nineveh  in 
the  days  of  Nahum,  2  :  7.  Many  schol- 
ars, however,  take  it  as  a  geographical 
term  meaning  "  the  country  of  Zab." 
But  perhaps  it  is  best  regarded  as  a 
part  of  speech,  and  read:  "And  it  is 
decreed." 

H Y^  'NA.    "  Speckled  bird  "  in  Jer. 
12  :  9  means,  according  to  some,  a  vul- 
ture or  other  bird  of  prey,  but  according 
to  other  excellent  authorities  (the  Sep- 
tuagint,   Gesenius,   etc.),   it 
should  be  translated  "  hy- 
aena."      "  Zeboim,"    which 
occurs   in   1    Sam.  13  :  18; 
Neh.    11  :  34,     means     hy- 
aenas.      Otherwise  there  is 
no  reference  to  this  animal 
in  the  Bible. 

The  striped  species  {Hy- 
sena  striata)  is  found  in  all 
Oriental  countries,  especial- 
ly in  Egypt  and  the  desert. 
In  Palestine  it  is  more  com- 
mon than  any  carnivorous 
animal  except  the  jackal. 
In  general  appearance  it 
resembles  the  wolf,  but  it  is 
of  a  dirty  gray  color,  with 
dark  transverse  stripes  upon 
the  sides  and  limbs.  The 
body  is  high  at  the  shoul- 
ders (about  3  feet),  declines 
rapidly  toward  the  tail.  It 
has  a  mane  of  erect,  bristly 
hair  along  the  back. 

What  the  vulture  is  among 
birds  this  creature  is  among 
animals.  The  odor  from  its 
food  of  carrion  adds  to  the 
disgust  caused  by  its  hide- 
ous appearance.  The  hy- 
ana,  in  spite  of  every  pre- 
caution, often  succeeds  in 
digging  up  and  devouring 
human  corpses.  Though 
cowardly  in  its  nature,  it  is  very  savage. 
When  driven  by  hunger,  it  will  some- 
times kill  cattle.  The  strength  of  its 
jaws  is  so  great  that  it  can  crack  the 
bones  of  an  ox  with  ease,  but  as  the  hy- 
aena is  neither  swift  nor  courageous,  it 
is  not  dreaded  by  man.  When  in  bands, 
however,  it  fears  neither  the  lion  nor  the 
tiger.  It  inhabits  the  numerous  tombs 
of  the  Holy  Land,  the  caves,  and  even 
the  open  desert. 

HYMEN.E'US   {hjmeneal)  is  men- 


HYM 


HYS 


The  Striped  Hyaena. 
tioned  once  with  Alexander  and  once  with 
Philetus.  He  is  first,  1  Tim.  1 :  20,  rep- 
resented as  having  made  shipwreck  of  his 
faith,  and  then  as  having  denied  the  doc- 
trine of  a  future  resurrection  of  the  body, 
2  Tim.  2  :  17.  Paul  delivered  him  up  to 
Satan,  which  probably  refers  to  ecclesi- 
astical excommunication. 

HYMN.  In  the  N.  T.  we  have  the 
hymn  mentioned  with  the  psalm  and  the 
spiritual  song.  Eph.  5:19,-  Col,  3  :  16. 
Paul  and  Silas  sang  hymns  (A.  V., 
"praises")  in  the  prison  at  Philippi, 
Acts  16  :  25,  and  after  the  Last  Supper 
our  Lord  and  the  disciples  sang  a  hymn 
together,  Matt.  26  :  30. 

HYS'SOP,  Ex.  12  :  22.  A  plant 
often  used  in  the  ceremonies  of  purifica- 
tion. Lev.  14  :  4,  6,  51  ;  Ps.  51  :  7.  One 
of  its  characteristics  is  referred  to  in  1 
Kgs.  4 :  33.  It  is  associated  with  our 
Saviour's  last  hours,  John  19  :  29.  More 
than  twenty  different  plants  have  been 
urged  as  the  species  intended,  Tristram 
and  other  recent  authorities  favor  the 
caper-bush.  But  Dr.  Post  of  Beirut, 
Syria,  in  the  Sunday-School  World  for 
March,  1879,  argues  very  conclusively, 
on  philological  and  other  grounds,  in 
favor  of  a  species  of  marjoram.  For 
such  reasons,  he  says,  "  hyssop  should 
be  a  labiate  plant  with  aromatic  odor 
and  capable  of  furnishing  a  reed-like 
stem  suitable  for  binding  the  sponge 
upon  and  presenting  it  to  the  mouth  of 


Jesus,  John  19  :  29.  Of 
thelabiatc  J)  hints  of  Pal- 
estine, none  so  well  ful- 
fils these  indications  as 
the  Origanum  maru,  the 
Sdfitar  of  the  Arabs. 
Its  thyme-like  odor  and 
pungent  taste  would 
have  aided  with  the 
vinegar  to  assuage 
thirst.  Most  labiates 
have  similar  properties. 
Scarlet  wool  and  hyssop 
were  early  associated  in 
the  ceremonial  act  of 
purification.  It  is  re- 
markable that  thymol, 
a  product  of  a  plant 
closely  allied  to  the  hys- 
sop and  origanum,  is 
now  extensively  used  as 
an  antiseptic."  He  fur- 
ther adds  upon  the  pas- 
sage in  John  (above) :  "  There  is  nothing 

in   the  narrative  that 

would  forbid  the  idea 

of  the  sponge  saturated 

with  vinegar  having 

been  bound  with  a 

bunch  of  hyssops  on  an 

ordinary  reed  (comp. 

Mark  15:  36),  in  which 

case  there  would  be  no 

need  of  supposing  the 

hyssop  to  have  a  reed- 
like  stem."      Bochart 

also  decides  in  favor  of 

the  marjoram,  or  some 

plant  like  it.     Ancient 

tradition      likewise 

points  to  the  same  con- 
clusion.    The  Hebrew 

word      was     probably 

applied  to  aromatic 

plants    of    the   hyssop 

family,  and  not  alone 

to  one  particular  herb; 

this  family  is  destitute 

of     deleterious     secre- 
tions,  and   the   plants 

are    fragrant    as    Avell 

as  aromatic.     As  this 

family     of    plants 

abounds  in  Syria  and 

the      Sinaitic      penin-     Origanum  maru,  or 

sula,    there    seems    to  Hyssop. 

be    no    valid    objection    to    Dr.    Post's 

view. 

397 


IBH 


IDO 


I. 


IB'HAR  [toTiomGod chooses),  a  son  of 
David.  2  Sam.  5  :  15  ,•  1  Chr.  3  :  6;  14  :  5. 

IB'LEAM  {consuming  the  peojile),  a 
city  of  Manasseh,  but  in  the  territory  of 
either  Issachar  or  Asher,  Josh.  17  :  11; 
Jud.  1:27;  2  Kgs.  9  :  27,  and  doubtless 
identical  with  Bileam.  1  Chr.  6  :  70.  It 
is  proposed  by  some  to  identify  Ibleam 
with  Jelama,  north  of  Jenin  ;  by  others, 
with  Belnmeh. 

IBNE'IAH  [Jehovah  builds),  a  Ben- 
jamite.  1  Chr.  9  :  8. 

IBNI'JAH  {Jehovah  builds),  a  Ben- 
jataite.  1  Chr.  9  :  8. 

IB'RI  {Hebreic),  a  Merarite  Levite. 
1  Chr.  24  :  27. 

IB'ZAN  {beautiful  ?),  a  Bethlehem- 
ite  who  '"judged"  Israel  for  7  years  after 
Jephthah.  Jud.  12  :  8,  10. 

ICE.     See  Crystal. 

ICH'ABOD  {where  is  the  glory  f  or 
inglorious),  the  son  of  Phinehas,  and 
grandson  of  Eli,  the  high  priest.  1  Sam. 
4  :  21,  22.  He  was  born  just  after  his 
mother  received  the  sad  tidings  that  her 
husband  and  father-in-law  were  dead  and 
the  ark  of  God  taken  by  the  Philistines. 

ICO'NIUM  {place  of  images?),  a 
large  and  rich  city  of  Asia  Minor,  in 
the  province  of  Lycaonia.  It  was  sit- 
uated on  the  great  Roman  highway  from 
Ephesus  to  Tarsus.  Antioch,  and  the  Eu- 
phrates, and  near  the  confines  of  Phrygia 
and  Pisidia,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Taurus, 
in  a  beautiful  and  fertile  country,  about 
MflO  miles  south-east  of  Constantinople 
and  about  120  miles  inland  from  the 
Mediterranean.  Mountains  covered  with 
snow  rise  on  every  side,  except  toward 
the  east,  where  there  is  an  extensive 
plain.  Its  importance  as  a  centre  for 
the  spread  of  the  gospel  is  therefore  ob- 
vious. Paul  visited  it  on  his  first  and 
second  missionary  iournevs.  Acts  13  : 
51;  14:  1,  19,  21;  liS  :  2  ;  2  Tim.  3:11. 

It  is  now  called  Konieh,  and  has  a  pop- 
ulation of  about  30,000.  In  1832,  on  the 
great  plain  before  Konieh,  the  Turkish 
army  was  totally  defeated  and  dispersed 
b)'  the  Egyptians  under  Ibrahim  Pasha, 
There  are  important  ruins  of  the  Sara- 
cenic period  around  the  town. 
398 


IDA'EAH,  OR  ID'ALAH,  a  place 
in  Zebulun,  Josh.  19  :  15;  possibly  Ed- 
JJalieh,  in  Carmel. 

ID'BASH  {stout),  a  son  of  Abi-etam, 
1  Chr.  4  :  3. 

ID'DO.  The  name  occurs  six  times 
in  the  A.  V.,  but  is  the  uniform  rendering 
of  three  different  names. 

1.  {timely).  A  prophet  who  is  quoted  as 
the  author  of  an  historical  writing,  2  Chr. 
12  :  15;  13  :  22;  also  of  visions  against 
Jeroboam.  2  Chr.  9  :  29. 

2.  The  grandfather  of  the  prophet 
Zechariah.    Zech.  1  :  1,  7. 

3.  The  father  of  Abinadab.  1  Kgs.  4  : 
14. 

4.  A  Gershonite  Levite.    1  Chr.  6:  21, 
6.  {calamity).    A  Nethinim  chief.  Ezr. 

8:17. 

6.  {favorite).  A  ruler  of  Manasseh. 
1  Chr.  27:21. 

I'DLE,  Matt.  12:36,  in  this  connec- 
tion means  morally  useless. 

IDOL,  IDOLATRY.  What- 
ever receives  the  worship  which  is  due 
only  to  God  is  an  idol.  In  a  figurative 
sense,  the  word  denotes  anything  which 
draws  the  affections  from  God,  Col.  3  :  5, 
and  in  a  restricted  sense,  it  denotes  any 
visible  image  or  figure  which  is  conse- 
ci-ated  to  religious  worship,  Deut.  29  : 
17, 

Idolatry  consists  (1)  in  worshipping 
as  the  true  God  some  created  object,  as 
stars  or  animals  or  men  ;  (2)  in  worship- 
ping the  Deity  through  the  medium  of 
symbolical  representations,  as  pictures 
and  statues.  It  is  the  greatest  sin,  and 
strictly  forbidden  in  the  first  and  sec- 
ond commandments.  Ex.  20  :  3,  4: 
Deut.  5:7;  6  :  14,  15:  8  :  19,  20;  Jer. 
44  :  3-8. 

The  origin  of  idolatry  is  involved  in 
obscurity,  and  goes  back  to  the  remotest 
antiquity.  All  the  heathen  are  idolaters, 
and  they  embrace  two-thirds  of  the  hu- 
man race.  The  ancient  Chalda^ans  wor- 
shipped the  forces  and  phenomena  of 
nature,  as  the  sun  and  the  moon  and  the 
stellar  luminaries ;  the  ancient  Egyptians 
all  sorts  of  animals,  as  bulls,  beetles,  even 
cats,  monkeys,  and  crocodiles.     The  an- 


IDO 


IDO 


cient  Greeks  and  Romans  woi-shipped 
men  and  women  representing  all  human 
virtues  and  vices.  Some  degraded  na- 
tions have  made  the  devil  himself  an  ob- 
ject of  worship,  and  made  images  of  the 
spirit  of  evil  for  purposes  of  devotion. 
St.  Paul  gives  the  best  description  of  the 
progress  of  idolatry,  with  its  attending 
immorality,  in  Rom.  1:18  ff.  The  Is- 
raelites showed  a  constant  tendency  to 
relapse  into  the  idolatry  of  the  surround- 
ing nations.  The  ])rincipal  heathen 
gods  mentioned  in  the  0.  T.  are  Dagon, 
Molech,  Baal,  and  Ashteroth. 

History  of  Idolatry  amoutj  the  Hebrews. 
— The  first  definite  allusion  to  idols  in 
the  Bible  is  in  Gen.  31  :  19,  where  Rachel 
is  said  to  have  stolen  her  father's  house- 
hold gods,  the  teraphim.  To  what  extent 
Laban  worshipped  them  it  is  difiicult  to 
say,  for  he  also  seems  to  have  acknow- 
ledged the  true  God  of  Abraham.  Gen. 
31  :  53.  The  Israelites  became  tainted 
with  idolatry  in  Egypt.  Josh.  24 :  14. 
In  the  wilderness,  so  potent  was  the  in- 
clination in  this  direction  that  the  people 
clamored  till  they  induced  Aaron,  in  im- 
itation of  the  Egyptian  Apis-worship,  to 
make  the  golden  calf,  which  is  expressly 
termed  an  idol  by  Stephen,  Acts  7  :  41. 
In  the  days  of  Joshua  the  worship  of  the 
true  God  seems  to  have  been  universal, 
but  during  the  period  of  the  Judges 
there  was  a  vacillation  between  the 
worship  of  Jehovah  and  idolatry.  Al- 
tars to  Baal  were  erected,  and,  upon  the 
whole,  the  people  leaned  toward  the 
abominations  of  the  neighboring  nations, 
from  which  they  were  recalled  only  by 
special  visitations.  During  the  lifetime 
of  Samuel  and  David  a  purer  worship 
prevailed,  but  in  the  reign  of  Solomon 
i  lolatry  was  prominent.  Solomon's  own 
heart  was  turned  away  after  other 
gods,  1  Kgs.  11  :  4,  and  his  wives  had 
their  own  special  heathen  altars.  By 
polygamy  and  idolatry  the  wisest  man 
became  the  greatest  fool,  and  left  the 
world  the  sad  lesson,  "Vanity  of  vani- 
ties, all  is  vanity." 

The  subsequent  history  of  the  divided 
kingdom  is  the  history  of  a  contest  be- 
tween idol-worship  and  the  worship  of 
the  true  God.  At  the  time  of  Elijah  the 
whole  kingdom  of  the  Ten  Tribes  seemed 
to  have  bowed  the  knee  to  Baal,  and 
there  were  only  7000  exceptions.  After 
the  Babylonish  captivity  the  people  were 


more  steadfast,  and  despite  the  influ- 
ence of  the  (ireek  religion  remained  true 
to  the  worship  of  Jehovah. 

The  caxises  of  this  vacillation  and  fall- 
ing away  into  idolatry  are  not  far  to  seek. 
To  Israel  alone  were  committed  the  ora- 
cles of  God.  The  other  nations  had  only 
the  light  of  natural  religion,  and  were, 
for  the  most  part,  grossly  idolatrous. 
Constant  contact  with  these  peoples,  the 
intermarriage  of  the  common  people  and 
their  kings  with  "  strange  women,"  1 
Kgs.  11  :  4,  5,  and  an  innate  propensity 
of  depraved  human  nature  for  idolatry, 
sufficiently  explain  the  frequent  defec- 
tions of  the  Hebrew  nation  from  the  wor- 
ship of  the  one  God. 

It  may  well  be  expected,  among  a 
people  one  of  the  chief  designs  of  whose 
existence  was  to  conserve  the  doctrine 
of  God's  unity  and  spirituality,  that 
idolatry  would  be  visited  with  severe 
punishments.  The  first  two  command- 
ments of  the  Decalogue  forbid  it.  The 
individual  off"ender  was  devoted  to  de- 
struction. Ex.  22  :  20.  Idolatry  was  a 
criminal  offence  against  the  state  and 
treason  against  Jehovah.  A  favorite 
figure  of  speech  in  the  0.  T.  represents 
the  Israelitish  people  as  sustaining  a 
relation  of  marriage  with  Jehovah,  and 
idolatry  is  represented  by  the  later 
prophets  as  a  state  of  whoredom  or 
conjugal  infidelity.  Hos.  2:2,  4,  etc.: 
Eze.  16  :  28  ;  Jer.  3  :  3.  Whenever  a 
good  and  God-fearing  king  came  to  the 
throne,  as  Josiah,  Asa,  Hezekiah,  he 
considered  it  his  first  duty  to  wage  a 
war  against  the  altars,  images,  and  pil- 
lars of  idolatrous  worship.  The  Canaan- 
ites  are  frequently  referred  to  as  meriting 
national  extermination  on  account  of 
their  idolatry.  Deut.  12:29-31;  Ex. 
34:  15,  Ifi,  etc.  The  prophets  speak  of 
idolatry  as  defiling  and  polluting  in  its 
influences,  Eze.  20  :  7,  etc.,  and  Isaiah 
ridicules  the  idea  of  divinity  in  false 
gods  and  idols  by  a  refei-ence  to  a  piece 
of  wood  of  which  a  part  is  thrown  into 
the  fire  and  a  part  shaped  into  an  image. 
Isa.  44:  15-17. 

The  rites  of  idolatry  were  often  ob- 
scene and  licentious.  When  the  people 
assembled  around  the  golden  calf  in  the 
wilderness  for  worship,  they  went  about 
naked,  or  unruly,  as  some  translate.  Ex. 
32  :  25.  Feasting  and  revelry  were  fre- 
quently connected  with  this  worship. 

399 


IDU 


IMA 


The  Christian  Church  is  exposed  to 
the  same  peril  of  falling  into  the  sin  of 
idolatry  as  was  the  Jewish  Church,  al- 
though it  assumes  more  refined  forms, 
such  as  worship  of  saints,  images,  and 
relics,  of  wealth,  glory  and  pleasure. 
Paul  calls  covetousness,  or  the  worship 
of  mammon,  "idolatry."  Col.  3  :  5.  The 
last  verse  in  the  First  Epistle  of  John 
is  the  warning,  "  Little  children,  keep 
yourselves  from  idols." 

IDUM^'A,  the  Greek  name  for 
Edom.  Isa.  34  :  5,  6 ;  Mark  3  :  8.  See 
Edom. 

IDUM^'ANSjOrE'DOMITES. 
The  inhabitants  of  Idumsea  or  Edom, 
commonly  called  Edomites,  were  de- 
scendants of  Esau  (Gen.  36  :  1,  8),  and 
dwellers  in  the  clefts  of  the  rocks  in  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula.  Jer.  49  :  16.  Petra, 
their  stronghold  in  Amaziah's  day,  2 
Kgs.  14  :  7,  and  chief  city,  was  literally 
cut  in  the  rocks,  and  the  southern  part  of 
the  country  abounds  in  cave-dwellings. 
They  had  kings  long  before  the  Hebrews. 
Gen.  36  :  31.  Though  they  were  of  the 
same  primitive  parentage  as  the  Hebrews, 
they  were  by  no  means  friendly  to  them. 
They  perpetuated  the  enmity  between 
Esau  and  Jacob.  They  opposed  their 
passage  through  their  country  when  Is- 
rael came  from  the  wilderness.  Num.  20  : 
20,  21.  But  finally  they  allowed  a  pas- 
sage through  their  eastern  border,  ac- 
cepting also  Israel's  offer  to  pav  for  pro- 
visions. Deut.  2  :  28,  29.  The  Edomites 
were  conquered  by  Saul  in  the  eai'ly  part 
of  his  reign,  1  Sam.  14  :  47,  and  by  Da- 
vid likewise,  2  Sam.  8:14:  but  at  the  in- 
stigation of  Hadad  they  revolted  against 
Solomon.  1  Kgs.  11  :  14.  Edom  was  for 
a  long  time  a  vassal  of  the  kingdom  of 
Judah,  but  again  revolted,  and  after  a 
struggle  got  its  independence  in  the 
reign  of  Jehoram.  2  Kgs.  8  :  20-22. 
The  later  kings  attacked  and  were  at- 
tacked by  the  Edomites.  In  the  days 
of  the  Maccabees  they  were  again  active 
foes  to  the  Jews,  but  Judas  Maccabaeus 
defeated  them  and  John  Hyrcanus  com- 
pletely subjected  them,  compelling  them 
to  adopt  the  Mosaic  Law.  But  out  of 
this  humbled  but  turbulent  people  came 
Antipater,  who  obtained  the  government 
of  Judaea,  b.  c.  47 ;  and  his  son  was 
Herod  the  Great.  The  prophets  fore- 
told the  desolation  of  the  descendants  of 
Esau  and  their  country.  Jer.  49  :  17, 18; 
400 


Ob.  8.  Thirty  ruined  towns  within  three 
days'  journey  from  the  Red  Sea  attest 
their  former  greatness  and  their  present 
desolation. 

I'GALi  {whom  God  redeems).  1.  The 
spy  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar.  Num.  13  :  7. 

2.  One  of  David's  guard.  2  Sam.  23  : 
36  ;  called  Joel,  1  Chr.  11 :  38. 

IGDALiI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  viakes 
great),  a  prophet  in  the  days  of  .Jeremi- 
ah ;  mentioned  only  once.  Jer.  35  :  4. 

IG'EAL  {ivhom  God  redeems),  a  de- 
scendant of  David.  1  Chr.  3  :  22. 

I'lM  {ruinous  heajis).  1.  Num.  33  : 
4.5.     See  Ije-abarim. 

2.  A  town  in  the  south  of  Judah,  Josh. 
15  :  29,  which  Wilton  connects  with  Azem 
and  identifies  with  el-Anjeh,  near  the 
Wddrj  el-Ain. 

IJ'E-AB'ARIM  {ruins  of  Aharim), 
a  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  south 
of  Moab,  Num.  21  :  11  :  33  :  44  ;  the  same 
as  lim,  and  near  to  the  stream  Zared. 

I'JON  {ruin),  a  city  of  Naphtali, 
lying  in  the  north  of  Palestine ;  taken 
and  plundered  by  the  captains  of  Ben- 
hadad,  1  Kgs.  15  :  20  ;  2  Chr.  16  :  4,  and 
again  by  Tiglath-pileser,  2  Kgs.  15  :  29. 
Robinson  identifies  it  with  the  ruin  Dih- 
hin,  on  the  plain  Merj  Aydn,  about  10 
miles  north-west  of  Banias  (Cajsarea- 
Philippi) ;  Conder  with  el-Khidm. 

IK'KESH  {2ierverse),  the  father  of 
one  of  David's  guard.  2  Sam.  23  :  26 ; 
1  Chr.  11:28;  27:9. 

I'LiAI  {exalted),  one  of  David's  guard. 
1  Chr.  11  :  29. 

ILLYR'ICUM,  a  Roman  province 
of  south-eastern  Europe,  lying  along  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  from  the 
boundary  of  Italy  on  the  north  to  Epi- 
rus  on  the  south,  and  contiguous  to 
Moesia  and  Macedonia  on  the  east.  On 
account  of  the  insurrection  of  the  Dal- 
matians, B.  c.  11,  the  province  was  di- 
vided, and  the  northern  portion  called 
Dalmatia:  the  southern  portion  remain- 
ed one  of  the  Senate's  provinces.  Paul 
preached  round  about  unto  Illyricum. 
Rom.  15:19. 

IM'AGE.  We  are  told  that  God 
"created  man  in  his  own  image,"  Gen. 
1:26,  27,  and  Christ  is  said  to  be  "the 
image  of  God."  Col.  1:15;  Heb.  1  :  3. 
The  term  used  of  our  Lord  imports 
a  complete  likeness,  like  that  which 
exists  between  a  seal  and  its  impres- 
sion   when    the    original    is    perfectly 


IMA 


IMP 


preserved  in  the  representation.  Used 
of  man,  the  term  refers  especially  to 
man's  knowledge  and  capacity  to  com- 
prehend God,  Col.  3:10;  to  his  original 
holiness,  Eph.  4  :  24,  thus  being  like  Uod 
in  the  tone  of  his  moral  nature :  and  to 
his  dominion  over  the  creatures  of  the 
earth.  Gen.  1 :  28.  The  word  is  usually 
employed  to  denote  an  object  of  idola- 
trous worship.     See  Man,  Idol. 

lill'AGE  OF  JEALOUSY.  Eze. 
8  :  3,  5.  This  was  not  any  particular 
idol,  but  a  general  phrase  for  the  idol- 
atrous practices  which  excited  the  jeal- 
ousy of  Jehovah. 

IMAGERY,  CHAMBERS 
OF,  Eze.  8  :  12,  or  CHAMBERS 
OF  IMAGES.  The  phrase  refers  to 
the  custom,  so  extensively  followed  by 
the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians,  of  paint- 
ing pictures  of  the  gods  upon  the  walls 
of  temples  and  other  buildings. 

IM'LA  {filled),  father  of  Micaiah, 
the  Jehovah-prophet  who  foretold  the 
defeat  at  Ramoth-gilead,  2  Chr.  18  :  7, 
8;  called  Imlah,  1  Kgs.  22  :  8,  9. 

IM'LiAH.     Same  as  preceding. 

IMMAN'UEL,  a  Hebrew  word  sig- 
nifying "  God  with  us,"  and  used  as  one 
of  the  distinctive  titles  of  the  Messiah. 
Isa.  7  :  14  ;  Matt.  1 :  23.     See  Christ. 

IM'MER  {talkative),  father  of  a 
priestly  family.  1  Chr.  9  :  12  j  Ezr.  2  : 
37;  Neh.  11:13. 

IM'MER,  apparently  the  name  of  a 
place  in  Babylonia.  Ezr.  2  :  59 ;  Neh.  7  : 
61. 

IMMORTAL'ITY.  1  Cor.  15  :  53. 
The  immortality  of  the  soul  was  held  as 
a  popular  belief  by  the  Egyptians  and 
other  ancient  nations,  and  taught  by 
some  of  the  greatest  philosophers  of  the 
heathen  world — Socrates,  Plato,  Cicero, 
and  others.  In  the  0.  T.  a  belief  in  it 
is  taken  for  granted,  and  the  doctrine  is 
not  specially  taught. 

Particular  passages  and  the  cases  of 
individuals  are  a  sufficient  proof  that  the 
Hebrew  people  believed  in  a  future  life. 
The  translation  of  Enoch  and  the  witlv 
drawal  of  Elijah  are  evidences  of  this. 
One  of  the  great  questions  dependent  upon 
the  central  question  of  the  book  of  Job 
is  whether  a  man  that  dies  shall  live 
again.  14  :  14.  A  most  emphatic  affirm- 
ative answer  follows  in  ch.  19  :  25,  where 
the  patriarch  looks  forward  to  another 
state  of  being  for  his  vindication.  Such 
26 


passages  as  Ps.  17  :  15  admit  us  to  the 
assurance  of  the  Hebrews  on  this  point. 
The  expressions  "  gathered  unto  his  peo- 
ple," Gen.  25  :  8,  and  "  bury  me  with  my 
fathers,"  Gen.  49 :  29,  so  frequently  re- 
curring, are  often  interpreted  to  refer  to 
the  future  life.  The  books  of  Moses  do 
not  refer  specially  to  the  immortality 
of  the  soul,  but  the  doctrine  is  assumed  ; 
for  otherwise  the  sacrificial  and  peniten- 
tial system  of  the  Mosaic  Law  would  be 
unintelligible.  The  exhortations  and 
commands  thus  made  are  based  upon 
the  certainty  of  rewards  and  punishments 
in  a  future  state  of  existence.  More- 
over, God  is  frequently  called,  in  the 
Mosaic  writings,  the  God  of  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob,  and  this  designation 
our  Lord  uses  as  an  argument  for  the 
immortality  of  the  soul.     Matt.  22  :  32. 

In  the  N.  T.  the  doctrine  of  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul  is  definitely  taught  in 
close  connection  with  the  resurrection  of 
the  body. 

Our  Lord  speaks  of  the  future  state 
of  the  soul,  when  it  shall  suffer  either 
unending  pain  or  enjoy  unending  bliss. 
Matt.  25  :  46.  The  parable  of  Lazarus 
and  Dives  presupposes  the  same  funda- 
mental truth.  In  the  Epistles  of  Paul 
we  have  prolonged  references  to  this 
subject  and  discussions  of  it,  Phil.  1  : 
21-23  ;  2  Cor.  5:1-6;  1  Thess.  4  :  13-18, 
and  especially  in  the  fifteenth  chapter 
of  First  Corinthians. 

In  our  English  Version,  God  is  said  to 
be  "  immortal."  1  Tim.  1:17.  The  word 
is  the  same  as  that  translated  "uncor- 
ruptible," Rom.  1 :  23,  and  should  be  so 
translated  here. 

IM'NA  {holding  back),  an  Asherite. 
1  Chr.  7  :  35. 

IM''NAH  {success).  1.  Asher's  first- 
born. 1  Chr.  7  :  30. 

2.  A  Levite.  2  Chr.  31 :  14. 

IMPLEAD',  a  technical  term;  "to 
prosecute  by  a  due  course  of  law."  Acts 
19  •  ^8 

IM'POTENT,  "sick."  John  5:3; 
Acts  4:9:  14  :  8. 

IMPRISONMENT.  See  Punish- 
ments. 

IMPUTE'.  Rom.  4:  8.  The  Greek 
word  of  which  this  is  a  translation  is 
rendered  in  our  English  Bible  by  no  less 
than  eleven  different  terms  ;  for  example, 
"reckon,"  Rom.  4:4;  "lay  to  one's 
charge,"  2  Tim.  4:  16;  "account."  Gal. 

401 


IMR 


INN 


3  :  6,  The  meaning  of  the  word  is  "to 
put  to  the  account  of  a  person  that  of 
which  he  is  or  is  not  possessed."  In  the 
former  sense,  God  is  said  to  impute  sin, 
Rom.  4:8;  in  the  latter  sense  the  right- 
eousness of  Christ  is  said  to  be  imputed 
to  man  on  condition  of  the  exercise  of 
faith  in  Christ's  sacrifice.  Rom.  4  :  11-24. 

IM'RAH  {obstinacy),  an  Asherite.  1 
Chr.  7  :  30. 

IM'RI  {eloquent).  1.  A  Judite.  1 
Chr.  9:4. 

2.  Father  of  a  wall-builder.  Neh.  3  :  2. 

INCANTA'TIONS.  See  Divina- 
tion. 

IN'CENSE.  Ex.  30  :  8.  This  was 
a  compound  of  frankincense  and  other 
gums  or  spices,  the  materials  and  manu- 
facture of  which  are  particularly  pre- 
scribed. Ex.  30  :  34-36.  See  Frankin- 
cense. It  was  the  business  of  the  priest 
to  burn  it  morning  and  evening  upon 
an  altar  specially  erected  for  this  purpose, 
and  thence  called  the  altar  of  incense. 
The  preparation  of  it  for  common  use 
was  positively  forbidden  ;  neither  could 
any  other  composition  be  offered  as  in- 
cense on  this  altar,  nor  could  this  be 
offered  by  any  but  the  priest.  The  offer- 
ing of  incense  was  symbolical  of  prayer, 
or,  as  some  think,  rather  of  that  which 
makes  prayer  acceptable — the  interces- 
sion of  Christ.  See  Altar,  Censer, 
Frankincense. 

Incense  was  considered  sacred,  and 
might  be  offered  by  the  priest  only. 
When  King  Uzziah  attempted  to  use  it 
in  the  temple,  he  was  struck  with  lep- 
rosy. 2  Chr.  26  :  16-21.  Incense  was 
offered  to  heathen  deities  and  idols,  Jer. 
11  :  12,  17,  and  the  angels  offer  it  in 
heaven.    Rev.  8:3. 

IN'DIA.  The  Persian  king  Ahas- 
uerus  is  described  as  reigning  "  from 
India  unto  Ethiopia."  Esth.  1:1;  8:9. 
The  India  of  the  book  of  Esther  is  not 
the  peninsula  of  Hindostan,  but  the 
country  surrounding  the  Indus,  the 
Punjab,  and  perhaps  Scinde.  Later, 
India  is  reckoned  among  the  countries 
which  Eumenes,  king  of  Pergamus,  re- 
ceived out  of  the  former  possessions  of 
Antiochus  the  Great.  1  Mace.  8:8;  11  : 
37.  The  people  and  productions  of  that 
country  must  have  been  tolerably  well 
known  to  the  Jews.  An  active  trade 
was  carried  on  between  India  and  west- 
ern Asia.  The  trade  opened  by  Solo- 
402 


mon  by  his  navy  and  through  Hiram, 
king  of  Tyre,  consisted  chiefly  of  In- 
dian articles.    1  Kgs.  10  :  10-22. 

INGATHERING,  FEAST  OF. 

See  Tabernacles,  Feast  of. 
INHER'ITANCE.     In  the  0.  T. 

we  have  no  record  of  wills.  The  prop- 
erty-holder made  a  disposition  of  his 
property  during  his  lifetime.  There  do 
not  seem  to  have  been  very  definite  laws 
stipulating  the  exact  proportion  to  be 
given  to  each  heir.  The  sons  had  pri- 
ority of  right,  and,  in  case  there  were 
no  sons,  the  daughters  became  heirs. 
Num.  27  :  8,  As  between  the  children 
of  concubines  and  the  children  of  legal 
wives,  the  latter  seem  to  have  received 
the  whole  inheritance,  Gen.  21  :  10  ;  24: 
36,  while  gifts  were  bestowed  upon  the 
former.  Gen.  25  :  6.  However,  while 
these  principles  were  acted  upon  by 
Abraham,  we  dare  not  make  the  sweep- 
ing assertion  that  they  were  of  universal 
application.  Jacob  blessed  both  sons  of 
his  concubines  and  sons  of  his  legal 
wives.  Gen.  49  :  1  ff.  According  to 
Deut.  21  :  15-17,  the  first-born  son  re- 
ceived a  double  portion. 

Believers  have  for  their  inheritance 
salvation,  Heb.  1  :  14,  and  the  kingdom 
of  heaven.  Jas.  2  :  5.  They  are  declared 
to  be  "joint-heirs  "with  Christ  and  heirs 
of  God  because  of  their  sonship.  Rom. 
8:17. 

INIQ'UITY.  Gen.  15:16.  What- 
ever is  done  contrarj'  to  the  law  of  God. 
To  "bear  the  iniquity  of  the  congrega- 
tion," Lev.  10 :  17,  is  to  make  that  ex- 
piation or  atonement  which  is  a  pre- 
requisite to  their  forgiveness.  Isa.  53 : 
6.  "  The  mystery  of  iniquity,"  2  Thess. 
2:  7,  should  be  rendered  "the  mystery 
of  lawlessness." 

INK,  INK'HORN.  Jer.  36:  18; 
Eze.  9:2,  3,  11;  2  Cor.  3  :  3;  2  John 
12  ;  3  John  13.     See  Writing. 

INN.  In  the  Bible  the  "inn "was  not 
a  hotel  in  our  sense.  The  word  so  trans- 
lated means  either  a  "lodging-place  for 
the  night" — not  necessarily  a  covered 
p%ce,  but  a  mere  station  of  caravans, 
where  water  could  be  obtained :  such 
was  the  "  inn  "  at  which  Joseph's  breth- 
ren stopped,  and  where  Moses  was  met 
by  the  Lord,  Gen.  42 :  27  ;  Ex.  4:  24— 
or  else  a  khan  or  caravanserai,  which 
was,  and  is,  a  large  square  building  en- 
closing an  open  court,  in  whose  centre 


INS 


INW 


is  a  fountain  ;  tlie  building  contains  a 
number  of  rooms.  There  is  no  provision 
for  meals  or  feed  for  the  animals;  the 
travellers  carry  such  necessaries  with 
them.  These  caravanserais  are  often 
built  by  benevolent  persons.  Jer.  9  :  2. 


Inn. 

Another  kind  of  "  inn  "  is  that  mentioned 
in  the  parable  of  the  Good  Samaritan. 
Luke  10  :  34.  This  had  a  host,  who  was 
probably  paid  to  attend  to  the  wants  of 
travellers.  And  it  was  in  one  of  the  sta- 
bles of  a  mere  caravanserai  provided  for 
the  horses  of  travellers  that  our  Lord 
was  born. 

In  modern  Syria,  in  villages  where 
there  is  no  khan,  there  is  a  house  for  the 
entertainment  of  travellers,  with  a  man 
appointed  to  look  after  it;  for  its  accom- 
modations, meagre  as  they  are,  payment 
is  exacted,  and  the  keeper  likewise  gets 
a  fee. 

INSPIRA'TIOIV.  By  "inspira- 
tion," in  the  theological  sense,  is  meant 
that  influence  of  the  Spirit  of  God  upon 
the  mind  of  the  sacred  writers  by  which 
he  communicated  the  knowledge  of  re- 
ligious truths  or  future  events,  and 
guarded  them  against  error  in  deliver- 
ing these  truths  to  others,  either  orally  or 
by  writing.  The  prophets  and  apostles 
spake  "as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy 
Ghost."  2  Pet.  1:  21.  They  were,  how- 
ever, not  merely,  passive:  they  were  in 
a  condition  of  receptivity,  and  their 
faculties  were  raised  to  the  highest  ex- 


ercise. The  divine  Spirit  acted  upon 
each  author  according  to  his  individual- 
ity, and  used  him,  not  as  a  machine,  but 
as  a  free  and  responsible  agent.  Hence 
the  differences  of  style  and  mode  of 
treatment.  The  Bible  is  both  human 
and  divine,  like  the  per- 
son of  Christ,  whom  it 
reflects. 

There  are  various 
theories  of  inspiration, 
as  to  its  mode  and  de- 
grees, which  lie  outside 
of  our  purpose  ;  but  all 
Christians  agree  that  in 
the  Bible,  and  in  the 
Bible  alone,  we  have  a 
full  and  perfectly  trust- 
worthy  revelation  of 
God,  and  that  it  is  the 
infallible  rule  of  our 
faith  and  practice. 

INSTANT,  IN- 
STANTLY, used 
five  times  in  the  A.  V. 
for  "  urgent,"  "  earn- 
est." Luke  7:4;  23: 
2.3  ;  Acts  26  :  7  ;  Rom. 
12:  12;  2  Tim.  4:  2. 
IN'STRUMENTS  OF  MUSIC. 
See  Music. 

INTERCES'SION,  Heb.  7:  25, 
means  interposition  by  prayer  for  others, 
1  Tim.  2:  1,  and  implies  wants  and 
needs. 

Our  Lord,  by  reason  of  his  high- 
priestly  office,  performs  the  functions 
of  intercessor  or  advocate.  1  John  2 : 
1.  He  performed  this  office  while  on 
earth.  The  most  conspicuous  instance 
is  found  in  the  so-called  sacerdotal 
prayer,  John  17,  where  intercession  is 
made  for  the  disciples,  v.  9,  and  for 
future  believers,  v.  20.  Our  Lord  con- 
tinues to  make  intercession  for  us  in  his 
state  of  exaltation.  Heb.  9  :  24 :  Rom. 
8  :  34.  The  Holy  Spirit  is  also  said  to 
make  intercession.  Rom.  8  :  2(i.  This 
is  accom])lished  through  his  dwelling  in 
the  hearts  of  believers,  praying  in  them 
and  enabling  them  to  pray.  Believers 
also  have  the  privilege  of  making  inter- 
cession for  one  another  and  for  the  un- 
converted. Gen.  18  :  2.3-33;  1  Thess.  6: 
25    etc. 

IN'TEREST.     See  Loan. 
INTERPRETER.   See  Prophet. 
IN'WARD,  used   in   the   A.  V.  of 

403 


IPH 


ISA 


Job  19:19  for  "familiar/'  ''confiden- 
tial." 

I'PHEDE'IAH  [wJiom  Jehovah 
frees),  a  Benjamite.     1  Chr.  8:  25. 

IR  («  city),  a  Benjamite,  1  Chr.  7: 
12  ;  called  Iri,  v.  7. 

I'RA  (icatch/ul).  1,  One  of  David's 
"chief  rulers."  2  Sam.  20:  26. 

2,  3.  Two  warriors  of  David.  2  Sam. 
33  :  26,  38 ;  1  Chr.  11  :  28,  40  ;  27  :  9. 

I'RAD  ( fleet),  a  grandson  of  Cain. 
Gen.  4:  18.  " 

I'RAM  {watch  fill),  an  Edomite  chief- 
tain.    Gen.  36  :  43  :   1  Chr.  1 :  54. 

IR-HAHE'RES,  Isa.  19:18.  The 
Hebrew  reads  heres,  "  destruction  ;"  the 
Syriac,  Arabic  and  Latin,  and  several 
MSS.  read  chares,  "the  sun;"  the  Chal- 
dee  combines  both  readings;  while  the 
Septuagint  reads  "  city  of  righteousness." 
These  varied  readings  lead  to  various 
interpretations  of  this  expression:  (1) 
That  it  refers  to  the  city  of  the  sun, 
Heliopolis,  in  Egypt:  (2)  To  a  city  de- 
stroyed, meaning  one  of  the  five  cities 
noticed  by  the  prophet;  (3)  To  one  of 
these  same  cities  which  should  be  pre- 
served from  destruction. 

I'RI  {watchful),  a  Benjamite.  1  Chr. 
7:7.  12. 

IRI''JAH  {Jehovah  sees),  a  captain 
of  the  ward,  who  arrested  Jeremiah. 
Jer.  37  :  13,  14. 

IRNA'HASH  {serpent  citi/).  In  the 
margin  it  is  called  "  the  city  of  Nahash." 
1  Chr.  4  :  12.  Jerome  regards  it  the 
same  as  Bethlehem,  but  this  is  not 
probable.  Van  de  Yelde  proposes  to 
identify  the  town  with  the  village  and 
ruins  called  Deir  Nahhaz,  east  of  Beit- 
Jihrin,  on  the  road  to  Hebron. 

I'RON.  Prov.  27:  17.  Some  of  the 
uses  of  this  well-known  and  most  val- 
uable metal  were  probably  understood 
at  a  very  early  period.  Gen.  4  :  22. 
We  find  it  mentioned  as  the  material 
for  tools,  Deut.  27  :  5  ;  2  Kgs.  6:6; 
weapons  of  war.  1  Sam.  17  :  7 ;  furni- 
ture, Deut.  3:11;  implements  of  hus- 
bandry, 2  Sam.  12:31:  Jer.  28:14; 
and  chariots  of  war.  Josh.  17  :  16,  etc. 
By  "northern  iron,"  Jer.  15  :  12,  prob- 
ably is  intended  a  species  of  iron-ore 
or  manufacture  remarkable  for  its  hard- 
ness, found  in  a  region  bordering  on  the 
Euxine  Sea,  and  of  course  north  of  Ju- 
daea. The  expression  "a  land  whose  stones 
are  iron,"  Deut.  8 :  9,  seems  to  describe 
404 


an  abundance  of  iron-ore,  which  is  cer- 
tainly true  of  the  northern  parts  of  Pal- 
estine, as  shown  by  recent  exploration. 
See  Steel. 

I'RON  {pious),  one  of  the  cities  of 
Naphtali,  Josh.  19  :  38  ;  now  Yarun. 

IR'PEEL  (  God  heals),  a  town  of  Ben- 
jamin, Josh.  18  :  27,  which  the  Pal.  JVic- 
moirs  identify  with  the  modern  Rd-fui. 
15  miles  west  of  Jerusalem. 

IRSHE'MESH  {rlt,i  of  the  sun),  A 
place  in  Dan.  Josh.  19:41;  probably 
'Ain  Shems.     See  Beth-shemesh. 

I'RU  {rvatch),the  eldest  son  of  Caleb, 
the  faithful  spy.  1  Chr.  3  :  15. 

I'SAAC  (  langhter),  the  son  which 
Sarah  bore  to  Abraham  when  he  was  a 
hundred  years  old.  He  was  the  second 
of  the  Hebrew  patriarchs,  and  lived  the 
longest  of  the  three — to  the  age  of  ISO. 
Gen.  35:28.  The  origin  of  his  name, 
which  signifies  "laughter"  or  "mock- 
ing," is  given  in  Gen.  17:17;  18:  12; 
21 :  6.  The  only  event  recorded  of  his 
earlier  years  is  the  most  significant  of  his 
life  for  the  history  of  the  Church  :  he 
appears  in  the  sacrificial  scene  as  the 
victim.  Directed  of  God,  Abraham  led 
his  son  to  the  mountain  of  sacrifice ; 
Isaac  was  wholly  unconscious  of  the 
disposition  that  was  to  be  made  of  him- 
self, and  is  represented  in  the  narrative, 
Gen.  22  :  1-13,  as  artlessly  inquiring 
about  the  lamb  to  be  offered,  while  he 
himself  was  to  be  the  offering.  The  di- 
vine interposition  intervened  just  as  the 
gleaming  knife  was  about  to  do  its 
bloody  work  in  the  hands  of  the  de- 
spondent father.  Josephus  says  this 
event  occurred  when  Isaac  was  24  years 
old,  but  no  indication  of  time  is  given 
in  the  narrative.  This  occurrence  is 
considered  typical  of  the  later  sacrifice 
of  the  only  Son  of  God  on  Calvary. 
The  record  of  Isaac's  wooing  and  mar- 
riage is  graphic  and  beautiful.  Abra- 
ham sent  his  trusty  servant  Eliezer  with 
gifts  to  Padan-aram  for  this  purpose.  He 
there  found  Rebekah,  the  daughter  of 
Bethuel,  whom  Isaac  married  at  the  age 
of  40.  Gen.  25  :  20.  The  account  of  their 
meeting  and  of  the  preliminaries  of  the 
marriage.  Gen.  24,  gives  a  most  charm- 
ing picture  of  the  manners  of  that  early 
day. 

Isaac  seems  to  have  been  a  prosperous 
agriculturist,  Gen.  26 :  12,  and  a  rich 
herder,  v.  14,  but   was  not  without   his 


ISA 


ISA 


domestic  troubles  with  Jacob  and  Esau. 
The  promise  that  was  given  to  Abraham 
of  an  indefinite  increase  of  his  seed,  and 
of  the  blessings  to  flow  from  it  to  the 
world,  was  repeated  to  him.  Gen.  26  :  4. 
The  N.  T.  refers  to  the  intended  sacriliee 
of  Isaac,  Heb.  11:17;  Jas.  2:21,  and 
contains  an  allegorical  allusion  to  him 
and  Ishmael.  Gal.  4 :  28,  38. 

The  life  of  Isaac  was  a  comparatively 
uneventful  one,  but  in  it  we  have  the 
record  of  an  honest,  humble,  and  pious 
nomad.  He  excelled  in  the  domestic 
traits  of  character;  his  disposition  was 
peaceable,  Gen.  27  :  22  ;  his  married  life 
is  assumed  to  have  been  peculiarly  tran- 
quil and  happy,  and  prominent  in  his 
biography  stands  out  his  tender  regard 
for  his  mother.   Gen.  24:  67. 

Isaac  is  a  type  of  the  Saviour  in  the 
peculiar  meekness  and  humility  of  his 
disposition.  His  signal  patience  and 
resignation  at  the  intended  sacrifice  and 
the  humility  of  his  life  are  typical  of  the 
Son  of  man,  who  "'  opened  not  his  mouth." 

I''SAAC,  twice  used  as  a  poetic  syno- 
nym for  Israel — i.  e.  the  ten  tribes,  Am. 
7:9,  16. 

I  S  A  '  I  A  H  (Jehovah's  salvation). 
Very  little  is  known  of  the  personal  his- 
tory of  this  eminent  prophet.  He  was 
the  son  of  Amoz.   Isa.  1:1;  2  Kgs.  20 : 

1.  He  began  his  prophetic  career  under 
Uzziah,  probably  in  the  last  years  of 
his  reign,  Isa.  6:1,  and  continued  it 
during  the  succeeding  reigns  of  Jo- 
tham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah.  7:1.  This 
would  throw  his  prophetic  activity  be- 
tween the  years  b.  c.  760  and  713  or  698, 
the  year  of  Hezekiah's  death.  He  was 
married  and  had  two  sons.  7:3;  8:3, 
etc.  His  wife  is  called  a  prophetess, 
and  his  children,  like  himself,  had  pro- 
phetical names  emblematic  of  Israel's 
future.     He  wore  a  hair-cloth  dress.  20  : 

2.  He  seems  to  have  been  held  in  high 
esteem,  especially  by  Hezekiah.  37:2; 
38 :  1.  In  addition  to  the  prophecies 
which  we  have  by  this  prophet,  he  wrote 
a  history  of  Uzziah's  reign,  2  Chron.  26  : 
22,  which  is  lost.  The  Bible  does  not 
indicate  the  mode  of  his  death.  A  Jew- 
ish tradition  (in  the  Talmud),  however, 
states  that  when  nearly  90  years  old  he 
was  sawn  asunder  in  a  hollow  carob  tree, 
in  Manasseh's  reign.  Comp.  Heb.  11 :  37. 
The  "  mulberry  tree  of  Isaiah,"  in  the 
Kedron   valley,  near  Jerusalem,  marks 


the  traditional  spot  of  his  martyrdom. 
"It  signifies  much  that  he  was  not  a 
celibate,  but  had  a  family;  that  he  was 
not  a  wanderer  in  the  desert  or  over  hill 
and  vale,  but  had  a  house  and  home ; 
that  he  lived  not  in  a  secluded  retreat 
or  remote  village,  but  in  the  great  city, 
at  the  capital  and  court  of  Judah,  the 
seat  of  all  Hebrew  blessings  and  hopes, 
with  all  its  social,  political,  and  religious 
influences.  He  is  the  first  prophet  since 
Elisha  of  whom  we  have  any  details. 
Of  himself,  like  the  apostle  John,  he 
says  almost  nothing."  He  mentions, 
however,  distinctly  his  divine  call  and 
commission.  6 : 1-8. 

Isaiah  is  the  evangelist  among  the 
prophets  of  the  0.  T.  He  comes  nearest 
to  the  N.  T.,  and  is  more  frequently 
quoted  than  any  other.  In  him  the 
Messianic  prophecies  reach  their  highest 
perfection.  He  draws  the  picture  of  the 
suff"ering  and  triumphing  Saviour  of 
Israel  and  the  world,  lineament  after 
lineament,  until  at  last  he  stands  before 
us  in  unmistakable  clearness  and  ful- 
ness. Isaiah  is  also  one  of  the  greatest 
of  poets.  "In  him  we  see  prophetic 
authorship  reaching  its  culminating 
point.  Everything  conspired  to  raise 
him  to  an  elevation  to  which  no  proph- 
et, either  before  or  after,  could  as  writer 
attain.  Among  the  other  prophets  each 
of  the  more  important  ones  is  distin- 
guished by  some  one  particular  excel- 
lence and  some  one  peculiar  talent;  in 
Isaiah  all  kinds  of  talent  and  all  beau- 
ties of  prophetic  discourse  meet  together, 
so  as  mutually  to  temper  and  qualify 
each  other ;  it  is  not  so  much  any  single 
feature  that  distinguishes  him  as  the 
symmetry  and  perfection  as  a  whole. 
.  .  .  In  the  sentiment  he  expresses,  in 
the  topics  of  his  discourses  and  in  the 
manner,  Isaiah  uniformly  reveals  him- 
self as  the  king-prophet." — Ewald. 

Propetecy  of.  Isaiah  is  divided  into 
two  parts.  The  first,  comprising  the 
first  thirty-nine  chapters,  is  composed 
of  a  variety  of  individual  prophecies 
against  nations  and  denunciations  of 
sin.  Social  vices,  ch.  3,  and  idolatry, 
ch.  8,  are  rebuked  without  mercy.  As- 
syria, Babylon,  13:19  sq.,  Moab,  15, 
Ethiopia,  18,  Egypt,  19,  and  Tyre,  23, 
pass  successively  before  the  2)rophet's 
mind,  and  their  doom  is  predicted.  The 
prophecies  of  Babylon's  desolation  and 

405 


ISC 


ISH 


of  Tyre's  ruin  are  among  the  most 
poetic  and  the  sublimest  passages  in 
all  literature.  Chs.  36-39  are  concerned 
with  Sennacherib's  invasion  and  episodes 
in  the  life  of  Hezekiah. 

The  second  part  of  Isaiah  begins  ab- 
ruptly with  the  fortieth  chapter :  '•  Com- 
fort ye,  comfort  ye  my  people."  It  takes 
its  position  at  the  close  of  the  Babylo- 
nian captivity,  and  prophesies  its  close 
and  the  glories  of  the  Messianic  period 
of  Israel's  history.  Of  all  the  prophetic 
writings,  none  are  more  evidently  in- 
spired and  truly  evangelical  than  these 
last  twenty-seven  chapters. 

Isaiah  prophesies  of  the  Messiah  with 
distinctness  and  in  a  waj"-  that  his  pre- 
decessors had  not  done.  We  find  prophe- 
cies of  his  birth,  7:14;  9  :  6,  of  his  Da- 
vidic  descent,  11 : 1,  2,  etc.  But  the  full- 
est as  well  as  the  most  distinct  of  the 
predictions  is  contained  in  the  fifty-third 
chapter.  It  may  be  called  the  Gospel  of 
the  0.  T.,  on  account  of  the  graphic  and 
faithful  picture  it  gives  of  the  Messiah, 
as  the  ''  Man  of  sorrows,"  suffering  in 
the  stead  of  mankind.  This  chapter  of 
itself  will  stand  always  as  an  evidence 
of  prime  importance  for  the  divine  mis- 
sion of  Christ. 

The  authenticity  of  the  second  part 
of  Isaiah,  from  chs.  40-66,  has  been 
assailed  by  modern  critics,  who  regard 
it  as  a  later  production  of  some  "  great 
unknown "  prophet  at  the  end  of  the 
Babylonian  exile.  But  it  is  character- 
istic of  prophetic  vision  to  look  into  the 
far  future  as  if  it  were  present ;  and  it 
makes  not  much  difference  for  the  di- 
vine character  of  the  prophecy  whether 
it  was  uttered  500  or  700  years  before 
its  fulfilment.  The  description  of  the 
servant  of  God  who  suffers  and  dies  for 
the  sins  of  the  people  in  ch.  53  applies 
to  no  other  person  in  history,  with  any 
degree  of  propriety,  but  to  Jesus  Christ. 

IS'CAH  (^^e  looks  abroad),  a  sister 
of  Lot.   Gen.  11  :  29. 

ISCAR'IOT.     See  Jijdas  Iscariot. 

ISH'BAH  (praising),  a  Judite.  1 
Chr.  4:17. 

ISH'BAK  (leaving  behind),  a  son 
of  Abraham  by  Keturah.  Gen.  25  :  2  ;  1 
Chr.  1 :  32.  From  him  sprang  the  north- 
ern Arabians. 

ISH'Bl-BE'NOB  (dwelling  in 
rest),  a  son  of  Kapha,  a  Philistine  giant 
slain  by  Abishai.  ^TSam.  21 :  16,  17. 
406 


ISH'-BO'SHETH(rrta«o/«Aam«), 
son  and  successor  of  Saul,  was  persuaded 
by  Abner  to  go  up  to  Mahanaim  and  as- 
sume the  government  while  David  reign- 
ed at  Hebron,  2  Sam.  2:8,  11 ;  and  all 
Israel  except  Judah  acknowledged  him 
as  king.  A  severe  battle  soon  after  oc- 
curred at  Gibeon,  between  the  army  of 
David,  under  Joab,  and  the  army  of 
Ish-bosheth,  under  Abner,  in  which  the 
latter  was  utterly  defeated.  Abner  was 
killed  afterward  by  Joab.  Ish-boshetl., 
thus  deprived  of  his  strongest  supportei, 
was  assassinated  at  noonday  upon  his 
bed  after  a  brief  reign  of  two  years.  2 
Sam.  4:  5-7. 

:      V^YLl  (saving).    1,2.  Judites.  1  Chr. 

,2:31;  4:20. 

I      3.  A  Simeonite.  1  Chr.  4 :  42. 
4.  A  Manassite.  1  Chr.  5  :  24. 

j  I'Sm,  Hos.  2  :  16,  signifying  my 
husband,  and  BAALI,  in  the  same 
passage,  signifying  my  Lord,  are  figura- 
tivelj'^  used   to   denote  that  Israel  once 

j  played  the  whore  in  serving  idols,  but 

I  would  now  serve  the  living  God.  The 
latter  having  been  used  in  idol-worship, 
would  become  obsolete  in  this  sense. 
Hos.  2:17. 

ISHI'AH  (whom  Jehovah  lends),  a 
chieftain  of  Issachar.  1  Chr.  7 :  3. 

ISHI'JAH    (whom    Jehovah    lends), 
one  who  had  a  foreign  wife.  Ezr.  10  :  31. 
ISH'MA    (desolation),    a   Judite.     1 
Chr.  4:3. 

ISH'MAEL  (whom  God  hears).  1. 
The  son  of  Abraham  by  Hagar.  Pre- 
vious to  his  birth,  when  his  mother, 
being  ill-treated  by  Sarah,  had  fled 
from  the  house,  the  angel  of  the  Lord 
announced  to  her  that  her  seed  should 
be  innumerable,  and  that  her  offspring 
should  be  of  a  belligerent  and  wild  dis- 
position :  "  He  will  be  a  wild  man  ;  his 
hand  will  be  against  everj'  man's  hand, 
and  every  man's  hand  against  him." 
Gen.  16  :  12. 

Ishmael  was  circumcised  at  the  age  of 
13.  Gen.  17  :  25.  Subsequently,  the  jeal- 
ousy of  Sarah  was  aroused  by  Ishmael's 
mocking  at  Isaac,  Gen.  21 : 9,  and  she 
demanded  that  the  offender  and  his 
mother  be  sent  away  from  the  home. 

Abraham,  granting  Sarah's  request, 
sent  the  bondwoman  and  her  son  off, 
after  supplying  them  with  water  and 
bread.  Departing,  they  went  off  into 
the  wilderness  of  Beer-sheba.    The  stock 


ISH 


ISL 


of  water  became  exhausted,  and  the  hid, 
overcome  with  fatigue  and  thirst,  sunk 
down,  apparently  to  die.  God  appeared 
for  their  deliverance,  directed  llagar  to 
a  fountain  of  water,  and  renewed  his 
promise  to  make  of  him  a  great  nation. 
Ishmael  remained  in  the  wilderness  and 
became  a  hunter.  Gen.  21 :  13-20.  At 
length  he  married  an  Egyptian  woman, 
and  so  rapidly  did  his  progeny  multiply 
that  in  a  few  years  afterward  tliey  are 
spoken  of  as  a  trading  nation.  Gen. 
37  :  25. 

The  last  we  see  of  the  first-born  son 
of  Abraham  is  at  the  cave  of  Machpelah, 
where  he  joins  with  Isaac  in  interring 
the  remains  of  his  father.   Gen.  25 :  9. 

Ishmael  no  doubt  became  a  wild  man 
of  the  desert,  the  progenitor  of  the 
roaming  Bedouin  tribes  of  the  East, 
so  well  known  as  robbers  to  this  day 
that  travellers  through  their  territory 
must  be  well  armed  and  hire  a  band  of 
robbers  to  protect  them  against  their 
fellow-robbers.  Ishmael  is  also  the  spir- 
itual father  of  the  Mohammedans,  who 
are  nothing  but  bastard  Jews.  They  ap- 
ply to  themselves  the  promise  of  a  large 
posterity  given  to  Ishmael.  Gen.  21 : 
13,  18. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Saul.  1  Chr.  8  : 
38 •  9  •  44 

3.  A  Judite.  2  Chr.  19:11. 

4.  A  Judite,  one  of  the  captains  who 
assisted  Jehoiada  to  set  Joash  on  the 
throne,  2  Chr.  23  : 1. 

5.  A  priest  who  had  a  foreign  wife. 
Ezr.  10 :  22. 

6.  Ishmael,  "the  son  of  Netbaniah, 
the  son  of  Elishama,  of  the  seed  royal " 
of  Judah,  murdered,  at  Mizpah,  Gedaliah, 
the  governor  of  Judyea,  appointed  by  Neb- 
uchadnezzar, who,  although  warned  by 
Johanan,  had  unsuspiciously  received 
him.  Every  circumstance  contributed 
to  increase  the  baseness  of  the  deed — 
the  generous  incredulity  of  Gedaliah, 
the  fact  that  the  murder  took  place  im- 
mediately after  a  feast  given  by  Geda- 
liah to  Ishmael  and  other  prominent 
Jews  who  had  conspired  with  him,  and 
the  slaughter  of  all  the  attendant  Jews 
and  also  of  some  Chaldsean  soldiers.  The 
secrecy  of  the  deed  was  so  profound  that 
the  town  knew  nothing  of  it  until  the  sec- 
ond day,  when  Ishmael  hypocritically  re- 
ceived eighty  devotees  who  came  bearing 
offering  and  incense  to  the  house  of  the 


Lord,  and  murdered  all  but  ten  of  them, 
who  purchased  their  lives  by  promise  of 
money.  This  carnival  of  blood  being 
over,  Ishmael  surprised  the  town  and 
carried  away  to  the  Ammonites  the  in- 
habitants, including  the  daughters  of 
Zedokiah.  But  Johanan  followed  him, 
met  him  in  battle  at  "  the  great  waters  " 
— probably  the  Pool  of  Gibeon — defeated 
him,  rescued  the  prisoners,  and  compel- 
led Ishmael  to  flee  to  the  Ammonites. 
See  Jer.  41  j  2  Kgs.  25  :  23,  25.  See  also 
Gedaliah.  The  motives  of  Ishmael 
were  partly  corrupt,  since  he  had  been 
tampered  with  by  Baalis,  king  of  the  Am- 
monites, and  partly  mistaken  patriotism, 
bitter  hatred,  and  craven  fear  of  the  Chal- 
dgeans. 

ISH'MAELITES,  the  descendants 
of  Ishmael.  Gen.  37  :  25.  The  company 
of  Ishmaelites  to  whom  Joseph  was  sold 
are  elsewhere  called  Midianites.  Gen.  37  : 
28.  Probably  they  were  Ishmaelites  who 
dwelt  in  Midian.  It  is  evident,  however, 
that  the  two  names  were  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  the  same  people,  Jud.  8  :  22,  24, 
though  we  know  the  descendants  of  Mid- 
ian were  not  Ishmaelites,  for  Midian  was 
a  son  of  Abraham  by  Keturah. 

ISHMAI'AH  [Jehovah  hears),  the 
ruler  of  Zebulun  during  David's  reign. 
1  Chr.  27:19. 

ISH'MEELITE.  1  Chr.  2  :  17.  See 
Ishmaelites. 

ISH'MERAI  (lohom  Jehovah  Iceepa), 
a  Benjamite.  1  Chr.  8  :  18. 

I'SHOD  (man  of  renown),  a  Manas- 
site.   1  Chr.  7  :  18. 

ISH'PAN  (bald),  a  Benjamite  chief. 
1  Chr.  8  :  22. 

ISH'TOB  (men  of  Toh),  apparently 
a  small  kingdom  which  formed  a  part 
of  the  country  of  Aram,  and  named 
with  Zobah,  Rehob,  and  Maachah.  2 
Sam.  10  :  6.  8.     See  ToB. 

ISH'TJAH  [quiet),  the  second  son 
of  Asher,  Gen.  46;  17;  called  Isuah  I 
Chr.  7:30. 

ISH^UAI  (quiet).  A  son  of  Asher. 
1  Chr.  7  :  30. 

ISH'UI  (quiet).  1.  The  third  son 
of  Asher,  1  Chr.  7  :  30 ;  called  Isui  and 
Jesui  Gen.  46  :  17  ;  Num.  26  :  44. 

2.  A  son  of  Saul,  1  Sam.  14 :  49 :  not 
elsewhere  mentioned  j  he  probably  died 
young. 

ISLES  OF  THE  GENTILES. 
Gen.  10  :  5;    Zeph.  2  :  11;    Ps.  72  :  10; 

407 


ISM 


ISE 


Eze.  26 :  15.  The  Hebrew  word  signi- 
fies any  land  bordering  on  the  sea,  and 
"  the  isles  of  the  Gentiles  "  refers  to  the 
coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  Black,  and 
Caspian  Seas. 

ISMACHI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  sup- 
ports), a  Levitical  overseer  of  offerings 
under  Hezekiah.  2  Chr.  31 :  13. 

ISMAI'AH  {Jehovah  hears),  a  Gib- 
eonite  chief  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag. 
1  Chr.  12  :  4. 

IS'PAH  {bald),  a  Benjamite  chief. 
1  Chr.  8:16. 

IS'RAEL.  Gen,  35:10.  The  sur- 
name of  Jacob,  given  to  him  by  the  an- 
gel at  Peniel.  Gen.  32  :  28 ;  Hos.  12  :  3. 
It  signifies  "  the  prince  that  prevails  with 
God."  One  of  the  finest  hymns  of  Charles 
Wesley  describes  that  mysterious  wrest- 
ling with  God  in  prayer,  and  begins, 

"Come,  0  thou  Traveller  unknown, 
Whom  still  I  hold,  but  cannot  see; 

My  company  before  is  gone, 
And  I  am  left  alone  with  thee : 

With  thee  all  night  I  mean  to  stay. 

And  wrestle  till  the  break  of  day. 

"What  though  my  shrinking  flesh  com- 
plain, 

And  murmur  to  contend  so  long? 
I  rise  superior  to  my  pain  ; 

When  I  am  weak,  then  I  am  strong; 
And  when  my  all  of  strength  shall  fail, 
I  shall  with  the  God-man  prevail." 

We  find  the  name  "Israel"  soon  after 
used  for  the  whole  race  of  Jacob's  pos- 
terity, Ex.  3  :  16;  also  for  the  kingdom 
of  the  ten  tribes,  as  distinguished  from 
Judah,  2  Kgs.  14  :  12;  and  again,  in  a 
spiritual  sense,  for  the  whole  body  of 
true  believers.  Rom.  9:6;  11  :  26. 

Land  of.     See  Canaan. 

IS'RAELITE,  a  member  of  Israel. 

ISRAEL,  KING'DOM  OF,  a 
term  not  infrequently  applied  to  the 
united  kingdom  before  the  revolt  of 
the  ten  tribes,  1  Sam.  13  :  1,  4;  15:  28; 
16:  1;  2  Sam.  5  :  12;  7:  16;  1  Kgs. 
2 :  46 ;  4:  1  ;  but  the  term  was  also 
used  to  designate  the  country  of  the  ten 
tribes  only  during  the  dissensions  which 
followed  the  death  of  Saul.  After  the 
death  of  Solomon  and  the  revolt  under 
Rehoboam,  1  Kgs.  12  :  20,  28,  32,  it  was 
generally,  but  not  uniformly,  applied  to 
the  independent  kingdom  formed  by  the 
ten  tribes  in  the  north  of  Palestine ;  so 
that  thenceforth  the  kings  of  the  ten 
tribes  were  called  "kings  of  Israel,"  and 
408 


the  descendants  of  David,  who  ruled 
over  Judah  and  Benjamin,  were  called 
"  kings  of  Judah."  In  the  prophets 
"Judah"  and '' Israel"  are  often  men- 
tioned. Hos.  4:  15;  5:  3,  5 ;  6:  10;  7: 
1;  8:2,  3,  6,  8;  9:  1,  7;  Am.  1:  1;  2: 
6;  3:  14;  Mic.  1:5;  Isa.  5:  7.  The 
two  kingdoms  are  sometimes  called  "the 
two  houses  of  Israel."  Isa.  8 :  14. 

The  area  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  is 
estimated  at  about  9000  square  miles,  or 
about  the  same  as  that  of  the  State  of 
New  Hampshire,  and  its  population  at 
from  3,000,000  to  4,000,000.  The  king- 
dom lasted  254  years,  b.  c,  975-721.  The 
capitals  were  Shechem,  1  Kgs.  12:  25, 
Tirzah,  14:  17,  and  Samaria,  16:  24. 
Jezreel  was  also  a  summer  residence  of 
some  of  its  kings.  Of  the  19  kings,  not 
counting  Tibni,  not  one  was  a  godly 
man.  The  idolati'y  introduced  by  Jero- 
boam was  continued,  notwithstanding 
the  partial  reformations  of  Elijah,  Elisha, 
and  other  faithful  prophets. 

The  following  admirable  summary  of 
the  history  of  the  kingdom  in  four 
periods  is  given  in  Smith's  Abridged 
Dictionary,  by  W.  A.  Wright. 

"(a)  B.  C.  975-929.— J erohofim  had 
not  sufficient  force  of  character  in  him- 
self to  make  a  lasting  impression  on  his 
people.  A  king,  but  not  a  founder  of  a 
dynasty,  he  aimed  at  nothing  beyond 
securing  his  present  elevation.  The  army 
soon  learned  its  power  to  dictate  to  the 
isolated  monarch  and  disunited  peoj^le. 
Baasha,  in  the  midst  of  the  army  at 
Gibbethon,  slew  the  son  and  successor 
of  Jeroboam  ;  Zimri,  a  captain  of  chari- 
ots, slew  the  son  and  successor  of  Baasha; 
Omri,  the  captain  of  the  host,  was  chosen 
to  punish  Zimri;  and  after  a  civil  war 
of  four  years  he  prevailed  over  Tibni, 
the  choice  of  half  the  people. 

"(6)  B.  C.  929-8S4.— For  forty-five 
years  Israel  was  governed  by  the  house 
of  Omri.  That  sagacious  king  pitched 
on  the  strong  hill  of  Samaria  as  the  site 
of  his  capital.  The  princes  of  his  house 
cultivated  an  alliance  with  the  kings  of 
Judah,  which  was  cemented  by  the  mar- 
riage of  Jehoram  and  Athaliah.  The 
adoption  of  Baal-worship  led  to  a  re- 
action in  the  nation,  to  the  moral  tri- 
umph of  the  prophets  in  the  person  of 
Elijah,  and  to  the  extinction  of  the  house 
of  Ahab,  in  obedience  to  the  bidding  of 
Elisha, 


ISR 


ITA 


"(c)  B.  C.  .?<<?4-77^.— Unparalleled 
triumphs,  but  deeper  humiliation,  await- 
ed the  kingdom  of  Israel  under  the  dy- 
nasty of  Jehu.  Hazael,  the  ablest  king 
of  Damascus,  reduced  Jehoahaz  to  the 
condition  of  a  vassal,  and  triumphed  for 
a  time  over  both  the  disunited  Hebrew 
kingdoms.  Almost  the  first  sign  of  the 
restoration  of  their  strength  was  a  war 
between  them,  and  Jehoash,  the  grand- 
son of  Jehu,  entered  Jerusalem  as  the 
conqueror  of  Amaziah.  Jehoash  also 
turned  the  tide  of  war  against  the  Syr- 
ians, and  Jeroboam  II.,  the  most  pow- 
erful of  all  the  kings  of  Israel,  captured 
Damascus  and  recovered  the  whole  an- 
cient frontier  from  Ilamath  to  the  Dead 
Sea.  This  short-lived  greatness  expired 
with  the  last  king  of  Jehu's  line. 

"(rf.)  B.  C.  77-^-7;?i.— Military  vio- 
lence, it  would  seem,  broke  oflF  the  hered- 
itary succession  after  the  obscure  and 
probably  convulsed  reign  of  Zachariah. 
An  unsuccessful  usurper,  Shallum,  is 
followed  by  the  cruel  Menahem,  who, 
being  unable  to  make  head  against  the 
first  attack  of  Assyria  under  Pul,  became 
the  agent  of  that  monarch  for  the  op- 
pressive taxation  of  his  subjects.  Yet 
his  power  at  home  was  sufficient  to  en- 
sure for  his  son  and  successor,  Pekahiah, 
a  ten  years'  reign,  cut  short  by  a  bold 
usurper,  Pekah.  Abandoning  the  north- 
ern and  trans-Jordanic  regions  to  the 
encroaching  power  of  Assyria  under 
Tiglath-pileser,  he  was  very  near  subju- 
gating Judah,  with  the  help  of  Damas- 
cus, now  the  coequal  ally  of  Israel.  But 
Assyria,  interposing,  summarily  put  an 
end  to  the  independence  of  Damascus, 
and  perhaps  was  the  indirect  cause  of 
the  assassination  of  the  baffled  Pekah. 
The  irresolute  Hoshea,  the  next  and  last 
usurper,  became  tributary  to  his  invader, 
Shalmaneser,  betrayed  the  Assyrian  to 
the  rival  monarchy  of  Egypt,  and  was 
punished  by  the  loss  of  his  liberty  and 
by  the  capture,  after  a  three  years'  siege, 
of  his  strong  capital,  Samaria.  Some 
gleanings  of  the  ten  tribes  yet  remained 
in  the  land  after  so  manj'^  years  of  re- 
ligious decline,  moral  debasement,  na- 
tional degradation,  anarchy,  bloodshed, 
and  deportation.  Even  these  were  gath- 
ered up  by  the  conqueror  and  carried  to 
Assyria,  never  again,  as  a  distinct  peo- 
ple, to  occupy  their  portion  of  that 
goodly  and  pleasant  land  which  their 


forefathers  won  under  Joshua  from  the 
heathen." 

After  the  destruction  of  the  kingdom 
of  Israel,  B.C.  721,  the  name  "Israel" 
began  again  to  be  applied  to  the  whole 
surviving  people.  "Israel"  is  some- 
times put  for  the  true  Israelites,  the 
faithful  worthy  of  the  name.  Ps.  73 :  1  ; 
Isa.  45  :  17  ;  49  :  3  ;  John  1 :  47 ;  Rom. 
9:6;  11 :  26.     See  Judah. 

IS'SACHAR  ( God  hath  given  me  my 
hire).  1.  The  fifth  son  of  Jacob  and 
Leah.  Gen.  30:  18.  The  prophetical 
description  of  him  uttered  by  his  father, 
Gen.  49  :  14,  15,  was  fulfilled  in  the  fact 
that  the  posterity  of  Issachar  were  a  la- 
borious people  and  addicted  to  rural  em- 
ployments, and  were  subject  to  the  trib- 
utes of  marauding  tribes.     See  Tribes. 

2.  A  Korhite  Levite.  1  Chr.  26 :  5. 

IS  SACHAR,  THE  TERRI- 
TORY OF,  included  the  great  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  or  Jezreel,  and  lay  above  that 
of  Manasseh  ;  its  boundaries  are  given  in 
Josh.  19: 17-23.  It  extended  from  Mount 
Carmel  to  the  Jordan,  and  from  Mount 
Tabor  to  En-gannim.  Zebulun  was  on 
the  north,  Manasseh  on  the  south,  and 
Gilead  on  the  east,  across  the  Jordan. 
It  contained  16  noted  cities  and  their 
villages.  Among  them  were  Megiddo, 
Jezreel,  Shunem,  Beth-shan,  Endor, 
Aphek,  Taanach ;  and  Jezreel  stood  al- 
most exactly  in  the  centre  of  the  terri- 
tory. This  region  was  one  of  the  richest 
and  most  fertile  in  Palestine.  Many 
historical  events  of  great  interest  took 
place  within  the  territory.  It  furnished 
two  kings  to  Israel — Baasha  and  Eiah.  1 
Kgs.  15  :  27  ,-  16  :  6.  Their  portion  of 
Palestine  is  still  among  the  most  fertile 
of  the  whole  land.  See  Jezreel,  Plain 
OF,  and  Palestine. 

ISSHI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  lends). 
1.  A  descendant  of  Moses,  1  Chr.  24: 
21 ;  called  Jeshahiah  1  Chr.  26  :  25. 

2.  A  Kohathite  Levite.  1  Chr.  24  : 
25. 

IS'UAH  (quiet),  second  son  of  Asher. 
1  Chr.  7  :  30. 

IS'UI  {(piiet),  third  son  of  Asher. 
Gen.  46:  17. 

ITAL'IAN  BAND,  a  cohort,  com- 
posed of  native  Italians,  stationed  at 
Caesarea.  Acts  10 :  1.  Cornelius  was 
their  centurion. 

IT'ALY,  a  well-known  country  in 
the  south  of  Europe,  and  including  the 

409 


ITH 


IZR 


whole  of  the  peninsula  west  of  the 
Adriatic  Sea.  It  has  an  area  of  about 
100,000  square  miles  and  a  population 
of  over  25,000,000.  It  is  named  in  the 
N.  T.  only  three  times:  (1)  as  the  coun- 
try from  which  Aquila  and  Priscilla  were 
expelled.  Acts  18  :  2  ;  (2)  Paul  sailed  for  : 
Italy,  Acts  27  :  1 ;  and  (3)  in  the  Epistle  j 
to  the  Hebrews  some  of  that  country 
joined  in  the  salutations  sent.  Heb, 
13  :  24. 

ITH'AI  (with  Jehovah),  a  Benjamite, 
one  of  David's  guard,  1  Chr.  11:31; 
called  Ittai  2  Sam.  23  :  29. 

ITH'AMAR  {land  of  23olms),  a  son 
of  Aaron.  Ex.  6  :  23.  After  the  violent 
death  of  Nadab  and  Abihu  for  their  act 
of  desecration.  Lev.  10  :  1,  2,  he  and 
Eleazar  were  alone  left  for  the  priestly 
oflRce.  Lev.  10  :  6,  12.  Eli  was  the  only 
high  priest  of  the  line  of  Ithamar,  1  Chr. 
24 :  6,  and,  in  fact,  his  house  does  not 
seem  to  have  exercised  as  much  influence 
as  that  of  Eleazar.  1  Chr.  24 :  4. 

ITH'IEL.  {God  is  with  me).  1.  A 
Benjamite.  Neh.  11 :  7. 

2.  A  friend  of  Agur.  Prov.  30 :  1. 

ITH'MAH  {orphanaf/e),  one  of  Da- 
vid's guard.  1  Chr.  11 :  46. 

ITH'NAN  {bestowed),  one  of  the 
towns  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah,  on 
the  borders  of  the  desert.  Josh.  15 :  23. 
Wilton  says  it  is  identical  with  el-Hora, 
east  of  Beer-sheba;  but  this  is  only  con- 
jectural. 

ITH'RA  (abundance),  David's  bro- 
ther-in-law. 2  Sam.  17  :  25.    See  Jether. 

ITH'RAN  (abniidance).  1.  A  Hor- 
ite.  Gen.  36:  26;   1  Chr.  1:  41. 

2.  An  Asherite.  1  Chr.  7:  37. 

ITH'REAM  (residue  of  the  people), 
a  son  of  David,  born  at  Hebron.  2  Sam. 
3:5:1  Chr.  3:  3. 

ITH'RITE,  THE,  the  designa- 
tion of  two  of  David's  warriors.  2  Sam. 
23  :  38  ;   1  Chr.  11 :  40. 

IT'TAH-KA'ZIN  (time  of  the 
judge),  one  of  the  landmarks  of  Zebu- 
lun,  Josh.  19  :  13. 

IT'TAI  (in  time).  1.  A  native  of 
Gath,  and  high  in  position  in  the  army 
of  David  during  the  rebellion  of  Absa- 
lom. 2  Sam.  18 :  2.  He  was  sincerely 
attached  to  David.  2  Sam.  15:  19-22. 
He  reminds  us  of  the  attachment  of 
Ruth  to  Naomi,  and  his  words  of  devo- 
tion, 2  Sam.  15:  21,  are  only  inferior  to 
hers,  Ruth  1:16,  for  pathos. 
410 


2.  One  of  David's  guard.  2  Sam. 
23  :  29. 

ITUR^'A  (an  enclosed  region),  a 
small  province  on  the  north-western 
border  of  Palestine,  and  at  the  south- 
eastern base  of  Hermon,  between  Tra- 
chonitis  and  Galilee.  It  derived  its 
name  from  "  Jetur,"  a  son  of  Ishmael. 
Gen.  25:15;  1  Chr.  1:  31;  5:19.  This 
district  is  now  called  Jcdur,  and  is  about 
17  miles  from  north  to  south  by  20  from 
east  to  west.  The  greater  portion  is  a 
fine  plain,  with  a  rich  and  well-watered 
soil ;  the  sub-stratum  is  black  basalt. 
The  district  contains  38  villages,  10  of 
them  entirely  desolate ;  the  others  have 
a  few  peasant  families  living  in  wretch- 
edness and  amid  ruins,  Philip  was 
"  tetrarch  of  Itura?a  and  of  the  region 
of  Trachonitis."  Luke  3  :  1. 

I'VAH,  OR  A'VAH,  an  Assyrian  or 
Babylonian  city  mentioned  with  Hena 
and  Sepharvaim,  2  Kgs.  18  :  34 ;  19  :  13  ; 
comp.  Isa.  37 :  13,  and  with  Babylon 
and  Cutha,  2  Kgs.  17  :  24.  Rawlinson 
identified  it  with  Hit,  on  the  Euphrates. 

I'VORY  (tooth),  the  substance  of  the 
tusk  of  the  elephant.  From  the  mean- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  word,  it  is  seen  that 
the  Jews  of  Solomon's  time  understood 
that  it  was  obtained  from  a  tooth,  not 
from  a  horn.  That  which  is  brought 
from  Ceylon  is  regarded  as  most  valua- 
ble. It  was  among  the  merchandise  of 
Tyre,  Eze.  27:  15,  and  Tarshish.  1  Kgs. 
10  :  22.  Solomon's  throne  was  built  of 
it,  2  Chr.  9 :  17,  21 ;  and  so  lavishly  was 
it  used  in  various  kinds  of  architecture 
and  in  cabinet-work  as  to  justify  the  ex- 
pressions found  in  Am.  3  :  15  ;  6:4  and 
Eze.  27 :  6. 

"  Ivory  palaces,"  Ps.  45  :  8,  probably 
refers  to  boxes  richly  wrought  or  inlaid 
with  ivory,  in  which  perfume  was  kept. 

IZ'EHAR.  Num.  3  :  19.  Sec  Izhar. 

IZ'HAR  (oil),  a  son  of  Kohath,  and 
grandson  of  Levi.  Ex.  6  :  18,  21 ;  Num. 
3:  19;  16:  1;  1  Chr.  6:2,  18. 

IZ'HARITES,  descendants  of  Iz- 
har. 

IZRAHI'AH  (whom  Jehovah  causes 
to  sparkle),  a  chieftain  of  Issachar.  1 
Chr.  7:3. 

IZ'RAHITE,  THE,  the  designa- 
tion of  one  of  David's  captains,  1  Chr. 
27  :  8  ;  probably  a  Zahrite. 

IZ'RI  (built),  a  Levite,  leader  of  the 
fourth  course.  1  Chr.  26:  11. 


JAA 


JAB 


J. 


JA'AKAN  {he  shall  adorn,  or  one 
sagacious),  the  son  of  Seir  the  Horite. 
Deut.  10:  6.  See  Bene-jaakan.  The 
name  is  given  as  Jakan  in  1  Chron.  1 : 
42. 

JAAK'OBAH  {hee/-c((tcher,  snp- 
plantev),  a  chieftain  of  Simeon.  1  Chr. 
4 :  36. 

JAA'LA,  JAA'LAH  (a  wild  she- 
goat),  one  of  the  descendants  of  Solo- 
mon's slaves  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel  from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem.  Ezr. 
2:56,-  Neh.7:58. 

JAA'TiAM  [lohom  God.  hides),  a  son 
of  Esau  by  his  wife  Aholibamah,  and  a 
chief  of  Edom.  Gen.  36 :  5,  14,  18 ;  1 
Chr.  1:35. 

JA'ANAI  {whom  Jehovah  answers), 
a  chief  of  Gad.  1  Chr.  5  :  12. 

JAAR'E-OR'EGIM  {forests  of  the 
weavers),  the  Bethlehemite  whose  son 
Elhanan  slew  the  brother  of  Goliath.  2 
Sam.  21 :  19.  In  1  Chr.  20  :  5  he  appears 
as  Jair. 

JA'ASAU  {whom  Jehovah  has  made), 
one  mentioned, 'Ezr.  10:  37,  as  having  a 
foreign  wife. 

JAA'SIEL  [whom  God  has  made), 
the  son  of  Abner,  and  chief  of  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin.  1  Chr.  27:21. 

JAAZANI'AH  {whom  Jehovah 
hears).  1.  A  captain  who  joined  Geda- 
liah  at  Mizpah,  2  Kgs.  25 :  23,  and  who 
subsequently  fought  against  Ishmael, 
and  then  later  went  to  Egypt.  Comp. 
Jer.  41:11;  43:2. 

2.  The  probable  chief  of  the  family 
of  the  Rechabites  at  the  time  of  Jere- 
miah. Jer.  35:  3. 

3.  One  of  the  seventy  elders  seen  by 
Ezekiel  in  his  vision.  Eze.  8  :  11. 

4.  A  prince  against  whom  Ezekiel 
was  directed  to  prophesy.  Eze.  11  : 1. 

JAA'ZER,  AND  JA'ZER  {Jehovah 
helps),  a  city  of  Gilead,  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, which  was  conquered  and  assigned 
to  Gad  and  to  the  Levites.  Num.  21  :  32  ; 
32  :  1 ;  Josh.  21  :  39.  In  the  time  of 
David  it  was  held  by  Hebronites  or  Ko- 
hathites,  1  Chr.  26  :  31,  but  in  later 
times  it  was  subject  to  Moab,  and  is 
often  denounced  in  prophecies  against 


that  nation.  Isa.  16  :  8,  9  ;  Jer.  48  :  32. 
It  was  situated  at  the  massive  ruins 
called  Sar,  about  4  hours  (15  miles) 
north-east  of  Heshbon.  Below  the  hill 
is  a  fountain  with  a  stream  which  flows 
to  the  Jordan.  Tristram  found  ancient 
terraces,  probably  vineyards,  in  illustra- 
tion of  Isa.  16  :  9  ;  Jer.  48  :  32.  There 
are  mounds  and  rows  of  foundations  at 
the  head  of  the  valley.  In  the  A.  V.  the 
"  Sea  of  Jazer  "  is  referred  to,  Jer.  48  : 
32 ;  but  the  passage  may  be  rendered : 
"  Thy  shoots  have  overshot  the  sea,  to 
Jazer  have  they  reached  ;"  the  ''  sea " 
would  then  be  the  Salt  or  Dead  Sea. 

JAAZI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  con- 
soles), a  Levite  of  the  family  of  Merari. 
1  Chr.  24  :  26,  27. 

JAA'ZIEL  {whom  God  consoles),  a 
Levite  who  played  before  the  ark.  1  Chr. 
15 :  18.     In  V.  20  he  is  called  Aziel. 

JA''BAL  (a  stream),  the  son  of  La- 
mech,  descendant  of  Cain  ;  described  as 
the  "  father  of  such  as  dwell  in  tents  and 
have  cattle."  Gen.  4:20. 

JAB'BOK  {emptying),  a  stream  ris- 
ing about  25  miles  east  of  the  north  end 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  flowing  east,  then 
northward  and  westward,  and  finally 
south-west,  into  the  Jordan  about  midway 
between  the  Sea  of  Galilee  and  the  Dead 
Sea.  It  is  now  called  the  Zerka  or 
"blue"  river.  It  has  a  small  branch 
flowing  into  it  past  Gerosh,  but  no 
branch  from  the  north-east  as  indicated 
on  most  maps.  Across  this  stream  Jacob 
sent  his  family,  and  here  his  wrestling 
for  a  blessing  occurred.  Gen.  32  :  22-24. 
The  Israelites  conquered  the  kingdoms 
of  Og  and  Sihon,  but  not  the  Ammon- 
ite country  nor  the  upper  Jabbok, 
which  explains  Deut.  2  :  37.  Com- 
pare Num.  21  :  24:  Deut.  3  :  16,-  Josh. 
12:2;  Jud.  11:13,  22.  The  Jab- 
bok before  it  enters  the  Jordan  valley 
flows  through  a  deep,  narrow  ravine,  the 
hills  being  from  1600  to  2000  feet  in 
height.  They  are  covered  with  verdure 
and  are  very  picturesque.  The  stream 
in  most  of  its  course  is  perennial, 
swollen,  deep,  and  rapid  in  winter;  it 
abounds  in  small  fish  of  excellent  flavor. 

411 


JAB 


JAC 


JA'BESH  (dry),  the  father  of  Shal- 
lum,  the  fifteenth  king  of  Israel.  2  Kgs. 
15:10,  13,  14. 

JA'BESH,  AND  JA'BESH- 
GILl''EAD  (dry  Gilead),  a  city  east  of 
the  Jordan  ;  destroyed  by  the  Israelites, 
Jud.  21 :  8-14 ;  delivered  from  Nahash 
by  Saul,  1  Sam.  11:  1-11,  and  in  grati- 
tude therefor  its  people  brought  the 
bodies  of  Saul  and  his  sons,  which  the 
Philistines  hung  upon  the  walls  of  Beth- 
shan,  to  Jabesh,  and  caused  them  to  be 
buried  in  a  wood  near  by.  1  Sam.  31 : 
1 1-13.  David  blessed  them,  2  Sam.  2  : 
4-6,  but  afterward  removed  the  bones  to 
Saul's  ancestral  burying-place.  2  Sam. 
2:4-6;  21:12-14.  Robinson  identifies 
it  with  ed-Deir,  23  miles  south-east  of 
the  Sea  of  Galilee  on  the  south  side  of 
Wady  Yabis.  Dr.  S.  Merrill,  however, 
questions  this  as  not  conforming  to  the 
location  assigned  to  it  by  Eusebius.  He 
would  identify  Jabesh  with  the  ruins  of 
a  town  found  about  7  miles  from  Pella, 
on  the  north  side  of  Wady  Yabis,  on  the 
mountain  Jebel  Aijlun,  about  2300  feet 
above  the  Jordan  valley.  This  seems 
to  conform  to  the  biblical  statements 
concerning  the  place. 

JA'BEZ  {he  causes  pain),  the  name 
of  one  whose  prayer  was  answered.  1 
Chr.  4:9,  10. 

JA'BEZ  {he  causes  j)ai)i),  apparent- 
ly a  place ;  named  only  in  1  Chr.  2  :  55, 
and  doubtless  named  from  Jabez  of  1 
Chr.  4:  9,  10,  though  the  Targumist  re- 
gards it  not  as  the  name  of  a  place, 
but  of  a  person. 

J  A  '  B  I IV  (whom  he—i.  e.  God—ob- 
se^-ves).  1.  King  of  Hazor,  a  northern 
district  of  Canaan.  Josh.  11:  1.  He  at- 
tempted by  a  formidable  alliance  to  op- 
pose the  progress  of  Joshua.  He  and 
his  allies  were  utterly  defeated  in  a  bat- 
tle at  Merom,  the  city  of  Hazor  was 
taken,  and  Jabin  put  to  death. 

2.  Another  king  of  the  same  name 
and  place,  who  had  great  wealth  and 
power  and  oppressed  the  children  of 
Israel  for  20  years.  Jud.  4  :  2.  His  army 
was  defeated  by  Deborah  and  Barak, 
and  Sisera,  his  principal  general,  put  to 
death. 

JAB'NEELi  (Jehovah  causes  to  be 
built).  1.  A  town  of  Judah ;  called  also 
Jabneh.  Josh.  15 :  11 ;  2  Chr.  26  :  6.  Uz- 
ziah  captured  it  from  the  Philistines 
and  destroyed  its  fortifications.  It  was 
412 


noted  during  the  wars  of  the  Maccabees, 
and  called  by  Josephus,  Jamnia.  It 
was  a  large  and  populous  place,  and 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  was 
for  some  time  the  seat  of  a  famous  Jew- 
ish school  of  learning  and  of  the  San- 
hedrin.  It  is  identified  with  Yebnah,  a 
considerable  village  about  3  miles  from 
the  Mediterranean  and  12  miles  south  of 
Joppa.  The  Crusaders  built  a  fortress 
here,  of  which  the  ruins  still  remain. 
A  tomb  is  shown,  reputed  as  the  tomb 
of  Gamaliel,  a  descendant  of  the  noted 
Gamaliel  who  instructed  Paul.  There 
are  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  church.  The 
port  of  Yebnah  is  naturally  one  of  the 
best  on  the  coast  of  Palestine  below 
Csesarea,  but  there  are  dangerous  reefs 
hidden  beneath  the  waters. 

2.  A  place  in  Naphtali,  Josh.  19  :  33 ; 
called,  in  the  Talmud,  Caphar  Yama. 
Conder  identifies  it  with  Yemma,  4  miles 
south-west  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

JAB'NEH.     See  Jabneel. 

JA'CHAN  (affliction),  a  Gadite 
chief.   1  Chr.  5  :  13. 

JA'CHIN  (he  shall  establish).  1. 
Fourth  son  of  Simeon.  Gen.  46: 10;  Ex. 
6 :  15. 

2.  Head  of  the  twenty- first  course  of 
priests.  1  Chr.  9:10;  24:17;  Neh.  11: 
10. 

JA'CHIN  (he  shall  establish)  AND 
BOAZ  (lively)  were  the  names  of  the 
two  pillars  Solomon  set  up.  They  were 
probably  named  after  the  givers.  See 
BoAz. 

JA'CHINITES,  THE,  the  de- 
scendants of  Jachin,  son  of  Simeon. 
Num.  26:12. 

JACINTH,  OR  HY'ACINTH, 
probably  the  same  as  the  ligure,  Ex.  28  : 
19,  a  gem  of  a  yellowish-red  or  a  dark- 
purple  color,  resembling  the  amethyst. 
Rev.  9:17;  21 :  20.  In  the  former  pas- 
sage there  is  reference  merely  to  its 
color. 

JA'COB  (heel-catcher,  supplanter), 
the  third  of  the  Jewish  patriarchs,  the 
son  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah,  and  twin- 
brother  to  Esau.  He  received  his  name 
from  the  circumstance  which  occurred  at 
his  birth.  Gen.  25  :  26.  The  family  were 
then  living  at  Lahai-roi.  The  twins 
greatly  differed  in  tastes :  Esau  was  a 
hunter,  Jacob ''a  plain  man,  dwelling  in 
tents."  Gen.  25 :  27.  But  though  do- 
mestic,  he   was    selfish   and    scheming. 


JAC 


JAC 


He  bought  the  birthright  from  Esau, 
taking  advantage  of  the  latter's  tem- 
porary weakness.  25  :  29-34.  When 
Isaac,  fearing  a  sudden  death,  desired 
to  bless  Esau,  whose  manly  charac- 
ter made  him  his  favorite,  while  the 
more  pliable  Jacob  was  the  favorite  of 
Rebekah,  Jacob  was  ready  to  fall  in  with 
his  mother's  plan,  and,  by  deceiving  his 
blind  and  aged  father,  to  secure  the  elder 
brother's  blessing.  The  event,  so  mo- 
mentous to  all  parties,  is  related  in  de- 
tail in  Gen.  27. 

The  hate  of  Esau,  naturally  aroused, 
compelled  Jacob  in  fear  to  flee  some- 
where, and  the  anxiety  of  Rebekah  lest 
Jacob  should  marry  a  daughter  of  Heth 
was  the  ostensible  reason  for  turning  his 
steps  toward  Padan-aram,  where  her 
brother  Laban  lived.  Previous  to  his 
departure  Isaac  blessed  him  again,  and 
thus  with  the  assurance  of  divine  favor, 
but  with  a  heavy  and  fearful  heart,  did 
this  man  of  at  least  50  years  (it  is 
usual  to  call  him  78  years  old)  turn  his 
back  upon  his  home  and  wearily  go 
among  strangers.  But,  though  unwor- 
thy, he  was  the  heir  to  the  promises  ; 
and  accordingly,  God  cared  for  him.  At 
Bethel  his  eyes  were  opened  to  see  a 
glorious  vision  and  his  ears  to  hear  the 
voice  of  God.  On  awaking  he  made  a 
vow  to  serve  the  Lord,  giving  the  tenth, 
if  the  Lord  on  his  part  would  protect 
and  prosper  him.  Gen.  28  :  20-22. 

An  every-day  incident  introduced  him 
to  the  family  of  Laban  ;  an  act  of  gal- 
lantry won  him  a  home  at  once.  Loving 
Rachel,  he  promised  to  serve  Laban  for 
her.  But  when  the  time  was  fulfilled, 
Laban,  favored  by  the  marriage-customs 
of  the  Orient,  fraudulently  married  him 
to  the  elder  daughter,  Leah,  but  after- 
ward to  Rachel  also.  Jacob  contrived 
an  exjiedient  whereby  his  flocks  became 
larger  and  healthier  than  Laban's,  and 
thus  in  the  course  of  time  the  desire  of 
his  heart  after  the  things  of  this  life  was 
gratified.  He  had  "  increased  exceed- 
ingly, and  had  much  cattle,  and  maid- 
servants, and  men-servants,  and  camels, 
and  asses."  Gen.  30  :  43.  Eleven  sons 
and  one  daughter  had  been  born  to  him 
by  his  two  wives  and  their  two  servants, 
who  were  his  concubines. 

But  he  yearned  after  his  native  land 
and  determined  to  brave  his  brother's 
anger.     Secretly,  knowing  Laban's  feel- 


ings, he  fled,  but  was  followed  and  over- 
taken. A  parley  ensued.  Jacob  assert- 
ed his  grievance :  ''  I  served  thee  four- 
teen years  for  thy  two  daughters,  and 
six  years  for  thy  cattle  :  and  thou  hast 
changed  my  wages  ten  times."  A  cove- 
nant of  peace  was  made,  of  which  a  pil- 
lar was  a  reminder,  Gen.  31  :  45-54,  and 
Laban  left  him  with  expressions  of  good- 
will. 

Still  dreading  Esau,  he  sent  messen- 
gers to  him,  and  found  Esau  was  a[)- 
proaching — he  feared  with  hostile  in- 
tentions. He  prudently  guarded  against 
destruction  by  separating  his  company 
into  two  bands  and  by  sending  a  hand- 
some present  to  Esau.  Fear  acted  like 
a  slave  to  bring  him  to  God.  He  prayed 
humbly,  not  to  say  cringingly,  quoting 
the  divine  promises.  After  sending  his 
family  over  the  brook  Jabbok,  he  tarried 
behind  to  see  that  nothing  was  forgotten, 
when  there  appeared  "  a  man "  who 
wrestled  with  him  till  the  breaking  of 
the  day.  The  wrestling  forms  ah  ex- 
traordinary scene.  32  :  24—32.  God  pre- 
vailed not  against  man.  But  when  the 
day  dawned  the  exhausted  son  of  Isaac 
was  no  longer  Jacob,  but  Israel ;  for 
though  the  sinew  of  his  thigh  shrank 
under  the  angel's  touch,  and  though 
after  this  he  was  to  know  much  sorrow, 
the  all-night  conflict  had  brought  vic- 
tory, so  that  the  angel  of  the  Lord  could 
say,  "  As  a  prince  hast  thou  power  with 
God  and  with  men  ;  and  hast  prevail- 
ed." With  the  new  name  came  the  new 
nature.  The  man  who  met  Esau  was  not 
Jacob,  the  siipplanter,  but  Israel,  the  sol- 
dier of  God.  Behind  him  lay  the  guilty 
past;  before  him  stretched  the  illimita- 
ble future,  whose  near  part  was  full  of 
trial,  but  whose  far  part  was  full  of 
glory.  Like  many  other  awaited  ills,  the 
meeting  with  Esau  was  an  agreeable  dis- 
appointment. Esau  was  all  kindness, 
and  Jacob  was  compelled  to  refuse  his 
friendly  offers. 

After  the  brothers  separated,  Jacob 
finally  settled  near  the  city  of  Shechem, 
where  he  bought  some  land.  Gen.  33. 
In  retaliation  for  the  ravishment  of 
Dinah  by  Shechem,  the  son  of  the 
prince  of  the  country,  by  a  stratagem 
the  city  was  destroyed.  See  Dinah. 
The  patriarch  was  therefore  compelled 
to  leave  that  part  of  the  land. 

By  divine  direction  he  came  to  Bethel, 

413 


JAC 


JAC 


where  he  paid  the  vow  he  had  made  so 
many  years  before,  and  here  God  again 
appeared  unto  him.  On  their  way  to 
Hebron,  at  Bethlehem,  Benjamin  was 
born,  but  Rachel,  the  beloved  wife  of 
Jacob,  died.  The  memory  of  the  event 
was  inefi'aceable.  35  :  19.  Shortly  after 
his  arrival,  it  would  seem,  Isaac  died,  and 
he  and  Esau  buried  him.  Gen.  35:  29. 

The  history  now  is  taken  up  with  Jo- 
seph, and  Jacob  does  not  play  a  promi- 
nent part  until,  lying  upon  his  death- 
bed, he  utters  his  prophetic  blessing, 
tracing  from  the  stai-ting-point  of  indi- 
vidual character  the  fortunes  of  the 
tribes  his  twelve  sons  were  destined  to 
found.  But  the  future  was  revealed  to 
him  only  a  little  while  before  he 
belonged  to  the  past  for  ever,  for 
scarcely  had  he  spoken  out  the 
pride,  afl'ection,  apprehension, 
and  warning  of  his  fatherly  heart 
than  he  ''yielded  up  the  ghost," 
aged  147  years,  "  and  was  gath- 
ered unto  his  people."  Gen.  49  : 
33.  He  was  buried  with  great 
pomp ;  his  body  was  embalmed 
by  the  court-physicians  and  car- 
ried to  Hebron,  and  there  at  last, 
after  147  years  of  wandering  and 
trouble,  Jacob  rested  with  his  an- 
cestors in  the  cave  of  Machpelah. 
Gen.  50  :  13. 

Jacob  had  more  weaknesses 
and  faults  by  nature  than  his 
father  and  grandfather,  but  his 
life  was  also  more  checkered  and 
troubled,  and  his  character  puri- 
fied by  affliction,  Abraham  ex- 
emplifies heroic  faith ;  Isaac,  quiet  hu- 
mility; Jacob,  patience  and  persever- 
ance. His  checkered  life  teaches  us  the 
lesson  that  through  many  tribulations 
we  must  enter  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 

The  terms  "  Jacob  "  and  the  "  seed  " 
or  "  children  of  .Jacob  "  are  often  applied 
to  the  body  of  true  believers  generally. 
Deut.  33:10:  Ps.  14  :  7  ;  22:23;  105: 
6;  135:4;  Isa.  14  :  1 ;  44:2;  Mic.  7  : 
20. 

JA'COB'S  WELL,  the  well  at 
which  Jesus  sat  and  talked  with  the 
Samaritan  woman,  John  4  :  5.  6,  near 
Shechem  ;  comp.  Gen.  33  :  19  ;  Josh.  24  : 
32.  Here  our  blessed  Lord,  weary  of 
travel,  but  not  of  his  work  of  saving 
love,  off"ered  to  a  poor  woman  the  living 
water  of  eternal  life  and  revealed  to  her 
414 


the  sublime  truth  of  the  true  worship  of 
God,  who  is  a  Spirit,  in  spirit  and  in 
truth.  Here  he  sowed  the  seed  for  the 
harvest  of  the  apostles.  Acts  8.  This  is 
one  of  the  few  places  in  the  Holj'  Land 
which  can  be  identified  with  certainty. 
Christians,  Jews,  Mohammedans,  Samar- 
itans, all  agree  in  regard  to  the  site  of 
Jacob's  well.  It  is  situated  a  mile  and 
a  half  south-east  of  the  town  of  Nuh- 
Ins,  the  ancient  Shechem,  at  the  eastern 
base  of  Mount  Gerizim,  near  the  edge  of 
the  plain  of  Moreh  {Muknn),  and  close 
to  the  highway  from  Jerusalem  to  Gali- 
lee. The  well  is  in  an  almost  square  en- 
closure, which  measures  192  feet  b^^  151 
feet;  the  wall  of  this  enclosure  is  almost 


Jacob's  Well. 

entirely  destroyed,  and  the  ground  is 
covered  with  shapeless  ruins  forming 
a  large  mound. 

The  well  is  now  75  feet  deep,  7  feet  6 
inches  in  diameter,  and  the  upper  part 
lined  with  rough  masonry.  It  must  have 
been  veiy  much  deeper  in  ancient  times, 
for  in  the  course  of  10  years  it  decreased 
10  feet  in  depth,  and  Robinson  in  1838 
found  it  105  feet  deep.  Captain  Ander- 
son estimates  that  it  has  been  filled  up 
to  probably  more  than  half  of  its  origi- 
nal depth  by  the  stones  thrown  into  it  by 
visitors  for  the  sake  of  hearing  them 
strike,  and  by  the  debris  from  the  ruined 
church  built  over  the  well  during  the 
fourth  century.  The  bottom  of  the  well 
is  at  times  entirely  dry,  but  in  some  sea- 
sons it  contains  water. 


JAD 


JAH 


Money  has  been  contributed  to  the 
British  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  for 
the  purpose  of  clearing  out  the  well  and 
preserving  its  sacred  associations. 

JA'DA  (kiiowi !)(/),  a  descendant  of 
Judah.  1  Chr.  2  :  28,  32. 

JADA'U  {/oviiHf),  one  who  had  a 
foreign  wife.    Ezr.  10  :  43. 

JADDU'A  {knoivn).  1.  One  who 
sealed  the  covenant.  Neh.  10  :  21. 

2.  The  son  of  Jonathan,  high  priest 
of  the  Jews,  who  officiated  a  consider- 
able time  after  the  Captivity,  and  who 
is  believed  to  be  the  same  who  lived  in 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  "  by 
those  who  maintain  that  the  list,  Neh. 
12:11,  of  high  priests  from  Joshua  to 
Jaddua,  or  from  b.  c.  538-b.  c.  336,  can- 
not, in  its  present  shape,  have  proceed- 
,ed  from  Nehemiah's  hand,  or  from  that 
of  a  contemporary." — Bible  (Speaker's) 
Commentary.  He  is  the  last  of  the  high 
priests  mentioned  in  the  0.  T. 

JA'DON  ijudije),  one  who  helped 
build  the  wall  of  Jerusalem.  Neh.  3  :  7. 

JA'EIi  (moitntain-gont),  the  wife  of 
Heber  the  Kenite.  Jud.  4:17.  After 
the  defeat  of  Jabin's  army  by  Deborah 
and  Barak,  Sisera,  the  general,  fled 
toward  her  tent,  because  Heber  and  Ja- 
bin  were  at  peace.  It  was  not  unusual 
for  the  women  to  have  a  tent  separate 
from  the  men,  as  in  Sarah's  case,  Gen. 
24:67,  and  Leah's.  Gen.  31:33.  This 
was  a  place  of  security,  for  then  as  now 
among  the  Arabs  a  stranger  would  not 
venture  into  the  women's  tent  unasked. 
Jael  invited  him  in,  and  concealed  him. 
Fatigued  and  thirsty,  he  asked  for  water, 
and  she  gave  him  buttermilk,  which 
greatly  refreshed  him.  After  instruct- 
ing Jael  to  stand  at  the  door  of  the 
tent,  and  to  deny  that  he  was  within  if 
any  one  should  inquire  for  him,  he  fell 
into  a  sound  sleep.  She  then  took  a 
tent-pin,  and  with  a  hammer  drove  it 
through  his  temples  into  the  ground. 
Jud.  4:21.  Her  act  was  treacherous, 
cowardly,  and  inhuman.  It  causes  only 
a  momentary  perplexity,  as  we  have  no 
warrant  for  supposing  her  divinely  com- 
missioned. Hence,  although  Deborah 
appears  to  praise  her  in  her  song,  Jud. 
6 :  24—27,  she  does  not  express  any  ap- 
proval of  the  act  upon  moral  grounds. 
Jael  was  a  murderess  from  the  Christian 
standpoint,  and  at  best  we  can  only  jus- 
tify her  act  by  emphasizing  the  barbar- 


ity of  her  time  and  the  usage  of  war- 
fare, which  is  organized  cruelty. 

JA'CJUll,  a  city  on  the  south-east- 
ern frontier  of  Judah,  near  Edom,  Josh. 
15:21;  perhaps  to  be  associated  with 
the  following  word.     See  Kinah. 

JAH.  Ps.  68  :  4.  A  contraction  of 
the  word  "  Jehovah,"  which  imports  the 
attribute  of  self-existence.  It  is  part 
of  the  compound  words  "Adonijah" 
("  God  is  my  Lord  ")  and  ''Hallelujah  " 
("  Praise  the  Lord").     See  Jehovah. 

JA'HATH  {)tnio)i).  1.  A  descend- 
ant of  Judah.  1  Chr.  4:2. 

2.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Ger- 
shom,  and  progenitor  of  Asaph.  1  Chr. 
6  :  20. 

3.  A  Levite,  head  of  a  branch  of  the 
same  family.  1  Chr.  23  :10,  11. 

4.  A  Levite  of  the  Kohathites  in  the 
reign  of  David.  1  Chr.  24  :  22. 

5.  A  Mei-arite  Levite  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah,  an  overseer  of  the  repairing- 
work  in  the  temple.  2  Chr.  34:  12. 

JA'HAZ  {])lace  trodden  down),  a 
Moabitish  city  situated  near  the  desert; 
afterward  reckoned  to  the  tribe  of  Reu- 
ben and  assigned  to  the  priests.  Num. 
21:23;  Deut.  2:32;  Isa.  15:4;  Jer. 
48  :  34.  It  is  also  called  Jahaza,  Josh. 
13  :  18,  Jahazah,  Josh.  21  :  36  ;  Jer. 
48  :  21,  and  Jahzah.  1  Chr.  6  :  78.  At 
this  place  the  Israelites  gained  a  vic- 
tory over  Sihon  and  conquered  the  ter- 
ritory between  the  Arnon  and  the  Jab- 
bok :  but  in  later  times  Jahaz  seems  to 
have  been  occupied  by  the  Moabites. 
Osborn  locates  Jahaz  a  mile  south  of 
the  Arnon  and  12  miles  east  of  the 
Dead  Sea. 

JAHAZA,  JAHA  Z  AH,  JAH'- 
ZAH.     See  Jahaz. 

JAHAZI'AH  {wJiom  Jehovah  be- 
holds), one  who  helped  Ezra  in  his  mar- 
riage-reform. Ezr.  10 :  15. 

JAHA'ZIEL  (irhom  God  beholds). 
1.  A  Benjamite  chief  who  joined  David 
at  Ziklag.  1  Chr.  12  :  4. 

2.  A  priest  appointed  by  David  to 
blow  the  trumpet  before  the  ark.  1  Chr. 
16:6. 

3.  A  Kohathite  Levite.  1  Chr.  23 : 
19  ;  24  :  23. 

4.  A  Levite  of  the  sons  of  Asaph  "  in- 
spired to  encourage  Jehoshaphat  when 
marching  against  the  Moabites  and  Am- 
monites." 2  Chr.  20  :  14. 

5.  The  father  of  the  chief  of  the  sons 

415 


JAH 


JAM 


of  Shecaniah  who  returned  to  Jerusalem 
with  Ezra.  Ezr.  8  :  5. 

JAH'DAI  {irhoni  Jehovah  rf/recfs),  a 
name  in  the  genealogies  of  Judah.  1  Chr. 
2:47. 

JAH'DIELi  (jchnm  God  makes  joy- 
ful), the  head  of  a  family  in  the  trans- 
Jordanic  half-tribe  of  Manasseh.  1  Chr. 
5  :  24. 

JAH'DO  {his  union),  a  Gadite.  1 
Chr.  5  :  14. 

JAH'LEEL  [hoping  in  God),  the 
youngest  son  of  Zebulun,  and  founder 
of  the  Jahleelites.  Gen.  46:14;  Num. 
26:26. 

JAHLEELITES,  THE,  de- 
scendants of  Jahleel.  Num.  26:26. 

JAH'MAI  {tchom  Jehovah  guards), 
a  man  of  Issaehar.  1  Chr.  7  :  2. 

JAH'ZEEL  i7vhom  God  allots),  the 
eldest  son  of  Naphtali,  and  founder  of 
the  Jahzeelites.  Gen.  46:24;  1  Chr.  7  : 
13. 

JAHZEELITES,    THE,    de 
seendants  of  Jahzeel.  Num.  26  :  48. 

JAH'ZERAH  (ichom  God  leads 
back),  a  priest  of  the  house  of  Immer, 
1  Chr.  9  :  12  ;  called  Ahasai  in  the  dupli- 
cate passage  in  Neh.  11  :  13. 

JAH'ZIEL.  1  Chr.  7:13.  The  same 
as  Jahzeel,  which  see. 

JAI'LER.    See  Prison,  Punishment. 

JA'IR  {whom  Jehovah  enlightens). 
1.  A  chief  warrior  under  Moses,  descend- 
ed from  the  most  powerful  family  of  Ju- 
dah and  Manasseh  by  his  father  and 
mother  respectively.  He  took  all  the 
country  of  Argob  (the  modern  Lejah) 
on  the  east  side  of  Jordan,  and,  be- 
sides, some  villages  in  Gilead,  which  he 
called  Havoth-jair,  "villages  of  Jair." 
1  Chr.  2  :  21-23;  Num.  32  :  41  ;  Deut. 
3:14:  comp.  Josh.  13:30. 

2.  Jair  the  Gileadite,  who  judged  Is- 
rael 22  years.  "  He  had  thirty  sons  who 
rode  on  thirty  ass-colts,  and  they  had 
thirty  cities,  which  are  called  Havoth- 
jair,  which  are  in  Gilead."  Jud.  10 : 
3-5. 

3.  A  Benjamite,  father  of  Mordeeai. 
Esth.  2  :  5. 

4.  In  1  Chr.  20 :  5  in  the  A.  V,,  Jair 
occurs,  but  it  is  a  totally  different  name 
in  Hebrew,  meaning  "  whom  God 
awakens."  This  Jair  was  the  father 
of  Elhanan,  who  killed  Lachmi,  the 
brother  of  Goliath.  He  is  called  Jaare- 
oregim  in  2  Sam.  21 :  19. 

416 


JA'IRTTE,  THE,  a  descendant 
of  Jair.  2  Sam.  20  :  26. 

JAI'RUS  {rchom  Jehovah  enlightens), 
an  officer  of  the  Jewish  church  who 
applied  to  Christ  to  restore  to  life  his 
daughter,  who  was  at  the  point  of  death 
when  he  left  home.  He  evinced  very 
strong  faith.  Christ  with  his  disciples 
went  to  the  ruler's  house,  and  his  daugh- 
ter was  restored.  Mark  5  :  42. 

JA'KAN  {sagacious),  a  son  of  Ezer 
the  Horite;  identical  with  Jaakan.  1 
Chr.  1:42. 

JA'KEH  {pious),  the  father  of 
Agur,  whose  "  words  "  are  recorded  in 
Prov.  30. 

JA'KIM  {whom  God  sets  up).  1.  A 
Benjamite.  1  Chr.  8  :  19. 

2.  Head  of  the  twelfth  course  of  the 
priests.  1  Chr.  24  :  12. 

JA'LON  {abiding),  a  descendant  of 
Judah.   1  Chr.  4  :  17. 

JAM'BRES.   See  Jannes  AND  Jam- 

BRES. 

JAMES  (the  same  as  "  Jacob,"  ^Ae 
sujjplanter).  1.  James  the  Elder,  one 
of  the  three  favorite  apostles,  a  son  of 
Zebedee  and  Salome,  and  a  brother  of 
John  the  evangelist.  With  Peter  and 
John,  he  was  present  at  the  raising  of 
Jairus's  daughter,  the  transfiguration, 
and  the  agony  in  Gethsemane.  He  was 
beheaded  by  order  of  King  Herod 
Agrippa,  and  became  the  first  martyr 
among  the  apostles,  A.  i>.  44,  thus  ful- 
filling our  Saviour's  prediction  con- 
cerning the  baptism  of  blood.  Matt.  4: 
21 ;  20 :  20-23  :  26  :  37  ;  Mark  1:19,20; 
10  :  35  ;  Acts  12  :  2.  His  apostolic  labors 
seem  not  to  have  extended  beyond  Jeru- 
salem and  Juda?a.  Clement  of  Alexan- 
di'ia  relates  that  the  accuser  of  Jame^\ 
on  the  way  to  the  place  of  execution, 
stung  by  remorse,  confessed  faith  and 
asked  forgiveness;  whereupon  James 
said  to  him,  "  Peace  be  with  thee  !"  gave 
him  a  brotherly  kiss,  and  had  him  for  a 
companion  in  martyrdom.  His  place  was 
filled  partly  by  James  the  brother  of  the 
Lord,  partly  by  Paul. 

2.  James  the  Less,  or  the  Little,  also 
one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  a  son  of 
Alpheus  and  Mary.  Mark  15  :  40  ;  16  : 1 ; 
Matt.  10  :  3  ;  27  :  56  ;  Acts  1 :  13.  He 
labored,  according  to  the  tradition  of 
the  Greek  Church  (which  distinguishes 
him  from  James,  the  brother  of  the 
Lord),    in    the   south-western    part    of 


JAM 


JAM 


Palestine,  afterward  in  Egypt,  and  was 
crucified  in  Lower  Egypt.  He  is  re- 
garded by  many  as  a  cousin  of  Jesus. 

3.  James,  "  the  brother  of  the  Lord," 
Gal.  1:19;  comp.  Matt.  13  :  55  ;  Mark 
6 :  3,  or  simply  James,  Acts  12  :  1 7  ; 
15  :  13  ;  21  :  18 ;'  Gal.  2  :  i> :  1  Cor.  15  :  7. 
By  ecclesiastical  writers  he  is  also  called 
James  'Hhe  Just"  and '*  the  bishop  of 
Jerusalem."  Commentators  are  divi- 
ded as  to  his  relation  to  James  the  Less. 
Some  identify  him  with  the  younger 
apostle  of  that  name,  and  regard  him 
simply  as  a  cousin  of  Jesus,  while  others 
distinguish  the  two,  and  understand  the 
designation  "  brother  of  the  Lord "  in 
the  strict  sense  either  of  a  uterine 
brother  or  a  half-brother  of  Jesus.  See 
Brother  and  Brethren  of  Jesus.  It 
is  certain,  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
that  this  James,  after  the  dispersion  of 
the  disciples  and  the  departure  of  Peter, 
Acts  12  :  17,  occupied  the  most  promi- 
nent position  in  the  church  of  Jerusa- 
lem, and  stood  at  the  head  of  the  Jewish 
converts.  He  presided  at  the  apostolic 
council,  and  proposed  the  compromise 
which  prevented  a  split  between  the 
Jewish  and  the  Gentile  sections  of  the 
church.  Acts  15  and  Gal.  2.  He  stood 
mediating  between  the  old  and  the  new 
dispensations,  and  conformed  very  nearly 
to  the  Jewish  traditions  and  temple-ser- 
vice as  long  as  there  was  any  hope  of 
a  national  conversion.  He  stood  in  high 
repute  even  among  the  Jews,  but  never- 
theless was  (according  to  Josephus)  sen- 
tenced to  be  stoned  by  the  Sanhedrin, 
A.  D.  62.  Hegesippus,  an  historian  of  the 
second  century,  puts  his  martyrdom  later, 
A.  D.  69,  shortly  before  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  and  adds  that  he  was  thrown 
by  the  Pharisees  from  the  pinnacle  of 
the  temple,  and  then  despatched  with  a 
fuller's  club  while  on  his  knees,  in  the 
act  of  praying  for  his  murderers. 

Epistle  of  James,  "a  servant  (not  an 
apostle)  of  God  and  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,"  the  same  who  is  also  called 
''the  brother  of  the  Lord."  It  is  one  of 
the  catholic  or  general  Epistles,  and  con- 
sists of  five  chapters.  The  design  of  the 
Epistle  is,  (1)  To  correct  errors  into 
which  the  Jewish  Christians  had  fallen, 
especially  relating  to  justification  by 
faith;  (2)  To  animate  their  hope,  and 
strengthen  their  faith,  in  view  of  afflic- 
tions felt  and  feared;  and  (3)  To  excite 
27 


the  unbelieving  Jews  to  repentance  to- 
ward God  and  faith  in  the  rejected 
Messiah.  It  is  remarkable  that  the 
name  of  our  blessed  Lord  occurs  but  twice 
in  this  Epistle,  but  with  great  reverence 
as  the  divine  Master,  1:  1,  and  as  "the 
Lord  of  glory."  2  :  1.  The  gospel  is  de- 
scribed as  the  perfect  law  of  freedom.  The 
Epistle  strongly  resembles  the  preaching 
of  John  the  Baptist  and  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount.  The  main  stress  is  laid  on  works 
rather  than  faith.  It  enforces  an  emi- 
nently practical  Christianity  which  mani- 
fests itself  in  good  fruits.  Its  doctrine  of 
justification,  ch.  2,  apparently  conflicts 
with  that  of  Paul,  Rom.  3  and  4,  but 
in  reality  the  two  apostles  supplement 
each  other,  and  guard  each  other  against 
abuse  and  excess.  James  opposes  a 
dead  orthodoxy,  an  unfruitful  theoreti- 
cal belief,  and  insists  on  practical  dem- 
onstration of  faith,  while  Paul,  in  op- 
position to  Pharisaical  legalism  and 
self-righteousness,  exhibits  a  living  faith 
in  Christ  as  the  principle  and  root  of  all 
good  works.  The  one  judges  the  tree  by 
its  fruit,  the  other  proceeds  from  the 
root. 

The  Epistle  of  James  was  written 
before  A.  D.  62,  perhaps  much  earlier, 
probably  from  Jerusalem,  the  scene  of 
his  labors,  and  is  addressed  to  the  twelve 
tribes  scattered  abroad,  1  :  1 — that  is, 
either  to  all  the  Jews  of  the  Dispersion, 
or  only  to  the  Jewish  Christians,  as  to 
the  true  spiritual  Israel.  The  style  is 
lively,  vigorous,  and  impressive.  What 
kindling  words  on  patience  in  suifering, 
joy  in  sorrow,  heavenly  wisdom,  the 
power  of  prayer  as  the  most  certain  un- 
failing thing,  from  deep  personal  experi- 
ence! There  is  a  resemblance  between 
the  Epistle  and  the  pastoral  letter  of  the 
Council  of  Jerusalem,  which  was  no  doubt 
written  by  the  same  James  as  the  pre- 
siding officer ;  both  have  the  Greek  form 
of  ''greeting,"  Acts  15:  23;  Jas.  1 :  1, 
which  otherwise  does  not  occur  in  the 
N.  T.  or  is  changed  into  "grace  and 
peace."  This  is  an  incidental  proof  of 
the  genuineness  of  the  Epistle.  The 
theory  recently  advocated  by  Bassett 
(  Commentdry  on  fhe  Catholic  Epintfe  of  St. 
James,  London,  1876),  that  it  was  written 
by  the  elder  James,  the  son  of  Zebedee, 
before  a.  d.  44,  has  little  to  support  it. 
He  assumes  thatthe  Epistle  was  addressed 
to  all  the  Jews  of  the  dispersion  with  the 

417 


JAM 


JAE 


view  to  convert  them  by  a  moral  rather 
than  doctrinal  exhibition  of  Christianity. 
JA'MIN  ( prospen'ti/,  right  haud).  1. 
The  second  son  of  Simeon,  founder  of 
the  Jaminites.  Gen.  46  :  10  ;  Ex.  6  :  15  ; 
1  Chr.  4:  24;  Num.  26:  12. 

2.  A  man  of  Judah.  1  Chr.  2:  27. 

3.  A  Levite  who  expounded  the  Law 
with  Ezra.   Neh.  8  :  7. 

JA'MINITES,  THE,  descend- 
ants of  Jamin.  Num.  26  :  12. 

JAM'LECH  {whom  God  makes 
king),  a  chief  of  Simeon.  1  Chr.  4 :  34. 

JANG'LING  means  "  babbling  "  in 
1  Tim.  1:  6. 

JAN'NA  {ichom  Jehovah  bestoios), 
one  of  our  Lord's  ancestors.  Luke  3  :  24. 

JAN'NES  AND  JAM'BRES,  two 
famous  magicians  of  Egypt,  who  are  sup- 
posed to  have  used  their  art  to  deceive 
Pharaoh.  2   Tim.  3  :  8  ;  Ex.  7  :  9-13. 

JANO'AH  {rest),  a  town  of  Naph- 
tali,  in  northern  Palestine,  taken  by  the 
king  of  Assyria.  2  Kgs.  15  :  29.  Van  de 
Velde  and  Porter  propose  to  identify  it 
with  ruins  at  the  A^llage  Hunin,  between 
Abel-beth-Maachah  and  Kedesh  ;  Conder 
with  Yamih,  near  the  western  limit  of 
the  ancient  territory  of  Naphtali. 

JANO'HAH  {rest),  a  town  on  the 
north-east  borders  of  Ephraim.  Josh.  16  : 
6,  7.  At  Yamu},  about  8  miles  south-east 
of  Nablus,  are  extensive  ruins,  entire 
houses  and  walls,  covered  with  immense 
heaps  of  earth,  and  these  are  identified 
as  the  site  of  Janohah. 

JA'NUM  {slumber),  a  place  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah.  Josh.  15  :  53.  The  mar- 
gin has  "  Janus  "  ("  flight ").  It  was  not 
far  from  Hebron,  and  Conder  proposes  to 
identifv  it  with  Beni  Nairn. 

JA'PHETH  {enlargement),  the  sec- 
ond son  of  Noah.  Gen.  5:  32;  10:  21. 
The  prophetic  blessing  pronounced  on 
Japheth  by  his  father,  Gen.  9 :  27,  was 
accomplished  to  the  full  extent  of  the 
promise.  From  him  have  come,  (1)  Go- 
mer,  or  the  Cymri  or  Celts;  (2)  Magog, 
or  the  Scythians  and  Sarraatians  (Sla- 
vonians); (3)  Madai,  or  the  Medes  or 
Aryans;  (4)  Javan,  or  the  Greeks;  (5) 
Tubal,  or  the  Tibareni ;  (6)  Meshech,  or 
the  Moschi  ;  (7)  Tiras,  or  the  Teutons. 
The  Japhetic  races  have  occupied  "  '  the 
isles  of  the  Gentiles' — i.  e.  all  the  coast- 
lands  in  Europe  and  Asia  Minor  and  isl- 
ands of  the  Mediterranean — whence  they 
spread  northward  over  Europe  and 
418 


much  of  Asia,  from  India  and  Persia 
in  the  east  to  the  extreme  west  of  Europe, 
and  now  to  America  and  Australia." — 
Fausset  :  Englishman's  Bible  Cyclopae- 
dia. The  other  branch  of  prophecy,  "he 
(God)  shall  dwell  in  the  tents  of  Shem," 
was  fulfilled  when  the  divine  Presence 
was  manifested  in  the  tabernacle  and 
temple;  or  if  we  read,  "he  (Japheth) 
shall  dwell  in  the  tents  of  Shem,"  it  was 
fulfilled  literally  when  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  (descended  from  Japheth)  sub- 
dued Juda2a,  the  inheritance  of  Shem, 
and  figuratively  when  the  descendants 
of  Japheth  (the  Gentiles)  received  the 
gospel,  which  the  Jews,  who  were  of  the 
seed  of  Shem,  rejected. 

JAPHI'A  {ftplendid),  the  «(king  of 
Lachish,  one  of  the  five  kings  of  the 
Amorites  who  united  against  Joshua, 
but  were  defeated  at  Beth-horon  and 
killed  at  Makkedah.  Josh.  10  :  3. 

JAPHI'A  {sjilendid),  a  place  in  the 
tribe  of  Zebulun.  Josh.  19 :  12.  It  is 
identified  with  a  small  village,  called 
Yafa,  a  short  distance  south-west  of 
Nazareth.  See  Joseph  us:  Wars,  2 -.2^,  &. 
Drake  described  some  caves  at  this  place 
unlike  any  other  he  had  seen  in  Pales- 
tine. A  passage  12  feet  long  leads  into 
a  circular  chamber,  in  the  floor  of  which 
are  circular  "  man-holes  "  leading  to  two 
lower  caves,  which  in  turn  lead  to  others. 
All  the  chambers  are  connected  by  in- 
tricate passage-ways.  Mr.  Drake  con- 
ceives that  they  were  not  tombs,  but 
places  for  the  storage  of  grain. 

JAPH'LET  {whom  God  delivers), 
an  Asherite.   1  Chr.  7:  32,  33. 

JAPH'LETI,  a  landmark  of  Eph- 
raim west  of  Beth-horon.  Josh.  16:  3. 

JA'PHO.  Josh.  19  :  46.    See  Joppa. 

JA'RAH  {honey),  a  descendant  of 
Saul,  1  Chr.  9  :  42 ;  called  in  the  parallel 
list,  ch.  8  :  36,  Jehoadah. 

JA'REB  {an  adversary).  The  mar- 
ginal reading  would  indicate  that  it  was 
the  name  of  a  place,  but  that  is  forbidden 
by  the  form  of  the  original  word.  Hos. 
5:  13;  10:  6.  Some  make  it  the  name 
of  a  king,  but  it  is  better  to  translate 
it  "  the  hostile  king" — i.  e.  "  the  king  of 
Assyria." 

JA'RED  {descent),  the  father  of 
Enoch.  Gen.  5  :  15-20  ;  Luke  3  :  37.  In 
1  Chr.  1 :  2  he  is  called  Jered. 

JARESI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  fat- 
tens), a  Benjamite  chief.   1  Chr.  8  :  27. 


JAR 


JAV 


JAR'HA  {mcaninrj  vncertaiii),  an 
Egyptian  i^ervant  of  Sheshan,  and  mar- 
ried to  his  daughter,  1  ('hr.  2  :  34,  35. 

JA'RIB  {an  adrersavy).  1.  A  son 
of  Sinieon,  1  Chr,  4:  24  5  called  Jachin 
in  Gen.  46  :  10. 

2.  A  companion  of  Ezra,  "a  chief 
man."    Ezr.  8:  16, 

3,  A  priest  maiTied  to  a  foreign  wife, 
Ezr.  10:  18. 

JAR'MUTH.  1.  A  town  in  the 
low  country  of  Judah.  Josh.  15  :  35.  Its 
king,  Piram,  was  one  of  the  five  who 
conspired  to  punish  Gibeon  for  having 
made  alliance  with  Israel,  and  who  were 
defeated  at  Beth-horon  and  were  hanged 
by  Joshua  at  Makkedah.  Josh.  12  :  11 ; 
15 :  35.  It  was  peopled  after  the  Cap- 
tivity. Neh.  11 :  29.  It  is  identified  with 
Yarmnh,  16  miles  south-west  of  Jerusa- 
lem, on  the  crest  of  a  rocky  ridge,  where 
hewn  blocks  of  stone  and  other  ruins 
of  a  town  are  found. 

2,  A  city  of  Issachar,  allotted  with 
its  suburbs  to  the  Gershonite  Levites, 
Josh,  21 :  29,  and  called  Reneth  and 
Ramoth.  Josh.  19:  21;  1  Chr.  6:  73. 
Conder  proposes  to  identify  it  with 
Rameh. 

JARO'AH  {moon),  a  Gadite.  1  Chr. 
5:  14. 

JA'SHEN  (sleeping),  the  father  of 
some  of  David's  warriors,  2  Sam.  23  :  32. 

JA'SHER,  BOOK  OF  iupri;,ht). 
Twice  referred  to.  Josh.  10  :  13  ;  2  Sam. 
1:  18  ;  probably  a  collection  of  national 
songs,  now  lost. 

JASHO'BE  AM  {to  loJwm  the  people 
turns),  the  chief  of  David's  captains, 
who  came  to  him  at  Ziklag  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  and  his  band  by 
slaying  300  men  at  one  time.  1  Chr. 
11 :  1 1  ;  12:6;  27 :  2.  He  is  the  same 
with  Adino  the  Eznite,  2  Sam.  23  :  8,  the 
difference  in  the  Hebrew  being  slight. 

JASH'UB  {he  turns).  1.  One  of  the 
sons  of  Issachar ;  founder  of  the  Ja- 
shubites.  Num.  26  :  24  ;  1  Chr.  7:1; 
called  Job  in  Gen.  46  :  13. 

2.  One  who  had  a  foreign  wife.  Ezr. 
10 :  29. 

JASHUBILE'HEM  {turner  back 
for  food),  either  a  person  or  a  place 
mentioned  in  the  genealogical  list  of 
Judah.    1   Chr.  4  :  22. 

JASHTIBITES,  THE,  descend- 
ants of  J.vsHUB,  1.  Num.  26  :  24. 

JA'SIEJj     {whom    God    has    made), 


one  of  David's  warriors,  1  Chr.  11 :  47 ; 
same  as  Jaasiel. 

JA'SON  {one  who  will  heal),  a  Thessa- 
lonian,  and  probably  a  relative  of  Paul, 
whom  he  entertained,  and  in  conse- 
quence received  rough  treatment  at  the 
hands  of  the  unbelieving  Jews.  Acts  17  ; 
cf.  Rom.  9:3:  16:  21. 

JAS'PER,  the  last  stone  in  the 
breastplate  of  the  high  priest,  and  the 
first  in  the  foundations  of  the  new  Jeru- 
salem. Ex.  28  :  20  ;  Rev.  21 :  19.  Jasper 
is  an  opaque  species  of  quartz,  of  differ- 
ent colors,  often  banded  or  spotted,  and 
susceptible  of  a  high  polish.  The  dark- 
green  kind  is  supposed  to  be  the  variety 
of  the  Bible.  From  the  apparent  incon- 
sistency of  Rev.  4:3;  21:11  with  the 
opaque  character  of  this  stone,  it  has 
been  suggested  that  some  transparent 
gem  was  denoted  by  jasper  in  the  N.  T. — ■ 
perhaps  the  diamond  or  the  translucent 
chalcedony.     See  Stones,  Precious. 

JATH'NIEL  {whom  God  bestows),^ 
Levite  porter  or  doorkeeper  in  the  tab- 
ernacle.  1  Chr.  26:2. 

JAT'TIR,  a  town  of  Judah  in  the 
mountain-districts,  Josh.  15  :  48  ;  21 :  14 ; 
David  sent  presents  thither.  1  Sam.  30  : 
27  :  1  Chr.  6  :  57.  Robinson  identifies  it 
with  'Attir,  6  miles  north  of  Molada  and 
11  miles  west  of  south  of  Hebron.  Tris- 
tram noted  there  over  30  crypts,  and 
found  remains  of  terraces,  many  old 
wells,  now  dry  and  filled  with  rubbish, 
but  only  one  modern  building,  a  Moslem 
tomb. 

JA'VAN,  the  fourth  son  of  Japh- 
eth,  and  the  ancestor  of  the  Grecians 
or  lonians.  Gen.  10  :  2  ;  1  Chr.  1 :  5,  7. 
Hence  the  word  "  Javan  "  in  the  0.  T.  de- 
notes Greece,  or  the  Greeks.  Isa.  66  :  19  ; 
Eze.  27:13. 

J  A' VAN.  1.  In  Isa.  66:  19  it  is 
coupled  with  Tarshish,  Pul,  and  Lud,  and 
with  Tubal  and  the  "  isles  afar  off ;" 
again,  in  Eze.  27:  13,  it  is  joined  with 
Tubal  and  Meshech,  as  carrying  on  com- 
merce with  the  Tyrians,  who  imported 
from  these  countries  slaves  and  brazen 
vessels  ;  in  Dan.  8  :  21  ;  10  :  20  ;  11 :  2, 
in  reference  to  the  Macedonian  empire; 
and  in  Zech.  9:13,  in  reference  to  the 
Gra^co-Syrian  empire.  From  these  pas- 
sages it  appears  that  "Javan  "  was  re- 
garded as  a  title  for  the  Greek  people 
and  the  Grecian  empire. 

2.  A    town   in    the  southern  part  of 

419 


JAV 


JEC 


Arabia  (  Yemen),  whither  the  Phoenicians 
traded,  Eze.  27  :  19  ;  probably  Uzal,  a 
name  of  the  capital  of  Yema,  in  Arabia, 
and  famous  for  the  manufacture  of  sword- 
blades. 

JAV'ELIN.     See  Arms. 

JA'ZER,  Josh.  21:39,  or  JAA^ 
Z£R,  Num.  21 :  32,  a  city  of  the  Am- 
monites, near  the  river  Jabbok,  the  ruins 
of  which  are  still  visible  at  Snr,  about  15 
miles  from  Hesban. 

Sea  of,  Jer.  48  :  32,  may  be  a  lake 
existing  in  ancient  times  near  the  city 
of  Jazer.  There  are  round  pools  of 
water  near  Scr,  but  scholars  have  not 
agreed  what  the  Sea  of  Jazer  refers  to. 

JA'ZIZ  (whom  God  moves),  the  Ha- 
gerite  who  was  over  David's  flocks.  1 
Chr.  27:31. 

JEAL'OUSY.  It  is  most  frequent- 
ly used  to  denote  a  suspicion  of  conjugal 
infidelity.  2  Cor.  11 :  2.  It  is  sometimes 
used  for  anger  or  indignation,  Ps.  79 : 
5 ;  1  Cor.  10 :  22,  or  an  intense  interest 
for  the  honor  and  prosperity  of  another. 
Zech.  1:14;  8:2. 

The  same  term,  in  a  similar  sense,  is 
used  in  speaking  of  God,  for  he  is  rep- 
resented as  a  husband,  related  to  his 
Churcli  by  a  marriage-covenant  that 
binds  her  to  be  wholly  for  him,  and  not 
for  another.  The  more  sincere  and  con- 
stant the  love,  the  more  sensitive  is  the 
heart  to  the  approach  of  a  rival ;  and 
the  thought  of  such  affection  being 
alienated  or  corrupted  fills  the  soul  with 
grief  and  indignation.  So  God  com- 
mends the  purity,  the  fervency,  and  the 
sincerity  of  his  love  to  his  Church  by 
the  most  terrific  expressions  of  jealousy. 

The  various  significations  of  the  word 
"jealousy  "  are  denoted  usually  by  its 
connection.  It  is  one  of  the  strongest 
passions  of  our  nature.  Prov.  6  :  34;  Sol. 
Song  8:6. 

The  Image  of  Jealousy,  Eze.  8 :  3,  5, 
is  the  same  with  Tammuz,  in  v.  14.  See 
Tammuz. 

Jealousy-offering,  or  Waters  of 
Jealousy.     See  Adultery. 

JE'ARIM,  MOUNT  {mount  of 
forests),  a  place  named  in  noting  the 
northern  boundary  of  Judah.  Josh.  15  : 
10.  The  boundary  ran  from  Mount 
Seir  to  "  the  shoulder  of  Mount  Jearim, 
which  is  Chesnlon" — that  is,  Chesalon  was 
the  landmark  on  the  mountain.  Keslu 
stands  7  miles  due  west  of  Jerusalem, 
420 


on  a  high  point  on  the  north  slope  of  a 
lofty  ridge,  which  is  probably  Mount 
Jearim.  Considerable  woods  still  exist 
there. 

JEAT'ERAI  {loJiom  Jehovah  leads), 
a  Gershonite  Levite,  1  Chr.  6:21;  called 
Ethni  in  v.  41. 

JEBERACHI'AH  {tchom  Jehovah 
blesses),  the  father  of  the  Zechariah  whom 
Isaiah  took  as  a  witness.  Isa.  8  :  2. 

JE'BUS  {place  trodden  down,  thresh- 
ing-Jioor),  the  ancient  name  of  Jerusa- 
lem among  the  Canaanites,  Jud.  19  :  10, 
11;  1  Chr.  11:4,5;  probably  derived 
from  a  descendant  of  Canaan,  the  son 
of  Ham.  Gen.  10  :  16.  The  Jebusites 
were  partially  subdued  by  Joshua,  Josh. 
10  :  23,  40  :  12  :  10  :  15  *:  63  ;  Num.  13  : 
29;  and  they  were  permitted  to  remain 
after  the  conquest  of  Jebus  by  David. 
2  Sam.  5  :  6-9  ;  24  :  16-25  ;  1  Chr.  11 :  4- 
8;  Ezr.  9  : 1,  2.  '' Jebusi  "  is  sometimes 
put  for  the  city  Jebus.  Josh.  18  :  16, 
28 ;  Zech.  9  :  7.  Jebus  was  more  accu- 
rately the  south-west  hill  afterward 
called  Mount  Zion,  or  "city  of  David." 
Being  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  deep 
ravines,  it  was  a  place  of  great  natural 
strength.     See  Jerusalem. 

JEBU'SI.  Josh.  15:8;  18:16,  28. 
A  name  for  Jebus.  See  Jebus  and  Je- 
rusalem. 

JEB'USITES,  the  name  of  a 
tribe  inhabiting  the  portion  of  Canaan 
about  Jebus  or  Jerusalem  in  the  time 
of  Joshua,  and  which  the  Israelites  were 
commanded  to  destroy.  Deut.  7:1;  20 : 
17.  They  joined  Jabin  against  Joshua. 
Their  king,  Adoni-zedek,  was  slain 
and  they  defeated.  Josh.  11 :  3  ;  10  :  15, 
26  ;  later  their  city  was  burnt,  but  re- 
occupied  bv  the  Jebusites.  Jud.  1 :  21 
and  Josh.  '15:63;  19:10-22.  David 
conquered  their  stronghold,  and  it  be- 
came a  part  of  his  capital,  Jerusalem.  2 
Sam.  5  :  6,  8 ;  1  Chr.  11  :  4-6.  Solomon 
made  the  Jebusites  pay  tribute,  1  Kgs. 
9:20,  and  some  were  known  after  the 
captivity.  Ezr.  9  : 1.  David  bought  the 
place  of  Araunah  the  Jebusite  for  an 
altar,  and  this  afterward  became  the 
site  of  the  temple.   2  Sam.  24:16-25. 

JEB'USITES,  inhabitants  of 
Jebus. 

JECAMI'AH  {whom  JeJwvah  (fath- 
ers), one  of  the  line  of  David,  1  Chr. 
3:18;  same  with  Jekamiah  of  2:41. 

JECHOLI'AH  {able  through  Jeho- 


JEC 


JEH 


vah),  the  mother  of  Azariah,  or  Uzziah, 
king  of  Judah.  2  Kgs.  15 :  2.  She  is 
called  Jecoliah  in  2  Chr.  26  :  3. 

JECHONI'AS.  Matt.  1  :  11,  12. 
Greek  form  of  Jeconiah  or  Jehoiachin, 
which  see. 

JECOLI'AH.     See  Jeciioliah. 

JECONI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  estab- 
lishes).    See  Jehoiachix. 

J'EDA'I AH  {praise  Jehovah).    A.  1. 
A   Siineonite,  ancestor  of  Ziza,  a  chief 
of  his  tribe.  1  Chr.  4  :  37. 
.   2.  One    who  helped  repair  the   wall. 
Neh.  3  :  10. 

B.  The  same  name  in  the  A.  V.,  but 
different  in  the  Hebrew,  meaning  Jeho- 
vah cares  for  him. 

1.  The  head  of  the  second  course  of 
priests,  1  Chr.  24  :  7.  "  Most  probably 
this  course  or  the  representative  of  it, 
divided  afterward  into  two  branches,  is 
intended  in  1  Chr.  9:10;  Ezr.  2:36: 
Neh.  7:39;  11:10;  12:6,  7,  19,  21." 
—Ayre. 

2.  One  who  returned  from  Babylon, 
to  whom  a  memorial  crown  was  given. 
Zech.  6  :  10,  U. 

JEDI^AEL  {known  of  God).  1.  A 
son  or  descendant  of  Benjamin,  1  Chr. 
7  :  6,  10,  1 1,  and  progenitor  of  the  most 
powerful  family  in  the  tribe. 

2.  One  of  David's  warriors.  1  Chr. 
11:45. 

3.  Perhaps  the  same  as  the  chief  of 
Manasseh  who  joined  David  on  the 
march  to  Ziklag.  1  Chr.  12  :  20. 

4.  A  Levite  temple-doorkeeper  in  the 
time  of  David.  1  Chr.  26  :  2. 

JEDI'DAH  {one  beloved),  the  moth- 
er of  King  Josiah.  2  Kgs.  22  : 1. 

JEDIDI'AH  {beloved  of  Jehovah), 
the  name  Nathan  gave  to  Solomon.  2 
Sam.  12  :  25.  It  was  a  play  on  the  word 
David,  "beloved,"  which  comes  from  the 
same  root  as  "  Jedid;"  so,  as  the  father 
was  beloved,  the  child  was  the  beloved  of 
Jehovah. 

JED'UTHUN  {praising),  an  emi- 
nent master  of  the  temple-music,  to 
whom  several  of  the  Psalms  are  in- 
scribed, see  Ps.  39,  62,  77,  etc.,  or  by 
whom,  as  some  suppose,  the.y  were 
written.  Probably  he  was  identical 
with  Ethan.  1  Chr.  6:44;  15:17,  19; 
16  :  38,  41,  42  ;  25  :  1-6.  "  We  find  sub- 
sequently his  division  officiating  when 
the  temple  was  completed,  2  Chr.  5  :  12, 
in  Hezekiah's  reformation,  29  :  14,  and 


also  under  Josiah,  35:15;  moreover, 
after  the  Captivity,  a  descendant  of  his 
house  is  mentioned.  1  Chr.  9:16;  Neh. 
11 :  17.  Three  Psalms  have  Jeduthun 
in  their  titles,  39,  62,  77  ;  probably  they 
were  to  be  sung  by  his  musical  division." 
— Ai/re. 

JJEE'ZER  {father  of  help),  short- 
ened form  of  Abiezer ;  a  descendant 
of  Manasseh  through  Gilead.  Num.  26  : 
30.     See  Abikzer. 

JEE'ZERITES,  descendants  of 
the  above. 

JE'GAR-SAHADU'THA  {heap 
of  testimonij),  the  Aramaean  name  of  the 
stone  memorial  between  Jacob  and  La- 
ban.  Gen.  31  :  47.  The  Hebrew  word 
"Galeed"  does  not  exactly  represent  it. 

JEHALE'LEEL  {who  praises 
God),  a  Judite.   1  Chr.  4:  16. 

JEHAL'ELEL  {who  2iraises  God), 
a  Levite.  2  Chr.  29:12. 

JEHDE'IAH  {whom  Jehovah 
makes  joy  fid).  1.  A  Levite.  1  Chr.  24  : 
20. 

2.  He  who  had  charge  of  David's  she- 
asses.  1  Chr.  27  :  30. 

JEHEZ'EKEL  {whom  God  makes 
strong),  the  head  of  the  twentieth  priest- 
ly course,  1  Chr.  24:16;  same  name 
as  Ezekiel. 

JEHI'AH  {Jehovah  lives),  a  door- 
keeper fur  the  ark.   1  Chr.  15:24. 

JEHI'EL  {God  lives).  1.  A  Levite 
porter  appointed  by  David  for  musical 
service.   1  Chr.  15  :  18,  20  :  16  :  5. 

2.  A  Gershonite  Levite  who  had 
charge  of  the  treasures  of  the  house 
of  the  Lord.  1  Chr.  23  :  8  ;  29  :  8. 

3.  An  officer  under  David.  1  Chr.  27 ; 
32. 

4.  A  son  of  Jehoshaphat,  slain  by  his 
brother  Jehoram.  2  Chr.  21  :  2. 

5.  A  Levite  engaged  in  Hezekiah's 
reformatory  work.  2  Chr.  29  :  14. 

6.  A  ruler  of  the  house  of  God  during 
Josiah's  reign.  2  Chr.  35  :  8. 

7.  A  Levite  "overseer."  2  Chr.  31:13. 

8.  Father  of  Obadiah,  who  returned 
with  Ezra.  Ezr.  8  :  9. 

9.  One  whose  son  proposed  to  Ezra 
the  putting  away  of  the  foreign  wives. 
Ezr.  10:2. 

10  and  11.  Two  men  who  had  to  sep- 
arate their  wives.  Ezr.  10  :  2,  21,  26. 

JEHI'EL  {treasured  of  God?),  a 
distinct  name  in  Hebrew  from  the  last. 

1.  The  father  of  Gibeon  of  Benjamin, 

421 


JEH 


JEH 


and  an  ancestor  of  Saul.  1  Chr.  9:35; 
comp.  8  :29. 

2.  A  member  of  David's  guard.  1  Chr. 
11 :  U. 

JEHI'ELI,  a  patronymic;  the  de- 
scendants of  Jehiel.  1  Chr.  26:  21,  22; 
comp.  23:8;  29:8. 

JEHIZKI'AH  {whom  Jehovah 
strengthens),  the  same  name  as  Hezekiah. 
One  of  the  Ephraimite  chiefs  who  second- 
ed the  prophet  Oded  in  his  efforts  to  re- 
lease the  captives  of  Judah  during  Ahaz's 
reign.  2  Chr.  28  :  12. 

JEHO'ADAH  [lohom  Jehovah 
adorns),  one  of  the  descendants  of  Saul, 

1  Chr.  8  :  36  ;  in  9  :  42  called  Jarah. 
JEHOAD'DAN  (the  feminine  form 

of  the  above),  the  queen  of  Joash  and 
mother  of  Amaziah,  the  succeeding  king 
of  Judah.  2  Kgs.  14:  2  ;  2  Chr.  25  :  1. 

JEHO'AHAZ  {lohom  Jehovah 
holds).  1.  Son  and  successor  of  Jehu, 
king  of  Israel  for  17  years,  b.  c.  856- 
840.  See  2  Kgs.  13:1-9.  His  reign 
was  disastrous  to  the  kingdom.  The 
kings  of  Syria,  Hazael  and  Benhadad, 
oppressed  and  spoiled  the  country.  The 
army  was  but  a  shadow.  When  his 
troubles  multiplied  he  sought  the  Lord, 
whom  he  had  forsaken,  and  God  ulti- 
mately raised  up  a  deliverer  in  the  per- 
son of  Jehoash,  his  son.  v.  25. 

2.  Son  and  successor  of  Josiah,  king 
of  Judah,  2  Kgs.  23  :  30  ;  called  Shal- 
lum  1  Chr.  3  :  15;  Jer.  22  :  11.  Though 
he  was  the  fourth  son,  yet  the  people 
chose  him  king.     He  was  an   evil-doer, 

2  Kgs.  23  :  32,  and  referred  to  as  a  young 
lion  by  Ezekiel.  19  :  3.  He  reigned  only 
three  months,  B.  c.  610.  It  has  been 
plausibly  conjectured  that  his  irregular 
election  offended  Pharaoh-necho,  who 
got  Jehoahaz  into  his  power  at  Riblah, 
in  Syria,  whence  he  sent  him  a  prisoner 
loaded  with  chains  into  Egypt,  and  there 
he  died,  Jer.  22  :  11,  12,  and  his  brother 
Jehoiakim  became  king  in  his  stead.  2 
Kgs.  23  :  30,  35. 

3.  The  same  with  Ahaziah  and  Aza- 
riah.  Comp.  2  Chr.  21 :  17  ;  22  :  1,  6, 
8,  9. 

J  E  H  O  '  A  S  H  (whom  Jehovah  be- 
stmved),  original  uncontracted  form  of 
the  name  commonly  written  Joash,  and 
applied  to  two  kings.  See  Joash,  3  and  4. 

JEHOHA^NAN  (whom  Jehovah 
gave),  a  name  contracted  into  Johanan, 
and  thus  into  the  familiar  John. 
422 


1.  A  Levite  porter  of  the  Korhite 
family.  1  Chr.  26  :  3. 

2.  Chief  military  leader  under  Je- 
hoshaphat,  2  Chr.  17  :  15,  and  probably 
the  father  of  Ishmael,  with  whom  Jehoi- 
ada  conspired  to  set  Joash  on  the  throne. 
2  Chr.  23:1. 

3.  One  who  put  away  his  foreign  wife. 
Ezr.  10  :  28. 

4.  A  priest  under  the  high  priest  Joi- 
akim.  Neh.  12:  13. 

5.  A  priest  who  officiated  in  the  service 
of  song  at  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem.  Neh.  12:  42. 

J'EHOVACHI'S  {whom  Jehovah  has 
appointed).  Jeconiah,  1  Chr.  3:17;  Co- 
niah,  Jer,  22  :  24;  Jeconias,  Matt.  1 :  12. 
Son  and  successor  of  Jehoiakim,  king 
of  Judah,  B.C.  598.  2  Kgs.  24:  8.  He 
was  eighteen  years  old  when  he  began 
to  reign,  and  reigned  only  three  months 
and  ten  days,  at  which  time  Nebuchad- 
nezzar besieged  the  city  and  carried  the 
king  and  royal  family,  the  chief  men  of 
the  nation  and  great  treasures  unto  Baby- 
lon. 2  Kgs.  24:6-16.  He  merited  this 
punishment.  Jer.  22  :  24-30.  For  thirty- 
seven  years  he  was  a  captive,  but  Evil- 
merodach  on  his  accession  liberated  him 
and  made  him  share  the  royal  bounty 
and  be  head  of  all  the  captive  kings  in 
Babylon;  and  so  to  the  end  of  his  life  he 
enjoved  a  position  befitting  his  rank. 

JE  HO  I 'ADA  {whom  Jehovah 
knoics).  1.  The  father  of  Benaiah,  1, 
which  see.  2  Sam.  8:18;  1  Kgs,  1 :  32 
ff. ;  1  Chr.  18:17.  This  Jehoiada  was 
the  chief  priest,  1  Chr.  27 : 5,  and  there- 
fore he  was  the  leader  of  the  priests  who 
came  to  David  at  Hebron.  1  Chr.  12 : 
27.  By  a  copyist's  error,  Benaiah  is  said 
to  have  been  the  father  of  Jehoiada  in- 
stead of  the  son.  1  Chr,  27:34. 

2.  A  high  priest  of  the  Jews,  and  hus- 
band of  Jehosheba.  2  Kgs.  11 :  4.  See 
Athaliah  and  Joash.  His  administra- 
tion was  so  auspicious  to  the  civil  and 
religious  interests  of  the  nation,  2  Kgs. 
12  :  2 ;  2  Chr.  23  :  16,  that  when  he  died, 
at  an  advanced  age,  he  was  buried  in  the 
royal  sepulchres  at  Jerusalem.  2  Chr. 
24:  16.  Many  do  not  accept  the  age  of 
132  years  assigned  to  him,  for  the  reason 
that  if  he  lived  so  long,  then,  when  he 
married  the  daughter  of  Jehoram,  he 
must  have  been  80,  while  Jehoram  was 
only  32,  It  has  been  proposed  to  read 
''  83  "  instead. 


JEH 


JEH 


3.  The  second  priest  in  the  reign  of 
Zedekiah.  Jer.  29  :  25-29. 

4.  One  who  helped  repair  the  wall. 
Neh.  3  :  6. 

JEHOI'AKIM  {whom  Jehovah  sets 
up),  eldest  son  of  Josiah,  and  the  brother 
and  successor  of  Jehoahaz,  king  of  Ju- 
dah.  2  Kgs.  23  :  36.  His  original  name 
was  Eliakim,  but  it  was  changed  by  order 
of  the  king  of  Egypt,  2  Kgs.  23  :  34,  who 
put  him  on  the  throne.  The  iniquity  of 
his  reign  is  strongly  depicted  by  the  his- 
torian and  prophet,  2  Kgs.  24  :  4  ;  2  Chr. 
36  :  8;  Jer.  22,  26,  36.  His  end  was  in 
strict  accordance  with  the  prediction  con- 
cerning him. 

For  the  first  four  years  of  his  reign 
Jehoiakim  was  subject  to  the  king  of 
Egypt,  and  paid  an  enormous  tribute. 
Then  he  became  tributary  for  three  years 
to  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  2 
Kgs.  24  :  1,  but  he  rebelled,  in  punish- 
ment was  attacked  by  neighboring  tribes, 
and  then  Nebuchadnezzar  took  him  pris- 
oner and  at  first  bound  him  with  chains 
to  carry  him  to  Babylon,  2  Chr.  36  :  6 ; 
Dan.  1  :  2,  but  afterward  set  him  at 
liberty  and  left  him  at  Jerusalem,  to 
reign  as  a  tributary  prince.  The  whole 
time  of  his  reign  was  eleven  years,  b.  c. 
609-598. 

The  expression  Jer.  36  :  30  is  not  to  be 
taken  strictly,  and  yet,  as  the  reign  of 
Jehoiachin  was  for  only  thirteen  weeks, 
Jehoiakim  may  be  said  to  have  been 
comparatively  without  a  successor.  The 
same  explanation  applies  to  2  Kgs.  23  : 
34,  where  Eliakim  is  said  to  liave  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Josiah ;  whereas  the 
reign  of  Jehoahaz  intervened.  This  was 
so  short,  however,  as  not  to  be  reckoned 
in  the  succession. 

Jehoiakim  was  a  bad  king,  extrava- 
gant, irreverent,  and  vicious.  His 
burnifag  of  Jeremiah's  roll  revealed  his 
ungodly  life.  Jer.  36 :  23.  His  murder 
of  Urijah,  Jer.  26  :  23,  and  treatment 
of  Jeremiah  indicated  his  reckless  cru- 
elty. The  latter  prophet  bravely  de- 
nounced the  oppression,  injustice,  cov- 
etousness,  luxury,  and  tyranny  of  this 
miserable  monarch.  Jer.  22  :  13-17.  He 
was  murdered  in  the  eleventh  year  of 
his  reign,  and  was  "  buried  with  the 
burial  of  an   ass."  Jer.  22  :  19. 

JEHOI'ARIB  {whom  Jehovah  de- 
fends), the  head  of  the  first  course  of 
priests.  1  Chr.  24  :  7. 


JEHON'ADAB,  or  JONA'DAB 

{ichom  Jehovah  incites),  the  son  of  Re- 
chab,  the  founder  of  the  Rechabitks, 
which  see.  Ho  joined  Jehu  in  the 
slaughter  of  the  Baalites.  2  Kgs.  10  : 
15-23. 

JEHON'ATHAN  {whom  Jehovah 
gave),  very  frequently  JOIVA'THAN. 
1.  Superintendent  of  storehouses  of  Da- 
vid.  1  Chr.  27  :  25. 

2.  A  Levite  sent  out  by  Jehoshaphat 
to  teach  the  Law  to  the  people  of  Judah. 
2  Chr.  17  :  8. 

3.  A  priest,  representative  of  the  fam- 
ily of  Shemaiah.  Neh.  12  :  18. 

JEHO'RAM,  frequently  JO'RAM 
{whom  Jehovah  has  exalted).  1.  The 
eldest  son  of  Jehoshaphat,  and  his  suc- 
cessor as  king  of  Judah.  He  reigned 
eight  years,  b.  c.  892-885,  perhaps  for 
the  first  years  as  the  associate  of  his 
father.  1  Kgs.  22  :  50  ;  2  Kgs.  8  :  10,  17; 
2  Chr.  21  : 1-3.  He  married  Athaliah, 
the  daughter  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel,  and 
proved  himself  as  wicked  as  his  rela- 
tives. One  of  the  first  acts  of  his  gov- 
ernment was  to  put  to  death  his  six 
brothers  and  several  of  the  chief  men  of 
the  kingdom.  2  Chr.  21 :  4.  To  punish 
him  for  this  and  other  abominations  of 
his  reign,  2  Chr.  21 :  11-13,  the  Edom- 
ites,  who  had  long  been  subject  to  the 
throne  of  Judah,  revolted,  and  secured 
their  independence.  2  Chr.  21  :  8-10. 
One  of  his  own  cities  also  revolted,  and 
about  the  same  time  he  received  a  writ- 
ing from  Elijah,  admonishing  him  of 
the  dreadful  calamities  which  he  was 
bringing  on  himself  by  his  wicked  con- 
duct. In  due  time  these  calamities  came 
upon  him  and  his  kingdom.  Their  ter- 
ritory was  overrun  with  enemies ;  the 
king's  palace  was  plundered,  and  the 
royal  family,  exce})t  the  youngest  son, 
made  prisoners.  The  king  himself  was 
smitten  with  a  terrible  and  incurable 
disease,  which  carried  him  to  the  grave 
unlamented,  and  he  was  buried  without 
royal  honors.  2  Chr.  21  :  14-20. 

2.  Jehoram,  the  son  of  Ahab  and 
Jezebel,  and  king  of  Israel,  b.  c.  896- 
884.  2  Kgs.  1 :  17  ;  3  : 1.  He  was  not 
so  bad  as  his  parents,  but  yet  he  did 
evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  bowing 
down  to  the  golden  calves.  2  Kgs.  3:  2, 
3.  The  friendly  intercourse  between 
Jehoshaphat,  the  king  of  Judah,  and 
Ahab  was  kept  up  by  Jehoram,  and  so, 

423 


JEH 


JEH 


when  the  king  of  Moab  rebelled,  he  ob- 
tained the  help  of  Judah  and  Edom  to 
bring  him  to  terms.  Distressed  bj^  lack 
of  water  after  a  seven  days'  march,  on  the 
insistence  of  Jehoshaphat,  they  inquired 
of  the  Lord  through  Elisha,  who  prophe- 
sied victory  if  an  odd  plan  was  adopted — 
viz.,  to  dig  trenches  which,  when  filled 
with  water  by  the  Lord,  would  appear 
streams  of  blood  to  the  Moabites,  who 
would  conjecture  that  there  had  been 
internal  strife,  and  so  would  be  induced 
to  attack  the  camp  without  the  usual 
caution.  The  ruse  was  successful,  and 
the  Moabites  were  repulsed  with  great 
loss.  The  allies  pursued  them  into  Moab, 
beating  down  the  cities  and  stopping  up 
wells  and  felling  trees,  thus  devastating 
the  land.  In  the  city  Kir-haraseth  was 
the  king  of  Moab  brought  to  bay.  He 
attempted  to  cut  his  way  through,  but, 
foiled  in  that,  he  offered  his  eldest  son 
as  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  unto  the  Mo- 
abitish  war-god,  Chemosh — a  perform- 
ance which  so  horrified  the  Israelites 
that  they  abandoned  the  siege  and  re- 
turned home.  See  2  Kgs.  3:4-27  (v.  27, 
second  clause,  best  reads,  "  There  was 
great  indignation  in  Israel ").  When 
fighting  against  Syria,  Jehoram  was  in- 
formed of  their  king's  secret  counsels  by 
Elisha,  but  when  the  Syrian  army  was 
miraculously  delivered  into  his  power 
the  prophet  forbade  their  slaughter.  2 
Kgs.  6  :  8-23.  Subsequently,  Samaria 
was  besieged  by  Benhadad  and  reduced 
to  dreadful  straits.  Jehoram  laid  the 
blame  upon  Elisha  and  determined  his 
death,  but  afterward  changed  his  mind. 
Man's  extremity  was  God's  opportunity. 
By  a  miracle  plenty  was  restored  unto 
the  famishing  city,  as  Elisha  announced, 
and  after  this  event  the  king's  friendly 
feeling  for  the  prophet  returned.  2  Kgs. 
8  :  4-6.  The  seven-year  famine  of  2 
Kgs.  8  :  1  may  have  been  that  men- 
tioned in  ch.  4,  vs.  38-44.  A  revolution 
in  Syria  gave  Jehoram  opportunity,  in 
connection  with  his  nephew  Ahaziah,  to 
recover  Ramoth-gilead  from  the  Syrians, 
but  in  the  battle  he  was  wounded,  and 
while  in  Jezreel,  whither  he  had  gone 
for  healing,  Jehu  revolted  and  slew  him 
as  he  tried  to  escape,  and  his  body  was 
cast  ''in  the  portion  of  the  field  of  Na- 
both  the  Jezreelite,"  according  to  the 
prophecy  of  Elijah.  1  Kgs.  21 :  21-29 ; 
gee  2  Kgs.  8  :  28  and  9  :  14-27.  With 
424 


the  life  of  Jehoram  ended  the  reign  of 
the  house  of  Omri. 

3.  A  priest  employed  by  Jehoshaphat 
to  instruct  the  people.  2  Chr.  17  : 8. 

JEHOSHAB'EATH  {her  oath  is 
Jehovah).     See  Jehosheba. 

JEHOSH'APHAT(if^om  Jehovah 
judges).  1.  The  royal  "  recorder "  or 
annalist  under  David  and  Solomon.  2 
Sam.  8  :  16  ;  20  :  24  J  1  Kgs.  4  :  3  ;  1  Chr. 
18:15. 

2.  Solomon's  purveyor  for  the  tribe 
of  Issachar.  1  Kgs.  4:17. 

3.  The  son  and  successor  of  Asa.  king 
of  Judah,  1  Kgs.  15:24;  2  Chr.  17  :  1 ; 
called  Josaphat  in  Matt.  1:8,  and  in  2 
Chr.  21  :  2  the  king  of  Israel,  where  the 
writer  uses  the  generic  term.  He  came  to 
the  throne  at  the  age  of  35,  and  reigned 
25  years,  b.  c.  914-890.  He  was  a  prince 
of  distinguished  piety,  and  his  reign  was 
powerful  and  prosperous.  2  Chr.  17  :  3-6. 
Among  other  evidences  of  his  piety  and 
benevolence,  we  are  told  that  he  caused 
the  altars  and  places  of  idolatry  to  be 
destroyed,  a  knowledge  of  the  law  to  be 
diff'used  throughout  the  kingdom,  and 
the  places  of  judicial  and  ecclesiastical 
authority  to  be  filled  by  the  wisest  and 
best  men  of  the  land.  2  Chr.  17  :  6-9  ; 
19  :  5-11.  His  sin  in  forming  a  league 
with  Ahab,  contrary  to  the  counsel  of 
Micaiah,  against  Ramoth-gilead,  2  Chr. 
18,  was  severelj^  censured  by  Jehu,  2 
Chr.  19  :  2,  and  had  nearly  cost  him  his 
life.  2  Chr.  18  :  31. 

A  few  years  after  this  the  kingdom 
of  Judah  was  invaded  by  a  confederacy 
of  Edomites,  Moabites,  and  others. 
They  collected  their  forces  at  En-gedi, 
and  threatened  to  overthrow  the  king- 
dom. Jehoshaphat  proclaimed  a  fast, 
and  the  people  from  all  parts  of  the 
kingdom — men,  women,  and  children — 
came  up  to  Jerusalem ;  and  being  as- 
sembled in  one  place,  the  king  him- 
self made  supplication  to  God  for  help 
in  their  extremity.  2  Chr.  20  :  6-12. 
His  prayer  was  answered,  and  a  certain 
and  easy  victory  was  promised  by  the 
Lord  through  Jahaziel,  a  Levite.  On  the 
following  day  the  army  of  Judah  went 
forth  to  meet  the  enemy,  j^receded  by  a 
company  of  singers,  who  praised  the 
name  of  the  Lord.  The  enemy  were 
panic-struck  and  fell  into  irrecoverable 
confusion,  and  instead  of  facing  their 
adversaries  turned  their  swords  against 


JEH 


JEH 


each  other,  until  they  were  utterly  rout- 
ed and  overthrown  ;  so  that  Jehoshaphat 
and  his  men  had  no  occasion  to  engage 
in  the  conflict.  And  such  abundance 
of  spoil  remained  in  tlie  camp  that  the 
men  of  Judah  were  employed  three  days 
in  collecting  it.  2  ("hr.  20:  U-27. 

Still  later  in  his  life,  Jehoshaphat  con- 
nected himself   with    Ahaziah,   son  and 
successor  of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  in  a 
naval  expedition  :  but  this  alliance  with 
a  wicked  king  turned  out  disastrously,  j 
as   had   been   predicted    by  Eliezer,   the  ' 
son  of  Dodovah;  for  while  the  fleet  lay  { 
at  Ezion-geber  it  was  utterly  destroyed  \ 
by  a  violent  storm.  2  Chr.  20  :  35,  .37. 
See  Ahaziah. 

Again  he  involved  himself  in  an  alli- 
ance with  Jehoram,  the  second  son  of 
Ahab,  and  also  with  the  Edomites,  for 
the  purpose  of  invading  the  land  of 
Moab ;  but  while  they  attempted  to 
make  their  way  through  the  wilderness 
their  water  failed,  and  the  whole  army 
must  have  perished  with  thirst  had  not 
a  miraculous  supply  been  granted  in  an- 
swer to  the  prayers  of  Elisha,  who  ac- 
companied the  army.  2  Kgs.  3  :  6-20. 
Jehoshaphat  left  seven  sons,  one  of 
whom,  Jehoram,  succeeded  him. 

It  may  be  said  of  his  reign,  as  of  that 
of  many  others  in  ancient  and  modern 
times,  that  his  schemes  of  reform  were 
dependent  on  his  personal  influence, 
and,  not  being  in  conformity  with  the 
popular  sentiment  and  general  policy  of 
the  country,  were  not  of  permanent 
utility. 

4.  The  father  of  King  Jehu.  2  Kgs. 
9 :  2,  U. 

5.  A  priest  in  the  time  of  David.  1 
Chr.  15  :  24. 

JEHOSHAPHAT,  VALLEY 
OF  {vdUeij  of  the  jii(l(j)nenf  of  JeJiovah), 
a  place  named  only  in  Joel  3  :  2,  12. 
Three  leading  explanations  have  been 
given. 

1.  That  the  valley  referred  to  is  the 
same  as  the  *'  valley  of  Berachah,"  where 
the  forces  allied  against  Israel  were  de- 
feated by  Jehoshaphat.  2  Chr.  20  :  16- 
26.  This  event  took  place  100  years 
before  Joel,  and  may  have  given  rise  to 
this  expression  of  the  prophet. 

2.  That  the  valley  is  that  of  the  Ke- 
dron,  east  of  Jerusalem.  Jews,  Mo- 
hammedans, and  Christians  have  identi- 
fied   the    Kedron    with    the   Valley    of 


Jehoshaphat.  The  Mohammedans  point 
out  a  stone  on  which  they  think  the 
pi-ophet  will  be  seated  at  the  last  judg- 
ment, and  mediieval  Christian  tradition 
also  indicated  a  stone  on  which  it  was 
then  believed  that  Christ  would  sit  at 
the  judgment.  The  valley  is  a  favorite 
burial-place,  and  some  expect  that  the 
sides  of  the  valley  will  move  apart  at 
the  I'esurrection  to  afford  room  for  a 
great  assemblv.  When  the  name  "  Val- 
ley  of  Jehoshaphat "  was  given  to  the 
Kedron  is  not  known,  but  there  is  no 
trace  of  it  in  the  Bible  nor  in  Josephus, 
but  it  is  traced  to  the  fourth  century  A.  d. 
This  identification  of  Jehoshaphat  with 
the  Kedron  is  now  generally  regarded  as 
based  upon  a  misinterpretation  of  Joel. 

3.  That  the  name  does  not  refer  to  any 
special  place,  but  to  either  {(i)  the  scene 
of  great  victories,  as  those  of  the  Macca- 
bees; or  (6)  the  general  judgment  at  the 
end  of  the  Avorld;  or  (c)  the  truth  that 
God's  persecuted  people  he  will  defend 
and  vindicate. 

JEHOSH'EBA  {her  oath  is  Jeho- 
vah), the  wife  of  Jehoiada,  the  high 
priest,  daughter  of  King  Jehoram,  but, 
it  has  been  conjectured,  not  by  Athaliah  : 
if  so,  half-sister  to  Ahaziah.  2  Kgs.  11 : 
2,  3;  2  Chr.  22:  11.  When  Athaliah 
attempted  the  entire  destruction  of  the 
seed  royal  Jehosheba  saved  her  infant 
nephew,  Joash,  and  for  six  years,  doubt- 
less with  the  connivance  of  Jehoiada, 
he  was  hid  in  the  temple. 

JEHOSH'UA,  OR  JEHOSH'- 
UAH  {Jehovah  is  his  help),  full  form  for 
Joshua;  used  in  Num.  13  :  16  and  1  Chr. 
7:  27. 

JEHO'VAH  {he  will  he),  a  title 
of  the  supreme  Being,  indicative  of  the 
attribute  of  eternal  and  immutable  self- 
existence.  Ex.  6  :  3.  It  is  similar  in 
import  to  the  title  I  am.  Ex.  3  :  14.  In 
the  English  Bible  it  is  usually  translated 
"  Lord  "  and  printed  in  small  capitals. 
It  occurs  first  in  the  second  chapter 
of  Genesis.  As  distinct  from  Elohim, 
it  signifies  the  God  of  revelation 
and  redemption,  the  God  of  the  Jews, 
while  Elohim  is  the  God  of  nature,  the 
Creator  and  Preserver  of  all  men.  See 
Jah,  Gon. 

J  E  H  O' V  A  H- J  I'R  E  H  (Jehovah 
will  see,  or  provide),  the  name  given 
by  Abraham  to  the  place  on  which  he 
had   been    commanded    to    off'er    Isaac, 

425 


JEH 


JEH 


Gen.  22 :  14,  and  probably  the  same  as 
Mount  Moriah,  in  Jerusalem. 

JEHO'VAH-NIS'SI  {Jehovah  my 
banner),  the  name  given  by  Moses  to  the 
altar  which  he  built  as  a  memorial  of  the 
discomfiture  of  the  Amalekites.  Ex.  17  : 
15. 

JEHOVAH- SHALOM  {Jeho- 
vah [is]  peace),  an  altar  erected  by  Gid- 
eon in  Ophrah,  where  the  angel  greeted 
him  with  "  Peace  be  unto  thee !"  Jud. 
6:  24. 

JEHOVAH- SHAM'MAH  {Jeho- 
vah there),  in  the  mai'ginal  reading  in 
Eze.  48  :  35 ;  in  the  text  the  words  are 
translated. 

JEHO'VAH-TSID'KENU  {Je- 
hovah our  righteousness),  the  marginal 
reading  in  Jer.  23  :  6  and  33 :  16.  Our 
translators'  "  hesitation  whether  they 
should  render  or  transfer  the  expression 
may  have  been  the  greater  from  their 
supposing  it  to  be  one  of  the  Messianic 
titles." — Stnith. 

JEHOZ'ABAD,  commonly  con- 
tracted into  JOZ'ABAD  {ivhom  Jeho- 
vah hestoics).  1.  One  of  Joash's  servants, 
who  slew  him.  2  Kgs.  12:  21;  2  Chr. 
24  :  26. 

2.  One  of  the  Levite  porters.  1  Chr. 
26:4. 

3.  A  Benjamite  who  was  a  prominent 
warrior  under  Jehoshaphat.  2  Chr.  17 : 
18. 

JEHOZ'ADAK  {whom  God  makes 
jt(st),  the  son  of  the  high  priest  Seraiah, 
who  was  murdered  at  Riblah  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. 2  Kgs.  25  :  21.  He  was  car- 
ried into  captivity,  1  Chr.  6 :  14,  1 5,  and 
never  became  high  priest,  but  his  son, 
Jeshua,  attained  unto  this  office,  Ezr.  3  : 
2 ;  Neh.  12  :  26,  and  his  descendants 
held  it  until  Alcimus.  See  High  Priest. 
He  is  more  frequently  called  Jozadak  or 
Josedech. 

JE'HU  {Jehovah  is  he).  1.  Was  the 
son  of  Hanani  the  seer,  with  whom  Asa 
was  so  much  enraged  as  to  cast  him  into 
prison.  1  Kgs.  16:  7  ;  2  Chr.  16  :  7-10. 
He  was  appointed  to  carry  a  message  to 
Baasha  from  God,  threatening  to  visit 
upon  him  the  most  fearful  judgments. 
He  was  afterward  employed  on  a  simi- 
lar errand  to  Jehoshaphat.  2  Chr.  19  : 
1,2. 

2.  1  Kgs.  19:  16.  Comp.  2  Kgs.  9  :  2. 
The  grandson  of  Nimshi,  and  son  of 
Jehoshaphat,  selected  by  God  to  reign 
426 


over  Israel,  and  to  be  the  instrument 
of  inflicting  his  judgments  on  the 
house  of  Ahab.  1  Kgs.  19  :  17;  2  Kgs. 
9  :  1-10.  In  executing  this  commission 
he  commenced  with  the  reigning  king, 
Jorain,  who  was  then  lying  ill  at  Jezreel. 
Having  been  proclaimed  king  by  a  few 
adherents  who  were  with  him  at  Ra- 
moth-gilead,  he  proceeded  toward  Jez- 
reel. Upon  his  approach  within  sight 
of  that  place  Joram  despatched  two  or 
three  messengers  to  ascertain  his  design  ; 
and  finding  they  did  not  return,  he  went 
out  himself  to  meet  him.  It  happened 
that  they  met  on  the  ground  of  Naboth 
the  Jezreelite,  1  Kgs.  21  :  1-24 ;  and 
Jehu  at  once  charged  him  with  his  gross 
iniquities,  and  immediately  shot  him 
dead  in  his  chariot.  Comp.  1  Kgs.  21 : 
19  and  2  Kgs.  9  :  25. 

Jehu  rode  on  to  Jezreel,  and  as  he 
was  passing  in  at  the  gate,  Jezebel,  who 
was  looking  out  at  a  window,  said  some^ 
thing  in  allusion  to  what  had  happened 
to  Ahab.  By  Jehu's  order  she  was 
thrown  down,  and  the  prophecy  was  ex- 
actly fulfilled.  1  Kgs.  21 :  23 ;  2  Kgs.  9 : 
32-.37.  He  then  extei-minated  the  family 
of  Ahab  through  the  agency  of  the  el- 
ders of  the  city,  in  which  the  70  sons  of 
Ahab  were.  2  Kgs.  10 :  7.  The  next 
morning  he  ordered  a  general  slaughter 
of  all  Ahab's  family  and  adherents  in 
the  town  of  Jezreel.  He  then  set  out  for 
Samaria,  and  meeting  on  his  way  a  party 
of  42  persons,  all  the  family  of  Ahaziel 
(a  branch  of  Ahab's  house),  he  seized 
and  slew  them. 

But  the  most  revolting  of  these  deeds 
of  blood  was  the  slaughter  of  all  the 
Baalites  he  could  get  together  under 
pretence  of  a  festival.  2  Kgs.  10:  18- 
28.  This  dreadful  extermination  of  the 
house  of  Ahab,  and  of  the  idolatrous 
worship  which  he  sanctioned,  was  in 
accordance  with  the  divine  command, 
and  received  the  divine  approbation.  1 
Kgs.  10  :  30.  Jehu  himself,  however, 
was  ambitious  and  tyrannical,  and  fell 
into  idolatrous  practices.  2  Kgs.  10:31. 
His  reign  lasted  28  years,  B.  c.  884-856, 
and  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Jehoa- 
haz. 

3.  A  descendant  of  Judah.  1  Chr. 
2  :  38. 

4.  A  Simeonite.  1  Chr.  4:35. 

5.  A  Benjamite  with  David.  1  Chr, 
12:3. 


JEH 


JEP 


JEHUB'BAH  {he  will  he  hidden), 
an  Asherite  chief.   1  Chr.  7  :  34. 

JE'HUCAL,  OR  JU'CAL  (  jiotent), 
one  of  those  whom  Zedekiah  the  king 
sent  to  Jeremiah  the  jjrophet,  and  who 
afterward  asked  for  the  latter's  death. 
Jer.  37:3:  38:1. 

JE'HUD  {celebrated),  a  town  of  the 
Danites,  Josh.  19  :  45  ;  identical  with  the 
village  el-  Yehudii/eh,  about  10  miles  east 
of  Jaffa,  and  now  a  place  of  800  to  1000 
inhabitants. 

JEHU'DI  (a  Jew),  one  mentioned 
in  Jer.  36:14,  21,  23  as  being  sent  by 
tlie  princes  to  tell  Baruch  to  fetch  the 
roll  of  Jeremiah's  prophecies,  and  who, 
at  the  king's  order,  brought  it  and  read 
it  before  him. 

JEHUDI'JAH  {(he  Jewess),  not  a 
proper  name,  but  applied  to  one  of  the 
wives  of  Mered  to  distinguish  her  from 
the  other,  who  was  an  Egyptian.  1  Chr. 
4  :  18.  The  word  "  Hodiah,"  v.  19,  is  the 
same  word  contracted. 

JE'HUSH  {a  collector),  one  of  Saul's 
descendants.  1  Chr.  8  :  39. 

JEI'EL  {treasure  of  God).  1.  A 
Reubenite  chief.  1  Chr.  5  :  7. 

2.  A  Levite  porter,  one  of  the  musi- 
cians of  the  second  degree.  1  Chr.  15 : 
18,  21 ;  16  :  5. 

3.  A  Levite  of  the  sons  of  Asaph.  2 
Chr.  20.:  14. 

4.  A  scribe  in  the  time  of  Uzziah, 
"  who  kept  the  account  of  the  number 
of  his  irregular  predatory  warriors."  2 
Chr.  26:11. 

5.  A  Levite  who  assisted  in  Hezekiah's 
reforms.  2  Chr.  29:13. 

6.  One  of  the  chief  Levites  in  Josi- 
ah's  time.  2  Chr.  35  :  9. 

7.  One  who  came  back  with  Ezra. 
Ezr.  8:13. 

8.  One  Avho  had  taken  a  foreign  wife. 
Ezr.  10:43. 

JEKAB'ZEEL  {tohich  God  gath- 
ers), a  place  in  the  southern  part  of  Ju- 
dah,  Neh.  11 :  25 ;  also  called  Kabzeel 
{God's  gathering),  Josh.  15:21;  2  Sam. 
23  :  20. 

JEKAME'AM  {who  gathers  the  peo- 
ple), a  Levite  in  David's  time.  1  Chr. 
23  •  19  •  24 ■ 23 

JEKAMI'AH  {lohom  Jehovah  gath- 
ers), a  descendant  of  Judah.  1  Chr.  4 : 
18. 

JEKU'THIEL  {inety  toward  God), 
a  descendant  of  Judah.  1  Chr.  4:  18. 


JEMI'MA  {dove),  the  eldest  of  Job's 
three  daughters,  born  after  his  recovery. 
Job  42  :  14. 

JEMU'EL  {day  of  God),  the  eldest 
son  of  Simeon.  Gen.  46  :  10  ,•  Ex.  6  :  15. 
The  name  is  given  Nemuel  in  Num.  26 : 
12;   1  Chr.  4:24. 

JEPH'THAE,  the  Greek  form  of 
Jephthah.   Hcb.  11  :  32. 

JEPH'THAH  {lohom  God  sets 
free),  one  of  the  judges  of  Israel,  was 
the  illegitimate  son  of  Gilead,  Jud.  11 : 
1  ,•  and  this  fact  made  him  so  odious  to 
the  other  children  of  the  family  that 
they  banished  him  from  the  house,  and 
he  took  up  his  residence  in  the  land  of 
Tob,  a  district  of  Syria  not  far  from 
Gilead,  and  probably  the  same  with  Ish- 
tob.  2  Sam.  10  :  8.  Here  he  became  the 
head  of  a  marauding-party  ;  and  when  a 
war  broke  out  between  the  children  of  Is- 
rael and  the  Ammonites,  he  probably  sig- 
nalized himself  for  courage  and  enter- 
prise. This  led  the  Israelites  to  seek 
his  aid  as  their  commander-in-chief; 
and  though  he  objected  at  first,  on  the 
ground  of  their  ill-usage  of  him,  yet, 
upon  their  solemn  covenant  to  regard 
him  as  their  leader  in  case  they  suc- 
ceeded against  the  Ammonites,  he  took 
command  of  their  army.  After  some 
preliminary  negotiations  with  the  Am- 
monites, in  which  the  question  of  the 
right  to  the  country  is  discussed  with 
great  force  and  ingenuity,  and  every 
attempt  to  conciliate  them  proved  abor- 
tive, the  two  armies  met.  The  Ammon- 
ites were  defeated  with  great  loss  of  life, 
and  their  country  secured  by  the  Israel- 
ites. 

On  the  eve  of  the  battle  Jephthah  made 
a  vow  that  if  he  obtained  the  victoi-y  he 
would  devote  to  God  whatever  should 
come  forth  from  his  house  to  meet  him 
on  his  return  home.  This  turned  out  to 
be  his  daughter,  an  only  child,  who  wel- 
comed his  return  with  music  and  dan- 
cing. Jephthah  was  greatly  afflicted  by 
this  occurrence  ;  but  his  daughter  cheer- 
fully consented  to  the  performance  of  his 
vow,  which  took  place  at  the  expiration 
of  two  months,  and  the  commemoration 
of  the  event  by  the  daughters  of  Israel 
was  required  by  a  public  ordinance.  Jud. 
11 :  34-40. 

The  Ephraimites  quarrelled  with  Jeph- 
thah because  they  had  not  been  invited 
to  join  in  the  war.     But  Jephthah  again 

427 


JEP 


JER 


put  himself  at  the  head  of  his  army,  de- 
feated them,  and  by  the  word  "  shibbo- 
leth "  detected  those  Ephraimites  who 
tried  to  cross  the  Jordan,  and  slew  them. 
In  all,  42,000  Ephraimites,  were  slain. 
Jephthah  judged  the  trans- Jordanic 
region  six  years.  Jud.  12  :  1-7. 

The  perplexing  question  what  Jeph- 
thah did  with  his  daughter  will  perhaps 
never  obtain  a  satisfactory  answer.  The 
passage  reads  thus :  "  And  Jephthah 
vowed  a  vow  unto  the  Lord,  and  said, 
If  thou  shalt  without  fail  deliver  the 
children  of  Ainmon  into  mine  hands,  then 
it  shall  be  that  whatsoever  cometh  forth 
of  the  doors  of  my  house  to  meet  me, 
when  I  return  in  peace  from  the  chil- 
dren of  Ammon,  shall  surely  be  the 
Lord's,  and  I  will  offer  it  up  for  a  burnt- 
offering. "  Jud.  11  :  30,  31,  An  unpreju- 
diced reading  of  the  text  leads  natu- 
rally to  the  conclusion  that  Jephthah 
oflFered  her  up  as  a  burnt-sacrifice,  but 
the  other  opinion,  that  he  devoted  his 
daughter  to  a  life  of  celibacy,  is  de- 
fended by  these  arguments  :  1.  The  par- 
ticle van,  which  in  the  A.  V.  is  translated 
"  and  "  ("  and  I  will  offer  it  up"),  should 
be  translated  "  or."  But  there  is  a  Hebrew 
word  with  that  meaning.  2.  The  em- 
phasis is  laid  upon  *' him,"  which  is 
made  to  refer  to  the  Lord,  and  the  vow 
is  thus  interpreted  as  contemplating  two 
things:  (1)  a  person  to  be  consecrated 
to  Jehovah,  and  (2)  the  additional  offer- 
ing of  a  burnt-sacrifice.  But  such  a 
construction  would  be  a  solecism  in 
Hebrew.  3.  The  "burnt-offering"  has 
been  taken  in  a  spiritual  sense,  but  that 
is  to  put  an  interpretation  upon  the  word 
which  the  Hebrew  will  not  bear.  4. 
Jephthah  could  not  vow  to  God  a 
human  sacrifice,  so  abhorrent  to  him, 
and  so  contrary  to  the  whole  spirit  of 
the  Hebrew  religion.  Lev.  20  :  2-5; 
Deut.  12:31.  But  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  Jephthah  was  a  rude  warrior 
in  the  semi-barbaric  age  of  the  Judges. 
Celibacj'of  a  voluntary  and  religious  cha- 
racter was  unknown  in  Israel.  Jephthah's 
daughter,  on  this  supposition,  would 
have  been  the  first  and  last  Hebrew  nun. 
The  Jews  looked  upon  the  family  as  a 
divine  ordinance,  and  upon  the  unmar- 
ried state  as  a  misfortune  equalled  only 
by  that  of  being  a  childless  wife.  It 
may  not  be  correct  to  say  that  each 
Hebrew  woman  looked  forward  to  be- 
428 


ing  the  mother  of  the  Messiah,  but  at 
all  events  to  be  a  mother  was  to  fulfil 
the  function  in  society  God  had  design- 
ed for  her.  A  vow  of  celibacy,  there- 
fore, would  have  been  contrary  to  the 
spirit  of  the  Jewish  religion  as  much 
as  a  vow  of  bloody  sacrifice.  The  so- 
journ of  Jephthah's  daughter  in  the 
mountains  for  two  months  is  inconsist- 
ent with  any  such  dedication  to  Jeho- 
vah. But  if  she  were  to  be  sacrificed, 
her  home  would  indeed  be  filled  with 
too  mournful  associations,  whereas  the 
open  air,  especially  to  such  a  girl,  and 
the  solitude  of  the  hills,  would  be  real 
aids  in  preparation  for  death.  Jeph- 
thah's intense  sorrow  when  she  came 
forth  to  meet  him  likewise  harmonizes 
with  the  literal  and  natural  interpre- 
tation. 

JEPHUN'NEH  (moyhe  he  regard- 
ed ttnth  favor.').  1.  The  father  of  Caleb 
the  spy,  a  Kenezite.  Num.  13  :  6 ;  Josh 
14:14;  1  Chr.  4:15. 

2.  An  Asherite  chieftain.  1  Chr.  7  :  38. 

JE'RAH  (/Hoo/i),  a  people  descended 
from  Joktan,  who  gave  name  to  a  region 
of  Arabia,  Gen.  10:26:  1  Chr.  1:20; 
perhaps  the  Moon  Coast  and  Moon  Moun- 
tains, near  Hazarmaveth.  Bochart  pro- 
poses to  identify  this  people  Avith  the 
Alilsei,  or  Beni-Hilal,  "  sons  of  the  new 
moon."  dwelling  in  the  south  of  Chawlan. 

JERAH'MEEL  (on  whom  God  has 
mercy).  1.  The  son  of  Hezron,  Judah's 
grandson,  1  Chr.  2  :  9,  25,  26,  27,  33,  42  ; 
founder  of  the  Jerahmeelites,  1  Sam.  27  : 
10  ;  30  :  29,  a  tribe  in  the  southern  part 
of  Jud  ah. 

2.  A  Merarite  Levite.  1  Chr.  24 :  29. 

3.  A  man  employed  to  arrest  Jeremiah 
and  Baruch.  Jer.  36:26. 

JE'RED  (descent).  1.  1  Chr.  1  :  2. 
See  Jared. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Judah.  1  Chr.  4 : 
18. 

JER'EMAI  [dicelUng  in  heights), 
one  who  had  a  foreign  wife.   Ezr.  10  :  33. 

JEREMI'AH  (whom  Jehovah  sets 
up).  1.  The  father  of  Hamutal,  the  wife 
of  Josiah.  2  Kgs.  23  :  31 ;  24  :  18. 

2.  The  head  of  a  house  in  Manasseh. 
1  Chr.  5  :  24. 

3.  A  Benjamite  who  came  to  David  at 
Ziklag.  1  Chr.  12  :  4. 

4.  5.  Gadite  warriors.  1  Chr.  12  :  10, 13. 
6.  One  of  the  priests  who  sealed  the 

covenant.    Neh.  10  :  2. 


JER 


JER 


7.  One  of  the  Rechabites.  Jer.  35  :  3. 

8.  Jeremiah,  one  of  the  four  great 
prophets.  He  was  the  son  of  llilkiah  of 
Anathoth,  in  the  kind  of  Benjamin,  Jer. 
1 :  1,  and  lived  under  various  kings  from 
Josiah  to  the  Captivity.  In  the  English 
Version  he  is,  by  unnecessary  variation, 
called  "  Jeremy  "  in  Matt.  2:17,  and  "  Je- 
remias,"  Matt'.  16  :  14.  "  There  is  no  one 
in  the  '  goodly  fellowship  of  the  prophets ' 
of  whom,  in  his  work,  feelings,  and  suf- 
ferings, we  have  so  distinct  a  knowledge, 
although  it  is  derived  almost  exclusively 
from  his  book.  He  is  for  us  the  great 
example  of  the  prophetic  life.  It  is  not 
to  be  wondered  at  that  he  should  have 
seemed  to  the  Christian  feeling  of  the 
early  Church  a  type  of  Him  in  whom 
that  life  received  its  highest  comple- 
tion."— Prof.  Phimptre.  He  was  not 
only  the  prophet  of  sorrow  and  public 
calamity,  but  also  the  prophet  of  a  new 
and  better  covenant  of  the  heart. 

Jeremiah  was  very  young  when  he  was 
called  to  the  prophetic  office,  and  on  that 
account  declined  it,  Jer.  1:6;  but  God 
promised   him  grace  and  strength  suffi-  j 
cient  for  his  work,  and  for  forty-two  years 
he  persisted  in  this  arduous  service  with  j 
unwearied  diligence  and  fidelity,  in  the  j 
midst  of  the  severest  trials   and  perse-  '\ 
cutions.     It  was  probably  owing  to   his  ; 
youth  at  the  time,  and  his  residence  in 
Anathoth,  that   when   the   book   of   the 
Law  was  found  in  the  house  of  the  Lord 
the  king  sent  to  Huldah  the  prophetess, 
instead   of  to    him,   to   inquire   of  the 
Lord.    2  Kgs.  22:14. 

Jeremiah's  task  was  a  thankless  one. 
He  was  the  divine  means,  not  of  encour- 
agement, but  of  discouragement.  His 
voice  was  constantly  heard  calling  upon 
the  people  to  submit  to  their  enemies. 
During  all  this  time  Jerusalem  was  in  a 
most  distracted  and  deplorable  condi- 
tion, and  the  prophet  was  calumniated, 
imprisoned,  and  often  in  danger  of 
death.  But  no  ill-treatment  or  threat- 
enings  could  deter  him  from  denouncing 
the  judgments  of  God,  which  were  com- 
ing upon  the  nation  and  that  devoted 
city.  His  exhortations  to  the  king  and 
rulers  were  to  submit  at  once  to  the  arms 
of  Nebuchadnezzar,  for  by  that  means 
they  would  preserve  their  lives;  and  he 
assured  them,  as  a  message  received 
from  God,  that  their  continued  resist- 
ance would  have  no  other  effect  than  to 


bring  certain  and  dreadful  destruction 
upon  Jerusalem  and  on  themselves.  At 
this  time  Jerusalem  swarmed  with  false 
prophets,  who  contradicted  the  words  of 
Jeremiah  and  flattered  the  king  and  his 
courtiers  that  God  would  rescue  them 
from  the  impending  danger ;  and  after 
the  city  was  taken  and  part  of  the  peo- 
ple carried  away  to  Babylon,  these 
prophets  confidently  predicted  a  speedy 
return.  On  the  other  hand,  Jeremiah 
sent  word  to  the  captives  that  the  time 
of  their  captivity  would  be  long,  and 
that  their  best  course  was  to  build 
houses  and  plant  vineyards  in  the  land 
to  which  they  were  carried,  and  to  pray 
for  the  peace  of  the  country  in  which 
they  resided.  Indeed,  he  expressly  fore- 
told that  the  captivity  would  endure  for 
seventy  years ;  which  duration,  he  inti- 
mated, was  to  make  up  for  the  sabbatical 
years  which  they  had  neglected  to  ob- 
serve. He  also  foretold  the  deliverance 
of  the  people  and  their  return  to  their 
own  country.  Toward  the  close  of  his 
life  he  was  carried  into  Egypt  against 
his  will  by  the  Jews  who  remained  in 
Judaja  after  the  murder  of  Gedaliah. 
On  this  occasion  he  was  requested  by 
Johanan  and  his  followers  to  inquire  of 
the  Lord  whether  they  should  flee  into 
Egypt;  in  answer,  after  accusing  them 
of  hj^pocrisy,  he  warned  them  in  the 
most  solemn  manner,  from  the  Lord,  not 
to  go  down  to  Egypt,  but  they  disre- 
garded the  commandment  of  God  and 
went,  and  took  Jeremiah  forcibly  with 
them,  where,  in  all  probability,  he  died, 
some  think  as  a  martyr. 

''  It  is  to  Jeremiah,  even  more  than  to 
Isaiah,  that  the  writers  of  the  apostolic 
age,  Heb.  8  :  8,  13;  10  :  16.  17.  look  hack 
when  they  wish  to  describe  the  dispen- 
sation of  the  Spirit.  He  is  the  prophet, 
beyond  all  others  of  the  N.  T.  covenant, 
which  first  appears  in  his  writings  ;  and 
the  knowledge  of  this  new  truth  shall  no 
longer  be  confined  to  any  single  order  or 
caste,  but  '  all  shall  know  the  Lord,  from 
the  least  unto  the  greatest.'  " — Stanlei/. 

Thk  PRoPHKrv  OF  Jeremiah  is  a  faith- 
ful reflection  of  his  sad  and  tender  cha- 
racter and  the  calamities  of  his  age.  It 
embraces  a  period  of  upward  of  40  j'ears, 
between  B.  c.  626  and  b.  c.  .'')86.  Jeremiah 
entered  upon  the  office  of  a  prophet  in 
the  thirteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Jo- 
ash,  Jer.  1 :  2,  and  his  prophecy  relates 

429 


JER 


JER 


to  the  judgments  that  were  to  come  ' 
upon  the  people  for  their  gross  idolatry  [ 
and  corruption  :  to  the  restoration  which 
awaited  them  whenever  they  would  re- 
pent of  their  sins  and  forsake  them  ;  and 
to  the  future  glory  which  would  arise  on 
the  Church  of  God  and  on  such  as  were 
steadfast  in  his  service  when  all  flesh 
should  see  the  salvation  of  God. 

The  order  of  this  book  is  as  follows : 

1.  The  prophecies  uttered  in  Josiah's 
reign,  chs.  1-12.   B.  c.  629-608. 

2.  In  Jehoiakim's,  chs.  13,  20,  22,  23, 
35,  36,  45-48,  49 : 1-33.   b.  c.  607-597. 

3.  In  Zedekiah's,  chs.  21,  24,  27-34, 
37-39,  49  :  34-39 ;  50,  51.  b.  c.  597-586. 

4.  In  Gedaliah's,  chs.  40-44. 

The  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  (the 
book  immediately  succeeding  the  proph- 
ecy) are  a  series  of  four  elegiac  poems,  in 
which  the  fate  of  Jerusalem  is  described, 
with  one,  the  third,  of  a  personal  cha- 
racter, written,  it  has  been  reasonably 
conjectured,  when  Jeremiah  was  in  Ra- 
mah,  whither  he  had  been  carried  as  a 
captive,  but  where  he  was  released  by 
Nebuzar-adan,  the  captain  of  the  guard 
under  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  poems  are 
artistically  composed.  Chs.  1,  2,  and  4 
consist  of  22  verses  each,  as  manj^  as 
there  are  letters  in  the  Hebrew  alphabet, 
and  each  successive  verse  begins  with  a 
successive  letter  of  that  alphabet.  Ch.  3 
has  three  verses  under  each  letter,  fol- 
lowing them  down  in  the  same  way.  In 
ch.  5  there  is  the  same  number  of  verses, 
but  not  the  peculiar  alphabetic  order. 
The  prophet's  theme  is  sorrow,  but  his 
genius  keeps  him  from  triteness,  while 
the  reality  and  intensity  of  his  grief 
give  the  utmost  variety  to  his  pictures 
of  the  condition  of  his  passionately  be- 
loved land.  The  poem  is  a  fit  companion 
of  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah,  a  sort  of 
a  funeral  dirge  of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem. 
By  giving  free  vent  to  the  grief  of  the 
soul,  it  is  at  the  same  time  a  source  of 
comfort  to  the  Church,  especially  in 
seasons  of  public  calamity.  The  place 
where  it  is  said  to  have  been  composed 
is  called  "  the  Grotto  of  Jeremiah,"  a  few 
yards  north  of  the  Damascus  gate,  in 
Jerusalem,  and  is  by  some  modern 
writers  (Fisher  Howe,  Conder,)  identi- 
fied with  the  true  Calvarv. 

JERElHI'AS.     See  Jeremiah.  8. 

JER'EMIE,  THE  EPISTLE 
OF  J  is  the  title  of  a  pretended  letter 
430 


from  the  prophet  Jeremiah  appended  to 
the  Apoci'yj>hal  book  of  Baruch.  It 
purports  to  be  a  warning  from  him  to 
the  captives  in  Babylon  against  idolatry. 
Its  style  is  rhetorical.  It  is  an  imitation 
of  Jer.  10:  1-16.  The  author  is  un- 
known. 

JER'EMOTH  {heifjltts).  1.  Head 
of  a  Benjamite  family.  1  Chr.  8  :  14. 

2.  A  Merarite  Levite,  1  Chr.  23:  23; 
called  Jerimoth  in  24  :  30. 

3.  The  head  of  the  13th  course  of  mu- 
sicians. 25  :  22.  In  v.  4  the  name  is 
Jerimoth. 

4.  5.  Two  who  had  foreign  wives.  Ezr, 
10:  26,  27. 

JER'E3IY.     See  Jeremiah,  8. 

JERI'AH  (founded  by  Jehovah),  a 
Kohathite  Levite.  1  Chr.  23  :  19;  24: 
23.     He  is  called  Jerijah  in  26  :  31. 

JER'IBAI  [iDhom  Jehovah  defends  ?), 
one  of  David's  heroes.  1  Chr.  11 :  46. 

JER'ICHO,  an  ancient  and  cele- 
brated city  in  0.  T.  and  N.  T.  history. 
The  name  is  now  generally  thought  to 
signify  ''fragrance,"  but  an  older  expla- 
nation connects  it  with  the  moon,  which 
may  have  been  early  worshipped  there. 

Situation. — Jericho  was  in  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan,  about  5  miles  west  of  the 
river,  and  6  or  7  miles  north  of  the  Salt 
or  Dead  Sea.  The  portion  of  the  plain 
on  which  it  stood  was  noted  for  its  fer- 
tility, being  watered  by  a  large  spring 
known  as  the  "  Fountain  of  Elisha." 
See  illustration  p.  432.  The  city  has 
occupied  at  least  two  different  sites : 
(1)  Ancient  Jericho,  near  the  fountain 
es-Sidtan,  or  "  Elisha's  Fountain,"  at 
the  foot  of  the  Quarantania  Mountain, 
and  about  a  mile  and  a  half  above  the 
opening  of  the  Valley  of  Achor.  (2) 
The  Jericho  of  the  Gospels,  south-east 
of  the  ancient  one,  near  the  opening 
to  the  valley.  The  modern  village 
Er-Riha,  its  present  representative,  is 
about  two  miles  farther  east. 

Biblical  History. — Jericho  is  first 
mentioned  as  the  city  over  against  which 
the  Israelites  were  encamped  before  en- 
tering the  Promised  Land.  Moses  look- 
ed down  upon  the  plain  of  Jericho  from 
the  summit  of  Nebo.  Deut.  34:  3  :  Num. 
22  :  1 ;  26  :  3.  The  town  was  of  consid- 
erable size,  strongly  fortified.  Josh.  2  : 
15;  very  rich.  Josh.  6  :  24 ;  7  :  21,  and 
a  royal  residence.  Spies  were  sent  into 
the  city  and  received  by  Rahab.  Josh. 


JER 


JER 


2;  Ileb.  11 :  31.  The  wall  fell  after  be- 
ing compassed  7  days,  and  the  city  and 
its  inhabitants  were  destroyed.  Josh.  6  : 
20,  21 ;  24  :  11.  A  curse  was  pronounced 
upon  any  one  who  should  thereafter  re- 
build it.  Josh.  6 :  26.  This  curse  was 
fulfilled  upon  Hiel,  533  years  later.  1 
Kgs.  16 :  34.  But  the  curse  seems  to 
have  been  for  fortt'/i/ing  the  city,  rather 
than  for  dwelling  in  its  neighborhood, 
since  the  site  was  assigned  to  Benja- 
min, Josh.  18  :  21,  and  was  a  boundary 
of  Ephraim,  Josh.  16 :  7,  and  afterward 
belonged  to  Judah.  In  spite  of  many 
conquests  Jericho  continued  to  flourish, 
Eglon,  king  of  Moab,  possessed  it  18 
years.  Jud.  3 :  13.  David's  messengers 
tarried  there,  in  accordance  with  his  ad- 
vice, "  until  your  beards  be  grown."  2 
Sam.  10:  5. 

A  school  of  the  prophets,  often  visited 
by  Elijah,  flourished  at  Jericho,  2  Kgs. 
2,  and  Elisha  miraculously  healed  its 
waters,  2  Kgs.  2  :  1 9-22.  King  Zedekiah 
and  his  men,  fleeing  from  Jerusalem, 
were  captured  in  the  plains  of  Jericho. 
2  Kgs.  25  :  5 ;  Jer.  39  :  5.  After  the 
return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity, 
Jericho  was  re- occupied,  Ezr.  2  :  34:  Neh. 
7 :  36,  and  its  people  helped  to  rebuild 
the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  Neh.  3  :  2. 

Jericho  is  mentioned  63  times  in  the 
Scriptures — 56  times  in  the  0.  T.,  and  7 
in  the  N.  T. 

The  Roman  Antony  presented  the  dis- 
trict to  Cleopatra. who  soldittoHerod,and 
that  monarch  embellished  the  city  with 
palaces  and  made  it  his  winter  residence, 
as  being  the  most  beautiful  spot  for  the 
purpose  in  his  dominions.   He  died  there. 

It  was  at  Jericho  that  the  Jewish  pil- 
grims going  up  to  Jerusalem  (who  had 
taken  the  route  east  of  the  Jordan)  used 
to  assemble  on  their  way  to  the  temple. 
Hence  Christ  passed  through  it  in  his 
journeys.  There  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Zacchffius,  who  was  the  chief 
revenue  officer  for  the  wealthy  district 
of  Jericho,  Luke  19  :  1-9,  and  near  this 
city  also  he  healed  the  blind  men.  Matt, 
20  :  24-34 ;  Mark  10  :  46-52  ,•  Luke  18  : 
35-43.  It  was  on  the  rocky  road  from 
Jericho  to  Jerusalem  (even  in  this  gen- 
eration the  haunt  of  robbers)  that  Christ 
laid  the  scene  of  the  parable  of  the  Good 
Samaritan. 

Jericho  of  the  N.  T.  had  an  interest- 
ing history.     It  appears   to  have  been 


at  an  early  day  the  scat  of  a  Christian 
church,  as  in  the  fourth  century  the  coun- 
cils of  the  Church  were  attended  by  the 
bishops  at  Jericho.  The  emperor  Jus- 
tinian caused  a  "  church  of  the  Mother 
of  God  "  at  Jericho  to  be  restored.  A 
monastery  of  St.  Stephen  existed  there 
A.  D.  810.  In  the  time  of  the  Crusaders 
"  New  Jericho  "  sprang  up  near  the  site 
of  the  present  village. 

Prexeiit  Appearance. — Modern  Jericho 
(er-Iiilia)  consists  of  a  group  of  squalid 
hovels  inhabited  by  about  60  families. 
The  character  of  the  place  seems  not  to 
have  changed  for  at  least  650  years,  since 
Brocardus,  in  A.  d.,  1230  styled  it  "  a  vile 
place,"  and  Maundrell,  in  a.  d.  1697,  "a 
poor,  nasty  village."  The  inhabitants 
are  looked  upon  by  the  Arabs  as  a  de- 
based race,  perhaps  made  degenerate  by 
the  enervating  influence  of  the  hot  and 
unhealthy  climate.  A  writer  in  Smith's 
Dictionary  says  that  "  they  are  probably 
nothing  more  nor  less  than  veritable  gyp- 
sies." The  palm  trees  which  once  gave  the 
city  the  name  of  the  "  city  of  palm  trees  " 
have  all  disappeared.  One  solitary  tree 
was  standing  in  1838;  but  there  are 
numerous  petrified  palm  trunks  floating 
upon  the  Dead  Sea.  Tristram  notes 
that  a  few  of  the  sycamore  fig  trees, 
Luke  19  :  4,  are  still  found  among  the 
ruins  by  the  wayside  of  ancient  Jericho. 
The  vegetation  is  of  a  semi-tropical  cha- 
racter, as  the  plain  is  900  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  while 
snow  is  falling  at  Jerusalem  linen  cloth- 
ing is  comfortable  at  Jericho.  There  is 
an  inn  kept  by  a  Greek,  where  Dr. 
Schaff  spent  a  night  in  1877,  disturbed 
by  vermin.  The  surrounding  garden 
shows  what  a  little  industry  can  do  in 
that  fertile  soil  and  climate. 

The  "  Fountain  of  Elisha,"  by  which 
Jericho  was  once  supplied  with  water,  is 
an  object  of  special  interest.  It  wells 
forth  copiously  from  the  earth,  and  runs 
into  an  old  basin  of  hewn  stone,  13  yards 
long  and  8  yards  wide.  Numerous  small 
fish  swim  about  in  the  water,  the  tem- 
perature of  which  is  84°  F.  The  earliest 
pilgrims  found  a  tradition  already  exist- 
ing here  that  this  was  the  water  which 
Elisha  healed  with  salt.  2  Kgs.  2  :  19,  20, 
whence  it  is  called  "  Elisha's  Spring" 
by  the  Christians.  Above  the  spring  the 
site  of  the  house  of  Rahab  was  formerly 
shown.     In  the  village  itself  there  is  a 

431 


JER 


JER 


faalf-ruined  tower,  now  occupied  by  a 
Turkish  garrison,  which  is  pointed  out 
as    Zacchasus's   house,   but   it   probably 


.    -=_ 

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'Am  Sultan,  oi   lountuii  ot  Elibha.     {After 
Photogi  aphs  ) 

dates  from  the  Frank  period,  when  it  was 
erected  for  the  protection  of  the  crops 
against  the  incursions  of  the  Bedouin. 

JE'RIEL  [founded  of  God),  a  de- 
scendant of  Issachar.  1  Chr.  7 :  2. 

JERI'JAH  [founded  of  Jehovah). 
See  Jeriah. 

JER'IMOTH  (heiyhts).  1,2,3.  Ben- 
jamites.  1  Chr.  7  :  7,  8 ;  12 :  5. 

4,  5.  See  Jeremoth,  2,  3. 

6.  Ruler  of  Naphtali  in  David's  reign. 
1  Chr.  27:  19. 

7.  One  of  David's  sons,  who  was  father 
to  one  of  Rehoboam's  wives.  2  Chr.  11 :  18. 

8.  An  overseer  in  the  temple  under 
Hezekiah.  2  Chr.  31 :  13. 

JE'RIOTH  {curtain>i),  the  wife  of 
Caleb,  son  of  Hezron.  1  Chr.  2:18. 

JER'OBOAM  (ivhose  people  is 
many).  1.  The  son  of  Nebat,  is  distin- 
guished as  "the  man  who  made  Israel 
to  sin,"  and  was  the  first  king  of  the  ten 
tribes,  b.  c.  975-964.  He  came  of  the 
tribe  of  Ephraim ;  and  distinguishing 
himself,  he  was  made  by  Solomon  the 
superintendent  of  all  the  workmen  fur- 
nished by  his  tribe.  While  thus  em- 
ployed the  prophet  Ahijah,  by  a  sym- 
bolical act,  informed  him  that  the  king- 
dom of  Solomon  was  to  be  divided  and 
he  was  to  become  the  head  of  the  ten 
tribes.  What  he  did  on  receiving  this 
information  we  know  not;  possibly  he 
432 


may  have  endeavored  to  hasten  matters 
by  raising  the  standard  of  revolt ;  but  at 
any  rate  Solomon  was  alarmed,  and  took 
measures  to  apprehend  Jeroboam,  who 
fled  to  Egypt  and  remained  there  till 
Solomon's  death.  1  Kgs.  11 :  26-40.  Af- 
ter Solomon's  death  the  smouldering 
fires  of  discontent  burst  into  a  flame. 
Rehoboam,  his  successor,  acted  foolishly, 
returning  an  insulting  answer  to  the 
people's  mild  demands.  Accordingly, 
the  ten  tribes  threw  off  the  yoke  a;nd  elect- 
ed Jeroboam,  who  had  returned,  as  the 
one  best  qualified  to  be  their  king.  Thus 
was  prophecy  fulfilled.  He  fixed  his 
residence  at  Shechem,  which,  with  other 
cities,  he  fortified  for  the  furtherance  of 
his  plans.  Fearing  that  if  the  revolted 
tribes  should  go  up  to  the  solemn  na- 
tional feasts  at  Jerusalem  they  would 
be  persuaded  to  return  to  their  allegi- 
ance, and  forgetting  his  obligations  to 
God  and  his  dependence  on  him,  he 
caused  two  golden  calves  to  be  erected, 
one  at  Dan  and  the  other  at  Bethel,  the 
extremities  of  his  dominions,  and  caused 
a  proclamation  to  be  made,  requiring  the 
worship  of  these  idols.  1  Kgs.  12 :  26- 
33.  Jeroboam,  having  set  up  the  idols, 
assembled  the  people  at  the  latter  place, 
to  engage  in  the  solemn  worship  of  them  ; 
and  to  show  his  zeal  for  the  service  he 
officiated  at  the  altar  himself.  But  while 
he  was  thus  occupied  a  prophet  from  the 
land  of  Judah  appeared  in  the  midst  of 
the  assembly,  and  in  the  hearing  of  all 
the  people  uttered  a  prediction  that  a 
man  by  the  name  of  Josiah  should  arise 
and  destroy  that  altar,  and  should  burn 
upon  it  the  bones  of  the  priests ;  and  to 
confirm  his  authority  he  gave  this  sign, 
that  the  altar  should  immediately  be 
broken  in  pieces  and  the  ashes  upon  it 
be  poured  out ;  and  it  was  so.  Jero- 
boam, greatly  provoked  by  this  bold 
interference,  put  forth  his  hand  to  seize 
the  prophet ;  but  in  a  moment  it  was 
stiffened,  so  that  he  could  not  draw  it  in. 
Intimidated  by  this  miraculous  judg- 
ment, and  convinced  that  the  man  was 
indeed  a  prophet  of  the  Lord,  he  begged 
that  he  would  intercede  for  him  that  his 
arm  might  be  restored,  which  was  done 
accordingly.  Jeroboam,  however,  was 
not  reformed  by  this  divine  message  and 
double  miracle,  but  continued  to  cause 
Israel  to  sin  in  worshipping  the  calves 
which  he  had  set  up.     His  son  was  ta- 


JEE 


JER 


ken  sick,  and  he  instructed  his  wife  to 
disguise  herself  and  go  to  Ahijah,  who 
was  now  blind  with  age,  and  consult 
with  him  as  to  the  result  of  the  disease. 
The  prophet  was  forewarned  of  her  ap- 
proach ;  and  as  soon  as  he  heard  her 
footsteps  he  called  her  by  name,  and  af- 
ter recounting  the  sins  of  Jeroboam  he 
predicted  the  disgrace  and  ruin  and  ut- 
ter extirpatioii  of  his  whole  family,  and 
also  the  captivity  and  dispersion  of  the 
people  of  Israel.  He  also  told  her  that 
the  child  should  die,  and  that  the  nation 
should  mourn  for  him  as  the  only  indi- 
vidual of  the  house  of  their  king  who 
should  come  to  a  peaceful  end,  and  also 
as  one  who  in  the  midst  of  all  the  idola- 
try and  wickedness  of  the  times  had 
some  pious  emotions,  even  in  the  house 
of  Jeroboam.  As  she  entered  the  door  of 
her  house  the  child  died.    1  Kgs.  14: 17. 

Jeroboam  reigned  in  Israel  22  years, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Nadab. 
During  his  life  there  were  almost  un- 
ceasing wars  between  him  and  the  house 
of  David. 

2.  The  son  of  Joash,  and  the  great- 
grandson  of  Jehu,  reigned  41  years, 
B.  c.  825-784,  and  followed  the  for- 
mer Jeroboam  in  his  idolatrous  wor- 
ship. 2  Kgs.  14  :  23-29.  The  Lord, 
however,  by  him,  according  to  the  pre- 
dictions of  the  prophet  Jonah,  raised 
the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes  to  its 
greatest  splendor.  All  the  countries 
on  the  east  of  the  Jordan  he  reduced. 
"  The  full  extent  of  ancient  sovereign- 
ty was  recovered,  no  king  of  the  north- 
ern state  having  ever  been  so  victorious 
as  he."  It  appears  from  the  writings 
of  Hosea  and  Amos  that  idleness,  ef- 
feminacy, pride,  oppression,  injustice, 
idolatry,  and  luxury  greatly  prevailed 
in  his  reign.  Am.  2  :  0-16  ;  5:6.  Nor 
was  it  long  after  his  death  before  the 
Lord,  according  to  the  predictions  of 
Amos,  cut  off  his  family  with  the  sword. 
2  Kgs.  15:  10;  Hos.  1:1,  etc. 

JER'OHAM  {who  finds  mercy).  1. 
Samuel's  grandfather.  1  Sam.  1:1;  1 
Chr.  6  :  27,  34. 

2,  3.  Benjamites.  1  Chr.  8  :  27  ;  9:8. 

4.  A  priest,  1  Chr.  9  :  12;  perhaps  the 
same  person  as  in  Neh.  11 :  12. . 

6,  The  father  of  some  of  David's 
warriors;  a  Benjamite.  1  Chr.  12:  7. 

6.  The  father  of  the  prince  of  Dan 
in  David's  reign.  1  Chr.  27  :  22. 
28 


7.  The  father  of  one  who  assisted  Je- 
hoiada  in  placing  Joash  on  the  throne. 
2  Chr.  23:  1. 

JERUB'-BAAL  {with  whom  Baal 
rontends),  Jud.  6  :  32,  AND  JERUB'- 
BESHETH  {with  whom  the  idol  con- 
tends). 2  Sam.  11 :  21.     See  Gideox. 

JER'UEL  (/oHHrferf  of  God),  THE 
WIL-'DERNESS  OF,  the  place  in 
which  Jehoshaphat  met  and  defeated 
the  Ammonites,  Moabites,  and  their  al- 
lies. 2  Chr.  20 :  16.  It  was  near  Te- 
koah  and  the  valley  of  Berachah,  on 
the  west  of  the  Dead  Sea,  probably  the 
tract  known  as  el-Hasasah,  on  the  road 
from  En-gedi  to  Jerusalem. 

JERU'SALEM,  the  capital  of  the 
Hebrew  monarchy  and  of  the  kingdom 
of  Judah,  the  most  important  city  in 
biblical  history,  and  the  most  sacred  and 
the  most  desecrated  city  of  the  world. 
'*^  Beautiful  for  situation,"  "the  joy  of 
the  whole  earth,"  "  the  perfection  of 
beauty," — so  sings  the  Psalmist  of  this 
wonderful  city.  Ps.  48  :  2,  3  ;  50  :  2. 
Yet  Jesus  wept  over  it  tears  of  sorrow  in 
view  of  its  unfaithfulness  and  approach- 
ing doom  :  "  Jerusalem,  thou  that  killest 
the  prophets  and  stonest  them  which  are 
sent  unto  thee,  how  often  would  I  have 
gathered  thy  children  together,  even  as 
a  hen  gathereth  her  chickens  under  her 
wings,  and  ye  would  not !  Behold,  your 
house  is  left  unto  you  desolate."  Matt. 
23 :  37-39. 

I.  Names.  —  "Jerusalem,"  in  He- 
brew, means  "  the  possession  "  or  "  in- 
heritance of  peace."  It  is  called  "  Salem  " 
in  Ps.  76  :  2,  and  Jewish  commentators 
affirm  that  it  is  identical  with  the  Salem 
of  Melchizedek,  Gen.  14: 18  ;  but  Jerome 
and  others  dispute  this.  The  Jews  also 
believe  that  it  includes  the  mount  upon 
which  Abraham  offered  Isaac,  and  which 
he  named  "  Jehovah-jireh."  Gen.  22  :  14. 
It  is  called  "  Jebusi,"  Josh.  18  :  28,  and 
"Jebus,"  Judg.  19:10,  11,  and  it  first 
appears  as  "Jerusalem  "  in  Josh.  10  : 1. 
It  was  known  as  "the  city  of  David" 
and  of  "  Zion,"  1  Kgs.  8  :  1  ;  2  Kgs.  14 : 
20;  "city  of  Judah,"  2  Chr.  25:28; 
"  city  of  God,"  Ps.  46  :  4  :  "  city  of  the 
great  King,"  Ps.  48  :  2  ;  "the  holy  city," 
Neh.  11 :  1  ;  "  Ariel,"  Isa.  29  : 1 ;  in  the 
LatinVersion  it  is  "Hierosolyma."  By  the 
Roman  emperor  Hadrian  it  was  named 
JElia  Capitolina ;  by  the  Mohammed- 
ans, Arabs,  and  Turks  it  is  now  known 

433 


JER 


JEB 


as  el-Khuds,  or  "  the  holy,"  and  Beit-el- 
Makhuddis,  or  "  the  holy  house  "  or  "the 
sanctuary."  The  Moslems  regard  it  as 
their  most  holy  city,  next  to  Mecca  and 
Medina,  and  believe  that  the  general 
judgment  will  take  place  in  the  valley 
of  Jehoshaphat,  under  the  direction  of 
Mohammed  and  Jesus. 

II.  Situation  and  Extent. — Jeru- 
salem is  situated  near  the  summit  of  the 
range  of  mountains  which  forms  the  wa- 
ter-shed between  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Dead  Sea,  and  which  has  been  call- 
ed the  "  backbone  "  of  Palestine.  Its 
distance  from  the  Mediterranean  is  32 
miles,  and  from  the  Dead  Sea  18  miles. 
The  latitude  of  the  city,  as  determined 
by  the  most  trustworthy  observations,  is 
31°  46'  35"  north,  and  the  longitude  35° 
18'  30"  east  from  Greenwich.  Accord- 
ing to  the  late  British  Survey,  the  di- 
mensions of  the  Jerusalem  of  to-day 
are  as  follows  ;  Length  of  the  northern 
wall  (measuring  straight  from  point  to 
point),  3930  feet ;  eastern  wall,  2754 
feet ;  southern  wall,  3245  feet ;  western 
wall,  2086  feet;  total  circumference  of 
the  walls,  12,015  feet,  or  ^If^^-f^  miles. 
Dr.  Robinson,  measuring  with  a  tape- 
line  as  closely  as  possible  to  the  walls, 
found  the  aggregate  length  12,978  feet, 
or  nearly  2^  miles.  Maundrell,  an  Eng- 
lish traveller,  who  visited  Jerusalem  at 
Easter  in  1697,  paced  the  walls  round, 
and  reckoned  the  distance  at  12,501  feet. 
A  pedestrian  can  walk  around  the  city 
in  an  hour,  taking  a  very  leisurely  gait. 
Josephus  stated  the  entire  circuit  of  the 
exterior  walls  in  his  day  at  33  stadia,  or 
a  little  less  than  4  English  miles.  The 
ancient  city  included  the  southern  slopes 
of  Zion  and  Ophel,  which  are  now  with- 
out the  walls,  and  the  former  is  under 
cultivation,  thus  fulfilling  the  prediction 
of  2500  years  ago :  "  Zion  shall  be 
ploughed  like  a  field."  Jer.  26  :  18.  The 
area  included  within  the  city  walls  is 
only  209i  acres,  or  less  than  one-third 
of  a  square  mile.  About  465  acres  are 
supposed  to  have  been  enclosed  in  the 
Holy  City  during  the  period  of  its  great- 
est extent,  after  the  third  wall  had  been 
built  by  Herod  Agrippa,  but  the  old 
walls  (of  Solomon  and  Zerubbabel)  only 
included  an  area  of  155  acres. 

III.  Physical  Features. — Surface. 
— The  city  stands  upon  a  tongue  of  land 
which  is  separated  from  the  surrounding 

434 


country  on  all  sides  save  the  north  by 
deep  ravines.  On  the  east  is  the  Valley 
of  the  Kedron,  called  also  the  Valley  of 
Jehoshaphat,  and  on  the  west  and  south 
the  Valley  of  Hinnom.  These  depres- 
sions, which  begin  near  together  in  the 
north,  unite  at  Joab's  Well,  half  a  mile", 
south  of  the  city  wall,  and  pass  off"  east- 
ward toward  the  Dead  Sea.  A  third  val- 
ley, called  the  Tyropoeon,  or  the  Valley 
of  the  Cheesemongers,  falls  into  the  Ke- 
dron Valley  at  the  Pool  of  Siloam.  There 
has  been  much  discussion  as  to  whether 
the  Tyropoeon  Valley  extended  to  the 
Jaff"a  or  to  the  Damascus-gate.  Dr.  Rob- 
inson favors  the  former  opinion,  and  the 
British  Survey  the  latter.  The  matter  is 
important,  because  the  position  of  vari- 
ous other  places  is  decided  by  that  of  the 
Tyropoeon.  The  view  of  the  British  Sur- 
vey, here  followed,  is  the  latest  and  most 
scientific,  and  therefore  the  most  likely 
to  be  correct.  By  the  Tyropoeon  the 
tongue  of  land  was  divided  into  two 
parallel  ridges,  of  which  the  eastern 
was  Mount  Moriah  (the  site  of  the  tem- 
ple), and  the  western  Mount  Zion  (the 
site  of  David's  house  and  later  of 
Herod's  palace),  which  was  110  feet 
higher  than  Moriah,  and  constituted 
the  "  upper  city  "  of  Josephus.  North 
of  Zion  was  the  Akra,  the  "lower  city" 
of  Josephus.  North  of  Moriah  was  the 
hill  Bezetha,  and  south  of  it  the  hill 
Ophel. 

"  The  mountains  round  about  Jerusa- 
lem "  approach  near  enough  to  the  city 
to  receive  our  notice  only  upon  one  side. 
Across  the  valley  of  the  Kedron,  upon 
the  north-east,  is  the  hill  Scopus,  from 
which  Titus  looked  down  upon  the  de- 
voted capital  of  the  Jews.  South  of 
Scopus  and  directly  east  of  the  city  is 
the  long  ridge  of  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
having  three  principal  summits,  of  which 
the  central  one  is  designated  as  the  Mount 
of  the  Ascension.  Still  farther  to  the  south 
is  the  Mount  of  Offence,  so  called  from  its 
being  the  seat  of  Solomon's  idol-worship. 
Across  the  Valley  of  Hinnom  and  direct- 
ly south  of  Mount  Zion  is  the  Hill  of 
Evil  Counsel,  where  Judas  is  reputed  to 
have  bargained  for  the  betrayal  of  our 
Lord.  Upon  the  slope  of  this  hill  is  the 
Aceldama,  or  "  field  of  blood."  The  dis- 
tance from  Scopus  to  the  Mount  of 
Olives  (according  to  the  British  Sur- 
vey) is  5243  feet  J   from  thence  to  the 


PBS  ggj* 

Boo  •^'^ET' 

,S   S  O  O   (D   <^ 

^       -  p  3  -   H 

O  ^  -J  S-'*  (t,  ^ 


JEK 


JEE 


Mount  of  Offence  is  4731  feet,  and  from 
the  last  point  to  the  Hill  of  Evil  Coun- 
sel, 3772  feet.  From  Jerusalem  to  the 
summit  of  Olivet,  which  is  approached 
by  three  paths,  the  mean  distance  is 
about  half  a  mile. 

Elevations. — The  elevation  of  various 
points  above  the  Mediterranean,  as  given 
by  the  British  Survey,  is  as  follows : 
Mount  Scopus,  2715  feet;  Viri  Galilsei, 
2682  feet;  Mount  of  Olives,  266^  feet; 
Mount  of  Offence,  2409  feet;  Hill  of 
Evil  Counsel,  2552  feet ;  Mount  Moriah, 
2440  feet;  Mount  Zion,  2550  feet;  Cas- 
tle of  Goliath  (highest  jjoint  within  the 
city),  2581  feet;  Valley  of  the  Kedron, 
2190  feet;  the  general  level  of  the  city, 
2610  feet;  the  hill  Ophel,  at  the  triple 
gate,  was  300  feet  above  the  Pool  of  Si- 
loam.  The  topography  of  Jerusalem 
will  be  more  fully  treated  toward  the 
close  of  this  article. 

Climate. — The  rainy  season  extends 
from  October  to  March.  Snow  some- 
times falls  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  or 
more,  and  the  pools  are  covered  with  a 
thin  coating  of  ice ;  but  the  ground 
never  freezes,  and  many  winters  pass 
without  any  signs  of  either  snow  or 
ice.  The  natives  build  no  fires  merely 
for  warming  themselves.  During  the 
summer,  rain  is  almost  unknown.  A 
north-westerly  breeze  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean then  prevails  between  the  hours 
of  9  A.  M.  and  10  p.  m.  The  meteorolog- 
ical observations  of  Dr.  Thomas  Chap- 
lin, an  English  physician,  at  Jerusalem 
for  over  3  years,  from  Nov.,  1863,  to  Feb., 
1867,  showed  that  the  mean  temperature 
was  63°. 4  ;  highest  mean  for  40  months, 
77°,  in  July,  1866;  lowest,  42°.8,  in  Jan., 
1864.  The  range  of  the  thermometer 
was  from  25°,  Jan.  20,  1864,  to  102°.5, 
June  27,  1865,  showing  a  variation  of 
77°.5. 

Dr.  Barclay  says  that  nearly  every 
species  of  vegetable  in  common  use  in 
the  United  States  has  been  successfully 
cultivated  in  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem. 
Oranges,  limes,  and  lemons  are  to  be 
had  in  the  greatest  profusion  and  per- 
fection almost  the  entire  year  round. 
The  oranges  of  Jerusalem  mostly  come 
from  Jaffa,  where  they  are  grown  in 
great  abundance. 

IV.  History. — The  Jerusalem  of  our 
Lord  and  of  his  apostles  is  buried  from 
20  to  80  feet  beneath  the  ruins  and  rub- 
436 


bish  of  centuries ;  the  "  City  of  David  " 
lies  still  deeper  below  the  surface  of  mod- 
ern Jerusalem.  In  the  15  centuries  from 
Joshua  to  Titus,  the  city  was  besieged 
not  less  than  17  times;  twice  it  was 
razed  to  the  ground,  and  twice  its  walls 
were  destroj'ed.  There  is  no  trace  on 
the  surface  now  to  be  seen  of  the  city  in 
its  glory.  The  ancient  streets,  walls,  and 
buildings  have  long  since  disappeared, 
and  the  old  sites  and  historical  places 
have  long  been  the  subject  of  specula- 
tion and  most  bitter  controversy.  The 
topography  of  ancient  Jerusalem,  even 
since  the  valuable  discoveries  of  Robin- 
son, Warren,  Wilson,  and  others,  is  more 
confused  and  unsettled  by  new  theories 
and  speculations  than  ever  before.  It 
will  be  convenient  to  treat  of  the  history 
of  the  city  under  successive  periods  ;  as 
Jerusalem  of  the  Jebusites ;  of  the  Kings; 
of  the  Captivity,  including  that  of  the 
Ptolemies  and  the  Maccabees  ;  the  Je- 
rusalem of  N.  T.  times ;  of  the  Romans 
and  the  Christian  emperors;  of  the  Sar- 
acens and  the  Crusaders;  the  Jerusalem 
of  the  Turks;  and  modern  Jerusalem. 

1.  The  Jebusite  Period. — In  respect  to 
the  identity  of  Salem,  of  which  Melchiz- 
edek  was  king.  Gen.  14  :  18,  with  Jerusa- 
lem, the  weight  of  authorities  is  about 
equally  divided  in  favor  of  and  against 
it.  An  incidental  proof  in  favor  of  this 
theory  is  supposed  to  be  found  in  Ps. 
76 : 2,  and  it  was  held  by  .Josephus, 
Eusebius,  and  many  later  scholars.  The 
earliest  definite  notice  of  Jerusalem  is 
found  in  the  description  of  the  boun- 
daries of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  where 
it  is  called  Jebusi,  after  the  people  who 
inhabited  it.  See  Josh.  15:8;  18:16, 
28.  The  Jebusites  still  held  the  city 
after  the  conquest  of  the  land  under 
Joshua,  Josh.  15  :  63,  but  soon  after  his 
death  the  children  of  Judah  besieged  the 
city,  took  it  and  burned  it,  and  destroy- 
ed its  king,  Adoni-bezek,  Jud.  1:7,  8  ; 
yet  it  would  appear  from  Jud.  1  :  21  that 
the  entire  city  was  not  subdued,  and  Jo- 
sephus states  that  the  siege  lasted  some 
time,  that  the  lower  city  only  was  taken, 
and  that  the  upper  city  was  so  strong, 
from  its  walls  and  the  nature  of  the  place, 
that  they  abandoned  the  attempt  of  com- 
pleting the  capture.  Compare  Jud.  19  : 
10,  11.  Through  the  rule  of  the  Judges 
and  the  reign  of  Saul  the  stronghold  con- 
tinued in  the  possession  of  the  Jebusites. 


JER 


JER 


After  David  became  king  of  all  Israel  he 
made  Jerusalem  his  capital,  and  the  city 
of  the  Jebusites  was  taken  by  his  chief 
captain,  Joab  ;  it  was  called  "  the  strong- 
hold of  Zion,"  or  "the  city  of  David." 
2  Sam.  5:7;  1  Chr.  11 :  6.  From  this 
time  the  rising  grandeur  and  glory  of 
Jerusalem  as  the  seat  of  one  of  the 
noted  empires  of  the  East  caused  the 
city  to  take  rank  along  with  Nineveh, 
Babylon,  and  Tyre. 

2.  Under  the  Kings. — David  began  im- 
mediately to  strengthen  and  to  fortify  the 
city  by  building  a  wall  around  it,  and 
to  increase  the  strength  of  the  strong- 
hold by  connecting  it  with  the  city. 
This  citadel  he  made  his  residence.  He 
also  brought  the  ark  from  Kirjath- 
jearim  to  the  house  of  Obed-edom,  and 
thence  to  the  "  city  of  David,"  2  Sam.  6  : 
2-16,  thus  making  it  the  political  and 
religious  capital  of  the  Israelitish  na- 
tion. This  choice  of  a  capital  was  made 
by  David,  as  elsewhere  declared,  under 
divine  direction,  Deut.  12  :  5-21 ;  1  Kgs. 
11 :  36.  It  was  the  place  where  the  Lord 
had  chosen  to  put  his  name,  Ps.  78  :  68, 
as  he  may  have  done  with  the  earlier  spir- 
itual capitals,  Gilgal,  Bethel,  Shiloh,  and 
Gibeon.  The  city  of  Zion  also  became 
the  sepulchre  of  David  and  of  the  kings 
who  succeeded  him,  and  his  royal  gardens 
were  in  the  valleys  below.  Under  Solo- 
mon the  city  reached  its  greatest  mag- 
nificence. His  three  important  addi- 
tions to  the  capital  as  founded  by  his 
father,  David,  were  the  temple,  with 
its  massive  east  wall,  the  royal  palace, 
and  the  extension  and  strengthening  of 
the  walls  of  the  city.  The  temple  was 
built  on  the  site  which  David  purchased 
of  Araunah  the  Jebusite,  2  Sam.  24  :  20- 
25  ;  1  Chr.  21  :  22-28 ;  2  Chr.  3  :  1,  and 
which  was  in  Mount  Moriah.  David 
bad  also  gathered  a  large  portion  of  the 
wealth  and  of  the  materials  required  for 
erecting  this  magnificent  sanctuary  to  the 
Lord,  and  had  designed  to  build  it  him- 
self, but  was  forbidden  of  the  Lord  be- 
cause he  had  been  a  man  of  war.  1  Kgs. 
8  :  18,  19.  In  this  vast  work  Solomon 
was  aided  by  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  who 
furnished  timber  out  of  Lebanon,  and 
cunning  workmen  in  every  kind  of 
metal,  and  those  skilled,  no  doubt,  in 
the  mechanical  arts,  as  the  Tyrians  are 
known  to  have  been  unsurpassed  in  their 
day  in  this  class  of  work.  In  seven  years 


the  temple  was  completed  and  dedicated, 
and  thus  Jerusalem  became  the  one  cen- 
tral place  of  all  the  world  to  the  true 
worshipper  of  Jehovah.  See  Tkmplk. 
A  palace  of  grandeur  corresponding  to 
the  extent  and  power  of  his  empire,  Solo- 
mon erected  for  himself  within  the  chosen 
capital,  taking  13  years  for  its  construc- 
tion ;  he  also  built  another  royal  edifice 
to  beautify  the  city,  and  which  is  called 
the  ''  house  of  the  forest  of  Lebanon," 
perhaps  from  the  "pillars  of  cedar" 
around  it,  1  Kings  7  :  2-7  ;  a  palace  was 
likewise  built  for  the  queen,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Pharaoh.  1  Kgs.  7  :  8.  He  ex- 
tended the  walls  of  the  city  probably 
around  the  newly-built  portions,  added 
towers,  and  increased  the  height  of  the 
walls  made  by  David  ;  so  that  the  Jeru- 
salem of  that  period,  with  the  splendor 
of  Solomon's  court,  was  unsurpassed  for 
magnificence  and  brilliancy  by  any  of 
the  noted  capitals  of  the  East.  The  fame 
of  it  reached  unto  Sheba,  whose  queen 
came  to  behold  it ;  and  she  declared 
that  the  half  of  the  glory  of  the  king- 
dom of  which  Jerusalem  was  the  centre 
had  not  been  told  her,  1  Kgs.  10  :  7  ; 
2  Chr.  9  :  1-12. 

The  division  of  the  kingdom  under  Re- 
hoboam,  which  followed  the  death  of  Solo- 
mon, exposed  the  city  to  attack  from  for- 
eign foes.  Shishak,  jealous  of  the  glory 
of  Jerusalem,  which  had  for  two  genera- 
tions excelled  that  of  Egypt,  tempted  by 
the  treasures  of  the  famous  city,  and  per- 
haps influenced  by  Jeroboam,  who  had 
been  an  exile  in  Egypt  and  was  the  lead- 
er of  the  revolting  tribes,  invaded  the 
land  and  made  the  southern  kingdom 
tributary  to  the  Pharaohs,  bearing  away 
the  accumulated  treasures  of  the  temple, 
including  500  golden  shields,  computed 
to  represent  $720,000 — a  vast  sum  for 
those  days.  Thirty  years  later,  under 
Asa,  Jerusalem  regained  her  independ- 
ence after  the  great  battle  with  Zerah 
at  Mareshah.  2  Chr.  14  :  9-15.  As  the 
fruit  of  this  victory,  Asa  replaced  the 
vessels  of  the  Lord's  house  taken  by 
Shishak,  rebuilt  the  altar,  and  probably 
added  a  new  court  to  the  temple,  2  Chr. 
15  :  5,  8 ;  these  treasures  were  soon  after 
granted  to  the  king  of  Syria  to  secure 
his  aid  in  a  war  against  Baasha,  king  of 
Israel.  2  Chr.  16  :  1,  2. 

In  the  idolatrous  and  troubled  times 
which  followed  the  alliance  of  the  house 

437 


JER 


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of  Jehoshaphat  with  that  of  the  wicked  i 
Ahab,  the  glory  of  Jei'usalem  fell  into  a 
decline,  but  it  revived  for  a  time  under 
Joash,  who  repaired  the  temple,  only  to 
despoil  it  when  Hazael  of  Syria  invaded 
the  country  and  threatened  the  capital. 
2  Chr.  24:  10-14,  2?> ;  2  Kgs.  12:  17, 
18,  Later,  under  Amaziah,  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  was  broken 
down  bv  the  armies  of  the  northern  king- 
dom of^  Israel.  2  Chr.  25  :  23.  Uzziah 
repaired  the  walls  and  renewed  the  for- 
tifications of  the  city,  which  were  still 
further  strengthened  by  his  son  Jotham, 
especially  that  part  of  the  city  on  Moriah, 
Zion,  and  Ophel.  It  again  declined  under 
the  wicked  Ahaz,  but  was  improved  and 
made  to  approach  the  former  magnifi- 
cence attained  in  the  days  of  Solomon 
by  the  extensive  and  remarkable  works 
of  Hezekiah.  2  Chr.  32  :  30  ;  Isa.  22  : 
9-11.  Manasseh  built  a  wall  outside  of 
the  city  of  David,  enclosing  Zion,  and 
raised  the  tower  of  Ophel  to  a  great 
height.  2  Chr.  33  :  14.  With  the  am- 
ple supply  of  water  provided  by  Heze- 
kiah through  the  pools  and  conduits 
which  he  built,  and  the  towers  of  de- 
fence constructed  by  Manasseh,  the  city 
was  regarded  as  very  strong,  if  not  im- 
pregnable. Compare  2  Kgs.  20  :  20  ;  2 
Chr.  33  :  14;  Lam.  4  :  12.  The  king- 
dom was,  however,  subject  to  Assyria. 
The  subject  king  revolted  ;  the  capital 
was  attacked,  and  was  compelled  to  sur- 
render to  the  forces  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
who  carried  away  all  the  ti-easures  of  the 
temple  and  the  palace,  and  took  as  cap- 
tives the  princes,  men  of  wealth,  and  the 
skilled  artisans,  numbering  10,000,  so 
that  only  the  poorest  of  the  people  were 
left  in  the  land,  over  whom  Zedekiah 
was  made  king.  Trusting  to  the  aid 
of  Pharaoh-hophra,  Zedekiah  rebelled, 
and  Nebuchadnezzar  again  laid  siege 
to  Jerusalem,  erecting  forts,  mounds, 
and  engines  of  war  to  batter  down  the 
walls.  This  siege  was  temporarily  raised 
by  the  approach  of  an  Egyptian  army,  but 
the  Assyrians  speedily  returned  to  the 
city,  and  invested  it  more  closely  than 
ever.  Its  inhabitants,  shut  up  within 
its  walls,  suffered  from  all  the  horrors 
of  famine,  pestilence,  and  war  for  a 
year  and  a  half,  when  the  walls  were 
broken  and  the  place  taken  b.  c.  586, 
the  temple,  palace,  and  chief  buildings 
burned,  the  walls  thrown  down^  and  the 
438 


city  made  a  "  heap  of  rubbish  "  by  order 
of  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  dreadful  hor- 
rors of  this  siege  and  destruction  are  viv- 
idly portrayed  by  Jeremiah.  Lam.  2  and 
5.     For  50  years  the  city  lay  in  ruins. 

3.  Jerusalem  of  Ezra  (ind  the  Ptolemies. 
— Under  the  decree  of  Cyrus  the  captives 
returned  to  Jerusalem,  rebuilt  the  tem- 
ple, and  made  the  cit}'  again  habitable ; 
and  later,  under  Nehemiah,  the  city  was 
fortified,  and  the  walls,  which  had  been 
broken  for  140  years,  were  re-constructed, 
notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  San- 
ballat  and  Tobiah.  Neh.  4  :  7-22 ;  6  : 
1-16.  The  extent  of  the  walls  built  by 
Nehemiah  is  clearly  indicated  in  Neh. 
3,  and  they  must  have  enclosed  a  far 
larger  space  than  the  reduced  popula- 
tion could  require.  The  following  de- 
scription of  the  city  and  its  extent  is 
from  Baedeker's  Handbook  of  Syria 
(1876) :  "  The  wall  extended  up  the  hill 
from  the  pool  of  Siloam  toward  the 
north.  On  the  highest  point  of  Ophel 
rose  a  bastion,  which  was  also  intended 
to  protect  the  horse-gate,  an  entrance  of 
the  temple  toward  the  east.  Near  the 
horse-gate,  and  within  the  precincts  of 
the  temple,  were  the  dwellings  of  the 
priests.  On  the  east  side  it  is  common- 
ly supposed  that  there  was  a  second  gate, 
called  the  water-gate.  There  were  also 
fortifications  at  the  north  end  of  the 
temple  terrace,  the  most  important  be- 
ing the  Biru,  a  large  bastion  restored 
by  Nehemiah,  afterward  the  site  of  Bar  is. 
The  city  was  further  defended  on  the 
north  side  by  the  tower  of  Hananeel. 
There  was  also  the  tower  of  Mea,  about 
50  yards  south  of  the  other;  but  the 
site  of  both  seems  to  be  far  from  being 
even  approximately  determined.  .  .  . 
The  wall  which  enclosed  the  upper 
city  ran  toward  the  west  and  had  two 
gates — the  gate  of  the  centre,  which  led 
from  one  pai't  of  the  city  to  the  other, 
and,  to  the  extreme  west,  the  valleri-gate, 
afterward  called  Gennath,  situated  to  the 
east  of  the  present  Jaffa-gate,  where  Uz- 
ziah once  erected  a  tower  of  defence.  In 
the  suburb  to  the  north  was,  first,  the 
corner  -  gate,  which  was  probably  the 
same  as  the  old  gate,  and  perhaps  also 
the  gate  of  Ephraim,  the  site  of  which, 
however,  is  quite  uncertain.  From  the 
upper  part  of  the  city  a  gate  led  west 
toward  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  called  the 
dung-gate,  where  a  rock  staircase  has  been 


JER 


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discovered.  To  the  south  a  wall  ran 
across  the  Tyropoeon,  at  the  outset  of 
which  lay  the  spriiuj-gate,  or  the  valley 
between  the  two  walls.  The  situation  of 
the  potters'  gate,  leading  to  the  valley  of 
Hinnom,  is  a  matter  of  mere  conjecture." 
The  city  prospered  under  Nehemiah 
as  a  Persian  governor.  In  b.  c.  366, 
Jeshua  was  murdered  by  his  brother, 
Johanan,  through  rivalry  for  the  high 
priesthood,  and  Bagoses,  the  Persian 
general,  entered  the  sanctuary,  and  im- 
posed a  tax  of  50  darics  or  drachmas 
for  every  lamb  oflFered  during  the  life- 
time of  Johanan,  which  was  7  years. 
The  two  sons  of  Johanan,  Jaddua  and 
Manasseh,  held  the  high  priest's  office 
jointly  until  after  their  father's  death, 
when  Manasseh  joined  the  Samaritans, 
and  became  the  first  high  priest  of  their 
temple  on  Mount  Gerizim.  ScoSamari- 
TAXS.  In  B.  c.  332,  Alexander  the  Great, 
after  the  famous  battle  of  Issus,  in  which 
he  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the 
Persians,  visited  Jerusalem,  according 
to  Josephus,  and  the  high  priest  read  to 
him  the  writings  of  Daniel,  predicting 
the  overthrow  of  Persia  b}'  the  Greeks. 
This  secured  to  the  Jews  various  favors, 
among  them  an  exemption  from  tribute 
during  the  sabbatical  year.  In  B.  c.  320, 
Ptolemy  Soter  captured  Jerusalem  be- 
cause the  Jews  would  not  fight  on  the 
Sabbath,  and  large  numbers  of  the  people 
were  transported  to  Africa.  In  b.  c.  300, 
Simon  the  Just,  a  favorite  hero  among 
the  Jews,  became  high  priest,  and  added 
deep  foundations  to  the  temple,  probably 
to  gain  greater  surface  on  the  top  of  the 
hill,  sheathed  the  great  sea  with  brass, 
strengthened  and  fortified  the  walls, 
and  sustained  the  temple-service  with 
great  pomp  and  ceremony.  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  under  whose  direction  the 
Septuagint  Version  of  the  0.  T.  is  re- 
puted to  have  been  made,  at  Alexandria, 
also  made  rich  gifts  to  the  temple  and 
its  service. 

I  Jerusalem  soon  after  became  the  prey 
of  rival  parties;  was  visited  by  Ptolemy 
Philopator,  who  attempted  to  offer  sacri- 
fice in  the  temple,  but  was  prevented  by 
Simon,  the  high  priest,  and  by  a  super- 
natural terror,  which  caused  him  to  fall 
paralyzed  upon  the  floor  of  the  court. 
He  afterwards  showed  great  hostility  to 
the  Jews. 
Jerusalem  was  taken  by  Antiochus  the 


Great,  b.  c.  203,  and  retaken  by  Scopas, 
the  Alexandrian  general,  b.  c.  199,  but  a 
year  later  was  opened  by  the  Jews  to 
Antiochus,  who  rewarded  them  with  largo 
presents  of  money  and  materials  for  re- 
pairing the  temple,  and  with  considerable 
remission  in  taxes,  declaring  their  temple 
inviolable.  The  city  again  had  great 
apparent  prosperity.  After  the  death  of 
Antiochus  the  Great,  B.  c.  187,  and  under 
the  reign  of  the  infamous  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  (since  b.  c.  175),  it  became 
again  the  scene  of  commotion  through 
strifes  and  disgraceful  Greek  customs, 
young  men  being  trained  naked  in  a 
new  gymnasium  set  up  by  Jason  the 
high  priest,  to  whom  Antiochus  had 
sold  the  office;  bribery,  fraud,  pillage, 
and  riot  were  common  ;  the  holy  place 
of  the  temple  was  polluted ;  a  foreign 
garrison  was  placed  in  the  hill  of  Da- 
vid, overlooking  the  temple;  heathen 
worship  was  ordered  to  be  celebrated  in 
the  sanctuary  of  Jehovah,  and  the  Jews 
not  slain  were  forced  to  submit  to  every 
species  of  indignity.  Many  of  them  re- 
sisted the  efforts  of  Antiochus  to  destroy 
their  religion,  and  suffered  torments  and 
bitter  persecutions.  See  1  Mace.  1 :  13  ;  2 
Mace.  4:9,  12;  6:10-31;  7.  The  Jews 
finally  made  a  general  revolt  against  the 
monstrous  tyranny  of  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes. A  large  army  was  raised  under 
Judas  Maccabaus,  who  gained  a  victory 
over  Lysias,  the  Antiochian  general,  and 
the  Jews  re-entered  Jerusalem,  b.  c.  165. 
2  Mace.  8. 

At  the  death  of  Judas  Maccabseus, 
B.  c.  161,  the  city  again  had  a  period  of 
disturbance  and  trouble,  caused  by  the 
dissensions  of  local  rulers,  until  the  time 
of  John  Hyrcanus,  b.  c.  135,  when  it  was 
attacked  by  the  king  of  Syria,  who  en- 
circled it  with  seven  camps,  erected  on 
the  north  a  hundred  towers  of  attack, 
each  three  stories  high,  and  partially 
undermined  the  wall.  A  truce  was,  how- 
ever, secured;  the  Syrians  were  induced 
to  end  the  siege,  and  the  walls  were 
carefully  repaired.  After  the  death  of 
Hyrcanus  the  city  was  the  scene  of  mur- 
derous strifes  and  bloody  wars  between 
the  petty  rulers  and  the  two  leading 
sects,  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees,  no 
fewer  than  50.000  persons  having  fallen 
in  these  feuds  in  six  years. 

The  city  was  captured,  b.  c.  63,  by  the 
Roman  Pompey,  who  left  the  valuable 
^  439 


JEK 


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treasures  of  the  temple  intact ;  Crassus, 
in  B.  c.  54,  however,  plundered  the  tem- 
ple and  city  of  the  treasures  which 
Pompey  had  spared,  amounting,  it  is 
computed,  to  10,000  talents,  or  from 
$8,000,000  to  $10,000,000.  The  city  was 
captured  by  the  Parthians  under  Anti- 
gonus,  B.  c.  40,  but  the  next  year  Herod, 
afterward  the  Great,  laid  siege  to  Jeru- 
salem, supported  by  a  Roman  army;  the 
outer  walls  and  lower  city  were  taken  in 
less  than  60  days,  and  after  prolonging 
the  siege  for  five  months  the  citadel  and 
temple  were  captured  by  storm.  Later, 
Herod  was  made  king  by  the  Romans.  He 
speedily  began  to  improve  and  beautify 
the  city,  one  of  the  chief  of  his  works 
being  the  enlarging  of  the  temple,  which 
occupied  46  years.  Under  his  rule  the 
city  was  restored  to  something  like  its 
ancient  magnificence. 

4.  Jerusnlem  in  N.  T.  Times. — Jeru- 
salem, in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  stood  in 
all  the  strength  and  grandeur  to  which  it 
had  been  brought  by  Herod.  This  king 
died  a  few  months  after  the  birth  of 
Jesus,  but  the  royal  palace,  the  renewed 
temple,  the  fortress  of  Antonia,  built 
from  the  older  Baris  tower,  the  grand 
theatre  where  games  were  instituted  in 
honor  of  Caesar,  the  three  great  towers 
of  Hippicus,  Phasajlus,  and  Mariamne, 
the  bridge  of  Herod,  between  the  upper 
city  and  what  had  been  a  portion  of 
Solomon's  palace, — these  magnificent 
structures  of  Herod  remained.     The  ruin 


Kobinsoii's  Arch. 

now  known  as  "Robinson's  Arch"  is  a 
part  of   the  bridge   of   Herod.     Except 
the  aqueduct  built  under  Pilate  for  the 
440 


better  supply  of  the  city  with  water, 
no  important  improvements  were  made 
from  the  time  of  Herod  the  Great  until 
the  reign  of  his  grandson,  Herod  Agrip- 
pa,  A.D.  41.  The  second  wall  enclosed 
the  northern  part  of  the  central  valley 
of  the  city ;  beyond  this  lay  Bezetha, 
or  ''  new  town,"  which  Agrippa  enclosed 
by  a  third  wall,  that  doubled  the  size 
of  the  city.  After  his  death  Judaea  again 
became  simply  a  Roman  province,  ruled 
by  reckless  and  oppressive  procurators, 
and  Jerusalem  was  the  scene  of  dis- 
content, insurrections,  riots,  and  petty 
rebellions,  until  Vespasian  and  Titus  be- 
gan a  war  to  put  down  the  insurrection. 
Jerusalem  was  besieged.  The  terrible 
suflferings  and  agony  of  the  Jews  shut 
up  in  the  invested  city,  the  loss  of  up- 
ward of  1,000,000  lives  in  the  siege,  the 
complete  destruction  of  the  city,  A.  d. 
70,  form  one  of  the  darkest  pages  in  the 
history  of  this  remarkable  people.  The 
rebellion  was  kept  up  for  about  3  years 
after  the  fall  of  the  city,  when  the  Jewish 
power  was  completely  destroyed  and  the 
Jews  denied  access  to  their  ancient 
capital. 

5.  Jerusalem  under  Roman  and  Chris- 
tian Emperors. — The  city  and  kingdom 
having  been  destroyed  by  Vespasian 
and  Titus,  a  new  Roman  Jerusalem  was 
founded  by  Hadrian  upon  the  site  of  the 
ancient  city,  and  called  ^lia  Capito- 
Una ;  a  temple  of  Jupiter  was  erected 
on  the  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Jehovah. 
The  Jews  were  not  allowed  to  enter  the 
city,  and  this  law  continued  until  the 
country  came  under  the  rule  of  the  Chris- 
tian emperors  of  the  Eastern  empire. 
Constantine  restored  the  old  name  Jeru- 
salem, and  his  mother,  the  empress 
Helena,  devoted  herself  to  re-discovering 
the  lost  sites  of  importance  to  Christians, 
erecting  costly  churches  to  commemorate 
some  of  the  supposed  holy  places.  In 
the  reign  of  Julian — commonly  called 
the  Apostate — an  attempt  was  made  to  re- 
build the  temple,  but  an  earthquake  and 
other  supernatural  occurrences  caused 
the  work  to  be  abandoned,  and  the  event 
has  been  regarded  as  a  judgment  of  God 
upon  an  impious  attempt  to  falsify  the 
words  of  Christ.  Ammianus  Marcel- 
linus,  a  heathen  historian,  philosopher 
and  a  soldier  of  Julian,  thus  describes 
the  failure  of  this  attempt  to  rebuild  the 
temple  :  *'  Whilst  Alypius,  assisted  by  the 


JER 


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governor  of  the  province,  urged  with  vigor 
and  diligence  the  execution  of  the  work, 
horrible  balls  of  tire  breaking  out  near 
the  foundations,  with  frequent  and  reit- 
erated attacks,  rendered  the  place  from 
time  to  time  inaccessible  to  the  scorched 
and  blasted  workmen  ;  and  the  victorious 
element  continuing  in  this  obstinately  and 
resolutely  bent,  as  it  were,  to  drive  them 
to  a  distance,  the  undertaking  was  aban- 
doned." Chrysostom  declares  that  per- 
sons of  his  time  were  witnesses  of  this 
defeat  of  the  etfort  to  rebuild  the  temple, 
and  that  the  above  occurrences  were  the 
reason  assigned  for  the  failure  of  the 
project.  This  view  has  been  strongly 
advocated  by  Bishop  Warburton.  The 
emperor  Justinian  founded  a  fine  church 
in  honor  of  the  Virgin,  a.  d.  529,  which 
some  would  locate  upon  the  site  of  the 
mosque  el-Aksa.  In  A.  d.  614  the  Per- 
sians, under  Chosroes  II.,  captured  Jeru- 
salem, slew  thousands  of  the  monks  and 
clergy,  and  destroyed  the  churches. 

6.  Jerusalem  of  the  Crusaders  and 
Turks.— In  A.  D.  637  the  city  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Caliph  Omar,  and  Chris- 
tians were  allowed  to  worship  there,  but 
not  to  erect  churches.  After  unusual 
severities  upon  Christians  by  a  Turkish 
ruler,  the  Crusaders  captured  the  city  in 
A.  D.  1099;  it  was  reconquered,  1187, 
by  the  Mohammedans  under  Saladin. 
Thrice  afterward  it  was  in  Christian 
hands;  in  1517  it  came  into  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Osmans,  and  has  remained  in 
the  hands  of  the  Turks  until  the  present 
time.  (A  description  of  modern  Jerusalem 
will  be  found  near  the  close  of  the  article. ) 
V.  Topography. — The  Jerusalem  of 
to-day  is  built  upon  the  ruins  of  several 
successive  cities,  each  erected  and  de- 
stroyed upon  the  same  site,  and  each 
adding  to  the  debris  of  some  former 
town.  The  foundations  of  the  Jerusa- 
lem of  the  0.  T.  and  of  Christ  and  his 
apostles,  so  far  as  they  exist,  are  far 
below  the  surface  of  the  present  town. 
*'The  city  shall  be  builded  upon  her 
own  heap,"  said  Jeremiah,  30:  18;  and 
this  we  know  has  been  fulfilled  many 
times.  Owing  to  this  repeated  burial 
of  the  Jerusalem  of  the  various  periods 
described  above,  the  precise  location  of 
the  biblical  sites  and  ancient  holy  places 
in  and  about  the  city  has  led  to  long  and 
sharp  controversy.  Even  the  location 
of  Zion  and  Moriah  has  been  disputed 


with  great  ability  and  learning.  The 
energetic  and  successful  explorations  of 
the  English  Palestine  Fund  proved  that 
remains  of  the  ancient  enclosing  walls 
about  the  temple  still  exist,  about  80 
feet  below  the  present  surface.  Upon 
these  immense  stone  blocks,  lying  at  that 
depth  upon  a  rocky  foundation,  there 
were  discovered  Phoenician  quarry- 
marks.  The  shafts  sunk  by  Captains 
Warren  and  Wilson  have  since  been 
filled  up,  and  Jerusalem  topography  is 
still  confused  by  the  mazes  of  many 
conflicting  opinions.  A  brief  statement 
of  the  general  divisions  and  features 
of  Jerusalem  has  already  been  given 
under  Physical  Features,  p.  4.34. 

The  theory  of  Mr.  Fergusson,  in 
Smith's  Dictionary,  which  would  iden- 
tify Zion  with  the  hill  on  which  the 
temple  stood,  has  been  generally  re- 
jected by  scholars.  The  lower  eastern 
hill,  known  as  Mount  Moriah,  is  the 
site  of  Solomon's  temple;  west  of  it  was 
the  higher  hill  of  Zion,  called  also  the 
city  of  David.  Bezetha  was  on  the 
north  of  Zion,  according  to  Josephus. 

Walls  of  David  and  of  Nehemiah. — As 
the  walls  of  the  old  city  rebuilt  b}'  Ne- 
hemiah were,  it  is  believed,  upon  the  old 
foundations,  the  city,  as  renovated  after 
the  great  captivity,' must  have  been  upon 
the  same  site,  and  have  covered  nearly 
the  same  area  as  the  Jerusalem  of  Da- 
vid and  Solomon.  Dr.  Howard  Crosby, 
in  Johnson's  Cycloj)?edia,  says  of  the 
city  as  restored  by  Nehemiah  :  "  Elia- 
shib  the  high  priest  is  first  mentioned 
as  leading  the  workers  at  the  sheep- 
gate,  and  at  the  wall  as  far  as  the 
tower  of  the  Hundred  {Ha  Meah)  and 
the  tower  of  Hananeel.  These  jjlaces 
we  must,  of  course,  find  in  the  temple- 
region.  .  .  .  The  description  in  Nehe- 
miah follows  the  wall  from  the  centre 
of  the  east  side  of  the  city  northward. 
The  sheep-gate  must  have  been  in  the 
centre  of  the  temple-precinct  wall.  .  .  . 
If  the  jjrobatika  of  John  5 : 2  be  the 
sheep-gate,  and  the  Pool  of  Bethesda 
be  the  Fountain  of  the  Virgin,  with  its 
intermittent  flow,  then  we  should  sup- 
pose the  sheep-gate  to  be  farther  south  ; 
but  the  Pool  of  Bethesda  may  have  been 
within  the  temple-precinct,  and  the  pres- 
ent Fountain  of  the  Virgin  may  re- 
ceive to-day  the  intermittent  eff'ects 
which    in    former   times    showed    them- 

441 


JEK 


JER 


selves  in  another  pool,  now  filled  up. 
We  are  inclined  to  think  that  this  sheep- 
gate  is  the  same  as  the  Mlshneh,  or 
'  second  gate/  of  Zeph.  1 :  10,  and  the 
'college'  of  2  Kgs.  22 :  U,  where  the 
prophetess  Huldah  lived.  In  this  case 
the  fish-gate  would  be  the  first  gate  (see 
Zeph.  1  :  10),  and  would  represent  the 
north-eastern  corner  of  the  city,  oppo- 
site the  Mount  of  Olives.  Between  the 
fish-gate  and  the  sheep-gate  would  stand 
the  tower  of  Hananeel  and  the  tower  of 
Meah  (or  the  Hundred).  The  '  old  gate ' 
would  be  fovmd  next  as  we  follow  the 
north  wall  north-westward.  The  course 
would  be  along  the  '  second  wall '  of  Jo- 
sephus,  for  the  first  or  old  wall  seems  to 
have  been  the  northern  fortification  of 
Zion.  The  '  old  gate  '  may  be  really  the 
Jeshanah  gate.  2  Chr.  13  :  19.  .  .  .  The 
'gate  of  Ephraim '  comes  next  in  Nehe- 
miah  (not  in  his  account  of  the  build- 
ing, but  in  his  record  of  the  dedication, 
12  :  39),  and  may  have  occupied  the  site 
of  the  present  Damascus  gate.  Then 
follows  the  '  broad  wall'  (some  local  pe- 
culiarities of  the  wall,  perhaps  for  de- 
fence), and  then  we  reach  the  '  Tower 
of  the  Furnaces,'  which  may  have  stood 
over  the  western  valley,  as  the  towers  of 
Hananeel  and  the  Hundred  overlooked 
the  eastern.  The  'valley-gate'  would 
correspond  with  the  present  Jaff'a-gate. 
Near  this  was  the  '  Dragon-well.'  Neh.  2  : 
13.  The  'dung-gate'  (if  our  supposi- 
tions above  are  correct)  would  be  1000 
cubits  south  of  the  JaSa-gate,  Neh.  3  : 
13 — that  is,  on  the  south-western  part 
of  Zion,  over  against  the  Birket  es-Sul- 
tan  (Pool  of  the  Sultan).  The  'foun- 
tain-gate' would  lie  on  the  opposite 
side  of  Zion,  facing  the  Pool  of  Siloam. 
The  '  stairs '  that  go  down  from  the  city 
of  David  would  be  found  between  the 
fountain-gate  and  the  south-western 
temple-corner.  They  were  probably  an 
ascent  from  the  king's  gardens  to  the 
Davidian  palace  on  Zion.  The  sepul- 
chres of  David,  the  '  king's  pool,'  Neh. 
2  :  14,  and  the  house  of  the  mighty  were 
probably  at  the  corner  of  Zion,  over 
against  the  south-western  temple-cor- 
ner, where  the  wall  crossed  the  Tyro- 
pceon.  The  'armory' is  in  this  neigh- 
borhood, at  the  very  corner  where  the 
wall  turns  abruptly  southward  to  encir- 
cle Ophel.  The  '  house  of  the  high 
priest '  and  the  '  house  of  Azariah '  are 
442 


near  this.  After  turning  the  extreme  cor- 
ner of  Ophel  southwardjwe  reach  the '  tow- 
er which  lieth  out  from  the  king's  high 
house,'  which  may  be  the  extra  tower 
discovered  by  Capt.  Warren's  subterra- 
nean explorations  {Recovery  of  Jerusa- 
lem, p.  229).  As  he  himself  suggests,  it 
may  have  been  built  out  in  order  to 
guard  the  fountain  of  the  Virgin.  The 
'  water-gate '  would  be  so  called  in  rela- 
tion to  this  fountain.  By  this  water- 
gate,  on  Ophel,  was  a  broad  street  or 
square,  where  assemblies  could  be  held 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  temple. 
Neh.  8  :  1,  3,  16.  Near  by  was  the  '  horse- 
gate,'  famous  as  the  spot  where  Atha- 
liah  was  put  to  death.  .  .  .  The  gate 
'  Miphkad '  may  mark  some  angle  of 
the  walls  connected  with  the  division, 
as  a  special  corner  is  here  mentioned, 
Neh.  3  :  32,  before  we  reach  the  sheep- 
gate  again." 

The  next  important  view  of  Jerusa- 
lem topography  is  that  during  our 
Lord's  day,  and  until  its  destruction  by 
the  Romans,  a.  d.  70.  The  only  full  de- 
scription of  the  city  near  that  date  which 
has  come  down  to  us  is  found  in  Josephus. 
The  city  was  defended  on  the  east,  south, 
and  west  by  a  single  wall ;  upon  the  north 
three  walls  were  successively  built,  the  sec- 
ond outside  of  the  first,  and  the  third  out- 
side of  the  second.  The  position  of  these 
walls  is  one  of  the  disputed  questions  in 
Jerusalem  topography.  In  reconstruct- 
ing the  city  as  it  appeared  in  our  Lord's 
day  the  reader  must  remember  that  the 
third  wall,  which  enclosed  the  new  city, 
Bezetha,  on  the  north,  was  built  by 
Herod  Agrippa,  about  A.  D.  42,  and 
therefore  after  the  crucifixion  and  as- 
cension of  Christ.  All  the  three  walls 
noticed  by  Josephus  are  upon  the  north 
of  the  upper  city,  or  Zion,  but  there  is 
much  controversy  respecting  the  course 
of  these  walls,  particularly  the  second 
and  the  third  wall.  It  must  be  further 
borne  in  mind  that  the  ancient  walls 
probably  included  the  southern  portions 
of  the  hills  of  Zion  and  of  Ophel,  which 
are  outside  the  present  walls  of  the  city. 

The  following  description  of  the  city 
before  its  destruction  by  Titus  is  con- 
densed from  Josephus,  Jewiih  War,  v., 
4;  several  of  his  points  in  the  course 
have  not  been  identified. 

"  1.  Jerusalem  was  fortified  with  three 
walls   on   such   parts   as  were   not  en- 


Eastern  Wall  of  Jerusalem  and  Muslim  Tombs.     {Aft-er  Photograph  by  Bonfih.) 

There  are  many  cemeteries,  sepulchres,  and  tombs  about  Jerusalem,  but  the  favorite  buryiiig-place  of  the 
Muslims  is  along  the  east  wall,  adjoining  the  Baram  esh-Sherif,  since,  according  to  their  traditions,  the  general 
judgment  will  take  place  in  this  locality.  They  say  that  all  men  will  then  assemble  in  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat 
(at  the  left  of  the  picture).  A  thin  wire  rope  will  he  stretched  across  the  valley  to  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Christ 
will  sit  on  the  wall  and  Mohammed  on  the  mount,  as  judges.  All  men  must  pass  over  the  intervening  space 
on  the  rope.  The  righteous  will  be  kept  by  the  angels  from  falling,  while  the  wicked  will  be  precipitated  into 
the  abyss  of  hell.  Near  the  centre  of  the  picture  can  be  seen  the  Golden  Gate,  which  has  been  kept  closed 
from  a  very  early  period. 


The  Interior  of  the  Jaffa-Gate.  {After  Photograph  by  Bonfils.) 
The  JafiTa-gate,  called  also  "  Yafa-gate,"  '•  Hebron-gate,"  and  by  the  Arabs  Bdh  el-Khulil,  is  on  the  west  side 
of  Jerusalem.  It  consists  of  a  massive  square  tower,  the  entrance  to  which  from  without  is  on  the  northern 
side,  and  the  exit  within  on  the  eastern.  A 11  the  roads  from  the  country  south  and  west  converge  to  this  gate. 
One  street — and  it  is  generally  the  one  first  trodden  by  Western  pilgrims — leads  from  the  Jaffa-gate  eastward 
past  the  space  by  the  citadel,  and  down  the  side  of  the  ridge  and  across  the  valley  to  the  principal  entrance  of 
the  Haram.  This  street  is  called  by  some  the  "  Street  of  Uavid."  Outside  the  Jaffa-gate  is  the  usual  camping- 
place  of  all  travellers  reaching  Jerusalem  by  way  of  Jaffa  and  from  Hebron  or  Bethlehem. 


JER 


JER 


compassed  with  impassable  valleys;  in 
such  places  it  hath  but  one  wall.  The 
city  was  built  upon  two  hills.  Of  these 
hills,  that  which  contains  the  upper  city 
is  much  higher,  and  was  called  the  cita- 
del by  King  David,  but  it  is  by  us  called 
the  upj)er  market-place.  The  other  hill, 
which  was  called  Acra  and  sustains  the 
lower  city,  is  of  the  shape  of  a  moon 
when  she  is  horned.  Over  against  this 
there  was  a  third  hill,  but  naturally 
lower  than  Acra,  and  parted  formerly 
from  the  other  by  a  broad  valley.  How- 
ever, in  those  times  when  the  Asamonee- 
ans  reigned  they  filled  up  that  valley 
with  earth,  and  had  a  mind  to  join  the 
city  to  the  temple.  They  then  took  oflF 
part  of  the  height  of  Acra,  that  the 
temple  might  be  superior  to  it.  Now, 
the  Valley  of  the  Cheesemongers,  which 
distinguished  the  hill  of  the  upper  city 
from  that  of  the  lower,  extended  as  far 
as  Siloam,  a  fountain  that  hath  sweet 
water.  But  on  the  outsides  these  hills 
are  surrounded  by  deep  valleys  ;  and  by 
reason  of  the  precipices  to  them  belong- 
ing on  both  sides,  they  are  everywhere 
impassable. 

"  2.  Now,  of  these  three  walls,  the  old 
one  was  hard  to  be  taken,  both  by  reason 
of  the  valleys  and  of  that  hill  on  which  it 
was  built.  But  besides  that  great  ad- 
vantage as  to  the  place  where  they  were 
situated,  it  was  also  built  very  strong, 
because  David  and  Solomon  and  the 
following  kings  were  very  zealous  about 
this  work.  Now,  that  wall  began  on  the 
north  at  a  tower  called  Hippicus,  and  ex- 
tended as  far  as  the  Xistus,  and  then, 
joining  to  the  council-house,  ended  at 
the  west  cloister  of  the  temple.  But  if 
we  go  the  other  way  westward,  it  began 
at  the  same  place,  and  extended  through 
a  place  called  Bethso  to  the  gates  of  the 
Essenes;  and  after  that  it  went  south- 
ward, having  its  bending  above  the 
fountain  Siloam,  where  it  also  bends 
again  toward  the  east  at  Solomon's 
Pool,  and  reaches  as  far  as  a  certain 
place  which  they  called  Ophlas,  where 
it  was  joined  to  the  eastern  cloister  of 
the  temple.  The  second  wall  took  its 
beginning  from  that  gate  Gennath  which 
belonged  to  the  first  wall;  it  only  en- 
compassed the  northern  quarter  of  the 
city,  and  reached  as  far  as  the  tower  An- 
tonia.  The  beginning  of  the  third  wall 
was  at  the  tower  Hippicus,  whence  it 
444 


reached  as  far  as  the  north  quarter  of 
the  city  and  the  tower  Psephinus,  and 
then  was  so  far  extended  until  it  came 
over  against  the  monuments  of  Helena, 
queen  of  Adiabene,  the  daughter  of 
Izates ;  it  then  extended  farther  to  a 
great  length,  and  passed  by  the  sepul- 
chral caverns  of  the  kings,  and  bent 
again  at  the  tower  of  the  corner,  at  the 
Monument  of  the  Fuller,  and  joined  to 
the  old  wall  at  the  valley  called  the  T^«/- 
ley  of  Cedron.  Agrippa  added  to  the 
old  city,  by  this  wall,  a  fourth  hill, 
called  Bezetha,  or  'new  city.'  It  lies 
over  against  the  tower  Antonia,  but  is 
divided  from  it  by  a  deep  valley,  which 
was  dug  to  strengthen  the  tower.  The 
father  of  the  present  king,  Agrippa, 
began  the  third  wall,  but  he  left  off 
building  it  when  he  had  onl}'  laid  the 
foundations,  out  of  the  fear  he  was  in 
of  Claudius  Caesar,  lest  he  should  sus- 
pect that  so  strong  a  wall  was  built  in 
order  to  make  some  innovations  in  pub- 
lic aflfairs ;  for  the  city  could  no  way 
have  been  taken  if  that  wall  had  been 
finished  in  the  manner  it  was  begun,  as 
its  parts  were  connected  together  by 
stones  20  cubits  long  and  10  cubits 
broad,  which  could  never  have  been 
either  easily  undermined  by  any  iron 
tools  or  shaken  by  any  engines.  The 
wall  was,  however,  10  cubits  wide;  after 
that  it  was  erected  with  great  diligence 
by  the  Jews  as  high  as  20  cubits,  above 
which  it  had  battlements  of  2  cubits, 
and  turrets  of  3  cubits'  altitude,  inso- 
much that  the  entire  altitude  was  25 
cubits." 

This  third  wall  is  said  to  have  been 
defended  by  90  towers.  The  strongest 
of  these  was  the  Psejjhinus  tower,  at  the 
north-western  angle,  which  was  upward 
of  100  feet  in  height  and  stood  on  the 
highest  ground  in  the  city  (2572  feet 
above  the  sea). 

The  First  Wall. — In  respect  to  the 
course  of  the  first  wall  there  is,  in  the 
main,  greater  agreement  among  scholars 
than  in  respect  to  either  of  the  other 
two.  This  wall  began  at  the  tower  of 
Hippicus  on  the  west,  ran  to  the  south 
around  the  pinnacle  of  the  hill,  enclos- 
ing Siloam,  and  extended  to  the  eastern 
wall  of  the  temple-precincts.  South  of 
this  north  wall  stood  the  palace  of  Herod, 
the  Xistus,  and  the  bridge  which  crossed 
the  Tyropoeon  to  the  temple.     Another 


JER 


JEB 


wall  ran  down  on  the  western  margin  of 
the  Tyropoeon  to  defend  the  upper  part 
of  the  city. 

The  Second  Wall  and  Site  of  Calvary. — 
No  certain  traces  of  the  second  wall  have 
been  discovered.  Respecting  the  course 
of  this  wall  there  has  been  sharp  dispute, 
for  upon  it  depends  the  question  of  the 
genuineness  of  the  *'  holy  sepulchre "'  and 
of  the  site  of  Calvary.  Robinson,  Tobler, 
Ilupfeld,  Arnold,  John  Wilson,  Thom- 
son, Barclay,  Bonar,  Fergusson,  Porter, 
Meyer,  Ewald,  Schatf,  Crosby,  Conder, 
and  others,  dispute  the  traditional  site  of 
the  holy  sepulchre,  since  in  their  view  the 
second  wall  included  its  site  within  the 
city.  On  the  other  hand,  Roman  Catholics, 
as  De  Vogue,  De  Saulcy,  and  Sepp,  and 
able  Protestants,  as  Rev.  Geo.  Williams, 
KraflFt,  Ritter,  Schultz,  Rosen,  Von  Schu- 
bert, Raumer,  Fiirrer,  F.  A.  Strauss,  and 
Lewin,  argue  that  the  second  wall  ex- 
cluded the  site  of  the  holy  sepulchre,  and 
therefore  they  accept  the  old  tradition 
that  it  is  the  true  site  of  the  crucifixion. 
From  the  account  in  the  Gospels  it  is 
clear  that  the  place  of  the  crucifixion  was 
outside  the  city.  Matt.  28  :  11  ;  Mark  15  : 
20,21;  Luke  23:26;  John  19:17;  Heb. 
13  :  12,  13,  but  it  was  also  nigh  to  the 
city,  John  19  :  20,  and  near  a  common 
thoroughfare  frequented  by  many,  Matt. 
27  :  39  ;  Mark  15  ;  29  ;  John  19  :  20 ;  and 
again,  it  was  on  a  conical  elevation 
(hence  called  ''Place  of  a  Skull"  or 
Calvary,  but  not  Mount  Calvary,  for 
which  there  is  no  Scripture  warrant). 
Matt.  27  :  33  ;  Mark  15  :  22  ;  Luke  23  :  33  ; 
John  19  :  17;  and  lastly,  it  was  in  a  gar- 
den which  had  a  sepulchre  hewn  in  a 
rock,  where  Christ  was  buried.  Matt. 
27 : 60  ;  John  19 : 38-42. 

Several  writers  of  the  fourth  and  fifth 
centuries  ascribe  the  discovery  of  the  site 
of  Calvary  to  Helena,  mother  of  Constan- 
tine,  who  found  three  crosses  there,  and 
who  also  discovered  which  was  the  true 
cross  of  our  Saviour  by  a  miracle  of 
healing  which  its  touch  produced  upon 
a  sick  woman.  Helena  caused  a  splen- 
did church  to  be  erected  on  the  spot,  a. 
D.  335.  It  has  since  been  several  times 
destroyed  and  rebuilt,  but  tradition  has 
fixed  upon  this  spot  as  the  place  of 
Christ's  crucifixion  and  burial.  The  ad- 
vocates of  this  tradition  must  prove  that 
the  old  city  excluded  this  site.  The 
Rev.  Geo.  Williams  sums  up  the  argu- 


ments in  favor  of  the  traditional  view, 
and  Robinson  presents,  with  marked  abil- 
ity, the  objections  to  it.  Dr.  Schatf,  in 
Throuijh  Bible  Lunds,  says:  "The  old 
city  was  much  larger  and  more  densely 
inhabited  than  the  present,  and  conse- 
quently more  likely  to  include  the  site 
of  that  church  [Holy  Sepulchre]  than  to 
exclude  it.  ...  The  champions  of  the 
tradition,  therefore,  are  bound  to  prove 
that  the  location  of  the  city  has  greatly 
changed,  and  that  the  second  wall  of 
Josephus  (which  ran  circuitously  from 
the  gate  Gennath — i.  e.  the  garden-gate, 
near  the  tower  of  Hippicus — to  the  for- 
tress of  Antonia,  on  the  north  of  the 
temple-area)  excluded  the  church  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre.  This  has  not  been 
proved.  It  is  possible,  but  very  im- 
probable. Diligent  search  for  wall- 
foundations  has  failed  so  far.  The  ruins 
near  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre, 
which  have  been  supposed  by  Williams 
and  others  to  be  fragments  of  the  second 
wall,  have  proved  to  be  portions  of  a 
church,  and  the  old  arch  called  the  gate 
Gennath  is  a  compax-atively  recent 
building."  See  Calvary.  The  precise 
course  of  the  second  wall  can  only  be 
unquestionably  settled  by  further  exca- 
vations, and  this,  if  settled,  would  de- 
cide whether  the  church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  covers  the  true  site  of  Cal- 
vary, as  tradition  claims,  or  whether 
Calvary  must  be  sought  elsewhere,  as 
the  weight  of  scholarship  now  seems  to 
require.  Some  of  those  who  reject  the 
traditional  site  locate  Calvary  a  few 
minutes'  walk  north  of  the  present  Da- 
mascus-gate, not  far  from  the  Grotto  of 
Jeremiah.  Here  is  a  skull-shaped,  rocky 
elevation,  about  half  a  mile  from  the 
fortress  Antonia  (Pilate'sjudgment-hall), 
and  the  same  distance  from  Mount  Zion 
(Herod's  palace)  and  on  the  highway  to 
Damascus.  The  spot  is  encircled  by 
rock-caverns  and  tombs.  It  answers  all 
the  requirements  of  the  Gospel  narra- 
tives, and  is  accepted  by  Bishop  Gobat 
of  Jerusalem,  Conrad  Schick,  Schaff",  and 
others,  and  a  similar  view  was  advo- 
cated b}'  Fisher  Howe  of  Brooklyn, 
1871,  and  more  recently  by  Conder,  1878. 
The  Third  WalL—HhG  situation  of 
the  third  wall  is  likewise  disputed  by 
topographical  writers.  Some,  as  Kie- 
pert,  Fergusson,  Wilson,  and  others, 
make  it  reach  to,  and  possibly  include, 

445 


JER 


JEB 


the  so-called  royal  tombs  and  the  whole 
northern  mountain-plateau,  on  which 
man}'  ruins  and  cisterns  lie  scattered. 
Robinson  places  the  third  wall  about  the 
middle  of  this  locality;  to  this  Baedeker 
objects  on  strategical  grounds.  Others 
suggest  that  this  third  wall  occupied 
about  the  same  site  as  the  present  north 
wall  of  Jerusalem,  which  view  is  claimed 
to  accord  with  the  distances  given  by  Jo- 
sephus  (4  stadia  to  the  royal  tombs,  7 
stadia  to  the  Scopus),  but  Josephus  is 
not  always  accurate.  Capt.  Warren 
advocates  this  latter  view,  that  the  po- 
sitions of  the  third  wall  and  of  the  pres- 
ent northern  wall  are  identical,  though 
he  acknowledges  that  he  found  no  de- 
cisive evidence  on  the  subject.  The 
reader  will  not  be  surprised  at  the  gen- 
eral uncertainty  which  prevails  in  re- 
gard to  the  ancient  walls  and  sacred 
sites  in  the  Holy  City  when  he  remem- 
bers that  it  has  been  27  times  besieged 
and  17  times  conquered,  and  often  deso- 
lated. The  present  walls  are  of  recent 
date,  being  built  by  Suleiman  the  Mag- 
nificent in  1542. 

Plans  of  the  City, — Mr.  Besant,  secre- 
tary of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund, 
received  18  diff"erent  reconstructions  of 
ancient  Jerusalem,  by  as  many  eminent 
scholars,  yet  all  based  on  the  authors' 
views  of  the  statements  in  the  Bible, 
Josephus,  and  by  late  explorers.  The  most 
important  plans  are  those  of  Robinson, 
Schultz,  Williams,  Furrer,  Barclay,  Van 
de  Velde,  Tobler,  British  Ordnance  Sur- 
vey, and  Schick.  Fergusson's  j^lan 
(Smith's  Bible  Dictionanj),  although 
the  view  of  a  distinguished  architect, 
is  too  untenable  to  be  of  value  or  inter- 
est to  the  ordinary  student.  The  chief 
of  these  plans  are  given  upon  another 
page. 

The  Temple-site. — The  site  of  the  tem- 
ple has  long  been  a  subject  of  contro- 
versy among  scholars,  but  nearly  all  agree 
that  it  was  on  Mount  Moriah,  which  is  at 
present  occupied  by  the  H(tram,  wherein 
stands  the  mosque  of  Omar.  Some  place 
it  in  the  south-western  corner  of  the  area 
now  known  as  the  Haram  esh-Sherif, 
but  the  discovery  of  immense  stones  at 
the  base  of  the  south-eastern  corner  of 
the  present  Haram  wall,  lying  in  place 
on  a  rocky  foundation  cut  out  to  receive 
them,  80  feet  below  the  present  surface, 
and  bearing  Phoenician  quarry-marks, 
446 


seems  to  confirm  the  earlier  view  that 
remains  of  the  buildings  of  Solomon 
still  exist  there,  and  that  Solomon's  tem- 
ple stood  upon  the  centre  of  the  Haram 
area  or  the  site  of  the  mosque  of  Omar, 
and  shows  the  fallacy  of  Mr.  Fergusson's 
view  that  the  temple-area  reached  only 
600  feet  east  from  the  south-western  cor- 
ner of  the  present  Haram  area,  since 
these  discovered  stones  at  the  south- 
eastern corner  are  900  feet  eastward. 
The  explorations  of  Capts.  Wilson  and 
Warren  prove  that  the  south-eastern 
corner  is  unchanged,  while  the  south- 
western has  undoubtedly  been  added, 
probably  by  Herod.  Beneath  the  Ha- 
ram area  there  are  aqueducts,  subterra- 
nean passages,  and  tanks,  some  of  them 
constructed,  doubtless,  for  proper  drain- 
age and  use  of  the  temple;  hence  the 
inference  from  recent  discoAeries  is  that 
the  present  Haram  area  very  nearly 
coincides  with  that  of  the  old  temple- 
area. 

Zion  and  the  Ti/ropaeon. — Two  other 
places  of  interest  in  the  Holy  City  be- 
sides Calvary — which  has  been  noticed 
under  the  second  wall — are  the  hill  of 
Zion  and  the  Tyropoeon  Valley.  Zion 
is  a  broad  hill  with  an  abrupt  front 
nearly  400  feet  high  at  one  point  above 
the  southern  valley,  the  hill  having  a 
length  of  2400  feet  to  the  JaS"a-gate, 
and  from  the  Tyropoeon  to  the  western 
valley  a  breadth  of  about  1600  feet.  The 
"  first  wall  "  was  built  along  the  north- 
ern brow  of  Zion.  The  plateau  of  Zion 
included  about  half  the  ancient  city. 
Zion  is  scarcely  200  feet  lower  than 
Olivet.  The  Tyrojioeon  valley,  known 
also  as  the  "Valley  of  the  Cheesemon- 
gers," extended  from  the  junction  of  the 
Hinnom  and  Kedron  valleys  northward, 
dividing  Zion  from  Moriah,  and,  accord- 
ing to  one  view,  continued  northward 
toward  the  present  Jaff"a-gate,  but,  ac- 
cording to  another  view,  turned  toward 
the  present  Damascus-gate;  while  a 
third  view  supposes  that  it  covered  the 
two  branches  reaching  to  the  two  gates 
above  named.  The  portion  of  the  val- 
ley between  Zion  and  Moriah  increased 
rapidly  in  depth  as  it  extended  south- 
ward, and  at  the  south-western  corner  of 
the  temple-area  the  bed  of  the  valley  was 
90  feet  below  the  present  surface,  giving 
an  entire  altitude  of  wall  amounting  to 
150  feet,  and  in  Herod's  time  to  over  200 


Plans  of  Ancient  Jerusalem. 


The  five  plans  given  above  indicate  the  views  of  some 
of  the  best  authorities  in  regard  to  the  topography  of 
ancient  Jerusalem. 

The  first  wall  enclosed  the  old  part  of  the  town,  or 
"  upper  city,"  upon  Mount  Zion,  and  extending  to  the 
Walls  of  the  temple-enclosure. 

The  second  wall  enclosed  the  old  suburb,  or  "  lower 
city,"  upon  Acra.  The  plan  of  Sepp  (Konian  Catho- 
lic) puts  the  site  of  the  present  churcli  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  outside  that  wall,  in  accordance  with  tlie 
traditional  view.  The  other  jjlans  include  that  site 
within  the  second  wall,  in  whicli  case  it  cannot  have 
been  the  place  of  the  crucifixion,  which  took  place 
outside  of  the  city. 


The  third  wall  was  built  by  Agrippa,  eleven  years 
after  the  death  of  Christ. 

Date  of  plans:  Robinson,  1841-1856;  Sepp,  1873; 
Tobler,  184»-18.58;  Schick.  1876;  Conder,  1879. 

For  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  as  the  genuine 
Calvary  are:  l>e  Voc;u6,  lie  Saulcy,  Sepp  (Roman 
Catholic),  Williams,  Hitter.  Krafft,  Schultz,  Strauss 
(Protestants)  ;  also  I'^urrer,  in  Schenkel's  Bihellexikon, 
ii.  506. 

Against  the  traditional  view  :  Robinson,  Tobler,  John 

Wilson,  Tl ipsou.  Harclav,  Bonar,  Fergusson,  Porter, 

Van  de  Vcl.lc,  .Mcvcr,  Ewald  (all  Protestants)  ;  also 
SchafT,  Through  liihle  Lands,  p.  259,  aad  Conder,  in 
Handbook  of  the  Jiille,  p.  350. 


JER 


JER 


feet ;  so  that  the  statement  of  Josephus 
no  longer  seems  a  foolish  exaggeration  : 
"  If  any  one  looked  down  from  the  top 
of  the  battlements,  he  would  be  giddy, 
while  his  sight  could  not  reach  to  such 
an  immense  depth."  The  gates,  pools, 
and  environs  of  the  Holy  City  may  be 
appropriately  noticed  under  the  descrip- 
tion of  modern  Jerusalem. 
VI.  Modern  Jerusalem.— The  pres- 
ent city  is  built  upon  the  ruins  of  the  an- 
cient Holy  City.  The  buildings,  walls, 
towers,  and  bridges  of  the  city  of  David 
and  Solomon,  of  Hezekiah,  of  Nehemiah 
and  Ezra,  of  the  Macc;i|bees,  and  of 
Herod,  have  been  demolished,  so  that 
the  depth  of  the  rubbish  around  the 
temple-walls  is  nearly  100  feet ;  on  the 
hill  of  Zion  the  rubbish  is  40  feet  deep, 
and  on  the  Via  Dolorosa  it  is  from  15  to 
30  feet  deep.  The  buildings,  walls, 
streets,  and  towers  now  standing  on  these 
sacred  hills  cannot  with  any  certaintj^ 
be  identified  with  the  structures  which 
adorned  the  city  2000  years  ago,  and 
whose  very  foundations,  so  far  as  dis- 
covered, lie  buried  many  feet  below  the 
present  surface. 

Environs  of  Jerusalem. — To  gain  a 
clear  view  of  the  places  immediately 
around  modern  Jerusalem  we  may  begin 
on  the  east  side  of  the  city,  near  the 
Mount  of  Olives.  Passing  by  the  Bir- 
ket-Israel,  identified  by  some  as  the  Pool 
of  Bethesda,  we  go  out  of  St.  Stephen's 
gate,  and  cross  a  bridge  leading  over  the 
Kedron  or  ''  black  brook,"  which  runs 
southward  through  a  deep  valley,  now 
dry  above  the  springs.  This  valley  is 
also  called  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat, 
and  an  old  tradition  makes  it  the  scene 
of  the  last  judgment,  founded  on  a  mis- 
interpretation of  Joel  3:2.  At  the  resur- 
rection the  sides  of  the  valley,  according 
to  this  tradition,  will  move  apart  to  give 
suflBcient  room  for  the  vast  assembly.  Be- 
yond the  Kedron  is  the  modern  chapel  of 
the  Tomb  of  the  Virgin,  near  which  is  the 
traditional  Cavern  of  Agony,  and  a  short 
distance  farther  on,  upon  the  slope  at 
the  foot  of  Olivet,  is  the  garden  of  Geth- 
semane.  It  is  now  enclosed  and  in  charge 
of  Franciscan  monks.  It  contains  a 
number  of  venerable  olive  trees,  whose 
large  trunks,  some  of  them  19  feet  in 
circumference,  are  burst  from  age,  and 
have  been  shored  up  with  stones.  These 
trees  are  said  to  date  from  the  time  of 
448 


Christ ;  but  this  is  questionable,  since  it 
is  certain  Titus  and  Hadrian  cut  down 
all  the  trees  about  Jerusalem.  They 
are,  however,  of  great  age,  and  may  be 
the  descendants  of  some  trees  that  were 
standing  here  in  our  Lord's  day.  See 
Gethsemane.  From  this  garden  three 
roads  lead  up  the  slopes  of  Olivet — one 
to  the  south,  around  the  top  of  the 
mount,  another  to  the  north,  and  a  third, 
or  middle  path,  leads  up  the  steepest 
part  to  the  summit.  See  Olivet.  The 
view  of  Jerusalem  from  Mount  Olivet  is 
the  finest  that  can  be  secured.  Bethany 
lies  a  short  distance  east  of  the  summit 
of  Olivet.  See  Bethany.  In  the  valley 
south  of  Olivet  are  the  Tombs  of  the 
Prophets,  no  doubt  belonging  to  the 
Jewish  period.  To  the  west  of  Geth- 
semane  a  road  leads  down  the  Kedron 
valley,  by  which  stands  the  so-called 
TomlD  of  Absalom  (see  Absalom),  and 
beyond  are  the  Tomb  of  Jehoshaphat 
and  the  Tomb  or  Pyramid  of  Zacharias. 
Above  these,  to  the  east,  the  whole  slope 
of  the  hill  is  covered  with  Jewish  tomb- 
stones, and  to  the  south  of  these  lies  the 
village  ofSihcan,  or  Siloah.  The  southern 
part  of  the  Mount  of  Olives,  on  which 
this  village  is  situated,  is  called  also  the 
Mount  of  Offence,  from  1  Kgs.  11  :  7. 
To  the  west  are  the  valleys  of  Jehosha- 
phat and  of  Hinnom.  To  the  south, 
down  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  is  the 
Pool  of  Siloah  and  St.  Mary's  Well, 
which  is  fed  by  an  intermittent  spring ; 
still  farther  down  the  valley  is  Job's 
Fountain,  probably  the  " En-rogel"  or 
fullers'  spring  of  Josh.  15  :  7  and  1 
Kgs.  1:9.  To  the  west  of  this  is  the 
mouth  of  the  Valley  of  Hinnom,  always 
dry,  on  the  south  of  which  is  the  Mount 
of  Evil  Counsel,  upon  which  tradition, 
probably  correctly,  places  Aceldama, 
"potter's  field"  or  "the  field  of  blood." 
Matt.  27  :  7,  8.  The  hill  is  full  of  rock- 
tombs.  At  the  foot  of  this  mount,  the 
bottom  of  the  Valley  of  Hinnom  was 
called  Tophet.  2  Kgs.  23:  10;  Isa.  30 : 
33;  Jer.  7:  31;  19:  11.  North  of  this 
valley,  and  upon  the  southern  portion 
of  the  hill  of  Zion — which  was  formerly 
included  within  the  walls  of  the  city, 
but  is  now  outside  the  city  (as  the 
present  walls  only  embrace  the  north- 
ern portion  of  Zion) — are  the  Jewish 
and  Christian  burying-grounds.  In  the 
portion  of  Zion   outside   the  city  walls 


JER 


JEil 


Porter  saw  oxen  ploughing,  in  fulfilment 
of  the  prophecy,  "  Zion  shall  be  ploughed 
like  a  field."  Jer.  26  :  IS  ;  Mic.  3  :  12.  An 
old  aqueduct  runs  past  Zion's  gate 
and  into  the  city  between  that  gate  and 
the  gate  eastward  of  it,  supposed  to 
be  the  dung-gate.  Across  the  Valley 
of  Hinnom,  to  the  westward,  is  the  large 
Jewish  hospice,  a  modern  structure 
founded  by  Sir  Moses  Montefiore,  while 
between  this  and  the  south-western  corner 
of  the  present  wall  is  the  Pool  of  the 
Sultan,  175  yards  long,  73  yards  wide, 
and  from  35  to  41  feet  deep,  partly  filled 
with  rubbish.  This  pool  is  by  some 
identified  with  the  "  lower  pool"  of  Isa. 
22  :  9.  North  of  this  pool  is  a  conduit, 
which  runs  from  Solomon's  pools  into  the 
city,  a  Greek  monastery,  a  leper  hospi- 
tal, and  the  Bhket-Mamilhr,  or  "  Mamil- 
la  pool."  291  by  192  feet,  and  19  feet 
deep,  which  may  be  the '' upper  pool" 
Gihon,  Isa.  7:  3,  or,  as  Baedeker  pro- 
poses, the  Serpent's  pool  of  Josephus. 
These  are  upon  the  south  side  of  the  road, 
leading  from  Jaffa  (Joppa)  into  Jerusa- 
lem by  the  Jaffa-gate  on  the  west  side 
of  the  city.  Crossing  this  road  to  the 
north  are  the  Kussian  buildings,  a  church, 
a  monastery,  and  a  hospice:  outside  the 
city,  and  farther  north,  in  the  city  wall, 
is  the  Damascus-gate,  to  the  north  of 
which,  outside  the  wall,  is  the  Grotto 
of  Jeremiah,  near  which  many  place  the 
true  site  of  Calvary.  Farther  from  the 
city  wall,  to  the  north,  are  the  so-called 
Tombs  of  the  Kings,  and  beyond  these 
the  hill  Scopus,  which  is  the  northern 
extension  of  Olivet  and  completes  our 
circuit  of  the  city. 

The  Cifi/  and  iffi  Divisions. — The  pres- 
ent city  of  Jerusalem  stands  upon  the 
northern  portions  of  the  hill  of  Zion 
and  of  Moriah,  the  part  of  the  old  city 
known  as  Acra,  and  upon  Bezetha,  a 
portion  of  Jerusalem  which  dates  from 
Agrippa,  A.  D.  42,  The  walls  now  ex- 
clude the  southern  sections  of  the  hill  of 
Zion  and  of  Ophel.  The  cit}^  is  also 
divided  into  four  quarters  by  the  main 
streets,  and  these  quarters  are  named 
from  the  classes  of  inhabitants  which 
dwell  in  Jerusalem.  The  largest  division, 
in  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  city,  is 
known  as  the  Mohammedan  quarter; 
west  of  this  is  the  Greek  and  Fiank,  or 
Christian  quarter;  to  the  south  of  it 
lies  the  Armenian  quarter ;  while  to 
29 


the  east  of  the  Armenian  and  to  the 
south  of  the  Mohammedan  lies  the  Jew- 
ish quarter. 

Jerusalem  is  now  enclosed  by  a  wall 
(dating  from  Suleiman  in  the  sixteenth 
century),  38^  feet  high,  having  34  towers 
and  7  gates.  The  town  as  thus  walled  in 
forms  an  irregular  quadrangle  of  about 
2^  miles  in  circumference,  around  which 
a  person  can  easily  walk  in  an  hour.  The 
city  has  few  open  spaces  ;  the  streets  are 
generally  narrow,  crooked,  and  poorly 
paved ;  and  the  narrower  streets  are 
mere  blind-alleys,  exceedingly  filthy  after 
a  rain.  The  chief  streets  form  the  boun- 
daries of  the  principal  quarters  of  the 
town.  The  Damascus  and  Bazaar  streets, 
from  the  north,  separate  the  Moslem  from 
the  Christian  or  Greek  quarter,  and 
farther  south  divide  the  Jewish  from  the 
Armenian  quarter.  The  main  street, 
running  from  the  Jaffa-gate  to  the  Ha- 
ram  area,  first  divides  the  Christian  from 
the  Armenian  quarter,  and  to  the  east- 
ward separates  the  Moslem  from  the 
Jewish  quarter.  See  Baedeker's  Pahs- 
tine.  The  seven  important  gates  are  :  in 
the  west  wall,  ( 1 )  The  Yafa  or  Jaffa  gate ; 
in  the  north  wall,  (2)  the  Damascus  gate, 
and  (3)  Herod's  gate,  closed  for  25  years, 
but  of  late  opened  a  portion  of  the  year ; 
in  the  east  wall,  (4)  St.  Stephen's  gate 
and  (5)  the  Golden  gate,  long  since  walled 
up  ;  in  the  south  wall,  (6)  Babel-Mayhar- 
ibeh,  or  the  so-called  dung-gate,  and  (7) 
Sion's  gate.  There  are  also  other  gates, 
now  closed  up  ;  as,  the  triple  gate,  the 
double  or  Huldah  gate,  and  another  old 
gate  adjoining  it,  walled  up. 

The  city  has  no  springs,  but  it  is  sup- 
plied with  water  by  cisterns  filled  from 
the  rain-falls  on  the  roofs  of  the  houses, 
by  pools,  of  which  there  are  six  or  more 
in  and  about  the  city,  and  by  conduits 
and  wells  or  springs  outside  the  town. 
The  chief  pools  have  been  already  no- 
ticed. They  may  be  here  grouped  to- 
gether:  The  BJrket-Mamilla,  Birket- 
Sultan,  Pool  of  Siloam,  Fountain  or  Pool 
of  the  Virgin,  Birket-Israel,  and  the 
Pool  of  Hezekiah.  "The  Birket-Ma- 
milla,"  says  Crosby,  "is  supposed  to  be 
the  upper  pool,  Isa.  7  :  3  ;  2  Kgs.  18  :  17.  It 
lies  2000  feet  west  of  the  Jaffa-gate,  The 
Birket-Sultan  is  a  section  of  the  great 
western  valley  dammed  up  for  more  than 
500  feet.  The  Pool  of  Siloam,  Neh.  3 : 
15  ;  John  9 :  7,  is  in  the   mouth  of  the 

449 


JEH 


JER 


Tjropoeon,  at  its  junction  yvith  the  Hin- 
nom  and  the  Kedron  valleys.  It  was 
probably  used  to  irrigate  the  king's  gar- 
den. It  is  connected,  by  a  long,  rude, 
and  crooked  subterranean  passage,  with 


Pool  of  Hezekiali,  inside  the  Jaffii-gate.     {After 
a  Photograph  by  Bonfils.) 

the  Fountain  of  the  Virgin,  on  the  other 
side  of  Ophel,  from  which  the  water 
flows  softly.  .  .  .  The  Fountain  of 
the  Virgin  is  a  pool  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Ophel  rock,  to  which  is  a  de- 
scent of  28  steps.  The  water  comes  into 
it  from  the  direction  of  the  temple,  but 
has  never  been  traced.  It  has  a  periodic 
and  sudden  rise  of  a  foot  in  height,  the 
periods  varying  from  two  to  three  times 
a  day  to  once  in  two  or  three  days.  This 
periodic  troubling  of  the  water  seems  to 
mark  the  Fountain  of  the  Virgin  as  the 
Pool  of  Bethesda,  unless  we  may  suppose 
that  a  pool  farther  up  on  the  temple-mount 
formerly  received  this  intermittent  flow. 
The  requirements  of  the  sheep-gate  (see 
above)  seem  to  put  Bethesda  farther 
north.  The  Birket-Israel,  just  inside 
St.  Stephen's  gate  and  north  of  the  Ha- 
ram  (supposed  by  Robinson  to  be  the 
trench  of  Antonia),  is  the  damming  up 
of  the  valley  that  runs  east  of  Bezetha 
in  a  south-eastern  direction,  originally 
under  the  north-eastern  corner  of  the 
Haram  into  the  Kedron.  .  .  The  Pool 
of  Ilezekiah  is  north  of  the  Jaffa-gate 
street ;  ...  is  supplied  by  an  aqueduct 
from  the  Birket-Mamilla.  ...  A  system 
of  wells  and  aqueducts  in  the  Kedron 
ravine  below  Jerusalem  (the  En-rogel  of 
antiquity)  presents  features  of  peculiar 
interest.  One  of  the  several  ancient 
450 


aqueducts  still  conducts  the  water  from 

Solomuu's  pools  beyond  Bethlehem  to 
the  city."  Crosby  in  Johnson's  Cyclopae- 
dia, vol.  ii.  p.  1.398. 

The  Buildings. — The  houses  in  Jeru- 
salem are  built  chiefly  of  stone,  and  are 
two  or  three  stories  high,  and  owing  to 
the  scarcity  of  timber  even  many  of  the 
roofs  are  also  of  stone.  The  roofs  are 
generally  flat,  supported  by  vaults  and 
ai'ches  below.  Some,  however,  are  dome- 
shaped.  There  are  few  windows  open- 
ing on  the  streets ;  these  openings  are 
chiefly  toward  the  interior  open  court  of 
the  house.  The  more  important  build- 
ings are — those  in  the  Haram  enclos- 
ure on  Mount  Moriah :  the  "  Dome  of 
the  Rock  "  or  mosque  of  Omar,  mosque 
El-Aksa,  the  mosque  known  as  the 
Throne  of  Solomon;  those  in  the  Chris- 
tian quarter :  the  church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  Coptic  convent,  Abyssinian 
monastery,  Muristan,  or  ruins  of  the 
knights-hospitallers,  nine  convents,  and 
two  hotels;  those  in  the  Mohammedan 
quarter :  church  of  Mary  Magdalene, 
church  of  St.  Anne,  two  convents,  Pi- 
late's hall,  two  mosques,  the  city  prison  ; 
in  the  Jewish  quarter :  two  synagogues, 
three  hospitals,  and  a  spot  of  the  deep- 
est interest,  known  as  the  "Jews'  Wail- 
ing-place ; "  in  the  Armenian  quarter: 
tower  of  David,  tower  of  Hippicus,  four 
convents,  the  lepers'  quarter,  and  the 
church  of  St.  James. 

Haram  exli-Shertf. — The  extent  of  this 
enclosure,  which  covers  the  ground  on 
which  the  temple  stood,  is,  according 
to  the  British  Ordnance  Survey,  on  the 
north  wall,  1042  feet;  east,  1530  feet; 
south,  922  feet;  west,  1601;  or  a  total 
circumference  of  5095  (nearly  a  mile), 
and  the  total  area  is  .35  aci-es.  Near  the 
centre  of  the  enclosure  is  a  raised  plat- 
form, upon  which  once  stood  the  temple 
of  Solomon,  later  the  less  glorious  tem- 
ple of  Zerubbabel,  and  last  the  temple 
of  Herod,  which  was  built  in  the  time 
of  Christ,  and  was  destroyed  by  the 
Romans,  a.  d.  70.  The  attempt  to  re- 
build the  Jewish  temple  under  Julian 
the  Apostate,  A.  D.  362,  was  a  complete 
failure,  as  already  noticed.  See  p.  440. 
During  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  a.  d.  136, 
a  temple  of  Jupiter  occupied  this  sacred 
spot,  and  a  shrine  of  Venus  was  placed 
upon  the  site  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  In 
place  of  the  temple  now  stands  the  Kuh- 


JEK 


JEE 


bet  es-Sakhara,  "  Dome  of  the  Rock," 
or  mosque  of  Omar — ''perhaps/'  says 
Hepworth  Dixon,  "the  very  noblest 
specimen  of  building-art  in  Asia."  "  It 
is,"  says  SchafF,  "  the  most  prominent  as 
well  as  the  most  beautiful  building  in  the 
whole  city,  It  stands  out  conspicuously 
in  every  picture  of  Jerusalem.  ...  It  is 
the  second  mosque  of  Islam,  inferior 
only  to  that  of  5lecca,  as  Jerusalem  is 
its  second  sacred  city.  .  .  .  The  mosque 
stands  on  an  irregular  base  of  10  feet 
in  height,  and  is  approached  by  three 
flights  of  steps,  which  terminate  in 
elegant  arcades,  called  '  scales,'  because, 
according  to  tradition,  the  scales  of  judg- 
ment are  to  be  suspended  here.  The 
mosque  is  an  octagonal  building,  each 
side  measuring  67  feet."  Baedeker  says  : 
"  Each  of  the  eight  sides  is  66  feet  in 
length,  and  is  covered  externally  as  far 
as  the  pedestal  with  porcelain  tiles  of 
the  Persian  style,  and  lower  down  with 
marble.  Each  tile  has  been  written 
upon  and  burned  separately.  Passages 
from  the  Koran,  beautifully  inscribed  in 
interwoven  characters,  run  round  the 
building  like  a  frieze."  The  whole 
structure  is  170  feet  high,  and  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  dome  supported  on  4 
great  piers  and  12  Corinthian  columns. 
The  design  of  the  building  is  Byzan- 
tine, and  Sepp  regards  it  as  originally 
a  church  of  Justinian ;  others  trace  its 
origin  to  Omar.  It  has  four  gates,  fa- 
cing the  four  cardinal  points  of  the 
compass.  The  most  interesting  object 
in  the  mosque  is  the  rock  beneath  the 
dome,  which  is  57  feet  long  and  43  feet 
wide,  and  rises  from  1  to  5  or  6  feet 
above  the  mosaic  marble  pavement. 
It  is  enclosed  by  an  iron  railing.  Jew- 
ish tradition  marks  this  spot  as  the 
place  where  Melchizedek  offered  sacri- 
fice, where  Abraham  offered  Isaac, 
where  the  ark  of  the  covenant  in  the 
holy  of  holies  stood,  where  the  un- 
speakable name  of  God  was  inscribed 
upon  the  rock,  which  Jesus  was  able  to 
read,  and  which  gave  him  his  power  to 
perform  miracles;  and  finally,  that  this 
spot  was  the  centre  of  the  earth.  The 
Mohammedans,  not  to  be  outdone  by 
the  Jews,  accept  all  these  traditions  or 
have  improved  on  them.  The  excava- 
tions of  Capts.  Wilson  and  Warren  have 
thrown  much  light  on  this  portion  of  Je- 
rusalem, covered  as  deeply  with  tradi- 
452 


tions  as  with  rubbish.  By  means  of  a 
shaft  sunk  at  the  west  wall  and  south- 
ern extremity  of  Wilson's  Arch,  War- 
ren found  twenty-one  courses  of  bevelled 
stones,  from  3  feet  8  inches  to  4  feet  high, 
making  in  all  75  feet  above  the  founda- 
tion-rock, and  all  these  were  in  their 
original  position,  but  covered  with 
debris.  These  stone  blocks,  of  which 
the  topmost  are  from  35  to  55  feet  be- 
low the  present  surface,  are  hewn 
smooth  on  every  side  except  the  out- 
side, where  they  are  bevelled,  and  are 
jointed  with  mortar  or  cement,  but  so 
accurately  that  a  knife  cannot  be  in- 
troduced between  them.  The  wall  is 
not  perpendicular,  but  slopes  outward 
toward  its  base.  He  inferred  that  this 
formed  a  part  of  the  wall  of  Solomon's 
temple.  The  southern  wall,  from  the 
double  gate  to  the  south-eastern  angle, 
he  also  regarded  as  of  Solomonic  age 
and  as  forming  a  part  of  Solomon's 
palace.  The  south-western  portion  was 
more  modern,  and  he  supposes  a  square 
of  300  feet  was  added  by  Herod,  and 
that  Herod's  temple  occupied  the  whole 
southern  portion  of  the  present  sanc- 
tuary. On  the  south-east  are  immense 
vaults,  and  beneath  the  temple-area 
immense  cisterns  were  found,  of  which 
thirty-three  were  described.  They  were 
cut  out  of  the  soft  rock,  and  had  a 
depth  of  from  25  to  50  feet  and  a  ca- 
pacitv  estimated  at  from  10,000,000  to 
12,000,000  of  gallons— enough  to  fur- 
nish a  year's  supply  of  water  for  the 
whole  city.  A  single  cistern,  called 
the  "  Great  Sea,"  would  hold  2,000,000 
gallons.  The  water  was  supplied  part- 
ly by  the  rain  and  pai-tly  by  an  aque- 
duct, which  connected  these  reservoirs 
with  Solomon's  Pools,  beyond  Bethlehem 
and  13  miles  from  Jerusalem.  The  over- 
flow from  these  cisterns  was  conducted 
through  a  rock-cut  channel  into  the 
valley  of  the  Kedron,  which  also 
served  as  a  sewer  to  carry  away  the 
refuse  arising  from  sacrifices  of  the 
temple.  In  the  eastern  wall  of  the 
Haram  area  a  stair  ascends  to  the  top 
of  the  wall,  and  the  stump  of  a  column 
built  in  horizontally  may  be  seen  pro- 
truding from  the  wall.  The  Moslems 
say  that  all  men  will  assemble  in  the 
Valley  of  Jehoshaphat  when  a  trumpet- 
blast  proclaims  the  last  judgment,  and 
that  from  this  column  a  thin  wire  will  be 


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"  MODERN  JERUSALEM  H 

and  its  ENVIRONS,  h 

(From    the    Palestine   ^ 

Memoirs.)  V 

>4;:x:>::><:;::x;:.x:;>:::;>::>c:><:::i;' 


'i?2r----?r^- 


^«i;x; 


'eh, 


86       / 


1.  Wady  Umm  el '  Anab  (or  Wady  es 

2.  Wady  el  Haiuarah.         [Samar). 

3.  'Ain  el  Madowerah. 

4.  Ras  es  Sillim. 

5.  Ras  el  Madbaseh. 

6.  Ard  es  Samar. 

7.  Ras  el  Mesharif  (Scopus). 

8.  Bir  el  Mesharif. 

9.  Ras  Abu  Malawi. 

10.  Khallet  el  'Ajuz. 

11.  'Ain  es  Suwan. 
1'2.  Ras  Umm  et  Tal'a. 

13.  'Akabet  es  Suwan. 

14.  Bir  el  Ka'ah. 

15.  Kusr  el  Kutb. 

16.  Kusr  esh  Shehabi. 

17.  Kusr  el  Khatib. 

18.  Kusr  el  Ka'aU. 

19.  Kusi  el  Mufti. 

20.  Bir  eth  Thogherah. 

21.  Bir  Zeitunat  el  Haweileh. 

22.  Bir  er  Rasasveh. 

23.  Sheikh  Jerrih. 

24.  'Akabet  Sheikh  Jerrah. 

25.  Bir  el  Yehudiyeh  (and  Tomb  of 

Simon  the  Just).  [tA). 

26.  Bir  Sheikh  Jerrah  (in  Court  of 

27.  Tombs  of   the  Judges   (or   Saii- 

hedrin).  [Tomb). 

28.  Kabur     es      Salatan     (Helena's 

29.  Rujm  el  Kehakir. 

30.  Mugharet  el  'Auab. 

31.  Sheikh  Kamir.  [ings). 

32.  El  Muskobiyeh  (Russian   build- 


33.  St.  Stephen's  (Ruins).        [tion). 

34.  F.l  Heidheniiyeh  (Phice  of  K.xecu- 

35.  Kurm  csh  Sheikh. 

36.  Bir  el  Huwarah. 

37.  Bir  el  Kos. 

.38.  Birket  Mamilla. 

39.  Birket  es  Sultan.  [Cross). 

40.  Deir  es  Salth   (Convent    of   the 

41.  Khallet  et  Tarhah. 

42.  Khurbet  el  Bedr. 

43.  Khurbet  es  Salah. 

44.  Khallet  el  Kusab. 

45.  Bir  Abu  Shalbek. 

46.  Kurm  Ahmed. 

47.  Ras  eu  Nadr. 

48.  Kusr  el  Kurmeh. 

49.  Wady  Umm  Ahmed. 

50.  Kusr   Isheuar  (Schnellev's    Or- 

phanage). 

51.  Sheikh  Bedr. 

52.  Khurbet  el  Khaniis. 

53.  Wady  el  Wely. 

54.  Khurbet  el  Khazuk. 

55.  El  Hawieh.  [Kvil  Coun.soTi 

56.  Jebel   Deir  Abu   Tor  (.Mount  of 

57.  Sheikh  Ahmed  et  Torch  (at  56). 
,58.  Bir  Evub. 

59.  AVadv  Kadflm. 

60.  Bir  el  Khulil. 

61.  W.ady  Deir  es  Sonneik. 

62.  Batn  el  Howa. 

63.  Sheikh  Selman  el  Farsi. 

64.  Kefr  et  Tor  (Village,  and  Church 

of  Ascension). 


65.  Russian  House  on  Olivet. 
66. -Pater  Noster  Chapel. 

67.  New  Convent  of  the  Latins. 

68.  Tombs  of  the  Prophets. 

69.  Bethphage  Chapel. 

70.  Jebel  et  Tor  (Mount  of  Olives). 

71.  El  K'adi  (where  Christ  sat). 

72.  Rus  Mesa'adet  Sidua  'Aisa. 

73.  Ahbal  el  Kibrit.  [Tomb). 

74.  Kubr     Sitti     Miriam     (Virgin's 

75.  El  Khelweh  (the  Hei-mitage). 

76.  Getliseniiine. 

77.  AV.ady  es  Sahel. 

78.  Silwau  (the  village  of  Siloam). 

79.  'Ain    Umm   et  Dei-aj   (En  Rogel 

and  Oihon). 

80.  Tantdr  Fer'6n(  Absalom's  Pillar). 

81.  'Ain  Sihvan  (Pool  of  Siloam). 

82.  Ncby  Daiid  (the  Ctenaculuni). 

83.  wady  en  Nar  (Kedion). 

84.  W.ady  et  Rababeh  (Hinnoni). 

85.  Humm.ani  Tubariya  (Protestant 

Cometerv). 
HC.   Wady  Tub!  (by  61). 
87.  Khurbet  Abu  W'air. 
H8.  Sheikh  el  Mensi. 

89.  Almshouses  for  Jews. 

90.  Zahweileh  (Zoheleth  at  78). 

91.  Rujum  el  lieliiiiieh  (near  N.  E.). 

92.  'Aki.betel  Ohuzlau  (near  last). 

93.  Kubhet  el  'Abd  (by  :iS). 

94.  Birket  es  Sitti  Miriam. 

95.  'Arak  et  Tireh.  [Aceldama. 

96.  Ilakk    ed  Dumm    (south    of   84) 

4o3 


JER 


JER 


stretched  to  the  opposite  Mount  of  Olives, 
that  Christ  will  sit  on  the  wall  and  Mo- 
hammed on  the  mount  as  judges,  and  that 
all  men  will  be  compelled  to  pass  over  the 
intervening  space;  the  righteous,  pre- 
served by  angels,  will  pass  quickly  and 
safely  over,  but  the  wicked  will  fall  and 
be  thrown  into  the  abyss  of  hell. 

The  mosque  El-Aksn  also  stands  with- 
in the  Haram  area,  and  is  a  complex  pile 
of  buildings,  "  the  principal  axis  of  which 
forms  a  right  angle  with  the  southern 
wall  of  the  temple-precincts.  It  dates 
from  Justinian,  but  has  been  several 
times  partially  in  ruins  and  rebuilt.  .  .  . 
The  building  is  altogether  270  feet  long 
and  about  198  feet  in  width.  The  dome 
is  of  wood  covered  with  lead,  and  the 
windows  are  in  part  of  stained  glass  of 
about  the  sixteenth  century." 

Just  outside  of  the  enclosure  of  the 
mosque  El-Aksa,  and  near  Robinson's 
Arch,  is  the  noted  Wailiny-place  of  the 


The  \\  ului. 


pi  ICC    t  1    tht.     TaVt: 

giaphs  ) 


1 1  rum  Photo- 


Jews.  The  cyclopean  foundation-wall 
of  the  temple  which  bears  this  name  is 
156  feet  in  length  and  56  feet  in  height. 
Nine  of  the  lowest  courses  of  stone  con- 
sist of  huge  blocks ;  above  these  are  fif- 
teen layers  of  smaller  stones.  Some  in- 
fer, and  others  deny,  that  these  lower 
external  layers  are  very  ancient.  The 
blocks  are  certainly  old  and  of  vast  size, 
one  in  the  western  part  being  16  feet,  and 
another  in  the  southern  part  13  feet, 
in  length.  On  Friday  numbers  of  the 
Jews,  old  and  young,  male  and  female, 
gather  here,  kissing  the  stones,  watering 
them  with  their  tears,  and  bewailing  the 
454 


downfall  of  their  city,  while  they  read 
or  repeat  from  their  well-worn  Hebrew 
Bibles  and  prayer-books  the  Lamenta- 
tions of  Jeremiah  and  suitable  Psalms, 
as  the  76th  and  79th.  The  following  is 
an  extract  from  their  litany  : 

Leader :  For  the  palace  that  lies  desolate: 
— Response  :  We  sit  in  solitude  and  mourn. 

L.  For  the  palace  that  is  destroyed : — R. 
We  sit,  etc. 

L.  For  the  walls  that  are  overthrown  : — 
R.  We  sit,  etc. 

L.  For  our  majesty  that  is  departed : — 
R.  We  sit,  etc. 

L.  For  our  great  men  who  lie  dead : — 
R.  We  sit,  etc. 

L.  For  the  precious  stones  that  are  burn- 
ed :—R.  We  sit,  etc. 

L.  For  the  priests  who  have  stumbled : — 
R.  We  sit,  etc. 

L.  For  our  kings  who  have  despised  Him : 
—R.  We  sit,  etc. 

Another  antiphon  is  as  follows: — 

Leader:  We  pray  Thee,  have  mercy  on 
Zion  I— Response:  Gather  the  children  of 
Jerusalem. 

L.  Haste,  haste,  Redeemer  of  Zion!— 
R.  Speak  to  the  heart  of  Jerusalem. 

L.  May  beauty  and  majesty  surround 
Zion  ! — R.  Ah !  turn  thyself  mercifully  to 
Jerusalem. 

L.  May  the  kingdom  soon  return  to  Zion  ! 
— R.  Comfort  those  who  mourn  over  Jeru- 
salem. 

L.  May  peace  and  joy  abide  with  Zion  I — 
R.  And  the  branch  (of  Jesse)  spring  up  at 
Jerusalem.      See  Baedeker's  Palestine. 

The  Church  of  the  Holy  Sejndchre 
ranks  next  to  the  temple-area  in  inter- 
est to  the  Christian.  It  is  a  "collec- 
tion," says  SchafT,  "  of  chapels  and  altars 
of  different  ages,  and  a  unique  museum 
of  religious  curiosities  from  Adam  to 
Christ..  .  .  In  the  centre  of  the  rotunda, 
beneath  the  dome,  is  a  small  marble 
chapel,  where  pilgrims  from  every  land 
in  a  ceaseless  stream  are  going  in  and 
out,  otfering  candles  and  kneeling  before 
and  kissing  the  empty  [reputed]  tomb 
of  Christ."  The  church  is  also  claimed 
to  possess  a  piece  of  marble  of  Christ's 

fjpulchre,  the  stone  of  anointment,  three 
oles  in  which  the  crosses  of  Christ  and 
of  the  two  robbers  were  inserted,  a  cleft 
in  the  rock  caused  by  the  earthquake, 
the  very  spot  where  Christ  was  scourged, 
where  his  friends  stood  afar  oflF,  where 
his  garments  were  parted,  where  the 
gardener  appeai'ed  to  Mary,  the  rock- 
hewn  tombs  of  Nicodemus  and  Joseph 
of  Arimathea,  the  tombs  of  Adam,  Mel- 
chizedek,  and  John  the  Baptist,  and ''  the 
centre   of  the  world."     It  is  of  course 


Ecce  Homo  Arch,  Via  Dolorosa 


JEK 


JEK 


claimed  as  the  site  of  Calvary.  See  p. 
445. 

The  Citadel  and  the  Tower  of  David, 
opposite  the  Jaffa-gate,  consist  of  an 
irregular  group  of  five  square  towers, 
originall}^  surrounded  by  a  ditch.  The 
foundations  of  the  towers  are  of  thick 
walls  rising  at  an  angle  of  about  45° ; 
for  39  feet  from  the  bottom  of  the  moat 
the  masonry  is  of  large  drafted  blocks 
with  rough  surfaces,  and  the  forms  of 
the  stones  higher  up  indicate  that  these 
foundations  are  ancient.  In  the  north- 
eastern corner  stands  an  ancient  tower, 
bearing  the  name  of  David,  but  probably 
the  remains  of  one  of  the  towers  of  Her- 
od's palace.  Robinson  and  Baedeker 
suggest  that  the  building  answers  to  the 
desci'iption  given  by  Josephus  of  the 
HippicHs  toicer,  but  others  regard  its  di- 
mensions as  agreeing  better  with  those 
of  the  tower  of  Phasselus. 

The  Castle  of  Goliath  is  at  the  north- 
western angle  of  the  present  wall,  and 
upon  the  highest  ground  within  the  city 
limits.  The  Via  Dolorosa,  or  "  street  of 
sorrows,"  is  a  portion  of  the  street 
along  which  it  is  said  our  Saviour  was 
led  to  his  crucifixion ;  but  the  name 
dates  only  from  the  fourteenth  century. 

Tombs. — Some  of  the  rock-tombs  about 
the  city  have  already  been  noticed.  The 
ground  in  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem  has 
been  described  as  one  "  vast  cemeter3^" 
In  the  days  of  King  Josiah  "  the  graves 
of  the  children  of  the  people  "  were  in 
the  valley  of  the  Kedron.  2  Kgs.  23  :  6. 
The  great  Jewish  cemetery  is  on  the 
slope  of  Olivet;  the  Tombs  of  the  Pro- 
phets are  near  the  southern  peak  of 
Olivet;  the  Tombs  of  the  Kings  are 
half  a  mile  north  of  the  Damascus - 
gate ;  and  about  a  mile  beyond  are  the 
Tombs  of  the  Judges.  Portions  of  the 
western  side  of  the  valley  of  the  Kedron 
are  still  full  of  tombs. 

The  Iiihnhitauts. — The  present  popu- 
lation of  Jerusalem  is  variously  estima- 
ted, as  no  census  has  been  taken.  Rob- 
inson, in  1841,  made  the  total  population 
11,500,  but  later  was  inclined  to  place 
it  at  17.000.  Drake  (1874)  puts  it  at 
20,900,  Baedeker  24,000  ;  Dr.  Neuman,  a 
Jewish  physician  15  years  a  resident  of 
the  city,  estimates  it  .Tt  36.000.  Baedeker 
distributes  the  24.000  as  follows  :  13,000 
Moslems,  7000  Christians,  4000  Jews. 
The  Turkish  statistics  of  1871  give  the 
456 


number  of  families  or  houses:  1025 
Moslem,  630  Jewish,  299  Orthodox 
Greek,  179  Latin,  175  Armenian,  44 
Coptic,  18  Greek  Catholic,  16  Protestant, 
and  7  Syrian — in  all,  2393  families.  Dr. 
Neuman  distributes  his  estimate  of 
36,000  into  15,000  Mohammedans,  13,000 
Jews,  and  8000  Christians,  including 
5000  Franks.  In  the  Easter  season  about 
a  dozen  languages  are  now  heard  there 
besides  the  vernacular  Arabic,  illustrat- 
ing tlie  scene  during  the  Pentecost. 
Acts  2:  7-11.  Drake  estimates  that  the 
Jews  are  increasing  in  Jerusalem  at  the 
rate  of  1200  to  1500  per  year. 

The  religion  of  the  people  also  repre- 
sents various  faiths.  The  Greek  Church 
is  the  strongest  in  wealth,  numbers,  and 
influence,  having  the  support  of  the 
Russian  power.  Its  members  are  chiefly 
Arabs,  speaking  Arabic,  while  the  clergy 
are  mostly  foreign  Greeks,  speaking 
modern  Greek.  The  Church  has  several 
monasteries,  churches,  two  hospices,  and 
two  schools.  The  Old  Armenian  Church 
has  a  resident  patriarch,  a  large  monas- 
tery, with  a  printing-oflSce,  and  a  semi- 
nary with  about  40  students,  a  nunnery, 
and  a  smaller  monaster^'.  The  Coptic, 
Ancient  Syrian,and  Abyssinian  Churches 
each  has  a  small  religious  community. 
The  Latins,  or  Roman  Catholics,  are 
said  to  number  1500.  In  their  Francis- 
can monastery  is  a  printing-press,  chiefly 
used  for  printing  school-books  in  Arabic, 
a  school  for  boys,  and  the  Latins  also 
have  a  hospital  and  three  other  schools 
in  the  city.  The  Jeics  have  four  holy 
cities  in  Palestine:  Jerusalem,  Safed, 
Tiberias,  and  Hebron.  In  Jerusalem 
they  live  largely  on  the  charity  of  their 
European  brethren.  They  are  divided 
into  three  sects ;  their  quarter  of  the 
city  is  squalid,  dirty,  and  uninviting. 
In  Jerusalem,  and  there  only,  is  the 
Hebrew  language  used  (by  the  Jews)  in 
ordinary  conversation.  The  only  news- 
papers printed  in  the  city  are  in  the 
Hebrew  language.  The  Protestant  com- 
munity in  Jerusalem  is  very  small. 
There  is  a  bishop  jointly  supported  by 
the  Prussian  and  the  English  Churches, 
which  maintain  a  mission  and  have  a 
church,  schools,  orphanages,  and  hos- 
pitals. The  first  Protestant  bishop  was 
Alexander,  the  second,  Gobat  (died 
1879),  the  third,  Barclay  (consecrated 
1879).       There     are     three    Protestant 


JER 


JES 


Churches,  the  English  Church  of  Sion, 
the  native  Arab  Church,  and  the  Ger- 
man Church,  on  the  property  of  the 
Prussian  government. 

This  is  Jerusalem  in  her  decay.  Of 
Jerusalem  in  her  grandeur  we  can  only 
gain  more  certain  knowledge  by  further 
thorough  archaeological  explorations. 
The  Palestine  Exploration  Fund,  under 
careful  and  extended  excavations  by 
Capts.  Wilson  (1S(U)  and  ^yarren  (1807), 
made  a  noble  beginning.  Among  the 
results  o'  their  work  were:  (1)  That 
the  ancient  city  lies  deeply  buried  be- 
neath the  present  surface;  (2)  that  the 
height  of  the  temple-walls  was  great,  as 
Josephus  declares;  (3)  that  Phoenician 
workmen  were  employed  in  building  the 
temple,  as  stated  in  the  book  of  Kings. 
(4)  Strong  proofs  as  to  the  location  and 
extent  of  the  temple-area  have  been 
furnished,  especially  showing  the  views 
of  Mr.  Fergusson  and  others,  that  the 
temple  occupied  a  square  of  only  600 
feet  in  the  south-western  angle  of  the 
area,  to  be  erroneous.  (5)  The  conjec- 
ture of  Robinson  respecting  the  loca- 
tion of  the  bridge  over  the  Tyropceon 
has  been  verified.  (6)  The  water-sup- 
ply of  the  city,  and  particularly  of  the 
temple,  has  been  proved  to  be  very  ex- 
tensive and  quite  abundant. 

For  the  history  of  Jerusalem,  ancient 
and  modern,  the  following  are  among 
the  works  which  may  be  consulted  :  Jo- 
aephus ;  Eusebius's  and  Jerome's  Ono- 
muHticon,  French  ed.,  1862 ;  Reland's, 
Palestina  ex  Mouumentis  Veteribns  II- 
lustrata,  Traj.  Batav.  1714,  2  vols.  sm. 
4to;  W.  H.  Bartlett,  Walks  in  and 
about  Jerusalem,  4th.  ed.,  London,  1852, 
roy.  Svo,  and  his  Topocp-ajyhjj  of  Jeru- 
salem, 1845 ;  E.  Robinson,  Biblical  Re- 
searches, New  York,  1841,  3  vols.  Svo, 
and  his  later  Biblical  Researches,  1856, 
Svo  ;  W.  Krafft,  Die  Topocfraphie  Jerusa- 
lems,  Bonn,  1865;  Fergusson,  Essay  on 
the  Ancient  Topography  of  Jerusalem, 
London,  1847,  imp.  Svo,  and  The  Holy 
Sepulchre  and  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem, 
Svo  ;  Early  Travels  in  Palestine,  edited 
by  T.  Wright.  London.  1848,  post  Svo; 
G.  Williams,  r//e  Holy  City,  London,!  849, 
2  vols.  Svo  ;  J.  T.  Barclay,  The  Citij  of  the 
Great  King,  1  vol.  Svo,  pp.  627^  1857 ; 
Churchill,  Mount  Lebanon,  London,  1855- 
62,  4  vols.  Svo  :  W.  M.  Thomson,  The 
Land  and  the  Book,  New  York,  1858,  2 


vols.  12mo,  new  ed.  1879 ;  Pierotti, 
Jerusalem  Explored,  London,  1864,  2 
vols.  fol. ;  Levvin,  Siege  of  Jerusalem  by 
Titus,  London,  demy  Svo ;  H.  B.  Tris- 
tram, The  Land  of  Israel,  London, 
1865,  demy  Svo  ;  Titus  Tobler's  Pales- 
tinse  Descriptiones,  1869,  Svo;  and  To- 
pographic von  Jerusalem,  Berlin,  1854, 
2  vols. :  Captains  Wilson  and  War- 
ren, Recovery  of  Jerusalem,  London, 
1871,  demy  Svo ;  Reynolds,  The  His- 
tory of  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem  (Pub- 
lic. Oriental  Trans.  Com.,  vol.  451 )  ;  J.  L. 
Porter,  Syria's  Holy  Places,  12mo,  1873  ; 
Thrupp's  Ancient  Jerusalem  ;  A.Thom- 
son, In  the  Holy  Land,  London,  1874, 
12mo  ;  Captains  Wilson,  Anderson,  War- 
ren, etc.,  Our  Work  in  Palestine,  London, 
1875,  Svo;  Murray's  Handbook  of  Syria 
and  Palestine,  1875;  Besant  and  Palmer, 
History  of  Jerusalem,  London,  or.  Svo ; 
Ordnance  Survey  of  Jerusalem,  with 
Notes  by  Captain  Wilson,  London,  2 
vols,  Baedeker,  Palestine  and  Syria, 
Leipsic,  1876 ;  Warren's  Underground 
Jerusalem,  1876 ;  C.  E.  T.  Drake,  Mod- 
ern Jerusalem,  London,  1877,  Svo  ;  Schaff, 
Through  Bible  Lands,  New  York,  1878, 
12mo  ;  C.  R.  Conder,  Tent-work  in  Pal- 
estine, 2  vols.  12mo,  1878;  Quarterly 
Statements  Palestine  Exploration  Fund, 
1872-1880,  and  the  large  Maps  of  that 
Society  with  the  Memoirs,  1884. 

Jerusalem,  New,  Rev.  21 : 2,  is  a  term 
employed  metaphorically  to  represent 
the  spiritual  Church  in  the  state  of 
triumph  and  glory.  The  ancient  Jews 
regarded  the  tabernacle,  the  temple,  and 
Jerusalem  itself,  as  descending  directly 
from  God,  and  they  suppose  that  there 
is  a  spiritual  tabernacle,  temple,  and  city 
corresponding  with  them.  Corap.  Gal. 
4 :  26  ;  2  Pet.  3  :  10-13  ;  Rev.  21.  Jeru- 
salem of  old  was  the  city  of  God ;  and 
Jerusalem  above  is  called  ''the  city  of 
the  living  God,"  or  "the  heavenly  Jeru- 
salem." Heb.  12  :  22  ;  Rev.  3:12.  The 
sublime  and  most  comforting  descrip- 
tion of  the  new  Jerusalem  with  which 
the  Bible  closes  has  given  rise  to  some 
of  the  sweetest  Christian  hymns  of 
homesickness  after  heaven. 

JERU'SHA,  OR  JERU'SHAH 
[possessed),  the  mother  of  Jotham.  king 
of  Judah.  2  Kgs.  15  :  33  ;  2  Chr.  27  :  1. 

JESA'IAH  (-far/m/).  1.  One  of  Da- 
vid's posterity.  1  Chr.  3:21. 

2.  A  Benjamite.  Neh.  11 :  7. 

467 


JES 


JES 


JESHA'IAH  [heli^  of  Jehovah,  same 
as  Isaiah).  1.  A  son  of  Jeduthun,  and 
chief  of  the  eighth  division  of  the  sing- 
ers. 1  Chr.  25  :  3,  15. 

2.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  a  descendant 
of  Moses,  1  Chr.  26:25;  called  Isshai- 
ah  in  1  Chr.  24:21. 

3.  One  who  came  back  with  Ezra. 
Ezr.  8:7. 

4.  A  Merarite  Levite  who  also  return- 
ed. 8:19. 

JESH'ANAH,  a  town  Avhich,  with 
its  dependent  villages,  was  one  of  the 
three  taken  from  Jeroboam  by  Abijah, 
2  Chr.  13  :  19,  and  identified  by  Swartz 
with  al-Samin,  2  miles  west  of  Bethel  ; 
but  this  requires  confirmation. 

JESHAR'ELAH(  rifjht  toivard 
God),  the  head  of  the  seventh  division 
of  the  Levite  musicians.  1  Chr.  25  :  l-l. 
In  V.  2  he  is  called  Asarelah. 

JESHEB'EAB  {seat  of  one's  fa- 
ther), the  chief  of  the  fourteenth  divis- 
ion of  the  priests.   1  Chr.  24:13. 

JE'SHER  {nj^rightness),  one  of  the 
sons  of  Caleb,  the  son  of  Hezron.  1  Chr. 
2:18. 

JESH'IMON  {the  icaste),_  a  name 
designating  the  position  of  Pisgah  and 
Peor,  which  are  described  as  "  looketh 
toward  Jeshimon."  Num.  21 :  20  ■  23  :  28. 
The  word  may  not  be  a  proper  name, 
but  a  general  term  for  any  wilderness, 
and  may  thus  be  applied  to  different 
places  at  different  times.  Grove  would 
place  Jeshimon  on  the  west  side  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  toward  En-gedi :  Porter 
suggests  that  there  may  have  been  two 
Jeshimons,  one  east  of  the  Jordan  con- 
nected with  Pisgah,  and  another  west  of 
the  Jordan ;  Conder,  with  Grove,  pro- 
poses to  identify  Jeshimon  with  the  pla- 
teau above  the  Dead  Sea,  on  its  west  side, 
and  called  el  Bvkeia',  the  most  desolate 
country  in  Palestine. 

JESHISH'AI  {offspring  of  an  old 
man),  a  Gadite.  1  Chr.  5  :  14. 

JESHOHAI'AH  {whom  Jehovah 
bows  (fow)i),  a  Simeonite.  1  Chr.  4:36. 

JESH'UA,  in  one  case  JESH'- 
UAH  (whom  Jehovah  helps).  1.  The 
chief  of  the  ninth  division  of  the  priests. 
Ezr.  2  :  36  :  Neh.  7  :  39.  He  is  called 
Jeshuah  in  1  Chr.  24:11. 

2.  A  Levite  in  Hezekiah's  reign  placed 
over  a  city  of  the  priests  "  to  distribute 
the  oblations  of  the  Lord."  2  Chr.  31 :  15. 

3.  A  high   priest  after  the  Captivity, 

458 


son  of  Jehozadak.  lie  was  probably 
born  in  Babylon,  as  his  father  was  a 
captive.  1  Chr.  6:15.  He  returned  with 
Zerubbabel,  and  was  active  in  rebuilding 
the  temple  and  in  re-establishing  the  or- 
dinances of  religion.  Ezr.  2:2;  3:2,  etc. ; 
4:3;  6:2;  10:  18;  Neh.  7:7;  12:1, 
etc.  By  Zechariah  he  is  represented  as 
a  type  of  Christ.  By  this  prophet  and 
by  Haggai  he  is  called  Joshua.  See  Zech. 
3:1,  3,  8,  9;   Hag.  1:1,  12,  14;  2 :  2,  4. 

4.  The  head  of  the  most  numerous 
family  that  returned  with  Zerubbabel. 
Ezr.  2:6;  Neh.  7:11. 

5.  Head  of  a  Levitical  house.  Ezr.  2 : 
40;   Neh.  7:43. 

6.  A  Levite.  Ezr.  8  :  33. 

7.  One  whose  son  helped  repair  the 
wall.  Neh.  3  :  19. 

8.  A  Levite  who  read  the  Law.  Neh. 
8:7;  9  :  4,  5  ;  12  :  8,  24. 

9.  Joshua,  the  son  of  Nun  ;  mentioned 
thus  Neh.  8:17. 

JESH'UA  {Jehovah  the  salvation), 
one  of  the  towns  reinhabited  by  the 
people  of  Judah  after  their  return  from 
captivity.  Neh.  11  :  26.  Conder  pro- 
poses S'awi,  a  ruin  near  Beer-sheba,  as 
the  site  of  Jeshua. 

JESH'URIIN  {dearhj  beloved),  a 
symbolical  name  for  Israel,  Deut.  32: 
15  ;  33  :  5,  26,  and  once,  hj  mistake,  Jesu- 
run.  Isa.  44  :  2.  The  "he"  in  Deut. 
33  : 5  refers  not  to  Moses,  who  is  never 
called  a  king,  but  to  the  Lord,  who  was 
the  Head  of  the  theocracy. 

JESI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  lends).     1. 

A  Korhite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 

I  who  came  to  him  in  Ziklag.  1  Chr.  12  :  fi. 

2.  A  Levite,  same  as  Jeshaiah  of  1 
Chr.  26  :  25  :  1  Chr.  23  :  20. 

JESIM'IEL  {whom  God  has  set  iq)), 
a  prince  of  Simeon.  1  Chr.  4:  36. 

JES'SE  {strong),  the  father  of  Da- 
vid, and  the  grandson  of  Ruth.  His 
genealogy  is  twice  given  in  the  0.  T.. 
Ruth  4:18-22;  1  Chr.  2  :  5-12,  and 
twice  in  the  N.  T.  Matt.  1  :  3,  5 ;  Luke 
3  :  32-34.  He  is  usually  called  "  Jesse 
the  Bethlehemite,"  1  Sam.  16  :  1,  18; 
17 :  58,  but  his  full  and  proper  designa- 
tion is  Jesse  "that  Ephrathite  of  Beth- 
lehem Judah."  1  Sam.  17  :  12.  This  lat- 
ter verse  calls  him  "an  old  man"  at  the 
time  of  David's  fight  with  Goliath.  He 
was  the  affectionate  father  of  eight  sons, 
and  a  man  of  wealth  and  position.  17 : 
17,  18.     It  is  remarkable  that  David  is 


JES 


JEW 


called  **  the  son  of  Jesse"  after  his  own 
fame  was  established.  1  Chr.  29  :  26  ;  Ps. 
72:20.  Jesse  was  thi-ough  David  the 
ancestor  of  the  Judaic  kings,  and  thus 
of  Christ. .  The  prophets  announced  this 
in  so  many  words.   Isa.  11 :  1,  10. 

JES'UI  (lerel),  an  Ashcrite,  founder 
of  the  Jesuites.  Num.  26  :  U.  Else- 
where he  is  called  Isui,  Gen.  46:17, 
and  Ishuai.  1  Chr.  7  :  30. 

JES'UITES,  THE,  descendants 
of  Jesui.  Num.  26  :  U. 

JES'URUN.     See  Jeshurun. 

JE'SUS,  the  Greek  form  for  Hebrew 
''  Jehoshua,"  contracted  to  "  Joshua." 
This  term  means  "  Saviour."  Matt.  1 :  21. 
It  occurs  only  in  the  N.  T. ;  and  though 
it  is  not  exclusively  applied  to  Christ, 
it  should  be,  for  in  Acts  7  :  45,  Col. 
4  :  11,  and  Heb.  4  :  8,  "Joshua,"  and 
not  *'  Jesus,"  is  the  proper  rendering, 
although  the  two  names  have  originally 
the  same  meaning. 

In  the  evangelical  history  our  Saviour 
is  designated  by  the  name  of  "  Christ " 
alone  in  nearly  300  passages;  by  the 
name  of  "Jesus  Christ,"  or  "Christ 
Jesus,"  less  than  100  times ;  and  by 
the  name  of  the  "  Lord  Jesus  Christ " 
less  than  50.     See  Christ  Jesus. 

JE'SUS,  called  Justus,  a  Jew,  who 
was  Paul's  fellow-worker  and  a  comfort 
to  him  in  Rome.    Col.  4:11. 

JESUS,  SON  OF  SIRACH, 
BOOK  OF.     See  EccLESiASTicus. 

JE'THER  (excellence).  1.  In  mar- 
gin of  Ex.  4;  18.     See  Jethro. 

2.  The  eldest  of  Gideon's  70  sons. 
Jud.  8:20. 

3.  The  husband  of  Abigail,  David's 
sister,  and  father  of  Amasa,  captain  of 
Absalom's  host,  2  Sam.  17  :  25  ;  called 
"  Ithra,  an  Israelite,"  in  that  verse,  but 
in  1  Chr.  2  :  17,  more  correctly,  "  Jether 
the  Ishmaelite." 

4.  A  member  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  1 
Chr.  2 :  32. 

5.  Another  member.  1  Chr.  4:17. 

6.  One  of  the  sons  of  Asher.  1  Chr. 
7:38;  probably  identical  with  the  Ith- 
ran  of  v.  37. 

JE'THETH  {a  nail),  one  of  the 
dukes  of  Edom.  Gen.  36:40;  1  Chr.  1: 
51. 

JETH'LAH  (high,  exalted),  a  city 
of  Dan.  Jos.  19 :  42.  Drake  proposed 
the  village  of  Shilta,  north-west  of  the 
lower  Beth-Horon,  as  the  site  of  Jethlah; 


Conder,  on  a  weak  similarity  of  names, 
proposes  Beit  Tul  as  its-  site.  Either 
view  requires  further  confirmation. 

JE'THRO  (Ill's  excellence),  a  priest 
or  prince  of  Midian,  and  father-in-law 
of  Moses.  Ex.  3:1.  He  is  called  Raguel, 
Num.  10  :  29,  and  Reuel,  Ex.  2:18,  and 
was  probably  known  by  either  name, 
while  Jethro  was  his  official  title.  It 
is  highly  probable,  too,  that  he  was 
a  descendant  of  Abraham  by  Keturah, 
the  mother  of  Midian,  Gen.  25  :  2,  but 
what  was  the  nature  of  his  office  as 
priest  (or  prince,  as  some  say  it  should 
be   rendered)  we  know  not.    See  Hobab. 

JE'TUR  (an  enclosure),  one  of  the 
sons  of  Ishmael.  Gen.  25:  15;  1  Chr.  1: 
31 ;  5  :  19.     See  Iturea. 

JE''UEIj  (treasured  of  God),  one  of 
the  descendants  of  Judah.  1  Chr.  9  :  6. 

JE'USH  (to  v)hom  God  hastens).  1. 
A  son  of  Esau  by  Aholibamah,  and  one 
of  the  Edomitish  phylarchs  or  "dukes." 
Gen.  36:5,  14,  18;  1  Chr.  1:35. 

2.  The  head  of  a  Benjamite  house  in 
David's  reign.  1  Chr.  7: 10. 

3.  A  Gershonite  Levite.  1  Chr.  23: 
10,  11. 

4.  A  son  of  Rehoboam.  2  Chr.  11 :  18, 
19. 

JE''UZ  (counselling),  a  Benjamite 
chief.    1  Chr.  8  :  10. 

JEWELS.  This  term  is  applied  to 
ornaments  made  of  the  precious  metals 
and  used  to  adorn  the  person.  We  find 
them  among  the  pi-esents  which  the 
servants  of  Abraham  made  to  Rebekah 
and  her  family  when  they  sought  her  in 
marriage  for  Isaac.  Gen.  24  :  22.  It  is 
probable  that  much  skill  was  attained 
at  a  very  early  period  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  metal  ornaments,  such  as  chains, 
bracelets,  ear-rings,  etc.  Num.  31:50; 
Eze.  26  :  12  ;  Hos.  2  :  13.  The  word  is 
figuratively  used  to  denote  anything 
peculiarly  precious;  as,  the  chosen  peo- 
ple of  God,  Mai.  3  :  17,  or  wisdom,  Prov. 
20:15. 

JEWRY,  a  word  elsewhere  rendered 
"Judah"  and  "Judaea."  It  occurs  once 
in  the  0.  T.,  Dan.  5  :  13,  where  it  might 
be  rendered  "Judah,"  and  several  times 
in  the  Apocryphal  and  N.  T.  books.  See 
Judah  and  Jud^a. 

JEWS.  The  word  first  occurs  in  2 
Kgs.  16  :  0,  and  denotes  the  Judjeans,  or 
men  of  Judah,  in  contradistinction  from 
the  seceding  ten  tribes,  who  retained  the 

459 


JEZ 


JEZ 


name  of  Israel.  The  name  Israelites 
was  applied  to  the  12  tribes,  or  descend- 
ants of  Jacob  (Israel)  as  a  body;  but 
after  the  separation  of  the  tribes,  the 
above  distinction  obtained  until  the 
Babylonish  captivity,  which  terminated 
the  existence  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 
and  thenceforward,  until  the  present 
day,  the  descendants  of  Jacob  are  called 
Jews,  and  constitute  one  of  the  two 
classes  into  which  the  whole  human 
laraily  is  frequently  divided — viz.,  Jews 
and  Gentiles.  '*  It  is  a  more  compre- 
hensive term  than  Hebrew,  for  Hellen- 
ists (Grecians)  might  be  Jews,  nor  is  it 
quite  synonymous  with  '  Israelites,'  which 
term  seems,  sometimes  at  least,  to  ex- 
press more  decidedly  covenant  hopes 
and  relationships.  John  1 :  47  ;  2  Cor.  11 : 
22." — Ayre.     See  Hebrews. 

JEZANI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  hears), 
a  ^&vi,  Jer.  40  :  8  ;  42  : 1;  called  Azariah, 
Jer.  43  :  2.    See  Jaazaniah,  1. 

J  E  Z  '  E  B  E  L  {chaste),  the  wife  of 
Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  was  the  daughter 
of  a  Zidonian  king,  1  Kgs.  16 :  31,  and 
of  course  educated  in  the  idolatrous 
practices  of  her  native  country.  She 
was  the  virtual  ruler  of  Israel.  She  in- 
troduced the  worship  of  Baal  and  other 
idols,  maintaining  400  priests  of  As- 
tarte  at  her  own  expense,  while  Ahab 
maintained  450  priests  of  Baal.  1  Kgs. 
18:19. 

She  resolved  on  the  extermination  of 
all  the  prophets  of  God.  Obadiah,  who 
was  a  pious  man  and  principal  officer 
of  Ahab's  household,  rescued  one  hun- 
dred of  them  at  one  time  from  her  grasp, 
and  supplied  them  with  bread  and  water 
while  they  were  concealed  in  caves.  1 
Kgs.  18  :  3,  4,  13.  Soon  after  this,  Elijah 
caused  the  450  priests  of  Baal  support- 
ed by  Ahab  to  be  put  to  death.  For 
this  proceeding  Jezebel  threatened  to 
take  the  life  of  Elijah,  but  her  purpose 
was  frustrated.  Soon  afterward  she 
planned  and  perpetrated  the  murder  of 
Naboth :  and  by  using  the  king's  name 
and  authority  with  the  leading  men  of 
Jezreel,  she  secured  their  co-operation 
in  the  flagrant  crime.  1  Kgs.  21 : 1-13. 
Her  doom  was  predicted  by  Elijah,  and 
was  in  due  time  visited  upon  her  to  the 
very  letter.  2  Kgs.  9  :  30-37.  See  Ahab, 
Elijah,  Jehu. 

In  Rev.  2 :  20  the  name  Jezebel  is  used 
symbolically,  and  with  us  it  is  common 
460 


as  a  name  of  infamy.  Shakespeare's  Lady 
Macbeth  is  often,  though  improperly, 
compared  to  Jezebel. 

JE'ZER.  (  frame),  one  of  the  sons 
of  Naphtali.  Gen.  46:24;  Num.  26: 
49;   1  Chr.  7:13. 

JE  ZERITES,  THE,  the  de- 
scendants of  the  above.   Num.  26:49. 

JEZI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  sjiriukles), 
one  who  had  a  foreign  wife.  Ezr.  10  :  25. 

JE^ZIELi  {assembly  of  God),  a  Ben- 
jamite  archer  who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag.   1  Chr.  12  :  3. 

JEZLjI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  deliv- 
ers), a  Benjamite  who  lived  in  Jerusa- 
lem. 1  Chr.  8:  18. 

JEZ'OAR  {shinwq),  one  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah.  1  Chr.  4:7. 

JEZRAHI'AH  {whom  Jehovah 
hri)u/s  forth),  the  Levite  who  led  the 
singers  at  the  dedication  of  the  wall. 
Neh.  12:42. 

JEZ'REEL  {God  hath  2)lanted,  or 
scattered).  1.  A  name  in  the  genealo- 
gies of  Judah.  1  Chr.  4:3. 

2.  The  eldest  son  of  the  prophet  Ro- 
sea. Hos.  1 :  4. 

JEZ'REEL  {God  hath  planted).  1. 
A  city  in  the  plain  of  the  same  name 
between  Gilboa  and  Little  Hermon.  It 
was  a  boundary  of  Issachar.  Josh.  19  : 
18.  Ahab  chose  it  for  his  chief  resi- 
dence. The  selection  shows  the  ability 
of  this  wicked  king.  Near  by  were  a 
temple  and  grove  of  Astarte,  with  an 
establishment  of  400  priests  supported 
bv  Jezebel.  1  Kgs.  18:19;  2  Kgs.  10 : 
11.  The  palace  of  Ahab,  1  Kgs.  21 : 1 ; 
18  :  3,  probably  containing  his  "  ivory 
house,"  1  Kgs,  22  :  39,  was  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  city.  Comp.  1  Kgs.  21: 
1 ;  2  Kgs.  9  :  25,  30,  33.  Jezebel  lived 
by  the  city  wall,  and  had  a  high  Avindow 
facing  eastward.  2  Kgs.  9  :  30.  It  had  a 
watch-tower,  on  which  a  sentinel  stood. 
2  Kgs.  9:17.  An  ancient  square  tower, 
now  among  the  hovels  of  the  modern 
village,  may  be  on  its  site.  The  gateway 
of  the  city  on  the  east  was  also  the  gate- 
way of  the  palace.  2  Kgs.  9  :  34.  The 
vineyard  of  Naboth  was  on  the  vineclad 
hill  outside  the  city  to  the  eastward,  ac- 
cording to  Baedeker;  but  this  is  not  cer- 
tain. A  spring  near  is  now  called  'Ahi- 
Jalud,  or  the  "Spring  of  Goliath,"  and 
is  the  "  fountain  "  or  "  spring  "  in  "  Jez- 
reel." 1  Sam.  29:1.  After  the  fall  of 
the  house  of  Ahab,  Jezreel  also  fell  into 


JEZ 


JIP 


a  decline.  It  is  now  a  miserable  village 
of  a  dozen  houses,  and  known  as  Zerin. 
Around  the  village  are  many  (some  say 
300)  cisterns  and  subterranean  grana- 
ries, but  ruins  of  the  ancient  royal 
buildings  have  not  been  discovered. 
The  ground  would  indicate  that  careful 
excavations  might  bring  rich  results. 

2.  A  town  in  Judah,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  southern  Carmel.  Josh.  15 : 
56.  Here  David  in  his  wanderings  took 
Ahinoam  the  Jezreelitess  for  his  second 
wife,   1  Sara.  27  :  3  ;  30  :  5. 

JEZ'REEL,  VALLEY  OF,  atri- 
angular  plain  of  central  Palestine,  called 
by  Josephus  "  the  great  plain,"  extend- 
ing from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Jor- 
dan, and  from  the  range  of  Carmel  and 
Samaria  to  the  mountains  in  Galilee. 
It  is  about  25  miles  long  from  east  to 
west,  and  12  miles  wide  from  north  to 
south. 

It  is  a  classic  battle-field.  There  Barak 
and  Gideon  triumphed,  Deborah  sung 
her  war-song ;  Saul  and  Jonathan  fell 
near  by,  on  the  mountains  of  Gilboa  ; 
here  King  Josiah  was  mortally  wounded 
by  the  Egyptians.  It  furnished  the  apos- 
tle with  a  mystic  name  for  the  final  bat- 
tle-field of  the  Almighty,  Rev.  16  :  14-16, 
and  here  Napoleon  gained  a  fruitless 
victory  over  a  Turkish  army  of  30,000. 
On  the  west  side  is  a  narrow  pass,  open- 
ing into  the  plain  of  'Akku.  From  the 
base  of  this  triangular  plain  three 
branches  stretch  out  eastward,  divided 
by  two  bleak  gray  ridges,  one  called 
Mount  Gilboa,  the  other  Little  Hermon, 
The  central  branch  is  the  richest  as  well 
as  the  most  celebrated.  It  is  the  "Val- 
ley of  Jezreel  "  proper — the  battle-field 
where  Gideon  triumphed  and  Saul  and 
Jonathan  were  overthrown.  Jud.  7  :  1, 
'sq.;  1  Sam.  29  and  31.  The  plain  is 
noted  for  its  wonderful  richness.  The 
modern  Greek  name  of  the  plain  Esdrae- 
lon  is  not  found  in  the  0.  T.  or  N.  T., 
but  occurs  in  the  Apocrypha.  It  is  now 
uninhabited,  and  only  a  small  portion  is 
cultivated.  "  Next  to  the  plain  of  Sha- 
ron," says  SchaflF,  "  it  is  the  most  fertile 
district  of  Palestine,  looking  in  spring 
like  a  green  vel  set  carpet,  .  .  .  sadly  ne- 
glected, and  exposed  to  the  ravages  of 
the  wild  Bedouin,  who  from  time  to  time 
make  raids  and  pitch  their  black  tents, 
kill  peasants,  plunder  crops,  and  then 
ride  back  with  their  booty  on  camels 
462 


and  horses  to  their  lairs  in  the  Hau- 
ran." 

Dr.  N.  Macleod  writes  concerning  the 
plain  of  Jezreel :  ''  On  or  near  the  spot 
where  Ahab's  palace  is  likely  to  have 
stood  is  an  ancient  tower,  built  I  know 
not  when  nor  by  whom.  We  ascended 
to  its  upper  story,  and  there,  through 
three  windows,  opening  to  the  east,  west, 
and  north,  obtained  an  excellent  view  of 
all  the  interesting  portions  of  the  sur- 
rounding landscape.  Beneath  us  lay 
the  famous  plain,  a  rolling  sea  of  ver- 
dure, yet  lonely-looking,  being  without 
inhabitants.  We  saw  no  villages  or 
huts  dotting  its  surface,  not  even  a  soli- 
tary horseman,  but  only  troops  of  ga- 
zelles galloping  away  into  the  distance, 
and  some  birds  of  prey,  apparently  vul- 
tures, wheeling  in  the  sk}',  and  doubt- 
less looking  out  for  work  from  their 
masters,  the  Bedouins.  This  green 
prairie  stretches  for  upward  of  20  miles 
toward  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  the 
more  striking  from  its  contrast  with  the 
wild,  bare  hills  among  which  we  had 
been  travelling,  and  with  those  which 
look  down  immediately  upon  it.  It 
separates  the  highlands  of  southern 
Palestine  from  the  hill-country  of  the 
more  lowland  north,  as  the  plain  along 
which  the  railway  passes  from  Loch 
Lomond  to  Stirling  separates  the  high- 
lands of  Rob  Roy  from  the  lowland  hills 
of  the  Campsie  range,  that  rise  above  the 
valley  of  the  Clyde." 

JIB'SAM  (pleasant),  a  descendant 
of  Issachar.   1  Chr.  7  :  2. 

JID'LAPH  (tceepiiiy),  a  son  of  Na- 
hor,  and  nephew  of  Abraham.  Gen.  22 : 
22. 

JIM'NA,  OR  JIM'NAH  (good  for- 
tune), the  eldest  son  of  Asher.  Gen.  46  : 
17 ;  Num.  26  :  44.  He  is  also  called 
Imnah  in  1  Chr.  7  :  30.  His  descendants 
are  the  Jimnites.  Num.  26  :  44. 

JIPH'TAH,  one  of  the  cities  of 
Judah  toward  the  sea-coast.  Josh.  15 : 
43. 

JIPH'THAH-EL(6^ocZo/>e»!s),the 
name  of  a  valley  forming  one  of  the 
landmarks  for  the  boundary  of  Zebulun 
and  Asher.  Josh.  19  :  14,  27.  Dr.  Rob- 
inson suggests  that  Jiphthah-el  was 
identical  with  Jotapata,  the  fortress 
which  .Josephus  defended  and  where 
he  was  captured,  and  that  they  survive 
in  the  modern  Jefat,  a  village  in  the 


JOA 


JOA 


mountains,  15  miles  west  of  the  Lake 
of  Galilee,  and  halfway  between  the  Bay 
of  Acre  and  the  lake. 

JO'AB  [irhose  father  in  Jehovah).  1. 
The  eldest  of  the  three  sons  of  Zeruiah, 
David's  sister,  and  the  commander-in- 
chief  of  his  army.  1  Chr.  2:10;  11:6. 
He  was  evidently  a  valiant  man,  but 
ambitious  and  revengeful.  To  revenge 
the  death  of  his  brother  Asahel,  whom 
Abner  had  killed  in  self-defence,  2  Sam. 
2  :  23,  he  treacherously  assassinated  this 
distinguished  geflcral.  2  Sam.  3  :  27.  He 
brought  about  a  reconciliation  between 
Absalom  and  his  father  after  the  mur- 
der of  Amnon;  but  when  Absalom  re- 
belled, Joab  adhered  to  his  master,  and 
under  his  generalship  the  troops  of  Da- 
vid, though  much  inferior  in  numbers,  ob- 
tained a  complete  victory  over  the  army 
of  Absalom,  and,  contrary  to  the  express 
orders  of  David,  Joab  put  him  to  death 
with  his  own  hand  as  he  hung  suspend- 
ed from  the  oak  tree.  2  Sam.  18 :  14. 
After  this  event  David  promoted  Ama- 
sa  to  be  his  general-in-chief,  by  which 
Joab  was  deeply  otfended,  and  secretly 
resolved  on  the  death  of  his  rival,  and 
took  the  first  opportunity  of  assassinat- 
ing him  as  he  had  done  Abner.  2  Sam. 
20  :  10.  David  after  this  seems  to  have 
taken  him  again  into  favor.  2  Sam.  24  :  2. 
When  David  the  king  had  become  old, 
however,  Joab  combined  with  Abiathar 
the  priest  and  others  to  set  Adonijah  on 
the  throne  in  defiance  of  the  will  of  Da- 
vid, who  had,  by  divine  direction,  resolv- 
ed to  make  Solomon  king.  1  Kgs.  1  :  7. 
The  plot  was  seasonably  defeated,  and 
Solomon  was  proclaimed  king  the  same 
day.  But  Joab  now  seemed  to  David 
so  evidently  an  object  of  the  divine  dis- 
pleasure that  he  solemnly  charged  Sol- 
omon to  punish  him  for  all  his  enormous 
crimes,  and  especially  for  the  murder  of 
two  valiant  men,  both  better  than  him- 
self, Abner  and  Amasa.  Joab,  conscious 
that  his  life  was  forfeited,  sought  an 
asylum  at  the  horns  of  the  altar,  which 
position  he  absolutely  refused  to  relin- 
quish, and  Benaiah,  now  advanced  to  be 
the  captain  of  the  host,  slew  him  by  the 
altar,  agreeably  to  the  command  of  the 
young  king.  He  was  buried  in  his 
own  house  in  the  wilderness.  1  Kgs.  2  : 
5-34. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Kenaz.  1  Chr.  4 : 
14. 


3.  One  whose  posterity  returned  with 
Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  2  :  6 ;  8  :  9  ;  Neh.  7:11. 

JO'AH  {ichose  brother,  i.  e.  helper,  is 
JehoiHth).  1.  The  son  of  Asaph,  the 
royal  recorder  under  Hezekiah.  2  Kgs. 
18  :  18,  26,  37  ,•  Isa.  36  :  3,  11,  22. 

2.  A  Gershonite,  1  Chr.  6:21;  proba- 
bly same  as  Ethan,  v.  42. 

3.  A  Korhitc  porter.  1  Chr.  26:4. 

4.  A  Gershonite  Levite  who  took  part 
in  Hezekiah's  reforms.  2  Chr.  29  :  12. 

5.  The  son  of  Joahaz,  and  recorder 
to  Josaiah.  2  Chr.  34 :  8. 

JO'AHAZ  (whom  Jehovah  holdn), 
the  father  of  Joah,  the  recorder  to  Jo- 
saiah. 1  Chr.  34:8. 

JOAN'NA  {whom  Jehovah  has  gra- 
ciously given).  1.  One  of  the  ancestors 
of  Christ.  Luke  3 :  27.  He  has  been 
identified  with  Hananiah.   1  Chr.  3  :  19. 

2.  The  wife  of  Chusa,  the  steward  of 
Herod  Antipas,  and  one  who  ministered 
unto  our  Lord,  and  who  brought  spices 
and  ointments  for  his  embalming.  Luke 
8:3;  24:10.  She  seems  to  have  been 
the  subject  of  some  miraculous  cure  by 
Christ,  whom  she  followed,  and  to  whom 
she  ministered.  Luke  24: 10. 

JO'ASH  2  Kgs.  13  : 1,  or  JEHO'- 
ASJH,  2  Kgs.  12:1  {whom  Jehovah  he- 
stoioed).  1.  The  father  of  Gideon,  who 
had  his  own  altar  to  Baal.  His  idola- 
try, however,  would  not  seem  very  sin- 
cere, since  he  defended  Gideon  in  de- 
stroying the  idol.  Jud.  6:11,  etc. 

2.  One  of  the  sons  of  Ahab.  1  Kgs. 
22:26;  2  Chr.  18  :  25. 

3.  The  son  and  the  successor  of  Aha- 
ziah,  king  of  Judah.  Jehosheba,  or  Je- 
hoshabeath,  2  Chr.  22:11,  the  wife  of 
Jehoiada,  the  high  priest,  his  aunt,  pre- 
served him  from  the  murderous  designs 
of  Athaliah,  his  grandmother,  when  he 
was  but  a  year  old,  and  kept  him  hid 
six  years  in  a  chamber  belonging  to  the 
temple.  2  Kgs.  11 :  2,  3.  See  Athaliah. 
When  he  was  seven  years  of  age,  Jehoi- 
ada entered  into  a  solemn  covenant  with 
Azariah  and  others  to  set  up  young  Jo- 
ash  for  their  sovereign,  and  dethroned 
Athaliah.  After  preparing  matters  in 
the  kingdom,  and  bringing  the  Levites 
and  such  others  as  they  could  trust  to 
Jerusalem,  they  crowned  him  in  the 
court  of  the  temple  with  great  solemni- 
ty. 2  Kgs.  11.  Joash  behaved  himself 
well  while  Jehoiada,  the  high  priest, 
lived  and  was  his  guide,  but  no  sooner 

463 


JOA 


JOB 


was  this  good  man  removed,  than  he  be- 
gan to  listen  to  the  counsels  of  his  wick- 
ed courtiers.  The  worship  of  God  fell 
into  neglect  and  idolatr}'^  prevailed. 
Zechariah,  the  priest,  son  of  Jehoiada, 
warned  him  of  his  sin  and  danger,  but 
in  consequence  of  his  fidelity  he  was,  by 
order  of  Joash,  stoned  to  death  between 
the  temple  and  the  altar.  When  djung 
he  assured  them  that  God  would  avenge 
his  death,  2  Chr.  24  :  20-22,  to  which 
event  our  Saviour  is  generally  supposed 
to  refer.  Matt.  23  :  35.  Hazael  invaded 
the  kingdom,  but  Joash,  with  a  large 
sum  of  money,  including  all  the  treas- 
ures and  furniture  of  the  temple  and 
palace,  redeemed  his  capital  from  plun- 
der. 2  Kgs.  12  :  18.  After  suffering 
other  injuries  from  the  Syrians,  and 
after  being  loaded  with  ignominy,  he 
his  own  servants, 
years,  b.  c.  878-838. 


was    murdered    by 
after  a  reign  of  41 
2  Chr.  24:24-27. 
4.  2  Kgs.  13 :  9. 


Son   and   successor 


of  Jehoahaz,  king  of  Israel,  and  grand- 
son of  Jehu.  He  was  associated  with  his 
father  in  the  government  for  2  years,  but 
14  years  he  reigned  alone,  making  in  all 
16  years,  b.  c.  840-825. 

He  was  a  wicked  prince,  though  he 
was  successful  in  three  campaigns  against 
the  Syrians,  and  recovered  the  cities 
which  they  took  from  his  father,  accord- 
ing to  the  prediction  of  Elisha.  2  Kgs. 
13:  15-25.  He  was  also  signally  suc- 
cessful in  a  war  with  Amaziah,  king  of 
Judah  (see  Amaziah),  soon  after  the  ter- 
mination of  which  he  died.  2  Kgs.  14 
12-16. 

5.  A  descendant  of  Judah.  1  Chr.  4  :  22 

6.  A  Benjamite,  one  of  David's  heroes 
1  Chr.  12  :  3. 

JO'ASH  (to  rvhom  Jehovah  hastens 
i.  e.,  with  help).  1.  The  son  of  Becher, 
and  head  of  a  house  of  Benjamin  in  the 
time  of  David.  1  Chr.  7  :  8. 

2.  An  officer  of  David  who  was  over 
the  oil-cellars.  1  Chr.  27  :  28. 

JO 'AT  HAM.  Matt.  1:9.  The 
Greek  form  of  Jotham,  2,  which  see. 

JOB  {desire  ?},thQ  third  son  of  Issa- 
char.  Gen.  46  :  13 ;  called  Jashub,  1 
Chr.  7:  1. 

JOB  (o7!e^3ersec!<^efZ), the  famous  patri- 
arch of  Uz  (probably  in  eastern  Edom), 
whose  sorrows  and  whose  words  find  faith- 
ful and  immortal  record  in  the  book  of  Job. 
He  lived  in  very  primitive  times — at  least 
464 


was  unacquainted  with  the  Mosaic  law 
and  the  Jewish  worship.  He  appears  in 
the  book  as  a  holy  outsider,  who  was  yet, 
like  Melchizedek,  a  worshipper  of  the 
true  God.  We  have  reference  to  Job  as 
an  historical  character  in  Eze.l4: 14, 16, 
18,  20,  and  Jas.  5:11.  These  references 
must  be  accepted  as  conclusive  not  only 
as  to  his  reality,  but  likewise  as  to  his 
recovery.  They  are  supported  by  Arab 
and  Mohammedan  traditions.  But  this 
view  does  not  compel  us  to  accept  all  the 
details,  and  especially  all  the  speeches 
(which  are  too  highly  poetical  to  have 
been  extemporized),  as  strictly  historical. 
The  book  is  a  ^joe»i  on  an  historical  basis. 
He  was  a  patriarchal  prince  of  great 
wealth,  piety,  integrity,  and  happiness. 
By  God's  permission  Satan  tried  him, 
destroj'ing  his  property,  his  children,  and 
his  health,  and  visiting  him  with  the  most 
loathsome  form  of  leprosy  (elephanti- 
asis). But  as  he  abode  faithful,  God 
grandly  vindicated  his  righteousness, 
reversed  Satan's  sentence,  gave  him  back 
all  he  had  lost  and  much  more.  With 
daughters  renowned  for  their  beauty, 
with  sons  to  perpetuate  his  name,  with 
fulness  of  days  and  abundance  of  honor 
did  he  pass  away,  140  years  after  his 
great  trial.  Hales  places  him  before  the 
birth  of  Abraham,  Usher  about  30  years 
before  the  Exodus,  b.  c.  1521. 

Book  of.  It  is  the  record  of  Job's 
experiences.  It  is  a  didactic  poem  with 
a  narrative  prologue  and  a  narrative 
epilogue  in  prose.  The  poem  itself  has 
a  dramatic  drapery,  several  speakers  be- 
ing introduced,  who  carr^'  on  a  metaph3"s- 
ical  contest  on  the  mj^steries  of  divine 
government.  It  has  been  called  a  He- 
brew tragedy  and  theodicy.  Its  poetic 
merit  is  of  the  highest  order,  and  ranks 
it,  with  Homer's  Iliad,  Dante's  Biviiia 
Commedia,  Shakespeare's  dramas,  and 
Goethe's  Faust,  among  the  immortal 
masterpieces  of  genius.  Thomas  Carlyle 
calls  it  "  one  of  the  grandest  things  ever 
written  by  man,  a  noble  book — a  book 
for  all  men.  Such  living  likenesses  were 
never  since  drawn.  Sublime  sorrow, 
sublime  reconciliations ;  oldest  choral 
melody,  as  of  the  heart  of  manhood  ;  so 
soft  and  great,  as  the  summer  midnight; 
as  the  world  with  its  seas  and  stars, — 
there  is  nothing  written,  I  think,  of 
equal  literary  merit."  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  beginning  and  end,  it  is  in 


JOB 


JOB 


poetry.  It  is  uncertain  who  wrote  it, 
but  surely  it  is  very  old.  Some  ascribe 
it  to  Moses  while  in  Midian,  others  carry 
it  down  to  the  age  of  Solomon.  The 
speeches  of  Job  and  his  friends  discuss 
the  problem  of  evil  and  its  punishments, 
and  the  justice  of  God  in  the  unequal 
distribution  of  happiness  and  misery. 
Why  do  the  righteous  suffer  and  why 
do  the  wicked  prosper  in  this  world  ? 
The  friends  of  Job  charge  him  with  se- 
cret crimes  ;  he  in  vain  protests  his  inno- 
cence. All  the  speakers  are  silenced  at 
last  by  almighty  God,  who  appears  as 
umpire  on  the  scene  and  overwhelms 
Job  with  a  sense  of  his  infinite  power 
and  wisdom. 

The  jyractical  lessons  of  the  book  may 
be  stated  as  follows  : 

1.  Not  all  the  sufferings  are  punish- 
ments for  sin.  This  is  the  one-sided 
view  of  the  three  friends  of  Job,  who  are 
for  this  reason  censured  by  Jehovah  and 
required  to  make  an  atonement  for  the 
injustice  done  to  Job.  ch.  42 :  7.  The 
general  principle  of  the  connection  of 
sin  and  suffering  is  true  enough,  but  the 
error  and  injustice  consist  in  the  appli- 
cation of  this  principle  to  all  individual 
cases  of  suffering.  Without  sin  there 
would  have  been  no  suffering ;  but  in  a 
fallen  world  sufferings  are  used  by  God 
as  a  school  of  discipline. 

2.  The  sufferings  of  the  righteous  are 
not  punitive,  but  disciplinary  and  cor- 
rective. They  are  prompted  by  God's 
love  rather  than  his  justice.  "Whom 
the  Lord  loveth  he  chasteneth."  Prov.  3  : 
12  :  Heb.  12  :  6. 

3.  Afiiiction  is  the  necessary  condition 
for  the  development  of  disinterested  vir- 
tue and  the  heroism  of  patience.  As  a 
means  for  such  an  end  it  is  foreordained 
by  God. 

4.  The  sufferings  of  the  righteous  are 
but  temporary  and  lead  to  an  abundant 
reward  even  in  this  life,  or  certainly  in 
the  life  to  come. 

5.  It  is  wicked  presumption  in  man 
to  murmur  against  God  and  to  find 
fault  with  his  dealings  or  to  call  him  to 
an  account,  instead  of  humbly  adoring 
him  and  submitting  to  the  mysteries  of 
his  almighty  power  and  wisdom. 

6.  The  final  solution  of  all  the  remain'- 
ing  mysteries  of  divine  government  is 
reserved  for  the  future  life.  This  idea 
is  at  least  hinted  at  in  that  remarkable 

30 


and  most  comforting  passage  which 
stands  right  in  the  middle  of  the  book, 
as  the  kernel  in  the  shell,  ch.  19  :  23-27, 
and  which  teaches,  if  not  the  resur- 
rection of  the  body,  at  all  events  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul. 

"Oh  that  my  words  were  written  down  ! 
Oh  that  they  were  inscribed  in  a  book ! 
That  with  an  iron  stile  and  lead, 
They  were  graven  in  a  rock  for  ever ! 
Yea,  I  know  that  my  Redeemer  liveth, 
And  ivill  stand  the  last  upon  the  dust  {the 

grave)  ; 
And  after  this,  my  skin  is  destroyed, 
Even  without  (or,  Jrom  off)  my  flesh,  I  shall 

see  God. 
Yea,  I,  for  myself,  shall  see  him. 
And  my  eyes  behold  him,  and  no  stranger. 
(For  this)  ray  heart  is  consumed  within 

me." 

We  add  an  analysis  of  the  book  of  Job, 
which  has  suffered  much  from  the  tradi- 
tional division  into  chapters : 

The  Prologue. 
Job's  character  and  prosperity,  ch. 
1 :  1-5.  The  divine  decree  to  try  Job 
through  Satan  by  taking  away  his  pos- 
sessions, 1 :  6-22,  and  his  health,  2  :  1-10. 
The  visit  of  his  friends  and  their  mute 
sympathy,  2 :  11-13. 

The  Poem. 

I.  The  outbreak  of  Job's  despair,  ch.  3  : 

1-26. 

II.  First  series  of  controversies,  chs.  4- 
14. 

Eliphaz's  address,  chs.  4  and  5. 
Job's  reply,  chs,  6  and  7. 
Bildad's  address,  ch.  8. 
Job's  reply,  chs.  9  and  10. 
Zophar's  address,  ch.  11. 
Job's  reply,  chs.  12-14. 

III.  Second  series  of  controversies: 
Eliphaz's  address,  ch.  15. 

Job's  reply,  chs.  16  and  17. 
Bildad's  address,  ch.  18. 
Job's  reply,  ch.  19. 
Zophar's  address,  ch.  20. 
Job's  reply,  ch.  21. 

IV.  Third  series  of  controversies : 
Eliphaz's  address,  ch.  22. 
Job's  reply,  chs.  23  and  24. 
Bildad's  address,  ch.  25. 
Job's  reply,  ch.  26. 

V.  Job's    closing   address   to    the    van- 
quished friends,  chs.  27  and  28. 

VI.  Job's  soliloquy,  chs.  29-31. 

VII.  Elihu's  four  discourses  in  condem- 
nation of  Job  and  his  friends,  and  in 

465 


JOB 


JOH 


vindication  of  the  divine  justice,  ehs. 
32-37. 

VIII.  Jehovah's  addresses  to  Job,  ehs. 
38,  39,  40,  and  41. 

IX.  Humiliation  of  Job  and  penitent 
confession  of  his  sin  and  folly,  ch. 
42:  1-6. 

The  Epilogue,  or  historical  conclusion, 
cli.  42  :  7-17.  Vindication  of  Job  before 
his  friends,  vs.  7-10  ;  the  restoration  of 
his  former  dignity  and  honor,  vs.  11  and 
12;  the  doubling  of  his  former  earthly 
prosperity  and  happiness,  vs.  12-17. 

JO'BAB  (a  desert).  1.  A  son  of 
Joktan.  Gen.  10 :  29 ;  1  Chr.  1  :  23. 

2.  A  king  of  Edom.  Gen.  36:  33,  34; 
1  Chr.  1 :  44,  45. 

3.  A  king  of  Madon,  who  joined  the 
league  against  Joshua.  Josh.  11 :  1. 

4.  5.  Two  Benjamites,  heads  of  their 
respective  houses.  1  Chr.  8  :  9,  18. 

JOCH'EBED  {whose  glory  is  Jeho- 
vah), the  mother  of  Aaron,  Moses,  and 
Miriam,  was  the  wife  and  aunt  of  Am- 
ram,  and  the  daughter  of  Levi.  Ex.  6 : 
20  ,:  Num.  26  :  69. 

JO'ED  {his  witness  is  Jehovah),  a 
Benjamite.  Neh.  11:  7. 

JO 'EL  {Jehovah  is  his  God).  1.  The 
first-born  of  Samuel.  1  Sam.  8  :  2  ;  1  Chr. 
6  :  33 ;  15:  17.  By  a  curious  error  his 
name  is  given  as  Vashni,  which  means 
"  second,"  in  1  Chr.  6 :  28,  the  word  Joel 
having  dropped  out.  The  verse,  there- 
fore, should  read  "  The  first-born  Joel, 
and  the  second  Abiah." 

2.  A  Simeonite  chief.  1  Chr.  4  :  35. 

3.  A  Reubenite.  1  Chr.  5 :  4,  8. 

4.  A  Gadite  chief.  1  Chr.  5:12. 

5.  A  Kohathite,  1  Chr.  6  :  36,  but  prob- 
ably merely  a  corruption  of  Shaul  in 
verse  24. 

6.  One  of  Issachar's  posterity.  1  Chr. 
7:3. 

7.  One  of  David's  heroes ;  called  Igal 
in  2  Sam.  23  :  36  ;  1  Chr.  11 :  38. 

8.  A  Gershonite  chief.  1  Chr.  15 :  7, 
11. 

9.  The  Gershonite  appointed  with  his 
brother  over  the  treasures  of  the  house 
of  the  Lord.  1  Chr.  23  :  8 ;  26  :  22.  • 

10.  A  Manassite  chief  on  the  west  of 
Jordan.  1  Chr.  27:  20. 

11.  A  Kohathite  in  Hezekiah's  reign. 
2  Chr.  29:  12. 

12.  One  who  had  a  foreign  wife.  Ezr. 
10 :  43. 

13.  The  Benjamite  overseer  of  those 
466 


of  his  tribe  and  that  of  Judah  who  lived 
in  Jerusalem.  Neh.  11 :  9. 

14.  The  son  of  Pethuel,  one  of  the 
minor  prophets.  Nothing  is  recorded  of 
his  personal  history  but  the  most  likely 
conjectures  assign  him  to  the  reign  of 
Uzziah  and  make  him  reside  in  Judah. 

Joel,  Book  of.  It  may  be  divided 
into  two  parts:  I.  1-2:17  describes 
a  sore  judgment  which  is  to  come  upon 
the  land,  and  grounds  upon  it  a  call 
to  repentance.  II.  2:  18-3:  21  contains 
the  blessings  which  Jehovah  will  confer 
upon  the  chosen  people,  and  announces 
when  the  Messiah  has  come,  the  out- 
pouring of  the  Spirit  and  the  complete 
conquest  of  Judah  over  her  foes,  result- 
ing in  absolute  and  unbreakable  peace. 
The  second  chapter  contains  a  prophecy 
of  a  terrible  jjlague  of  locusts,  but  a 
symbolical  use  is  made  of  the  incursion 
to  foretell  the  attack  of  Judah's  foes. 
Joel's  style  is  classical;  '*  it  is  elegant 
and  perspicuous,  and  at  the  same  time 
nervous,  animated,  and  sublime." — Ayre. 
The  fulfilment  of  his  Messianic  ])rophecies 
is  noticed  in  the  N.  T.  Acts  2  :  16-21 ;  Rom. 
10:  13. 

JOE'LiAH  {whom  Jehovah  helps),  a 
Benjamite  chief  who  united  his  forces  to 
David's  at  Ziklag.  1  Chr.  12 :  7. 

JOE'ZER  {whose  help  is  Jehovah), 
a  Benjamite  who  was  a  Korhite,  who 
came  to  David  at  Ziklag.   1  Chr.  12  :  6. 

JOG'BEHAH  {elevated),  a  place 
in  the  tribe  of  Gad,  Num.  32:35;  Jud. 
8:11,  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  near 
where  Gideon  overcame  Zebah  and  Zal- 
munna ;  it  may  be  identical  with  Juheiha, 
a  ruin  about  4  miles  north  of  Amnidn. 

JOGXI  {exiled),  the  father  of  a 
chief  of  Dan.  Num.  34:  22. 

JO 'HA  {whom  Jehovah  revives).  1. 
A  chief  of  Benjamin.  1  Chr.  8  :  16. 

2.  The  Tizite,  one  of  David's  warriors. 

1  Chr.  11  :  45. 

JOHA'NAN  {to  whom  Jehovah  is 
merciful).  1.  One  of  the  captains  of  the 
army  of  Judah  who  came  with  their  men 
unto  Gedaliah,  whom  Nebuchadnezzar 
had  appointed  governor,  and  declared 
themselves  "servants  of  the  Chaldees." 

2  Kgs.  25 :  23-26.  Having  heard  of 
the  intention  of  Ishmael  to  kill  Gedaliah 
he  told  the  governor,  at  the  same  time 
requesting  permission  to  kill  Ishmael, 
but  Gedaliah  did  not  believe  the  report, 
and  accused  Johanan  of  lying.     After 


JOH 


JOH 


Ged.aliah  was  assassinated  Johanan  again 
took  the  lead,  rcgathered  the  fugitives, 
and,  although  warned  bj'  Jeremiah 
against  going  down  to  Egypt,  carried 
off  the  prophet  and  other  Jews  into  that 
land,  where  he  died.  Jer.  40:  7-10:  chs. 
41,  42,  and  43. 

2.  One  of  Josiah's  sons.  1  Chr.  3:15. 

3.  One  of  David's  posterity.  IChr.  3  :  24. 

4.  Sou  of  Azariah.  of  the  high-priestly 
line.  1  Chr.  6:  U.  10. 

5.  6.  A  Benjaniitc  and  a  Gadite  who 
came  to  David  at  Ziklag.  1  Chr.  12  :  4,  12. 

7.  The  father  of  an  Ephraiuiite  chief 
in  the  reign  of  Ahaz.  2  Chr.  28  :  12. 

S.  One  who  returned  with  Ezra.  Ezr. 
8:  12. 

9.  One  of  the  chief  Levites,  in  whose 
chamber  Ezra  mourned  for  the  trans- 
gressions of  the  captives.  Ezr.  10:6; 
Neh.  12:  23. 

10.  The  son-in-law  of  Meshullam. 
Neh.  6  :  18. 

JOHN,  identical  with  JOHA'IVAN 
{ichom  Jehovah  loves  ;  comp.  the  German 
Gottlieb).  1.  One  of  the  high  priest's 
kindred.  Acts  4  :  6. 

2.  The  Hebrew  name  of  Mark  the 
evangelist.  Acts  12  :  25  ;  13  :  5  ;   15  :  37. 

3.  John  the  Baptist,  more  properly 
"the  Baptizer."  Matt.  3  :  1.  The  son 
of  a  priestly  family  on  both  sides,  his 
father,  Zacharias,  being  a  priest  of  the 
course  of  Abiah,  and  his  mother,  Elisa- 
beth, being  of  the  daughters  of  Aaron,  the 
prophet  and  forerunner  of  our  Saviour, 
and  the  Elias  of  the  N.  T.  His  parents 
were  old  when  they  received  the  promise 
of  his  birth.  Luke  1:18.  See  Zechariah. 
He  was  born  about  six  months  before 
Christ.  His  birth  and  work  were  predict- 
ed by  the  angel  Gabriel,  Luke  1 :  5-15,  and 
by  Isaiah,  Isa.  40  :  3,  and  Malachi.  Mai. 
4  :  5.  He  grew  up  in  solitude,  and  when 
about  30  years  of  age  began  to  preach 
in  the  wilderness  of  Judaea,  and  to  call 
men  to  repentance  and  reformation.  By 
divine  direction  he  baptized  with  the 
baptism  of  repentance  all  who  came 
unto  him  confessing  their  sins,  Luke  3  : 
8  ;  and  many  supposed  he  might  be  "  the 
Christ."  John  1  :  19-28.  His  manner  of 
life  was  solitary,  and  even  austere ;  for 
he  seems  to  have  shunned  the  habitations 
of  men  and  to  have  subsisted  on  locusts 
and  wild  hone}^,  while  his  dress  was 
made  of  the  coarse  hair  of  camels,  and  a 
leathern     girdle  was    about    his    loins. 


John,  moreover,  announced  to  the  -Tews 
the  near  approach  of  the  Messiah's  king- 
dom, called  the  ''  kingdom  of  heaven." 
Matt.  3  :  2.  Multitudes  flocked  to  hear 
him,  and  to  be  baptized  of  him,  from 
every  part  of  the  land  ;  and  among  the 
rest  came  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  and  ap- 
plied for  baptism  John  at  first  hesita- 
ted on  account  of  the  dignity  of  the 
person  and  his  own  un worthiness;  but 
when  Jesus  told  him  that  it  was  neces- 
sary, John  acquiesced:  heaven  was 
opened,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  descended 
on  Jesus  in  the  likeness  of  a  dove,  and 
a  voice  was  heard  from  heaven,  saying, 
"  This  is  my  beloved  Son,  in  whom  I 
am  well  pleased."  Matt.  3:17.  By  this, 
John  knew  most  certainly  that  Jesus  of 
Nazareth  was  the  Messiah,  and  afterward 
pointed  him  out  to  his  own  disciples  and 
announced  to  the  people  that  he  was 
then  among  them.    John  1 :  26-36. 

John  was  a  man  of  profound  humility; 
and  although  he  foresaw  that  his  fame 
would  be  eclipsed  by  the  coming  of 
Christ,  as  the  brightness  of  the  morning 
star  is  dimmed  by  the  rising  of  the  sun, 
yet  he  rejoiced  sincerely  in  the  event, 
saying,  "  He  must  increase,  but  I  must 
decrease."  The  testimony  of  John  to 
the  divine  nature  and  offices  of  the  Re- 
deemer is  full  and  distinct.  John  1 :  29  ; 
3  :  28-32.  The  message  he  sent  by  his 
disciples  while  he  was  in  prison  was  for 
their  sakes  rather  than  his  own,  al- 
though it  is  not  impossible  that  his  own 
faith  was  temporarily  clouded  by  the 
gloom  of  the  prison.  Matt.  11 :  1-6.  The 
preaching  of  John  was  awakening  and 
alarming,  and  produced  a  deep  impres- 
sion on  the  minds  of  his  hearers,  but 
with  most  it  was  but  temporary.  They 
rejoiced  in  his  light  only  for  a  season. 

Among  the  hearers  of  John  was  Her- 
od, the  tetrarch  of  Galilee.  This  wicked 
prince  not  only  heard  him,  but  heard 
him  with  delight,  and  reformed  his  con- 
duct in  many  points  in  consequence  of 
j  his  solemn  warnings,  Mark  6:20;  but 
'  there  was  one  sin  which  he  would  not 
I  relinquish.  He  had  put  away  his  own 
i  wife,  and  had  married  Herodias,  the 
[  wife  of  his  brother  Philip,  who  was  still 
living.  For  this  iniquity  John  faith- 
fully reproved  the  tetrarch,  by  which  he 
was  so  much  offended  that  he  would 
have  killed  the  preacher  had  he  not 
feared   an    insurrection    of   the   people, 

467 


JOH 


JOH 


for  all  men  held  John  to  be  a  prophet. 
Matt.  14  :  5.  He  went  so  far,  however, 
as  to  shut  him  up  in  prison.  The  re- 
sentment of  Herodias  was  still  stronger 
and  more  implacable  toward  the  man 
who  had  dared  to  reprove  her  sin.  She 
therefore  watched  for  some  opportunity 
to  wreak  her  vengeance  on  this  prophet 
of  the  Lord.  On  Herod's  birthday,  when 
all  the  principal  men  of  the  country 
were  feasting  with  him,  -Salome,  the 
daughter  of  Herodias,  danced  so  grace- 
fully before  the  company  that  Herod 
was  charmed  beyond  measure,  and  de- 
clared with  an  oath  that  he  would  give 
her  whatever  she  asked,  even  to  the  half 
of  his  kingdom.  She  immediately  asked 
the  advice  of  her  mother,  who  told  her 
to  request  the  head  of  John  the  Baptist. 
Herod,  whose  resentment  against  him 
seems  to  have  subsided,  was  exceedingly 
sorry,  but  out  of  regard  to  his  oath,  as 
he  said,  and  respect  for  his  company,  he 
caused  John  to  be  beheaded.  His  head 
was  brought  on  a  platter  and  presented 
to  the  young  dancer,  who  immediately 
gave  it  to  her  mother. 

Thus  terminated  the  life  of  him  who, 
of  all  the  prophets  of  old,  came  nearest 
to  Christ,  and  was  in  this  sense  the 
greatest  born  among  women,  yet  less 
than  "least  in  the  kingdom"  of  Christ. 
Matt.  11 :  11.  He  was  the  promised  Eli- 
jah— i.  €.  gifted  with  his  power  and 
spirit.  He  summed  up  the  whole  mean- 
ing of  the  Jewish  dispensation,  the  Law, 
and  the  prophecy  in  its  direct  termina- 
tion in  Christ,  who  came  to  fulfil  the  Law 
and  the  promise. 

Josephus,  the  Jewish  historian,  says 
of  John,  he  "  was  a  good  man,  and  com- 
manded the  Jews  to  exercise  virtue  both 
as  to  righteousness  toward  one  another, 
and  piety  toward  God,  and  so  to  come  to 
baptism."  He  also  speaks  of  his  "  great 
influence  over  the  people,  who  seemed 
ready  to  do  anything  he  should  advise." 
Josephus  also  confii-ms  the  gospel  account 
of  the  murder  of  John.  Antiq.,  xviii.  5^2. 

4.  John,  the  apostle  and  evangelint, 
was  the  son  of  Zebedee  and  Salome,  and 
probably  a  cousin  of  Jesus  (if  Salome 
was  a  sister  of  Mary),  as  may  be  inferred 
from  John  19  :  25,  "  his  mother's  sister." 
Comp.  with  Matt.  27  :  56  :  Mark  15  :  40  ; 
Luke  23  :  49.  He  was  probably  born  at 
Bethsaida.  Matt.  4  :  18,  21.  His  parents 
were  in  comfortable  circumstances,  for 
468 


his  father  had  hired  servants,  Mark  1 :  20, 
and  a  partnership  in  business.  Luke  5 : 
10.  His  mother  was  one  of  the  women 
who  gave  of  their  substance  for  the  sup- 
port of  Jesus,  Luke  8  :  3,  and  came  with 
spices  to  embalm  his  body.     Mark  16  :  1. 

The  apostle  himself  was  acquainted 
with  the  high  priest  and  his  court, 
John  18  :  15,  and  had  property  in  Jeru- 
salem. John  19:  27.  He  with  James,  his 
brother,  carried  on  the  business  of  fish- 
ing with  their  father.  But  the  fame  of 
the  new  prophet,  John  the  Baptist, 
reached  Galilee,  and  with  his  friends, 
Peter,  Andrew,  and  Philip,  he  eagerly 
advocated  the  claims  of  the  Baptist,  and 
became  one  of  his  followers. 

In  this  school  he  was  prepared  for  a 
far  higher  service.  He  who  faithfully 
obeyed  the  Forerunner  was  brought  soon 
to  the  Lord.  Doubtless  John  was  one  of 
the  "  two  disciples  "  who  heard  the  Bap- 
tist declare  of  Jesus,  "  Behold  the  Lamb 
of  God  !"  John  1 :  .36.  He  followed  Jesus 
unto  his  abode,  saw  the  marvellous  works 
he  performed,  and  from  that  hour  was  a 
convert  to  the  new  faith.  But  not  as  yet 
was  he  called.  He  resumed  his  trade  for 
a  time,  until  Jesus,  walking  by  the  Sea 
of  Galilee,  caught  a  glimpse  of  his  old 
acquaintances,  Peter  and  Andrew,  James 
and  John,  and  by  the  same  command, 
"  Follow  me,"  counted  them  among  the 
twelve  apostles  who  form  the  first  layer 
of  God's  spiritual  building.  Eph.  2  :  20. 
Unto  John  was  the  tender  and  expres- 
sive epithet  given,  "  The  disciple  whom 
Jesus  loved."  This  was  intimated  in  his 
very  name,  "Jehovah  is  gracious." 
Comp.  the  German  Gottlieb.  Did  we 
know  nothing  more  of  him  than  this, 
we  should  know  enough  to  stamp  him  as 
the  worthiest  of  sinful  mortals  ;  he  who 
was  the  chosen  friend  of  the  sinless  One 
must  have  possessed  rare  qualities  of 
heart  and  mind.  He  was,  along  with 
James  and  Peter,  the  spectator  of  all 
the  more  private  events  of  the  Saviour's 
life.  He  saw  the  glories  of  the  trans- 
figuration, rejoiced  in  the  restoration  of 
Jairus's  daughter,  wondered  at  the  resur- 
rection of  Lazarus,  leaned  on  the  Sa- 
viour's breast  at  the  Last  Supper,  and 
was  nearest  to  him  in  the  garden.  He 
alone  of  the  apostles  attended  the  cruci- 
fixion. It  was,  then,  fitting  that  to  him, 
at  the  cross,  should  be  committed  the  care 
of  the  widowed  mother  of  Jesus.  John  19 : 


JOH 


JOH 


26.  With  Peter  he  hastens  to  the  sepul- 
chre on  Easter  morning,  is  among  the  dis- 
ciples when  Jesus  appears,  and  at  our  last 
glimpse  of  him  in  the  Gospels  he  stands 
near  to  Peter,  and  the  words  are  borne 
to  us,  ''  If  I  will  that  he  tarry  till  I  come, 
what  is  that  to  thee?"  John  21 :  22. 

After  the  ascension  Peter,  James,  and 
John  are  the  pillar  apostles.  Gal.  2  : 
1-9.  They  work  miracles,  are  the  sources 
of  counsel,  and  the  heads  of  the  infant 
Church.  In  the  year  50,  Paul  meets 
them,  and  how  cordial  a  greeting  would 
the  ardent  lover  of  Jesus  receive  from 
John,  whose  mind  was  stored  with  those 
precious  memories  he  was  destined  to 
write  down  for  the  edification  and  enjoy- 
ment of  all  future  time!  But  when  Paul 
for  the  last  time  visited  Jerusalem,  in 
68,  John  was  not  there — so  do  we  inter- 
pret Luke's  silence.  Acts  21 :  18 — having 
entered  upon  those  wider  labors  which 
made  him  so  much  beloved. 

He  made  Ephesus  the  centre  of  his 
operations,  and  had,  after  Paul's  mar- 
tyrdom, according  to  unanimous  tradi- 
tion, the  supervision  in  general  of  the 
churches  of  Asia  Minor.  This  oversight 
began  in  the  year  64.  Under  Nero,  A.  D, 
54-68,  in  the  year  68,  he  was  banished  to 
Patmos,  a  solitary,  barren,  rocky  island 
in  the  ^gean  Sea.  There  he  had  the 
visions  recorded  in  Revelation.  Rev. 
1  :  9.  The  usual  view  assigns  the  Rev- 
elation to  the  close  of  Domitian's  reign, 
A.  D.  95,  and  his  return  to  Ephesus  to  the 
reign  of  Nerva,  a.  i>.  96;  but  strong  in- 
ternal evidence  favors  a  date  prior  to 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  a.  d.  70. 

One  of  the  beautiful  stories  which  are 
told  of  the  aged  apostle  John  is  that 
when  he  was  too  old  to  jireach,  he  was 
accustomed  to  say  to  the  congregation 
the  characteristic  words,  "  Little  chil- 
dren, love  one  another ;"  and  when  asked 
why  he  always  repeated  this  sentence 
only,  he  replied,  "  Because  it  is  the  com- 
mandment of  the  Lord,  and  enough  is 
done  if  this  one  command  be  obeyed." 
Another  story  relates  to  an  earlier  pe- 
riod. It  is  said  that  once,  on  entering 
the  bath  at  Ephesus,  he  perceived  in  it 
the  heretic  Cerinthus,  the  early  Gnostic, 
whereupon  John  cried  out,  "Let  us  flee, 
that  the  roof  do  not  fall  upon  us  under 
which  lingers  Cerinthus,  that  enemy  of 
the  truth."  These  stories  serve  well  to 
reveal  the  permanency  of  those  traits 


of  character  which  come  out  in  the  Gos- 
pels. Down  to  the  close  John  was  ''the 
son  of  thunder,"  intense  in  his  feeling 
and  vehement  in  his  affection,  and  the 
**  beloved  disciple,"  of  open  mind  and 
tender  heart,  of  profound  thought  and 
burning  zeal.  When  we  compare  him 
with  the  other  apostles  we  learn  his 
marked  individuality.  John  is  the 
"  good  "  man,  while  James  is  the  right- 
eous man.  John  is  the  pensive,  quiet, 
thoughtful  man,  while  Peter  is  the  ac- 
tive, practical  man.  "  Both  these  dis- 
ciples loved  the  Lord  with  all  the  heart, 
but,  as  Grotius  finely  remarks,  Peter 
was  more  a  friend  of  '  Christ,'  John  of 
'Jesus' — that  is,  the  one  revered  and 
loved  the  Saviour  chiefly  in  his  official 
Messianic  character,  the  other  was  at- 
tached most  of  all  to  his  person,  and 
was  therefore  personally  still  nearer  to 
him,  being,  so  to  speak,  his  bosom- 
friend.  John  and  Paul  have  depth  of 
knowledge  in  common.  They  are  the 
two  disciples  who  have  left  us  the  most 
complete  systems  of  doctrine.  But  while 
Paul  is  the  representative  of  genuine 
scholasticism  in  the  best  sense  of  the 
term,  being  an  exceedingly  acute  thinker 
and  an  accomplished  dialectician,  John 
is  a  representative  of  all  true  mj'sti- 
cism,  learning  from  intuition  and  con- 
templation. Not  inaptly  has  Peter  been 
styled  the  apostle  of  hope,  Paul  the 
apostle  of  faith,  and  John  the  apostle 
of  love.  The  first  is  the  representative 
of  Catholicism,  the  second  of  Protestant- 
ism, the  third  of  the  ideal  Church  in 
which  this  great  antagonism  shall  re- 
solve itself  into  perfect  harmony." — 
SciiAFF  :  Apost.  Ch.,  pp.  410,411. 

Full  of  days  and  of  honors,  highly  priv- 
ileged and  richly  endowed,  about  the  close 
of  the  century  "  the  disciple  whom  Jesus 
loved  "  was  summoned  by  the  Master  to 
resume  their  loving  companionship. 

John,  Gospel  of.  It  was  the  last  Gospel 
written,  and  was  probably  composed,  or  at 
least  put  in  its  present  shape,  at  Ephesus, 
between  A.  d.  70  and  95.  The  ])articular 
design  of  it  is  expressed  by  the  author  to 
be  that  we  might  believe  that  Jesus  is  the 
Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  and  that,  believ- 
ing, we  might  have  life  through  his  name. 
John  20  :  31.  Hence  the  subjects  and 
discourses  of  this  book  have  special  rela- 
tion to  our  Lord's  character  and  offices, 
and  are  evidently  intended  to  prove  his 

469 


JOH 


JOH 


nature,  authority,  and  doctrines  as  di- 
vine. John  probably  had  the  other 
Gospels  before  him,  or  was  familiar  with 
their  general  contents.  This  fact  affords 
substantial  evidence  of  the  genuineness 
of  these  writings,  and  also  accounts  for 
the  omission  of  many  important  occur- 
rences which  are  particularly  stated  by 
the  other  evangelists.  We  should  not 
regard  John,  however,  as  attempting  to 
correct  the  other  evangelists,  or  merely 
to  supplement  them.  This  idea  is  at 
r)nce  contradicted  by  his  having  many 
points  in  common  with  them.  His  work 
is  all  one  effusion,  and  though  it  serves 
as  a  valuable  complement  to  the  other 
Gospels  is  yet  a  complete  whole  in  itself. 
John  wrought  on  a  fixed  plan.  He 
grouped  all  the  events  around  the  sev- 
eral Jewish  feasts,  mentioning  three — in- 
deed, probably  four — Passovers,  2:13:5: 
1 ;  6:4;  11 :  55  ;  12 : 1  ;  13  : 1,  one  feast 
of  tabernacles,  7:2,  and  one  feast  of 
dedication,  10:22,  But  there  is  likewise 
a  certain  inward  order,  a  progressive  de- 
velopment of  the  relation  of  Jesus  to  his 
disciples  and  the  world ;  especially  is 
this  to  be  traced  in  the  growth  of  love 
and  devotion  on  the  one  hand,  and  of 
hate  and  rage  of  the  unbelieving  Jews 
on  the  other.  All  through  the  history 
we  hear  the  sound  of  the  hammer  in  the 
making  of  his  cross,  but  more  loudly  the 
shouting  of  the  coming  saints. 

The  Gospel  contains — A.  The  prologue, 
ch.  1  :  1-18 ;  B,  The  history,  ch,  1 :  19  to 
ch,  21.  1,  The  preparation  for  Jesus' 
public  ministry,  (n)  by  John,  1  :  19-36; 
{b)  by  the  choice  of  disciples.  1  :  37- 
51.  2.  The  public  labors  of  Jesus  in 
doctrine  and  miracle,  chs.  2-12,  3.  Jesus 
in  the  private  circle  of  his  disciples,  chs. 
13-17.  4.  The  history  of  the  passion 
and  resurrection  or  public  glorification 
of  the  Lord,  chs.  18-21. 

"  The  Gospel  of  John  is  the  Gospel  of 
Gospels.  It  is  the  most  remarkable  as 
well  as  most  important  literary  produc- 
tion ever  composed.  .  ,  ,  It  is  a  mar- 
vel even  in  the  marvellous  Book  of 
books.  It  is  the  most  spiritual  and 
ideal  of  Gospels.  It  brings  us,  as  it 
were,  into  the  immediate  presence  of 
Jesus.  It  gives  us  the  clearest  view  of 
his  incarnate  divinity  and  his  perfect 
humanity."  —  Sj)ecial  Introd.  by  Dr. 
Schaff  to   Lange   on   John. 

The  Gospel  of  John  is  a  battlefield 
470 


of  modern  criticism,  but  the  fight  is  in 
the  main  between  belief  and  unbelief. 
It  must  also  be  confessed  that  the  latter 
is  fairly  defeated.  Both  parties  recog- 
nize the  crucial  character  of  the  Gospel, 
Grant  to  it  authenticity  and  genuine- 
ness, then  the  divinity  of  Christ,  to 
which  the  Gospel  testifies  in  the  plain- 
est, simplest,  but  also  profoundest  way, 
must  be  acknowledged  as  taught  in 
the  N,  T.  It  is  this  fact  which  gives 
bitterness  to  the  frequent  and  often 
learned  and  plausible  attacks  made 
upon  it.  The  attempt  has  been  made 
to  assign  it  to  some  great ''unknown" 
author  in  the  second  century,  but  at 
that  time  it  was  already  widely  known, 
and  the  second  century  is  so  far  below 
the  apostolic  age  that  it  could  not  pos- 
sibly have  produced  such  a  work.  Up  to 
a  quite  modern  date  the  genuineness  of 
this  Gospel  was  undisputed.  The  verses 
24  and  25  of  ch.  21  give  the  contem- 
porary Ephesian  testimony.  2  Pet.  1 : 
14  alludes  to  21:18.  Ignatius,  Poly- 
carp,  the  Epistle  to  Diognetus,  Basilides, 
Justin  Martyr,  Tatian  (especially  in  the 
light  of  the  recent  discovery  of  a  com- 
mentary of  Ephraem  Syrus  on  Tatian's 
Diatessaron),  impliedly  quote  from  it. 
This  carries  the  date  up  to  the  middle 
of  the  second  century,  when  it  was  in 
current  use.  The  external  evidence  is 
in  favor  of  John's  authorship,  while  in- 
ternally it  is  so  befitting  the  known  cha- 
racter and  opportunities  of  John  that 
it  is  either  from  him  or  else  it  is  a 
forgery.  But  it  cannot  be  a  forgery  ;  it 
is  too  self-possessed,  too  well-balanced, 
too  original,  too  profound,  too  divine. 
The  heart  of  Christ  throbs  in  no  liar's 
breast.  The  high-priestly  prayer  came 
from  the  hand  of  no  hypocritical  or  de- 
signing man.  Read  the  Gospel  and 
compare  it  with  the  productions  of  the 
Fathers,  and  you  will  endorse  the  state- 
ment, "  Verily,  no  man  in  the  second 
century,  or  of  any  other  subsequent  cen- 
tury, could  have  written  the  work.  No 
man  in  the  first  century  but  John  the 
apostle  could  have  Avritten  it,  and  even 
John  himself  could  not  have  written  it 
without  inspiration." — Schaff.  And  in 
this  conclusion  the  heart  of  Christendom 
will  always  abide. 

The  Epistles  of  John  are  three  in 
number.  They  were  written  in  Ephesus, 
after  the  Gospel,  though  before  the  date 


JOI 


JON 


of  the  Revelation.  Dr.  Lange  assigns 
them  between  the  years  96  and  100. 
The  First  has  always  been  attributed  to 
John,  though  his  name  is  neither  pre- 
fixed nor  subscribed.  It  is  a  kind  of 
practical  application  of  the  Gospel.  It 
is  addressed  to  Christians,  and  does  not 
aim,  therefore,  to  produce,  but  to  nour- 
ish, the  Christian  life,  to  warn  them 
against  all  errors,  and  to  induct  them 
into  the  mysteries  of  redeeming  love  and 
into  the  principles  and  duties  which  the 
religion  of  Christ  enjoins,  and  to  furnish 
them  with  certain  signs  or  criteria  by 
which  to  determine  the  genuineness  of 
their  faith. 

The  Second  Epistle  is  addressed  to  the 
"  elect  lady  and  her  children."  The  elect 
lady  is  supposed  to  have  been  some 
honorable  woman  distinguished  for  pi- 
ety, and  well  known  in  the  churches  as 
a  disciple  of  Christ.  Some,  however, 
have  thought  some  particular  church 
and  its  members  might  be  denoted. 
Those  who  adopt  the  latter  opinion 
apply  the  term  to  the  church  at  Jeru- 
salem, and  the  term  "  elect  sister/'  v.  13, 
to  the  church  at  Ephesus. 

The  title  of  "  elder  "  was  indicative  of 
the  apostle's  office,  with  a  reference  also 
to  his  great  age,  then  not  far  from  100 
years,  as  it  is  supposed.  The  substance 
of  this  letter  is  an  exhortation  to  con- 
tinual obedience  and  an  admonition 
against  deceivers,  especially  against  a 
new  form  of  error,  that  Christ  was  a 
man  in  appearance  only,  and  not  in 
reality,  and  therefore  his  sufferings  and 
death  were  not  real. 

The  Third  Epistle,  which  is  addressed 
to  Gains,  or  Caius,  a  private  individual, 
and  is  commendatory  of  his  piety,  was 
written  about  the  same  time  with  the 
others. 

'  John,  Revelation  of.  See  Revela- 
tion. 

i  JOI'ADA  [whom  Jehovah  favors), 
one  of  the  high  priests.  Neh.  12:10,  11, 
|22. 

I  JOI'AKIM  {whom  Jehovah  has  set 
up).  The  name  is  a  contraction  of  Jehoi- 
akim.  A  high  priest,  the  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Jeshua.  Neh.  12  :  10,  12,  26. 

JOI'ARIB  (whom  Jehovah  defends). 
1.  A  man  commissioned  by  Ezra  to  bring 
"  ministers  for  the  house  of  our  God," 
priests  qualified  to  give  instruction.  Ezr. 
8  :  16, 


2.  A    descendant    of    Judah.     Neh. 

11  :  5. 

3.  The  founder  of  one  of  the  courses 
of  priests.  Neh.  11 :  10.  In  1  Chr.  9  :  10 
his  full  name  is  given,  Jehoiarib. 

JOK'DEAM  { possessed  hij  people?), 
a  city  in  the  mountains  of  Judah,  Josh. 
15  :  56,  apparently  south  of  Hebron. 

JO'KIM  {ivhom  Jehovah  has  set  vp), 
one  of  Shelah's  sons,  and  Judah's  grand- 
sons. 1  Chr.  4:22. 

JOK'MEAM  (gathered  hi/  the  ])eo- 
ple),  a  city  of  Ephraim  given  to  the 
Levites.  1  Chr.  6  :  68.     From  1  Kgs.  4: 

12  (where  the  A.  V.  incorrectly  reads 
"  Jokneam  "  for  "  Jokmeam  "),  it  must 
have  been  in  the  Jordan  Valley,  between 
the  Sea  of  Galilee  and  the  Dead  Sea. 

JOK'NEAM  {gathered  by  the  peo- 
ple), a  city  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulun,  al- 
lotted with  its  suburbs  to  the  Levites. 
Josh.  21  :  34.  Its  modern  site  is  Tell 
Keimtln,  near  the  east  end  of  Carmel 
and  about  12  miles  south-west  of  Naza- 
reth.    See  Jokmeam. 

JOK'SHAN  {a  folder),  the  son  of 
Abraham  by  Keturah.  Gen.  25 :  2,  3 ;  1 
Chr.  1 :  32. 

JOK'TAN  {who  is  made  small),  a 
descendant  of  Shem,  ancestor  of  the 
Joktanite  Arabs.  Gen.  10  :  25-30  ;  1  Chr. 
1 : 19-23. 

JOK'THEEL  {snbdued  of  God). 
1.  A  city  in  the  territory  of  .Judah,  and 
near  Lachish,  on  the  Philistine  plain. 
Josh.  15:38. 

2.  The  name  given  to  Sela  after  it 
was  taken  by  Amaziah,  2  Kgs.  14  :  7  ; 
2  Chr.  25:11,  12;  perhaps  the  strong- 
hold of  Petra.     See  Sela. 

JO'NA  {whom  Jehovah  bestows),  the 
father  of  Peter.  John  1 :  42.    See  Jonas,  2. 

JON'ADAB  {whom  Jehovah  impels). 
1.  The  son  of  Shimeah,  and  nephew  of 
David.  '*  He  seems  to  have  been  one  of 
those  characters  who,  in  the  midst  of 
great  or  royal  families,  pride  themselves 
and  are  renowned  for  being  acquainted 
with  the  secrets  of  the  whole  circle  in 
which  they  move." — Stanley.  He  ad- 
vised the  rape  of  Tamar.  2  Sam.  13  :  3-5. 

2.  The  form,  oft  repeated,  in  Jer.  35 
for  Jehonadab,  which  see. 

JO'NAH  {dove),  the  prophet,  son  of 
Amittai,  and  born  at  Gath-hepher.  Jon. 
1 : 1  ;  2  Kgs.  14  :  25.  Nothing  certain  is 
known  of  his  history  beyond  what  is  re- 
corded in  bis  book.     He  was  sent  by  the 

471 


JON 


JON 


Lord  about  B.  c.  825  to  Nineveh,  the  me- 
tropolis of  ancient  Assyria,  to  preach 
repentance.  Instead  of  obeying  the 
command,  he  took  passage  at  Joppa  for 
Tarshish  (Tartessus  in  Spain).  In  pun- 
ishment, God  caused  a  great  storm  to 
arise.  The  sailors  cast  lots  to  find  out 
who  was  the  guilty  one.  The  lot  fell 
upon  Jonah,  who  confessed  his  sin  and 
told  them  to  cast  him  into  the  sea  ;  so 
should  the  storm  cease.  Although  loth 
to  do  it,  they  after  a  time  obeyed.  Jo- 
nah was  swallowed  by  "  ji  great  fish," 
probably  a  shark  or  sea-dog,  since  these 
creatures  are  found  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean. After  three  days  he  was  vomit- 
ed out  upon  the  dry  land.  The  Lord's 
command  being  repeated,  Jonah  went 
to  Nineveh,  delivered  his  message,  and 
then  sat  down  to  see  the  destruction  of 
the  city.  But  the  Ninevites  repented; 
the  threatened  punishment  was  averted, 
and  Jonah  was  very  angry.  He  with- 
drew from  the  city  and  sat  down  under 
a  booth  he  built.  The  Lord,  greatly  to 
his  comfort,  caused  a  gourd  to  grow  up, 
but  then  to  wither  away  ;  and  this  singu- 
lar book  ends  with  the  debate  carried  on 
between  Jehovah  and  his  servant,  in 
which  the  gourd  is  mentioned,  and  in 
which  the  divine  mercy  extending  over 
all  creatures  is  plainly  declared.  See 
Gourd.  And  so  the  most  intensely 
Jewish  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  is  com- 
pelled by  the  Spirit  to  pen  words  of  a 
truly  Christian  import.     See  Nineveh. 

The  difficulty  with  the  book  is  the 
story  of  the  great  fish.  The  miracle  is 
not  that  he  was  swallowed  by  a  fish — 
for  horses  have  beeu  found  whole  in  the 
bellies  of  sharks — but  that  he  was  kept 
alive  within  it  for  three  days.  But  this 
miracle  receives  the  strongest  possible 
confirmation  to  a  Christian  from  the  use 
made  of  it  by  our  Lord,  who  sees  in  it  a 
type  of  the  resurrection.  Matt.  12 :  39-41  ; 
16  :  4.  He  also  refers  to  the  preaching  of 
Jonah.   Luke  11  :  29-32. 

Jonah,  the  Book  op  consists  of  two 
parts:  I.  Jonah's  commission,  refusal, 
and  miraculous  escape  from  death  ;  his 
prayer  in  the  great  fish.  Chs.  Iand2.  II. 
His  second  commission,  obedience,  the 
repentance  of  the  Ninevites,  and  Jonah's 
hard  spirit.  The  book  is  variously  re- 
garded ;  it  has  been  called  a  fiction,  a 
myth,  a  parable,  but  it  is  hhtory,  as  is 
proven  by  its  place  in  the  Jewish  canon, 
472 


and  by  Christ's  use  of  it,  as  already 
quoted.  Some  infidels  went  so  far  as 
to  deny  there  was  a  city  called  Nineveh, 
but  all  such  objectors  have  been  grandly 


Traditional  Tomb  of  Jonah. 

silenced  by  the  excavations  of  Layard, 
Botta,  and  others,  which  have  caused 
this  old  city  on  the  Tigris  to  live  again. 

The  lesson  of  the  book  is  that  God's 
providence  and  his  mercy  extend  beyond 
the  covenant  people  unto  the  heathens. 
Although  Jonah  was  at  first  the  narrow- 
est of  Jews,  his  book  is  the  most  catholic 
in  the  0.  T.  It  approaches  most  nearly 
the  catholicity  of  Christianity. 

JO 'NAN  {whom  Jehovah  bestows), 
son  of  Eliakim,  in  the  genealogy  of 
Christ.  Luke  3  :  30. 

JO'NAS.  1.  The  Greek  form  of 
Jonah.  Matt.  12  :  39-41  ;  16  :  4;  Luke 
11  :  30-32. 

2.  The  father  of  Peter  and  Andrew, 
John  21 :  1 5-1 7  ;  called  also  Jona,  1 :  42. 

JON'ATHAN  {tvhom  Jehovah  t/ave). 
1.  A  Gershonite  Levite  who  became  by 
request  the  priest  of  Micah  and  after- 
ward went  with  the  Danites  to  Laish, 
where  he  and  his  posterity  were  priests. 
Jud.  17:7-13  and  18. 

2.  The  son  of  Saul,  and  distinguished 
for  piety  and  valor.  He  and  his  armor- 
bearer,  being  encouraged  by  an  intima- 
tion from  God,  attacked  a  Philistine  gar- 
rison, slew  20  men,  and  put  the  garrison 
to  flight.  Having  ignorantly  violated  a 
decree  of  his  father  (the  king)  that  no 
man  should  stop,  on  pain  of  death,  in 


JON 


JOP 


the  pursuit  of  the  enemy  to  taste  of  food, 
the  people  interposed,  and  saved  him 
from  the  penalty,  which  his  father  was 
ready  to  inflict.  1  Sam.  14  :  o7-45. 

After  David's  defeat  of  the  giant, 
Jonathan  became  acquainted  with  him, 
and  their  friendship  for  each  other  was 
so  remarkable  as  to  be  minutely  describ- 
ed b}'  the  sacred  historian.  1  Sam.  18  : 
l-i:  19:2.  The  opportunity  to  show 
their  friendship  for  each  other  was 
greatly  extended  by  the  bitter  and  x"e- 
lentless  hostility  of  Saul  to  David.  1 
Sam.  19,  20,  etc.  Jonathan  fell  with 
his  father  and  two  brothers  in  the  battle 
at  Gilboa.  The  lamentation  of  David 
for  his  friend,  2  Sam.  1 :  17-27,  is  justly 
regarded  as  inimitably  pathetic  and 
beautiful,  and  his  treatment  of  Mephib- 
osheth,  Jonathan's  son,  shows  the  sin- 
cerity and  strength  of  his  aflfeetion  for 
the  father.  2  Sam.  9. 

3.  The  son  of  Abiathar,  the  high 
priest.  2  Sam.  16:27,  36;  17:17,  20  j  1 
Kgs.  1 :  42,  43. 

4.  David's  nephew,  who  slew  a  giant 
in  Gath.  2  Sam.  21 :  20,  21  ;  1  Chr.  20  : 
6,7. 

5.  One  of  David's  valiant  men.  2  Sam. 
23 :  32  ;  1  Chr.  11  :  34. 

6.  A  descendant  of  Jerahmeel.  1  Chr. 
2  :  32,  33.       ' 

7.  One  of  David's  uncles.  1  Chr.  27: 
32. 

8.  The  father  of  one  who  returned 
with  Ezra.  Ezr.  8  :  6. 

9.  One  who,  with  Ezra,  investigated 
the  mixed  marriages.  Ezr.  10  :  15. 

10.  A  high  priest  for  32  years,  Neh. 
12  :  11 ;  called  Johanan  in  verses  22,  23. 

11.  A  priest.  Neh.  12:  14. 

12.  A  priest,  and  the  father  of  one 
who  joined  in  the  dedication  of  the  wall. 
Neh.  12  :  35. 

13.  He  in  whose  house  was  Jeremiah's 
prison.  Jer.  37  :  15,  20  ;  38  :  26. 

14.  A  son  of  Kareah,  and  brother  of 
Johanan.  Jer.  40  :  8. 

JO'NATH-E'LEM  -  RECIIO'  - 

Kirtt  {a  diuiib  dove  of  dint<tnt  places), 
part  of  the  title  to  Ps.  56 ;  not  found 
elsewhere  in  the  Bible.  Most  likely  it 
was  the  name  of  some  popular  melody 
to  which  tune  the  Psalm  was  to  be  sung. 
JOP'PA  (heauti/),  an  ancient  mari- 
time city  in  the  territory  of  Dan,  on  the 
Mediterranean,  about  30  miles  south  of 
Cajsarea,  35  miles  north-west  of  Jerusa- 


lem, and  upon  a  promontory,  116  feet 
high,  jutting  out  into  the  sea.  From  its 
summit  there  is  a  fine  view  of  the  coast 
and  the  sea.  Ezr.  3:7;  Jon.  1:3;  Acts 
9  :  36-43  ;  10  :  5-32;  11  :  5-13.  It  is 
also  called  *'Japho,"  Josh.  19:40;  2 
Chr.  2:16,  margin.  The  modern  name 
of  the  city  is   Yd/d  or  Jaffa. 

Hintory. — Joppa  is  said  to  be  one  of 
the  oldest  towns  in  the  world.  A  Ro- 
man writer  says  that  it  antedates  the 
deluge.  When  the  chosen  people  di- 
vided the  Holy  Land  amongst  the  seve- 
ral tribes,  Japho,  a  Phoenician  colony  in 
the  land  of  the  Philistines,  was  one  of 
the  landmarks  designating  the  territory 
of  the  tribe  of  Dan.  Josh.  19 :  46.  It 
was  the  seaport  to  which  wood  from 
Lebanon  was  brought  for  the  building 
of  Solomon's  temple,  2  Chr.  2:  16,  and 
when  the  house  of  the  Lord  was  rebuilt 
after  the  Captivity.  Cedar  trees  were 
brought  from  Lebanon  to  Joppa.  Ezr. 
3:7.  It  was  at  this  port  also  that 
Jonah  took  ship  for  Tarshish.  Jon. 
1 :  3.  Thus  the  city  is  mentioned  four 
times  (once  as  Japho)  in  the  0.  T. 

In  an  inscription  relating  the  victori- 
ous campaigns  of  Sennacherib,  the  town 
is  called  Ja-ap-pu,  and  its  situation  is 
correctly  described.  The  Maccabees 
brought  the  city  under  the  Jewish  yoke. 
Afterward  it  fell  successively  under  the 
Greek  and  the  Roman  sway.  The  Romans 
took  it  B.  c.  63.  In  the  N.  T.,  Joppa  is 
only  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Acts,  and 
in  connection  with  two  events:  (1)  The 
raising  of  Tabitha  to  life  by  Peter,  Acts 
9:36-43;  (2)  Peter's  vision  on  the 
housetop.  Acts  10:  11.  Several  bishops 
of  Joppa  are  mentioned  as  having  at- 
tended various  Church  synods.  During 
the  Crusades,  Joppa  was  several  times 
captured  by  opposing  forces,  and  par- 
tially destroyed.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century  the  town  was 
surrounded  by  walls,  which  enabled  the 
inhabitants  to  resist  for  several  days  the 
attacks  of  the  French  army  under  Kle- 
ber.  The  place  was  taken  by  storm, 
and  4000  prisoners  were  massacred  by 
order  of  Napoleon,  March  4,  1799. 

Present  Appearance. — To  the  traveller 
approaching  Jop])a  by  sea  the  city  pre- 
sents a  beautiful  a])pearance,  but  a  closer 
contact  is  disappointing.  Steamers  are 
obliged  to  anchor  half  a  mile  from  the 
quay,  and  passengers  and  baggage  are 

473 


JOB 


JOE 


taken  ashore  in  boats.  The  quay  is 
very  badly  paved,  and  becomes  a  pond 
of  mud  after  a  rain.  The  streets  are 
narrow,  dirty,  crooked,  and  steep.  The 
houses,  built  of  tufa-stone,  are  crowded 
together  without  any  order.  Among  the 
prominent  buildings  are  the  Greek  mon- 
astery, the  Latin  hospice  (founded  in 
1654),  and  the  Armenian  monastery. 
The  traditional  "house  of  Tabitha" 
and  "  the  house  of  Simon  the  tanner  " 
are  still  pointed  out. 


Exterior  of  the  supposed  house  of  Simon  tlie 
Tanner.     {From  Photograph  of  Pal.  Fund.) 

The  open  space  is  the  Utile  courtyard  at  the  rear  of  the 
house,  between  the  house  and  the  wall  overlookiug  the 
sea.  The  spectator  has  his  back  to  the  sea.  The  well 
from  which  Peter  is  said  to  have  baptized  is  sunk  in 
the  ground  on  the  right. 

In  population  Joppa  has  greatly  in- 
creased within  25  years.  A  Turkish 
calendar  enumerates  865  Moslem,  135 
Greek,  70  Greek  Catholic,  50  Latin,  6 
Maronite,  and  5  Armenian  families, 
which  would  give  a  total  of  about  8000 
inhabitants.  To  these  must  be  added  a 
flourishing  German  Protestant  colony 
of  the  Temple  Society,  which  settled 
there  in  1857  under  the  lead  of  Rev. 
Christopher  Hoffman,  and  introduced 
various  industries.  Miss  Arnot,  a  Scotch 
lady,  conducts  a  good  school  for  girls. 
A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  with 
Egypt,  Syria,  and  Constantinople.  But 
one  of  the  chief  means  of  livelihood  for 
the  people  is  the  annual  passage  of  nume- 
rous pilgrims  and  travellers  through  the 
town.  It  is  the  landing-place  of  most 
travellers  to  Palestine,  and  is  connected 
with  Jerusalem  by  a  rough  carriage-road 
— the  only  one  in  that  country.  A  rail- 
road has  been  projected  and  may  be 
built  before  maoy  years.  The  oranges 
474 


of  Joppa  are  famous  and  supply  the 
market  at  Jerusalem. 

JO'RAH  {early  rain),  one  whose 
descendants  returned  with  ZerubbabeL 
Ezr.  2  :  18. 

JO'RAI  {whom  Jehovah  teaches),  a 
chieftain  of  Gad.  1  Chr.  5:  13. 

JO'RAM  [lohoin  Jehovah  hati  exalt- 
ed). 1.  A  son  of  Toi,  the  king  of  Ha- 
math,  sent  to  congratulate  David  on  his 
victory  over  Hadadezer.  2  Sam.  8:10.  ^ 

2.  The  son  of  Ahab.  2  Kgs.  8:1, 
See  Jehoram,  2. 

3.  The  son  of  Jehoshaphat.  2  Kgs.  8: 
24.     See  Jehoram,  1. 

4.  A  Levite  of  David's  day.  1  Chr. 
26  :  25. 

JOR'DAN  (the  descender),  the  great 
river  of  Palestine,  as  the  Nile  is  of  Egypt. 

Name. — "  Jordan"  (the  Hebrew  Vftr- 
den)  signifies,  from  its  derivation,  "the 
descender."  It  is  always  joined  with 
the  article  in  the  0.  T.,  with  two  ex- 
ceptions, Ps.  42  :  6;  Job  40  :  23.  The 
Arabs  call  it  esh-Sheriuh,  or  "the  water- 
ing-place." A  tradition  as  old  as  St. 
Jerome,  A.  D.  400,  says  that  the  Jordan 
derived  its  name  from  two  rivers,  the 
Jor,  rising  at  Banias,  and  the  Dan,  ris- 
ing at  Tell  el- Kadi.  But  this  tradition 
seems  to  be  erroneous;  for  according  to 
Gen.  13  :  10,  the  river  was  known  to  Abra- 
ham as  the  Jordan  long  before  the  chil- 
dren of  Dan  gave  their  name  to  Leshem, 
Josh.  19  :  47,  or  Laish.  Jud.  18  :  29. 

Sources.  —  The  Jordan  rises  among 
the  mountains  of  Anti-Lebanon,  and 
has  foyr  sources:  (1).  The  Jfasbdin/, 
which  issues  from  the  large  fountain 
'A  in  Fnrar,  near  Hasbeya,  at  an  alti- 
tude of  1700  feet  above  the  sea.  This 
pool,  which  the  natives  say  is  1000  feet 
deep,  Macgregor  found  to  have  a  depth 
of  11  feet.  (2)  The  Banias,  which  rises 
near  the  ruins  of  Banias  (Caesarea-Phil- 
ippi),  at  the  base  of  Mount  Hermon, 
1140  feet  above  the  sea-level.  (3)  The 
Ledddn,  rising  in  a  large  fountain  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Tell  el-Kadi  ("hill  of 
the  judge,"  the  site  of  the  city  of  Dan). 
In  the  midst  of  a  thicket  of  oleander 
bushes  is  a  large  pool,  50  or  60  yards 
wide,  with  the  water  bubbling  out  of 
the  ground  in  a  full-grown  stream. 
This,  which  Josephus  calls  the  Little 
Jordan,  is  the  most  copious  source.  (4) 
The  Esh-Shar,  a  minor  tributary,  only 
one  or  two  yards   broad.     Besides  the 


JOR 


JOE 


above  four  sources,  there  are  numerous 
small  streams  from  the  springs  of  Leba- 
non, which  find  their  way  into  the  swamp 
above  Lake  Huleli,  and  contribute  to  swell 
the  Jordan. 

Course  of  the  Stream. — At  a  point 
about  4  miles  below  Tell  el-Kadi  the 
Hashdnif  unites  with  the  other  two 
principal  sources.  At  this  point  the 
Jordan  is  45  feet  wide,  and  flows  in  a 
channel  from  12  to  30  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  plain.  After  emerging 
from  a  broad  morass  the  waters  expand 
into  Lake  el-Huleh,  4^  miles  long,  2|^ 
miles  wide,  having  descended  1434  feet. 
See  Merom,  The  Waters  of.  Issuing 
from  the  lake  in  a  sluggish  current,  the 
descent  soon  makes  it  a  rapid  torrent, 
which  in  a  course  of  9  miles  descends 
897  feet  to  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  682^  feet 
below  the  Mediterranean.  See  Galilee, 
Sea  of. 

The  popular  notion  that  the  waters  of 
the  river  do  not  seem  to  mingle  with 
those  of  the  lake, "but  pass  through  in  a 
united  stream,  is  a  ''  fable."  From  the 
Sea  of  Tiberias  to  the  Dead  Sea  there  is 
one  deep  depression,  the  hills  from  the 
east  and  west  nearly  meeting  in  many 
places.  This  depression  is  filled  up  to 
a  certain  level  with  an  alluvial  deposit, 
forming  a  vast  plain  called  the  Jor- 
dan Valley,  or  Ghor  (the  hollow). 
This  is  the  "  upper  plain."  It  varies 
in  width  from  1  to  12  miles.  The  river 
has  cut  out  for  itself  a  plain  lower 
than  the  preceding  by  some  50  to  100 
feet,  and  from  a  quarter  of  a  mile  to  a 
mile  wide.  This  is  the  "  lower  plain," 
through  which  the  river,  some  60  yards 
wide,  winds  its  way.  During  the  spring 
floods  this  lower  plain  is  inundated.  Al- 
though the  distance  in  a  straight  line  be- 
tween Tiberias  and  the  Dead  Sea  is  only 
66  miles,  the  actual  distance  the  stream 
flows,  on  account  of  its  many  windings, 
is  200  miles,  and  the  fall  667  feet.  Twen- 
ty-seven threatening  rai)ids  were  counted 
by  Lieut.  Lynch,  besides  many  others  of 
minor  importance.  The  whole  distance 
from  the  sources  of  the  river  to  its  mouth 
is  not  more  than  136  miles  in  a  straight 
line.  The  whole  descent  is  2999  feet  to 
the  Dead  Sea,  which,  according  to  the 
latest  determination  of  the  British  Sur- 
vey, is  1292  feet  below  the  sea-level,  al- 
though Lynch  had  reported  it  at  1.317 
feet.  See  Salt  Sea.  The  width  of  the 
476 


stream  varies  from  45  to  180  feet,  and  its 
depth  from  3  to  12  feet. 

Tributaries. — Between  the  Sea  of  Gal- 
ilee and  the  Dead  Sea  two  considerable 
rivers  enter  the  Jordan  from  the  east. 
(1)  Wady  Mandhur  (the  Jarmuk  or 
Yarmuk  of  the  Rabbins,  and  the  Hiero- 
max  of  Pliny).  This  stream  formerly 
divided  Bashan  and  Gilead.  (2)  Wady 
Zerka,  the  Jabbok,  which  enters  the  Jor- 
dan 20  miles  north  of  Jericho  and  was 
formerly  the  northern  boundary  of  Am- 
nion. Between  the  above  two  Dr.  Selah 
Merrill  found  "  no  less  than  eleven  living 
streams,  more  than  half  of  which  can  be 
called  large  ones."  Between  the  Jabbok 
and  the  Wady  Nimrin  there  are  no 
streams  and  the  region  is  barren,  but 
below  the  Wady  Nimrin  several  living 
streams  were  noted.  Hot  springs  of 
considerable  size  have  been  found  in  as 
many  as  ten  different  localities  in  the 
Jordan  Valley.  The  temperature  of 
those  at  El-Hama,  near  the  Yarmuk,  is 
from  100  to  115  degrees. 

Bridcjes  and  Fords. — There  are  the 
remains  of  several  bridges  crossing  the 
river,  which  date  back  to  Roman  times. 
One  of  these,  a  few  hundred  yards  above 
Damieh  (the  "Adam"  of  Josh.  3  :  16), 
marks  the  crossing-place  of  the  great 
road  from  central  Palestine  to  the  East. 
Dr.  Merrill  says  there  is  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  this  bridge  existed  in  Christ's 
time,  and  it  is  on  the  road  by  which  the 
Saviour  went  from  Galilee  to  Jerusalem. 
Below  Lake  Hide.h  is  a  bridge  called 
*'  Bridge  of  Jacob's  Daughter,"  probably 
built  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

There  are  four  principal  fords  over  the 
river :  the  lower  one,  opposite  Jericho, 
near  the  famous  bathing-place  of  the 
pilgrims  ;  another,  eastward  of  Sakut ; 
and  two  others,  nearer  the  Sea  of  Gali- 
lee. At  low  water  there  are  many 
other  points  at  which  the  river  might 
be  easily  forded,  and  the  British  Survey 
discovered  evidences  of  various  fords. 
During  the  floods  the  Arabs  are  fre- 
quently obliged  to  swim  their  horses 
across  the  river. 

Climate  and  Vegetation. — The  great 
depression  of  the  Jordan  Valley  gives 
to  it  a  semi-tropical  character.  "  In  its 
natural  products  it  stands  unique,  a 
tropical  oasis  sunk  in  the  temperate 
zone."  Under  the  intense  heat  vegeta- 
tion advances  with  wonderful  rapidity, 


I 


Source  of  the  Jordan.     (After  plans  by  Major  Wilson,  E.  E.) 
The  figures  denote  the  heights  in  feet  above  the  sea-level. 


JOE 


JOK 


but  is  as  quickly  scorched  wherever  the 
water-supply  is  not  abundant.  In  the 
marshes  of  Huleh  are  acres  of  papj'rus, 
the  reeds  sometimes  reaching  16  feet  in 
heii^ht.  This  reed  is  now  wholly  extinct 
in  Egypt,  according  to  Tristram  {Natural 
Hixtori/,  p.  11),  and  to  find  it  again  one 
must  travel  either  to  India  or  to  Abys- 


sinia. Farther  south  along  the  river's 
course  are  the  jujube  (a  tropical  tree), 
date-palm,  oleander,  tamarisk,  "  zuk- 
kum,"  or  false  balm  of  Gilead,  osher, 
henna,  etc.  Even  in  the  depth  of  win- 
ter the  thermometer  ranges  from  60 
to  80  degrees. 

Scripture  History. — The  first  mention 


Course  of  the  Jordan  from  Sea  of  Galilee  to  Dead  Sea. 
{After  plans  by  Major  Wilson,  B.  E.) 


of  the  Jordan  is  in  "  Gen.  13  :  10,  where 
Lot  beheld  the  plain  of  the  Jordan  as 
the  garden  of  the  Lord;"  Jacob  crossed 
and  recrossed  it,  Gen.  32:10;  the  Is- 
raelites passed  over  it  in  entering  the 
Promised  Land,  Josh.  3,  4;  Ps.  114  :  3. 
The  phenomenon  of  the  river  overflow- 
ing its  banks  at  the  time  of  harvest  is 
478 


still  witnessed.  The  snows  from  Leba- 
non melt  in  the  spring-time  and  swell 
the  current  of  the  Jordan  at  the  time 
of  the  harvest,  which,  in  the  hot  climate 
of  the  Jordan  Valley,  comes  in  April. 
Prof.  Porter  of  Belfast,  at  a  visit  in  the 
middle  of  April,  found  it  impossible  to 
cross  the  river  at  the  usual  ford  near 


JOE 


JOS 


Jericho,  and  was  compelled  to  go  a 
day's  journey  up  the  banks  to  Daniieh. 
Among  those  who  crossed  over  the  Jor- 
dan were  Gideon,  "  faint  yet  pursuing  " 
after  Zebah  and  Zalmunna,  Jud.  8  :  4, 
5  :  the  Ammonites,  invading  Judah, 
Jud.  10  :  9  ;  Abner,  in  flight,  2  Sam.  2  : 
211;  David,  in  flight,  2  Sam.  17:  22,  and 
returning  to  his  capital,  19  :  15-18 
(mention  is  here  made  of  a  ferry- 
boat, probably  only  a  raft,  the  only 
time  in  Scripture)  ;  David,  to  war  with 
the  Syrians ;  Absalom,  in  pursuit  of 
his  father,  2  Sam.  17  :  24;  Elijah  and 
Elisha,  parting  the  waters  with  the 
mantle.  2  Kgs.  2:6-14.  As  two  and  a 
half  tribes  of  Israel  dwelt  east  of  the 
river,  the  amount  of  ci-ossing  and  re- 
crossing  must  have  been  considerable, 
and  the  best  fords  were  well  known. 
Comp.  Josh.  2:7;  Jud.  3  :  28  ;  7  :  24  ; 
12  :  5,  6.  The  river  was  known  to  Job, 
Job  40 :  23,  and  Jeremiah  speaks  of 
*' the  swelling  of  Jordan."  Jer.  12  :  6 ; 
49  :  19  :  60  :  44.  Noteworthy  miracles, 
in  addition  to  those  already  mentioned, 
were  the  curing  of  Naaman,  2  Kgs.  6  :  14, 
and  the  making  the  iron  to  swim.  6  :  6. 

The  Jordan  is  mentioned  about  180 
times  in  the  0.  T.  In  the  N.  T.  it  is 
mentioned  16  times.  The  chief  events 
noted  in  connection  with  it  in  the  N.  T. 
are  John's  baptism  of  the  multitudes. 
Matt.  3  :  6,  and  especially  his  baptism  of 
Jesus.  Mark  1:9.  In  commemoration  of 
this  latter  event  it  is  the  custom  for  Chris- 
tian pilgrims  in  great  numbers  to  bathe 
in  the  Jordan  not  far  from  Jericho  at 
Easter. 

The  cities  mentioned  in  Scripture  in 
connection  with  the  Jordan  are  few. 
The  chief  ones  near  it  Avere  Jericho  and 
Gilgal,  Succoth  and  Bethshan.  Traces 
of  several  towns  have  been  noted  on  the 
east  side,  in  the  valley  between  the  Sea 
of  Galilee  and  the  Dead  Sea. 

The  Jordan  has  been  several  times 
navigated  in  a  boat  in  modern  times — 
by  Costigan,  1 8.S6  ;  by  Molyneaux,  1 847  : 
by  Lieut.  Lynch,  1848  ;  by  J.  Macgregor 
(Rob  Roy),  1809.  "The  sight  of  the 
Jordan,"  says  Schaff,  "  is  rather  disap- 
pointing. It  bears  no  comparison  in 
majesty  and  beauty  to  the  great  rivers 
of  Europe  and  America.  Naaman 
thought  the  clear  rivers  of  his  native 
Damascus  far  superior,  yet  the  Abana 
and  Pharpar  could  not  wash  away  his 


leprosy.  Its  chief  importance  is  his- 
toric. In  this  respect  the  Jordan  sur- 
passes the  Hudson  and  the  Mississippi, 
the  Rhine  and  the  Danube,  and  even 
the  Nile.  It  marks  the  termination  of 
the  wanderings  of  the  children  of  Israel 
from  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  and  the  be- 
ginning of  their  history  as  an  indepen- 
dent nation  in  their  own  home.  It 
blends  the  memories  of  the  old  and  new 
Covenants  as  the  culminntion  of  John's 
testimony  and  the  inauguration  of 
Christ's  kingdom." —  Through  Bible 
Lands,  p.  299.  "  Surely,"  says  Mac- 
gregor, ''the  Jordan  is  by  far  the  most 
wonderful  stream  on  the  face  of  the 
earth,  and  the  memories  of  its  history 
will  not  be  forgotten  in  heaven." — Jiob 
Roy  oil  the  Jordan,  p.  406.  It  is  a  sa- 
cred stream  alike  to  Jew,  Ishmaelite, 
Christian,  and  Mohammedan,  and  in 
this  surpasses  in  interest  any  other 
river  in  the  world. 

JO'RIM  [Jehovah  exalts?),  one  in 
the  ancestry  of  Christ.  Luke  3  :  29. 

JOR^KOAM  (paleness  of  the  peo- 
ple), probably  the  name  of  a  person  ; 
but  if  a  place,  it  is  a  town  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Judah.   1  Chr.  2  :  44. 

JOS'ABAD  {irhom  Jehovah  gives), 
a  Benjamite  who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag.   1  Chr.  12  :  4. 

JOS'APHAT,  Greek  form  of  Je- 
hoshaphat  (see  Jehoshaphat,  3)  in 
Matt.  1 : 8. 

JO'SE,  in  Luke  3:29,  for  Joses, 
which  see. 

JOS'EDECH  {whom  Jehovah  makes 
just).  Hag.  1  :  1.     See  Jehozadak,  Jo- 

ZADAK. 

JO'SEPH  {he  will  add).  1.  The 
first  son  of  Jacob  and  Rachel,  born  in 
Padan-aram  after  his  mother  had  been 
long  barren,  but  "  God  hearkened  to 
her."  Gen.  30  :  24.  The  name  she  gave 
him  indicated  her  confidence  that  God 
would  give  her  another  son — a  confi- 
dence justified  by  the  birth  of  Benja- 
min. 35  :  17.  The  two  sons  of  Rachel, 
Jacob's  favorite  wife,  were  the  patriarch's 
delight.  In  the  case  of  Joseph  this 
fondness  led  to  evil  consequences,  be- 
cause it  excited  the  envy  of  his  brothers. 
The  story  of  Joseph's  life  is  told  with  so 
much  simplicity  and  graphic  power  that 
he  is  numbered  among  our  acquaintances. 
We  enter  with  the  liveliest  sympathy  into 
all  his  troubles.    He  is  ever  the  innocent 

479 


JOS 


JOS 


victim  of  spite  and  cruelty,  and  from  the 
time  he  comes  before  us  in  his  long  coat 
with  sleeves — not  ''  coat  of  vtatiy  colors  " 
— down  to  the  day  the  mourning  of  Egypt 
bursts  forth  over  his  corpse,  his  life  has 
for  us  the  interest  of  a  romance  height- 
ened by  the  knowledge  that  it  is  truth. 
Instead  of  repeating  the  twice-told  tale 
— every  one  knows  it,  and  the  inspired 
record  cannot  be  improved — we  present 
a  condensed  translation  of  the  article 
on  ''  Joseph  "  by  Prof.  Ebers,  the  Egyp- 
tologist, in  Riehm's  Handworterhnch  des 
hiblischen  Altevtlnims,  (1878),  which  in- 
terprets the  Egyptian  setting  and  shows 
its  complete  harmony  with  modern  re- 
searches. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  money 
paid  for  Joseph  by  the  Midianites  cor- 
responds exactly  to  the  extreme  price 
set  by  Moses  upon  a  slave  of  his  age. 
Comp.  Gen.  37  :  28  with  Lev.  27  :  5.  The 
captains  of  the  guard,  of  whom  Potiphar 
was  one,  were  commanders  of  regiments 
of  2000  men,  and  so  long  as  they  were  in 
office  as  the  king's  body-guard  the  com- 
mander was  the  chief  inspector  of  the 
state-prisoners,  and  chief  executioner 
of  corporal  and  capital  punishment. 
Potiphar  was  a  "  eunuch."  The  word, 
however,  may  express  nothing  more 
than  an  officer. 

The  Egyptian  monuments  make  us 
acquainted  with  the  daily  life  of  an 
"  overseer,"  which  Joseph  led  in  Poti- 
phar's  household.  Everything  was  con- 
ducted with  tlie  most  scrupulous  regu- 
larity— at  least,  in  the  jyictnres — and  the 
position  was  one  of  great  responsibility. 
The  story  of  Joseph's  trial  of  virtue  is 
strikingly  illustrated  by  an  Egyptian 
tale  of  similar  contents  written  for  a  son 
of  Rameses  II.  (See  Brugsch,  Geschichte 
^Eiinpfenn,  p.  249).  The  belief  in  dreams, 
in  revelations  of  the  divine  will,  the  of- 
fice of  chief  baker  and  chief  butler,  the 
custom  of  granting  pardons  and  other 
favors  upon  Pharaoh's  birthday, — all 
are  confirmed  by  the  monuments.  The 
magicians  and  wise  men  consulted  by 
Pharaoh  after  his  two  dreams — which 
are  thoroughly  Egyptian  :  seven  was  a 
sacred  number — belonged  to  the  priest 
caste.  That  Joseph,  before  appearing 
in  the  presence  of  Pharaoh,  must  shave 
himself,  face  and  head,  and  change  his 
raiment,  brings  out  the  Egyptian  pas- 
sion for  cleanliness. 
480 


The  exaltation  of  Joseph  receives  ex- 
planation from  the  fact  that  the  priests 
shared  in  the  government,  particular)}-  in 
the  allotment  of  the  taxes,  and  for  the 
latter  purpose  inspected  the  material 
condition  of  the  country.  Joseph's  rank 
was  described  by  two  terms,  "father" 
and  "lord  of  all  Egypt."  '^  Father " 
was  the  usual  term.  Every  feature  of 
the  following  scenes  in  the  narrative, 
all  the  circumstances  of  the  investiture, 
ai'e  true  to  the  life.  The  new  name,  or 
rather  title,  which  he  received — Zaph- 
nath  paaneah — is  interpreted  "creator" 
or  "  preserver  of  life."  The  name  of 
his  wife  is  the  genuinely  Egyptian,  and 
vei-y  common,  feminine  name  of  3ant 
or  Snat.  It  is  impossible  to  say  how 
far  Joseph  became  an  Egyptian.  He 
conformed  to  many  of  their  customs, 
but  ever  retained  his  belief  in  Israel's 
God.  His  position  during  the  famine 
resembles  that  of  a  certain  Baba,  who 
in  his  epitaph  tells  us :  "  I  gathered 
grain,  a  friend  of  the  god  of  harvest.  I 
was  watchful  at  the  seed-time.  And 
during  a  famine  which  lasted  through 
many  years,  I  distributed  the  grain 
through  the  town  to  every  hunger- 
stricken  one."  Brugsch,  indeed  {Gench. 
^Ejjyptens,  p.  246),  believed  the  famine 
referred  to  here  is  that  of  Genesis. 

The  charge  Joseph  brings  against  his 
brethren  was  one  often  made,  doubtless, 
at  a  time  when  there  was  constant  dread 
of  the  irruption  of  the  wandering  tribes 
to  the  eastward  of  Egypt.  That  the 
Egyptians  would  not  eat  with  the  He- 
brews and  that  the  latter  were  regarded 
with  aversion  are  traits  in  keeping  with 
the  monumental  records.  But  these 
show  us  that  shejiherds  formed  a  sepa- 
rate caste  and  were  not  shunned,  except 
the  swineherds,  who  could  not  enter  a 
temple.  But  the  nomadic  shepherds,  as 
the  Israelites,  were  ever  looked  upon  with 
fear  and  disgust.  Joseph's  claim  to  the 
gift  of  divination  was  just  what  one 
would  expect.  The  bubbles  and  move- 
ments of  the  water  of  a  cup  into  which 
one  had  thrown  a  coin  or  a  ring,  or  any 
other  object,  were  watched,  and  by  cer- 
tain rules  the  future  read  therefrom.  The 
arrangements  which  Joseph  made  dur- 
ing the  years  of  plenty  and  of  famine, 
by  which  eventually  the  entire  nation 
became  the  purchase  of  Pharaoh,  and 
the  land,  with  the  exception  of  that  of 


JOS 


JOS 


the  priests,  passed  to  the  crown,  have 
been  much  criticised.  But  they  were 
not  unparalleled  in  Egypt.  Consider- 
ing the  fertility  of  the  land,  the  fifth 
part  taken  up  during  the  plentiful  years 
was  not  at  all  excessive,  Gen.  41 :  34,  47- 
49;  when  the  famine  came  it  was  natu- 
ral and  proper  to  sell  so  long  as  there 
was  any  money  left  to  buy  therewith. 
And  that  it  was  the  case  in  Egypt  that 
the  king  and  the  priests  owned  all  the 
land  is  asserted  by  the  monuments  and 
ancient  historians.  These  latter  also 
speak  of  the  priests  being  free  from  tax. 
We  see,  then,  in  Gen.  47  :  22,  26,  the 
statement  of  a  fact  and  the  explanation 
of  a  subsequent  phenomenon. 

The  question.  Who  was  the  Pharaoh 
of  Joseph  ?  does  not  admit  of  a  decisive 
answer.  The  name  "  Pharaoh,"  being 
a  generic  title  of  the  sovereigns,  does 
not  help  us  any.  The  most  satisfactory 
answer  is  that  he  belonged  to  an  alto- 
gether different  dynasty  from  that  of 
the  persecuting  Pharaoh  of  Exodus. 
This  throws  the  time  back  to  some  dy- 
nasty of  the  Shepherd-kings.  Of  these 
tradition  singles  out  Apophis,  one  of 
the  last  of  them.  Manasseh  and  Ephraim, 
sons  of  Joseph  by  his  marriage  with 
Asenath,  became  the  founders  of  the 
powerful  tribes  that  bear  their  name, 
and  Jacob's  blessing  was  fulfilled. 

Joseph  died  at  the  age  of  110,  but  his 
bones,  by  express  command,  were  car- 
ried with  the  host,  and  not  buried  until 
the  Israelites  had  conquered  Canaan, 
Gen.  50  :  25,  when  they  were  deposited 
in  Shechem.  Josh.  24:  32.  His  tomb  is 
shown  within  a  stone's  throw  of  Jacob's 
Well.  But  the  Mohammedans  claim 
that  the  body  of  Joseph  is  in  the  Mach- 
pelah,  in  Hebron,  having  been  trans- 
ported thither  from  Shechem. 

2.  The  father  of  Igal,  who  was  the 
spy  from  Issachar.  Num.  13  :  7. 

3.  One  who  had  married  a  foreign 
wife.  Ezr.  10  :  42. 

4.  A  priest.  Neh.  12  :  14. 

5.  6,  7.  Three  persons  in  the  ancestry 
of  Christ.  Luke  3  :  24,  26,  30. 

8.  The  husband  of  Mary,  the  mother 
of  Christ,  was  by  occupation  a  carpen- 
ter. Matt.  13 :  55,  at  which  trade  our 
Lord  himself  labored  until  he  entered 
upon  his  public  ministry.  Mark  6  :  3. 

Joseph  is  called  a  "just  man,"  "a 
man  of  uprightness,"  Matt.  1  :  19.  He 
31 


was  informed  by  an  angel  that  Mary  was 
to  be  the  mother  of  the  promised  Mes- 
siah, and  accompanied  her  to  Bethlehem 
to  be  registered  in  the  tax-books,  accord- 
ing to  the  command  of  the  emperor,  when 
Christ  was  born.  When  the  babe  was  40 
days  old,  Joseph  and  his  wife  went  with 
him  to  Jerusalem,  in  observance  of  the 
Law  of  Moses  ;  and  when  about  return- 
ing again  to  Bethlehem,  he  was  divinely 
admonished  to  go  into  Egy{)t,  for  Ilerod, 
the  king,  was  resolved  to  destroy  the  in- 
fant Redeemer  if  he  could  get  him  into 
his  power.  After  the  death  of  Herod 
they  set  out  again  for  Judtea,  but,  ap- 
prehensive that  the  king's  successor, 
Archelaus,  might  be  equally  cruel,  they 
went  into  Galilee,  and  took  up  their 
abode  at  Nazareth,  their  old  home. 
When  Jesus  was  12  years  of  age,  Jo- 
seph and  Mary  took  him  with  them 
on  their  journey  to  Jerusalem  to  cele- 
brate the  feast  of  the  Passover.  After 
that  we  find  nothing  more  of  Joseph  in 
the  sacred  history.  It  is  generally  sup- 
posed he  died  before  Christ  began  his 
public  ministry,  as  he  is  not  mention- 
ed with  Mary,  and  as  Christ  commend- 
ed her  to  the  care  of  one  of  the  disciples. 
John  19  :  25-27. 

9.  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  Matt.  27  : 
57,  59,  a  wealthy  citizen,  probably  re- 
siding in  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem,  a 
member  of  the  Sanhedrin,  and  a  man 
of  eminent  wisdom  and  piety.  Mark  15  : 
43  ;  Luke  23  :  51.  He  was  a  disciple  of 
Christ,  though  he  did  not  appear  openly 
as  such.  John  19  :  38. 

It  is  said  that  the  Jews,  as  a  mark  of 
ignominy,  did  not  allow  the  bodies  of 
those  executed  as  malefactors  to  be  de- 
posited in  the  tombs  of  their  fathers 
except  tne  flesh  had  been  previously 
consumed.  It  may  have  been  to  pre- 
vent this  use  of  the  body  of  Christ 
that  Joseph  so  early  asked  leave  to 
remove  it  and  place  it  in  his  own  tomb. 

10.  A  disciple  called  Barsabas,  one 
of  the  candidates  for  Judas's  place  in 
the  college  of  the  apostles.  Acts  1 :  23. 

JO'SES  {whom  Jehovah  helps).  1. 
One  of  our  Lord's  brethren.  Matt.  13 : 
55  ;  27  :  56  ;  Mark  6:3;  15  :  40,  47.  See 
James,  2. 

2.  Acts  4:  36.     See  Barnabas. 

JO'SHAH  {whom  Jehovah  lets  dwell), 
a  chief  of  Simeon.   1  Chr.  4:  34. 

J  O  S  H '  A  P  II A  T  {whom  Jehova h 

481 


JOS 


JOS 


judges),  one  of  David's  warriors.  1  Chr. 
h  :  43. 

JOSHAVI'AH  {whom  Jehovah 
makes  to  direll),  one  of  David's  warriors. 
1  Chr.  11 :  46. 

JOSHBEK'ASHAH(seo^/»;ta/-d- 
ness),  the  head  of  the  sixteenth  course 
of  musicians.   1  Chr.  25  : 4.  24. 

JOS'HEB-BAS'SEBET  {he  loho 
sits  in  the  seat),  in  the  margin  of  2  Sam. 
23  :  8.     See  Jashobeam. 

JOSH'UA  {whose  help  is  Jehovah). 
1.  The  successor  of  Moses,  was  the  son 
of  Nun  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  and  was 
born  in  Egypt.  He  is  called  the  "min- 
ister "  of  Moses,  Ex.  24  :  13,  from  the 
fact  that  he  assisted  him  in  the  exercise 
of  his  office.  The  original  name  was 
"  Oshea,"  Num.  13  :  8,  but  was  changed  to 
"Jehoshua,"  Num.  13  :  16,  and  he  is  also 
called  "  Hoshea."  Deut.  32  :  44.  "  Josh- 
ua "  is  a  contraction  of  "Jehoshua," 
and  " Jeshua,"  or  "Jesus,"  is  the  Greek 
mode  of  writing  "Joshua,"  as  in  Acts  7  : 
45  and  Heb.  4  :  8,  in  which  passages  the 
Hebrew  word  "  Joshua  "  ought  to  have 
been  retained. 

Joshua  is  introduced  to  us  at  the  time 
the  Israelites  were  about  to  contend  with 
the  Amalekites  at  Rephidim.  He  was 
appointed  by  Moses  to  command  the 
forces  of  Israel  on  that  occasion.  Ex. 
17  :  9.  He  was  then  about  44  j^ears  of 
age,  though  considered  a  j'oung  man. 
Ex.  33:11.  Afterward  he  was  the  spy 
from  his  tribe,  and  he  and  Caleb  weie 
the  only  ones  who  told  the  truth.  Num. 
14 :  6-9. 

In  prospect  of  the  death  of  Moses, 
Joshua  was  set  apart  to  succeed  him  as 
the  leader  and  deliverer  of  God's  chosen 
people.  Num.  27:16-18;  Deut.  31:7- 
14 ;  34  :  9.  At  the  age  of  84  he  passed 
over  the  Jordan  at  the  head  of  the  hosts 
of  Israel,  and  entered  the  land  of  prom- 
ise. For  six  years  he  carried  on  a  suc- 
cessful war  against  the  Canaanites,  and 
after  conquering  them  he  divided  the 
land  among  the  Israelites.  We  see  in 
this  long  struggle  the  union  of  divine 
help  and  human  exertion.  If,  on  the 
one  hand,  Jericho  falls  without  a  blow, 
on  the  other,  Ai  is  only  taken  after  one 
repulse  and  by  a  stratagem.  Josh.  8. 
Again,  there  is  no  protection  against 
mistakes.  The  Gibeonites,  by  trickery, 
succeed  in  saving  their  lives,  albeit  they 
become  slaves.  The  conduct  of  Joshua 
482 


!  in  keeping  his  oath  is  very  noble,  but  it 
was  a  salutary  lesson  ujjon  the  folly  of 
i  human  wisdom  unaided  by  divine  light. 
'  Josh.  9.     At  the  termination  of  the  war 
6  nations,  with  31  kings,  had  been  pros- 
1  trated.    There  remained,  however,  "  very 
I  much  land  to  be  possessed."  The  "  Prom- 
{  ised  Land,"  in  its  complete  extent,  was 
!  not  then,  and  never  was,  conquered. 
I       After  a  period  of  rest,  Joshua,  feeling 
'  the  approach  of  death,  gathered  the  peo- 
!  pie  together  on  two  occasions,  and  de- 
livered   the    solemn    and    touching   ad- 
dresses  recorded   in   chs.    23,    24.      In 
so    doing  he    imitated  the    example  of 
his  great  predecessor,  Moses.     The  in- 
fluence  of  Joshua  upon  his  generation 
is  brought  out  by  the  statement :  "  Israel 
served  the  Lord  all  the  days  of  Joshua, 
and  all  the  days  of  the  elders  that  over- 
lived Joshua,  and  which  had  known  all 
the  works  of  the  Lord  that  he  had  done 
for  Israel."  Josh.  24:  31. 


Traditional  Tomb  of  Joshua,  near  Timnath. 
(From  Photograph  Pal.  Fund.) 

Joshua  was  a  worthy  successor  of 
Moses.  His  presence  was  ever  the  har- 
binger of  the  divine  favor.  Piety  was 
his  characteristic,  and  earth  and  heaven 
repeat  with  fervor  the  famous  vow  of 
obedience  to  God:  "As  for  me  and  my 
house,  we  will  serve  the  Lord."  Ch.  24: 
15.  But  at  last  to  him,  as  to  us  all, 
came  the  end,  and  he  died,  being  110 
years  old,  "and  they  buried  him  in  the 
border  of  his  inheritance  in  Timnath- 
serah.  which  is  in  Mount  Ephraim." 
Ch.  24  :  30. 


JOS 


JOS 


2.  The  dweller  in  Beth-sheniesh  in 
whose  field  stopped  the  two  milch-kine 
which  were  drawing  the  cart  containing 
the  ark  on  its  way  back  from  the  Philis- 
tines. 1  Sam,  6  :  14. 

3.  A  governor  of  Jerusalem,  previous 
to  Josiah's  day,  who  gave  his  name  to 
one  of  the  gates.  2  Kgs.  23:  8. 

4.  A  high  priest  after  the  Captivity. 
Hag.  1: 1,  etc.  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  call 
him  Jeshua.     See  Jeshua,  .3. 

Joshua,  The  Book  of.  It  may  be  di- 
vided into  three  parts  :  I.  The  conquest 
of  the  land,  chs.  1-12;  II.  The  partition 
of  the  land,  chs.  13-22  ;  III.  The  final 
addresses  of  Joshua,  his  death  and  bur- 
ial. Chs.  23,  24.  It  embraces  a  period 
variously  estimated  at  from  17  to  30 
years.  As  to  the  authorship  of  the  book, 
the  name  "Joshua"  in  the  title  may  im- 
ply no  more  than  that  he  is  the  hero  of  it. 
Still,  in  connection  with  ch.  24  :  26,  "And 
Joshua  wrote  these  words  in  the  book  of 
the  law  of  God,"  the  title  may  be  allowed 
to  weigh  something  more,  and  we  may 
attribute  the  book,  if  not  to  Joshua,  at 
least  to  one  of  his  elders  who  was  well 
acquainted  with  him.  This  theory  is  not 
inconsistent  with  a  subsequent  revision. 

The  two  difiiculties  in  the  book  relate 
to  the  sun  standing  still,  ch.  10  :  13 ;  and 
to  the  wholesale  slaughter  of  the  Ca- 
naanites  by  the  command  of  God.  In 
regard  to  the  first,  the  diSiculty  is  manu- 
factured out  of — it  does  not  exist  in — 
the  text.  The  passage  is  a  poetical  quo- 
tation from  the  book  of  Jasher,  which 
was  probably  a  collection  of  sacred 
songs.  This  will  be  evident  from  a  re- 
vision of  the  A.  V. 

Sun,  stand  thou  still  upon  Gibeon, 

And  thou,  moon,  upon  the  valley  of  Ajalon  ! 

And  the  sun  stood  still,  and  the  moon  stayed 

her  course, 
Until    the  people    were   avenged  of  their 

enemies. 
And   the  sun  tarried  in  the  midst  of  the 

heavens. 
And  hasted  not  to  go  down  for  a  whole  day. 

The  day  was  probably  one  of  extraordi- 
nary brightness,  as  well  as  of  extraor- 
dinary anxiety,  hence  it  would  appear 
to  be  prolonged. 

The  second  difficulty  is  only  one  of 
the  many  chapters  in  the  mysterious 
government  of  Providence,  which  per- 
mits the  ravages  of  war,  famine,  and 
pestilence. 

JOSI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  heals).    1. 


The  son  and  successor  of  Amon,  king  of 
Judah,  began  to  reign  when  he  was  only 
8  years  of  age,  and  reigned  31  years,  b.  c. 
641-610.  2  Kgs.  22:  1,2;  2Chr.  34:1, 
2.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  integrity 
and  piety.  He  gradually  abolished  the 
idolatrous  customs  of  his  predecessors, 
j  2  Chr.  34:  3,  and  in  the  eighteenth  year 
j  of  his  reign  began  a  thorough  repair  of 
j  the  temple.  In  the  progress  of  this  work 
Hilkiah  the  high  priest  found  a  "book 
of  the  law  of  the  Lord  given  by  Moses." 
2  Chr.  34 :  14.  What  book  it  was  is  un- 
certain ;  probably  it  was  Deuteronomy. 
Josiah  seems  to  have  been  ignorant  of 
its  existence  ;  but  when  it  was  read  to 
him  by  one  of  his  officers  he  was  over- 
whelmed with  grief  to  find  how  far  they 
and  their  fathers  had  departed  from  the 
right  way.  He,  however,  humbled  him- 
self before  God,  and  sent  to  inquire  of 
the  Lord  through  Huldah  the  prophetess. 
In  Jehovah's  name  she  assured  him  that 
evil  was  determined  of  the  Lord,  but  that 
he  should  not  see  it.  2  Chr.  34 :  23-28. 
He  then  assembled  the  people  and  pub- 
lished the  Law  in  their  hearing,  and  they 
all  united  with  the  king  in  a  solemn  vow 
of  obedience.  After  this  he  utterly  de- 
stroyed every  vestige  of  idolatry,  both 
images  and  temples,  and  then,  by  divine 
command,  caused  the  feast  of  the  Pass- 
over to  be  celebrated  with  such  solemnity 
as  had  not  been  known  since  the  days  of 
Samuel.  2  Chr.  35:3-18. 

When  Pharaoh-Neeho  went  up  from 
Egypt  to  Carchemish,  Josiah,  probably 
as  the  ally  or  vassal  of  the  king  of  As- 
syria, opposed  him,  and,  mistrusting 
Necho's  message  from  God,  gave  the 
Egyptian  battle  at  Megiddo,  but  was 
mortally  wounded,  and  was  brought  to 
Jerusalem,  where  he  died,  and  was 
buried  in  one  of  the  sepulchres  of  his 
fathers.  No  king,  perhaps,  was  ever 
more  deservedly  beloved,  and  certainly 
we  know  of  none  who  was  more  sincere- 
ly and  tenderly  bewailed  by  his  people. 
Indeed,  his  death  was  the  end  of  pros- 
perity to  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  Jere- 
miah the  prophet  was  greatly  affected 
by  it,  and  composed  an  elegy  on  the  oc- 
casion, 2  Chr.  35  :  25,  and  all  those  ac- 
customed to  celebrate  in  song  the  worth 
and  achievements  of  men  of  great  emi- 
nence, both  men  and  women,  mourned 
for  Josiah  for  ages  after  his  death.  In- 
deed, the  mourning  was  such  as  to  be- 

483 


JOS 


JUB 


come  proverbial.  Zech.  12  :  11.  He  was 
only  39  years  of  age  when  he  died. 

2.  The  man  in  whose  house  the  sym- 
bolical crowning  of  Jeshua  took  place. 
Zech.  6:10. 

JO  SI' AS,  Greek  form  of  Josiah  in 
Matt.  1:10,  11. 

JOSIBI'AH  (whom  Jehovah  lets 
dwell),  a  Siraeonite  chief.  1  Chr.  4 :  35. 

JOSIPHI'AH  [whom  may  Jehovah 
increase  .'),  the  father  of  Shelomith,  who 
returned  with  Ezra.  Ezr.  8  :  10. 

JOT,  Matt.  5  :  18,  OR  YOD  (in  Greek 
Iota).  This  is  the  name  of  the  Hebrew 
letter  7,  which  letter  is  the  least  of  all  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet,  being  shaped  not 
unlike  our  comma  (,),  and  proverbially 
used  by  the  Hebrews  to  signify  the  least 
thing  imaginable  ;  and  hence  the  text  ex- 
presses the  idea  that  not  the  least  require- 
ment of  the  commandments  of  God  shall 
in  any  wise  be  dispensed  with;  they  shall 
all  stand  to  the  very  letter. 

JOT'BAH  {ffoodness,  pleasantness), 
a  place  where  Haruz  resided,  2  Kgs. 
21 :  19.  perhaps   the   same  as  Jotbath. 

JOT'BATH,orJOT  BATHAH 
{goodness,  pleasantness),  a  station  of  the 
Hebrews  in  the  desert,  Num.  33  :  33,  and 
on  the  west  side  of  the  Arabah,  "a  land 
of  rivers  of  waters."  Deut.  10  :  7. 

JO'THAM  [Jehovah  is  upright).  1. 
The  youngest  son  of  Jerubbaal,  or  Gid- 
eon, the  only  one  who  escaped  from  the 
massacre  at  Ophrah,  .Jud.  9:5;  and  this 
he  did  by  concealing  himself.  See 
Abimeleoh. 

2.  The  son  and  successor  of  Uzziah, 
or  Azariah,  king  of  Judah.  2  Kgs.  15  : 
32.  He  actually  reigned  23  years,  being 
associated  with  his  father  for  7  years 
before  his  death.  His  sole  administra- 
tion of  the  government  was  only  for  16 
years,  b.  c.  758-741.  Comp.  2  Kgs.  15 : 
30,  32,  33.  His  example  was  holy  ;  his 
reign  was  peaceful  and  prosperous,  and 
of  course  beneficial  to  the  kingdom.  2 
Chr.  27  :  2-6. 

3.  One  of  Judah's  descendants.  1  Chr. 
2:47. 

JOUR'NEY.  The  Orientals  travel 
in  the  morning  early  or  in  the  evening, 
often  into  the  night,  resting  during  the 
heat  of  the  day.  A  day's  journej'  was 
from  10  to  20  miles,  Deut.  1  :2;  a  sab- 
bath day's  journey  was  2000  paces,  or 
three-quarters  of  a  mile.  But  it  is  at 
least  jjrobable  that  the  phrase  in  the 
484 


Bible,  "  a  day's  journey,"  does  not  mean 
any  definite  length,  but  simply  as  far  as 
was  travelled  on  that  particular  day. 
JOUR'NEYINGS  OF  ISRAEL. 

Num.  9  :  17-23.  See  Exodus,  Sinai,  and 
Wilderness  of  the  Wanderings. 

JOY  is  an  agreeable  affection  of  the 
soul,  1  Sam.  18  :  6,  arising  from  the  pos- 
session or  prospect  of  good.  Ezr.  6:  16; 
Esth.  8  :  16.  It  is  reckoned  among  '*  the 
fruit  of  the  Spirit,"  Gal.  5  :  22,  and  is 
chiefly  used  by  the  sacred  writers,  espe- 
cially of  the  N.  T.,  to  signify  a  religious 
emotion.  That  which  springs  from  a 
sense  of  pardoned  sin  and  a  union  of 
the  soul  to  Christ  is  pure,  Luke  15  :  9, 10  ; 
certain,  John  16  :  22  ;  unspeakable,  1  Pet. 
1:8;  and  eternal.  Isa.  61 :  7.  ''  Believers 
are  commanded  to  rejoice,  Phil.  3:1; 
4:  4,  but  there  is  also  a  worldly,  foolTsli, 
or  hypocritical  joy.  Job  20  :  5  ;  Prov. 
15  :  21.  That  which  has  no  better  source 
than  in  vanity  or  sin  will  in  the  end  be 
turned  to  bitterness." — Ayre. 

JOZ'AB  AD  (ivhom  Jehovah  bestows). 
1,  2.  Two  Manassite  chiefs  who  came  to 
David  before  the  battle  of  Gilboa.  1 
Chr.  12:20. 

3.  A  Levite  who  was  prominent  in 
Hezekiah's  reforms.  2  Chr.  31  :  13. 

4.  A  Levite  chief  during  Josiah's 
reign  who  took  part  in  the  great  Pass- 
over. 2  Chr.  35:  9. 

5.  A  Levite  under  Ezra  who  weighed 
the  gold  and  silver  vessels  in  the  temple. 
Ezr.  8  :  33. 

6.  A  priest  who  had  a  foreign  wife. 
Ezr.  10  :  22. 

7.  A  Levite  chief  who  had  a  foreign 
wife,  and  one  who  probably  helped  Ezra 
explain  the  Law.  Neh.  8:7;  11  :  16. 

JOZ'ACHAR  [ivhom  Jehovah  re- 
members), one  of  the  murderers  of  Joash, 
king  of  Judah.  2  Kgs.  12  :  21.  He  is 
called   Zabad  in  2  Chr.  24:26. 

JOZ''ADAK  {ivhom  Jehovah  makes 
just),  a  contraction  of  Jehozadak ;  used 
in  Ezr.  3  :  2,  8  ;  5:2;  10  :  18  ;  Neh.  12  : 
26. 

JUMBAL  {music),  a  son  of  Lamech, 
and  the  inventor  of  the  harp  and  organ. 
Gen.  4:  21. 

JUBILEE,  YEAR  OF,  came  at 
the  close  of  seven  weeks  of  years,  or 
eveiy  fiftieth  year,  so  that  two  sabbatical 
years  came  together.  It  commenced  on 
the  great  day  of  atonement,  and  was 
ushered  in  by  the    blast  of  the  jubilee 


JUG 


JUD 


curved  trumpets.  The  remarkable  fea- 
ture of  this  festival  was  that  it  restored 
individuals,  families,  and  communities, 
as  far  as  possible,  to  the  same  situation 
they  occupied  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fifty  years.  All  servants  of  Hebrew 
origin  were  set  free,  even  those  whose 
ears  had  been  bored  in  evidence  of  their 
free  service;  all  jiledges  were  given  up, 
and  the  inheritances  which  had  been  alien- 
ated, no  matter  how  often  nor  for  what 
cause,  came  back  to  the  hands  of  the  own- 
ers. The  only  exception  was  in  the  cases 
of  houses  built  in  walled  towns.  Lev. 
25:29-31.  The  law  in  regard  to  this 
festival  is  given  in  Lev.  25  :  8-17,  23-55  ; 
27  :  16-25;  Num.  36  :  4.  "  The  jubilee 
is  the  crown  of  the  sabbatical  system. 
The  weekly  and  monthly  sabbaths  secured 
rest  for  each  spiritrntUy  ;  the  sabbatical 
year  secured  rest  for  the  land  :  the  jubilee 
secured  rest  and  restoration  for  the  body 
politic,  to  recover  the  general  equality 
which  Joshua's  original  settlement  con- 
templated. Hence  no  religious  observ- 
ances were  prescribed  ;  simply  the  trum- 
pets sounded  the  glad  note  of  restora- 
tion. The  leisure  of  the  jubilee  year 
was  perhaps  devoted  to  school  and  in- 
struction of  the  people,  the  reading  of 
the  Law,  and  such  services." — Fausset  : 
The  Enfilishman's  Bible  Oi/clopffdia. 

it  has  been  disputed  whether  there 
ever  was  a  year  of  jubilee  observed. 
No  direct  mention  is  made  of  any,  but 
there  are  evident  allusions  to  it  in  Isa. 
61:1,  2;  Eze.  7:12,  13;  46:16-18. 

JU'CAIi  {jyotent).  Jer.  38  :  1.  See 
Jehucal. 

JU'DA.  1.  One  of  the  brethren  of 
our  Lord,  Mark  6:3;  probably  identical 
with  James,  2.  He  is  called  Judas  in 
Matt.  13 :  55. 

2,  3.  Two  of  our  Lord's  ancestry. 
Luke  3  :  26,  30. 

4.  The  patriarch  Judah.   Luke  3  :  33. 

5.  The  designation  of  the  tribe.  Heb. 
7:14;  Rev.  5:5;  7  :  5. 

JUD.K'A,  OR  JUDE'A,  PROV- 
INCE OF,  a  name  applied  to  that 
part  of  Canaan  occupied  by  those  who 
returned  after  the  Assyrian  and  Baby- 
lonian captivities.  The  word  first  oc- 
curs Dan.  5:13  (A.  V.  "Jewry"),  and 
the  first  mention  of  the  "province  of 
Judaea "  is  in  Ezr.  5:8;  it  is  alluded  to 
in  Neh.  11:3  (A.  V.  "Judah");  in  the 
Apocrypha    the    word    "province"    is 


dropped,  and  throughout  it  and  in  the 
N.  T.  the  expressions  are  the  "  land  of 
Judasa  "  and  "  Juda;a."  In  a  wider  and 
more  improper  sense  "Judaja"  was 
sometimes  applied  to  the  whole  country 
of  the  Canaanites,  its  ancient  inhabit- 
ants, and  even  in  the  Gospels  we  read 
of  the  coasts  of  Judaea  "  beyond  Jor- 
dan." Matt.  19  :  1  ;  Mark  10  : 1.  Judtea 
was  strictly  the  third  district,  west 
of  the  Jordan,  and  south  of  Samaria. 
It  was  made  a  portion  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Syria  after  Archelaus  was 
deposed,  A.  T>.  6,  and  was  governed  by  a 
procurator,  who  was  subject  to  the  gov- 
ernor of  Syria.  See  Canaan,  Pales- 
tine, and  Judah. 

JUD.E'A,  THE  HILL-COUN- 
TRY OF,  the  central  ridge  of  moun- 
tains stretching  from  north  to  south, 
and  forming  as  it  were  the  backbone 
of  the  land  of  Palestine.  Luke  1 :  65. 

JUD^'A,  WILDERNESS  OF, 
a  wild  and  desolate  region  extending 
from  the  hill-country  near  Jerusalem 
south-east  to  the  Dead  Sea,  and  averag- 
ing about  15  miles  in  breadth.  Matt.  3  : 1. 
It  is  a  limestone  country,  rough  and 
barren,  with  only  patches  of  grass.  It 
seems  never  to  have  had  many  inhabit- 
ants, and  no  cities.  The  traditional 
scene  of  the  temptation  of  Christ  is  in 
this  district,  on  a  high  mountain  behind 
Jericho,  frightfully  desolate,  and  now 
infested  with  beasts  and  reptiles.  See 
Matt.  4:1:  Mark  1 :  13. 

JTJ'DAH  (praise).  1.  The  fourth  son 
of  Jacob  and  Leah,  was  born  in  Meso- 
potamia. Gen.  29  :  35.  The  name  was 
given  as  an  expression  of  the  mother's 
gratitude.  We  know  more  of  him  than 
of  the  other  patriarchs  except  Joseph, 
whose  life  he  saved,  advising  the  sale. 
Gen.  37  :  26-28.  His  marriage,  an  inci- 
dent in  his  son's  life,  and  his  liaison 
with  Tamar  are  recorded  in  ch.  38.  Ju- 
dah became  the  surety  for  the  safety  of 
Benjamin  on  the  second  journey  to 
Egypt.  Ch.  43  :  3-10.  His  conduct  is 
worthy  of  all  praise,  and  his  plea  for 
Benjamin's  liberty  is  one  of  the  most 
touching  speeches  in  the  Bible.  Ch.  44 : 
14-34.  He  went  down  into  Egypt  with 
three  sons.  Ch.  46 :  12.  The  tribe  of 
Judah  was  always  large  and  prominent, 
vying  with  Ephraim  for  the  supremacy. 

The  prophetic  blessing  which  his  fa- 
ther pronounced  on  Judah,  Gen.  49:8- 

485 


JUD 


JUD 


12,  is  very  remarkable.  It  describes  the 
warlike  character  and  gradually  increas- 
ing strength  of  the  tribe,  comp.  Num.  2  : 
3  ;  Josh.  14  :  U  ;  15  : 1 ;  Jud.  1 : 1,  2  :  1 
Chr.  14:17;  Ps.  18:40;  Isa.  29:1 
(where  its  capital  is  called  Ariel,  "lion 
of  God  "),  Rev.  5:5;  the  duration  of  its 
power — viz.  until  the  coming  of  Christ, 
when  Judaea  became  a  province  of  Rome, 
comp.  Luke  2  : 1-7  ;  John  18  :  31 :  Acts 
5:37;  and  the  destruction  of  their  city, 
A.  D.  70,  when  the  Christian  dispensation 
had  become  established,  comp.  Matt.  24  : 
14  :  Acts  2:8;  Rom.  10  :  18,  in  the  glory 
and  triumph  of  the  Messiah. 

His  descendants  took  the  southern 
section  of  Canaan,  from  the  Jordan  to 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  northward- 
ly to  the  territory  of  Benjamin  and  Dan. 
Josh.  15  : 1-63. 

In  the  catalogue  of  the  cities  of  this 
tribe  we  have  the  "uttermost  cities,"  or 
those  nearest  Edom,  on  the  south;  cities 
"  in  the  valley  " — that  is,  on  the  low- 
lands, near  the  coast;  cities  "in  the 
mountains  " — that  is,  up  in  the  interior ; 
and  cities  "  in  the  wilderness,"  or  along 
the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Josh.  15 : 
21,  33,  48,  61. 

Of  the  cities  of  Judah,  several  con- 
tinued in  the  possession  of  the  natives 
(as  Ashdod,  Gaza,  Askelon,  and  Ekron), 
or,  if  conquered,  were  afterward  recov- 
ered. 

2.  Father  of  two  Levites  who  were 
overseers  of  the  temple-work.  Ezr.  3  :  9. 

3.  A  Levite  who  had  a  foreign  wife. 
Ezr.  10  :  23  ;  Neh.  12  :  8,  36. 

4.  A  Benjamite.  Neh.  11  : 9. 
JU'DAH,    LAND    OF.     See  Ca- 
naan. 

JU'DAH,  THE  KINGDOM  OF. 
Extent. — The  kingdom  of  Judah  em- 
braced not  only  the  territory  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (see  above),  but  also  in- 
cluded the  larger  part  of  Benjamin  on 
the  north-east,  Dan  on  the  north-west, 
and  Simeon  on  the  south.  The  area 
thus  under  the  dominion  of  Judah  is 
estimated  at  3435  square  miles.  Besides 
this,  Edom,  subdued  by  David,  contin- 
ued faithful  to  Judah  for  a  time,  and  the 
Red  Sea  ports  furnished  an  outlet  for 
commerce. 

The   kingdom    had    at    the   start   the 

great  advantages  of  having  the  former 

capital  of  the  whole  country,  and  in  it 

the    temple,   the    religious    centre,   the 

486      • 


whole  body  of  the  priests  who  conduct- 
ed the  worship  ;  then,  too,  the  eclat  of 
the  Davidic  family.  It  was,  too,  much 
less  exposed  to  attack,  its  population 
was  hardy  and  united.  But  these  ad- 
vantages did  not  remain  of  force.  Sa- 
maria, the  capital  of  the  northern  king- 
dom, proved  equally  attractive ;  indeed, 
very  likely  under  the  later  kings  it  was 
a  more  magnificent  city.  The  temple 
was  rivalled  by  the  shrines  for  the  gold- 
en calves  and  for  Baal  and  Astarte ;  the 
priesthood  of  these  false  faiths  usurped 
the  position  of  that  of  the  true,  and  the 
glare  of  temporary  worldly  prosperity 
blinded  the  people  to  the  consequences 
of  their  sin,  while  Judah  fell  under  idol- 
atry at  times. 

The  family  of  David  furnished  all  the 
19  kings  of  Judah,  but  the  eldest  son 
did  not  always  succeed.  Judah  out- 
lasted Israel  135  years.  The  reasons 
for  this  are  partly  given  above,  but  the 
Bible  assigns  as  the  cause  the  long-suf- 
fering of  God  and  his  unwillingness  to 
remove  the  house  of  David.  But  al- 
though at  last  Judah  had  fallen,  yet  in 
the  mercy  of  God  there  was  a  continu- 
ance ;  the  independent  national  life  was 
no  more,  but  still  a  national  life  remain- 
ed. The  Lord  turned  the  captivity  of 
Zion.  He  heard  the  sighing  of  his 
prisoners,  and  so  from  under  the  yoke 
they  returned,  and  from  a  weak  handful 
again  developed  into  a  nation,  although 
they  never  were  what  they  had  been. 
For  the  history  of  these  Jews,  see  Jews. 

History. — After  the  division  of  the 
kingdom,  b.  c.  975,  Judah  maintained 
its  separate  existence  for  389  years,  un- 
til B.  c.  586.  During  this  period  there 
were  19  rulers,  all  of  the  lineage  of  Da- 
vid, excepting  Athaliah.  During  the 
first  three  reigns  Israel  and  Judah  were 
in  an  attitude  of  hostility.  Israel  under 
Jeroboam  was  signally  defeated.  2  Chr. 
13.  Later,  an  alliance  was  formed  by 
the  marriage  of  Jehoshaphat's  son  with 
Ahab's  daughter,  Athaliah,  1  Kgs.  22 ;  2 
Chr.  18,  who  usurped  the  crown.  The 
two  kingdoms  combined  against  Syria. 
The  two  great  foes  of  Judah  were  Egypt 
on  the  south  and  Assyria  on  the  east. 
From  Egypt  came  Shishak,  who  hum- 
bled Judah,  2  Chr.  12:2-12;  Zerah, 
whose  million  of  men  were  routed  by 
King  Asa,  2  Chr.  14  :  9-12  ;  and  Josiah 
was    slain   at  Megiddo.    2  Chr.  35 :  23. 


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The  children  of  Aramon,  Moab,  and 
Mount  Seir  also  invaded  Judah  during 
Jehoshaphat's  reign,  but  they  only  de- 
stroyed one  another.  2  Chr.  20 :  22-25. 

The  armies  of  Assyria  met  with  varied 
fortune.  Tilgath-pilneser  distressed  Ju- 
dah during  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  2  Chr. 
28:20;  Sennacherib's  host  of  185,000 
men  was  destroyed  by  the  angel  of  the 
Lord  in  Hezekiah's  reign,  2  Chr.  32  :  21  ; 
2  Kgs.  19  :  35  ;  Manasseh  was  carried 
away  captive  into  Babylon,  2  Chr.  33  : 
11  ;  Jehoiachin  was  also  made  cap- 
tive; Zedekiah  rebelled  against  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, and  was  defeated,  his  sons 
slain  before  his  eyes,  and  he  made  cap- 
tive; Jerusalem  was  taken  in  b.  c.  586, 
and  the  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Ju- 
dah was  ended.  For  later  events  see 
Jerusalem,  Palestine. 

JU'DAH,    TERRITORY    OF. 

Situation  and  Extent. —  The  district 
assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Judah  in 
the  Promised  Land,  with  its  cities,  is 
described  in  Josh.  15.  It  extended 
across  the  whole  of  Western  Palestine, 
from  the  Dead  Sea  on  the  east  to  the 
Mediterranean  on  the  west.  The  north- 
ern boundary  extended  from  Beth-hogla 
(the  present  'Ain  Hnjleh,  a  little  to  the 
south-east  of  Jericho),  entered  the  hills 
near  the  present  road  from  Jericho,  ran 
westward  to  Enshemesh  (below  Bethany), 
thence  over  the  Mount  of  Olives  to  En- 
rogel,  and  along  the  ravine  of  Hinnom 
(just  south  of  Jerusalem),  thence  by 
the  water  of  Nephtoah,  Kirjath-jearim, 
Beth-shemesh,  Timnah,  and  Ekron  to 
Jabneel,  on  the  sea-coast,  some  4  miles 
below  Joppa.  See  Josh.  15  :  6-11.  The 
Nahr  Rxtbin,  "  River  of  Reuben,"  a 
winding,  reedy  river,  the  only  real 
stream  south  of  Jaffa,  seems  to  have 
constituted  the  natural  boundary. 

The  southern  boundary-line  is  more 
difficult  to  trace,  since  some  of  the  places 
mentioned  in  Josh.  15:2-4  cannot  be 
identified  with  certainty.  It  left  the 
Dead  Sea  at  its  southern  end,  and  ex- 
tended westward  to  the  river  of  Egypt, 
Wady  el  Arish.  The  average  extent  of 
this  district  was  50  miles  from  east  to 
west  and  45  miles  from  north  to  south, 
and  its  area  about  half  that  of  the  State 
of  Connecticut.  A  portion  of  this  ter- 
ritory was  subsequently  cut  off  for  Sim- 
eon, which  thus  became  the  frontier 
tribe    of    the   south.  Josh.  19  :  1-9.     A 


portion  of  the  north-western  part  was 
also  given  to  Dan.  Comp.  vs.  40-48. 

Physical  Features. — The  territory  of 
Judah  comprised  four  regions  quite 
distinct  in  physical  features:  (1)  The 
south  country,  or  Negeb,  where  the  fertile 
land  shaded  off  into  the  wilderness.  (2) 
The  valley,  plain,  or  Shefelah,  lying  be- 
tween the  Mediterranean  and  the  central 
hill-country.  Josh.  15  :  33-47.  This  was 
an  exceedingly  fertile  country,  occupied 
by  the  Philistines,  who  constantly  dis- 
puted possession.  (3)  The  hill-country, 
occupying  the  central  range  of  moun- 
tains. Josh.  15  :  48-60.  This  region  was 
favorable  for  the  olive  and  vine.  (4) 
The  wilderness,  sloping  from  the  central 
hills  to  the  Dead  Sea,  at  which  it  ter- 
minates  in   precipitous   cliffs.  Josh.  15  : 

61,  62.  This  barren  tract  has  evidently 
been  uncultivated  and  uninhabited  from 
the  remotest  times,  for  here  alone,  of  all 
Palestine,  are  found  no  traces  of  the 
ruins  of  former  cities.  An  exception 
must  be  made  of  the  fringe  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  where  were  six  cities.  Josh.  15  :  21- 

62.  For  a  more  detailed  account  of  its 
physical  geography,  see  Palestine. 

Cities  and  Toicns. — A  list  of  the  cities 
belonging  to  the  territory  allotted  to  Ju- 
dah is  given  in  Josh.  15  :  21-62.  These 
are  grouped  in  several  divisions.  There 
were  29  in  the  southern  district,  v.  32. 
Mr.  Wilton,  in  his  book,  The  Necjeh,  gives 
a  list  of  29.  The  nearly  40  names  in  the 
received  version  are  diminished  by  not- 
ing that  some  of  the  names  standing  for 
separate  towns  are  really  compound 
words.  The  towns  of  most  note  in  Ju- 
dah were  Hebron,  Bethlehem,  Kirjath- 
jearim,  Lachish,  and  Libnah.  Thirteen 
of  the  cities  of  Judah,  Benjamin,  and 
Simeon  were  allotted  to  the  priests. 
Josh.  21  :  9-19.  The  Levites  also  had 
cities  in  other  tribes. 

History. — Under  Joshua  a  part  of  the 
plain  and  some  of  the  hill-towns  were 
taken.  Josh.  10  :  28-35,  38-40  ;  11 :  21,  23. 
After  his  death  Judah  and  Simeon  cap- 
tured some  of  the  Philistine  cities  and 
sacked  Jerusalem.  Jud.  1 :  1-20.  During 
the  time  of  the  Judges  little  is  heard  of 
Judah.  Only  one  judge,  Othniel,  is  cer- 
tainly known  to  have  belonged  to  that 
tribe.  Jud.  3:9-11.  That  its  people 
were  cowed  by  the  Philistines  appears 
from  their  conduct  concerning  Samson. 
Jud.  15  :  9-13.     Judah  furnished  a  small 

487 


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contingent  for  the  army  of  King  Saul  the 
Benjamite.  1  Sam.  15: 4.  David  was  made 
king  at  Hebron,  and  for  seven  years  and  a 
half  ruled  over  Judah  from  that  city.  2 
Sam.  2:11.  After  the  splendid  reigns  of 
David  and  Solomon  over  the  united  tribes 
came  the  division  and  the  separate  king- 
dom of  Judah,  which  is  treated  above. 

JU'DAH,  TRIBE  OF,  the  larg- 
est of  the  tribes  that  came  out  of  Egypt. 
Num.  1 :  27.  Judah,  by  reason  of  its 
size,  and  conscious,  too,  of  the  prophecy 
of  the  dying  Jacob,  Gen.  49  :  8-12,  as- 
sumed the  position  of  leader.  It  vras 
manifestly  under  the  divine  favor. 
When  Moses  gave  his  blessing  upon  the 
tribes,  he  said  of  Judah,  "  Hear,  Lord, 
the  voice  of  Judah,  and  bring  him  unto 
his  people :  let  his  hand  be  sufficient  for 
him;  and  be  thou  a  help  to  him  from 
his  enemies,"  Deut.  33  :  7 — a  prayer  that 
God  would  help  Judah  successfully  to 
lead  the  tribes.  The  tribe  sent  as  their 
spy  the  faithful  Caleb,  the  son  of  Jephun- 
neh.  Num.  13  :  6.  In  the  conquest  Ju- 
dah led,  but  the  history  only  touches 
upon  three  points  which  particularly  af- 
fected this  tribe:  (1)  Achan  was  of  Ju- 
dah, Josh.  7  : 1,  16-18  ;  (2)  Caleb's  con- 
quest of  Hebron,  Josh.  14:6-15;  and 
(3)  Othniel's  (the  nephew  and  son-in- 
law  of  Caleb)  conquest  of  Debir.  Josh. 
15  :  13-19.  These  are  the  only  instances 
of  the  special  reservation  of  any  portion 
of  the  country  to  its  conquerors.  Judah 
received  the  first  allotment  on  the  par- 
tition of  the  territory.  Josh.  15  :  1. 
Upon  the  death  of  Joshua,  Judah  un- 
dertook with  Simeon  the  conquest  of 
the  interior.  Jud.  1 : 1-3.  Judah  seems 
to  have  been  unmolested  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  period  of  the  Judges. 
This  state  of  things  may  have  lessened 
its  interest  in  the  troubles  of  other  tribes  ; 
at  all  events,  Judah  did  not  take  much, 
if  any,  part  in  the  diff'erent  wars,  except 
on  the  first  occasion,  when  Othniel,  who 
was  a  Judite,  delivered  Israel  from  Chu- 
shan-rishathaim.  Jud.  3  :  9.  He  was  the 
only  judge  from  this  tribe,  unless  the 
Bethlehem  from  which  Ibzan  came  be 
Bethlehem-Judah.  It  is  markworthy 
that  although  Judah  did  not  assist  Ba- 
rak, Deborah  does  not  rebuke  them.  In 
the  destruction  of  the  Benjamites,  Ju- 
dah was  selected  by  God  to  head  the 
other  tribes.  Jud.  20  :  18.  In  fact,  Ju- 
dah was  independent,  self-contained, 
488 


strong,  and  determined  all  through  its 
history.  It  was  a  nation  in  itself.  It 
absorbed  some  of  the  surrounding  peo- 
ples, as  the  Kenites,  Jud.  1:16;  cf.  1 
Sam.  15  :  6  ;  30  :  29,  and  the  Jerahmee- 
lites.  1  Sam.  27  :  10  ;  30  :  29.  From  the 
Kenites  came  Jael,  Jud.  4 :  17,  and  the 
Rechabites.  1  Chr.  2  :  55.  When  the 
choice  of  the  king  fell  upon  a  man  of 
Benjamin,  Judah  may  have  been  dis- 
pleased ;  at  all  events,  they  preserved 
during  Saul's  reign  a  very  independent 
position,  but  when  Saul  was  dead  they 
with  others  offered  the  crown  to  David, 
who  was  of  their  own  flesh  and  blood. 
Under  Solomon  they  were  quiet,  al- 
though heavily  taxed,  because  they  held 
the  greater  proportion  of  the  state  ap- 
pointments. With  the  revolt  of  Jero- 
boam the  history  of  Judah  as  a  tribe 
ceases;  their  history  as  a  kingdom  be- 
gins, for  which,  see  Judah,  Kingdom 
AND  Territory  of. 

JUDAH,  THE  CITY  OF.  2 
Chr,  25  :  28.  Several  manuscripts,  and 
all  the  versions  except  the  Chaldee,  read 
"city  of  David,"  which  was  a  name  of 
Mount  Zion  at  Jerusalem,  where  were 
the  tombs  of  the  kings. 

JUDAH  UPON  JORDAN,  a 
town  in  Naphtali.  Josh.  19  :  34.  AVhy 
it  was  so  called  is  not  known.  Some 
regard  it  as  an  error  in  the  text,  but 
the  manuscripts  do  not  prove  this; 
others  suppose  there  was  a  town,  in  one 
tribe,  named  after  another  tribe,  and 
refer  this  to  Havoth-jair,  see  Num. 
32  :  41,  near  the  Jordan.  Dr.  Thom- 
son found  a  place  near  Banias  marked 
by  ruins  and  a  tomb  called  by  the  Arabs 
Seid  Yehuda,  ''My  Lord  Judah,"  which 
he  believes  is  the  site  of  ancient  Judah 
upon  Jordan,  with  its  name  perpetuated. 

JV'DXH  {praise).  1.  The  patriarch 
Judah.  Matt.  1 :  2,  3. 

2.  The  betrayer  of  Christ.  Matt.  10  : 
4  ;  Mark  3:19;  Luke  6  :  16.  Nothing 
is  known  of  his  early  history.  His 
name  has  been  variously  interpreted, 
but  best  as  from  Ish  Kerioth,  "  the  man 
of  Kerioth,"  a  town  of  Judah.  Josh. 
15  :  25.  He  is  called  the  son  of  Simon. 
John  6  :  71.  His  executive  ability  led 
to  his  choice  as  treasurer,  but  the  office 
stimulated  and  increased  his  avarice. 
John  12  :  6 ;  13  :  29.  This  trait  is  shown 
very  strikingly  in  his  regret  over  Mary's 
"waste."     It  has   been   suggested  that 


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the  loss,  as  he  regarded  it.  of  the  300 
denarii  which  the  ointment  cost  may 
have  made  him  the  more  willing  to  ac- 
cept the  30  shekels  (the  price  of  a  slave) 
which  he  received  for  the  betra3'al  of 
Christ.  Matt.  26  :  15.  The  best  expla- 
nation of  the  awful  crime  is  that  of  our 
Lord :  he  was  under  the  influence  of  Satan. 
John  6  :  70,  71.  Judas  returned  after 
making  the  infamous  bargain,  and  min- 
gled again  with  the  disciples.  lie  was 
present  at  the  paschal  supper,  though 
probably  not  at  the  institution  of  the 
Lord's  Supper.  His  familiarity  with 
the  habits  of  Jesus  enabled  him  to 
guide  the  attendant  mob  directly  to  the 
garden  of  Gethsemane,  and  there,  with 
the  moisture  of  Jesus'  lips  still  wet  upon 
his  own,  to  give  the  command,  "  Take 
him."  Matt.  14:43-45.  But  when  the 
deed  was  done  there  came  on  the  reac- 
tion. He  knew  and  confessed  that  he 
had  betrayed  ''  innocent  blood."  He 
could  not  endure  the  strain  of  a  con- 
science on  the  rack.  He  flung  the 
money  to  the  priests  and  went  and 
hanged  himself,  but  was  not  suffered  to 
present  an  unmangled  corpse,  for,  the 
rope  breaking,  his  body  fell  headlong 
and  all  his  bowels  gushed  out.  Comp. 
Matt.  27:5  with  Acts  1:18.  The  30 
shekels  were  not  put  into  the  treasury, 
since  they  were  ''  the  price  of  blood  ,•" 
accordingly,  the  priests  bought  a  field 
with  them'.  Matt.  27  :  7.  This  is  the 
purchase  attributed  to  Judas  himself  by 
Peter.  Acts  1  :  18. 

Aceldama,  where  he  committed  suicide, 
is  shown  on  the  southern  slope  of  the 
valley  of  Hinnom.  Some  have  attempt- 
ed to  extenuate  his  guilt  by  supposing 
that  he  wished  to  hasten  the  crisis  and 
to  force  Christ  to  set  up  his  kingdom. 
But  our  Lord,  the  most  merciful  of  be- 
ings, calls  him  "the  son  of  perdition," 
for  whom  it  would  have  been  good  "  if 
he  had  not  been  born."  He  is  branded 
in  history  as  the  most  ungrateful  of 
traitors,  although  the  wisdom  of  God 
overruled  his  treason  for  the  crucifixion 
of  Jesus,  whose  death  is  our  salvation. 

3.  The  one  called  Juda  in  Mark  6  :  3. 

4.  A  brother  of  James,  and  one  of  the 
apostles  ;  called  also  Thaddaeus  and  Leb- 
baeus  and  Jude.  Matt.  10  :  3  ;  Mark  3  : 
18:  Luke  6: 16;  John  14:22;  Acts  1: 
13  ;  Matt.  13  :  55. 

6.  Judas  of  Galilee,  a  leader  of  an  in- 


surrection "  in  the  days  of  taxing  " — i.  e. 
the  census — a.  d.  6,  and  who,  according 
to  Gamaliel,  was  very  successful  for  a 
time,  but  was  ultimately  completely  de- 
feated. Acts  5  :  37.  We  find  in  Joscphus 
an  allusion  to  a  man,  who  is  there  said 
to  have  been  born  in  the  city  of  Gamala 
in  Gaulanitis,  and  to  have  been  the  foun- 
der of  a  new  sect,  which  did  not  difl'er 
from  that  of  the  Pharisees  save  in  a  fa- 
natical love  of  liberty  and  refusal  to  sup- 
port the  Roman  state. 

6.  The  one  whose  house  in  Straight 
Street,  Damascus,  sheltered  Paul  during 
his  blindness.  Acts  9  :  11,  17.  This  Ju- 
das may  have  kept  an  inn  ;  it  is  unlikely 
that  he  was  a  disciple. 

7.  Judas,  surnamed  Barsabas,  a  "  chief 
man  among  the  brethren,"  a  "prophet," 
who  was  chosen  along  with  Paul  and 
Barnabas  and  Silas  to  carry  the  decis- 
ions of  the  council  of  Jerusalem,  a.  d. 
50,  to  Antioch.  Acts  15  :  22-33. 

JUDE  was  one  of  the  apostles,  and 
the  brother  of  James  the  Less,  Jude  1. 
He  is  called  "  Judas,"  Matt.  13  :  55  ; 
John  14  :  22  ;  Acts  1 :  13,  and  elsewhere 
"  Lebbfeus,"  Matt.  10  :  3,  and  "  Thad- 
daeus." Mark  3 :  18. 

Epistle  of,  was  written  about  A.  D. 
65.  The  author  calls  himself  "  a  ser- 
vant of  Christ  and  a  brother  of  James," 
who  was  a  brother  of  Christ  and  was 
also  called  the  Just  and  the  bishop  of 
Jerusalem.  See  James.  The  epistle  is 
intended  to  guard  believers  against 
prevalent  errors,  and  to  urge  them  to 
constancy  in  the  faith  once  delivered 
to  the  saints.  This  is  done  by  a  vivid 
exhibition  of  the  terrors  of  God's  judg- 
ments upon  the  wicked,  and  by  a  recur- 
rence to  that  great  principle  of  our  relig- 
ion, dependence  on  Christ  alone,  to  keep 
us  from  falling.  In  v.  9  we  read  :  "  Mi- 
chael the  archangel,  when  contending 
with  the  devil,  he  disputed  about  the  body 
of  Moses,  durst  not  bring  against  him 
a  railing  accusation,  but  said.  The  Lord 
rebuke  thee."  This  incident  is  not 
elsewhere  recorded  in  Scripture,  and  is 
probably  quoted  from  the  Apocalypse  of 
Moses.  In  v.  14  Jude  quotes  a  proph- 
ecy of  Enoch,  the  seventh  from  Adam. 

There  is  a  striking  resemblance  be- 
tween 2  Peter  and  Jude.  Both  are 
warnings  against  errorists. 

JUDG'ES.  1.  This  was  the  title 
of  a  class  of  magistrates  among  the  Is- 

489 


JUD 


JUD 


raelites.  They  were  appointed  origi- 
nally by  Moses,  at  the  suggestion  of  his 
father-in-law,  to  relieve  him  of  a  part 
of  the  duties  of  the  chief  magistracy. 
Ex.  18  :  13-26.  The  judicial  authority 
was  primarily  administered  by  the  el- 
ders and  by  the  heads  of  families. 
After  the  kingdom  was  established  the 
king  became  the  supreme  source  of  jus- 
tice, "  consulting,  very  probably,  on  oc- 
casion, the  high  priest  as  to  the  interpre- 
tation of  the  Law,  the  right  of  asking 
counsel  of  God  through  the  priest  being 
claimed  as  a  royal  prerogative." — Ayre. 
See  Num.  27  :  21  ;  1  Sam.  14  :  18  {epJiod, 
not  ark);  22:10,  13,  15;  23:6.  But 
under  him  there  were  local  judges,  many 
of  whom  were  Levites.  1  Chr.  23  : 4. 
The  great  reform  of  Jehoshaphat  in- 
cluded a  sort  of  supreme  court  sitting 
in  Jerusalem.  2  Chr.  19:5-11.  In  later 
times  the  Sanhedrin  was  this  court. 
Numerous  exhortations  are  given  in  the 
Bible  concerning  judicial  fairness.  Deut. 
16:19;   Prov.  24:23;  Ps.  82. 

2.  Besides  these,  there  were  others 
called  Judges,  whose  history  is  given  in 
the  book  of  that  name,  but  they  were  a 
class  of  men  raised  up  in  special  emer- 
gencies and  invested  with  extraordinary 
civil  and  military  powers,  not  unlike 
the  archons  of  Athens  and  the  dictators 
of  Rome.  See  Hebrews.  They  were 
given  to  the  Israelites  about  the  space 
of  450  years,  until  Samuel  the  prophet. 
Acts  13:  20. 

Lint   of  Judges,  and  probable   Term  of 

Service.                       ^ears. 
Othniel,  about  b.  c.  1400 40 

Under  Eglon 18 

Ehud,  etc 80 

Under  the  Philistines unk. 

Shamgar uuk. 

Under  Jabin 20 

Deborah  and  Barak 40 

Under  Midian 7 

Gideon 40 

Abimelech 3 

Tola 23 

Jair 18 

Under  the  Ammonites 18 

Jepbthah 6 

Ibzau 7 

Elon 10 

Abdon 8 

Under  the  Philistines 40 

Samson  \  /  20 

Eli  j  ^40 

Under  the  Philistines 20 

Samuel,  about 12 

Saul,  the  first  king,  b.  c.  1091, 
490 


It  is  only  proper  to  add  that  the  chro- 
nology of  the  Bible  is  very  uncertain 
until  we  get  to  David's  reign,  and  that 
these  15  specified  Judges  may  not  all 
have  been  successive.  The  period  of 
the  Judges  was  a  semi-barbarous  age, 
where  might  was  right,  and  every  one 
did  what  seemed  good  in  his  sight.  But 
it  was  also  a  period  of  divine  interposi- 
tions and  deliverances.  It  was  the  heroic 
age  of  Jewish  history. 

JuDGE.s,  Book  of,  derives  its  title  from 
the  fact  that  it  gives  us  the  history  of  the 
Israelites  under  the  administration  of  15 
Judges,  viz.  from  18  or  20  years  after  the 
death  of  Joshua  to  the  time  of  Saul. 
The  chronology  is  uncertain.  This 
book  has  been  well  styled  a  commentary 
upon  the  text  "  Righteousness  exalteth 
a  nation ;  but  sin  /«  a  reproach  to  any 
people."  Prov.  14:  34.  It  may  be  di- 
vided into  two  parts :  I.  Chs.  3-16,  an 
account  of  God's  successive  deliver- 
ances ;  II.  Chs.  17-21,  an  account,  de- 
tached from  the  preceding  and  out  of 
chronological  order,  of  the  invasion  of 
Laish  by  the  Danites,  in  connection 
with  the  story  of  Micah  and  his  priest, 
Jonathan,  chs.  17  and  18 ;  and  an  ac- 
count of  the  revenge  of  the  insult  to  the 
Levite,  chs.  19-21,  the  whole  prefaced 
with  an  introduction,  chs.  1-3.  The 
book  is  quite  evidently  a  compilation 
from  existent  and  trustworthy  materials. 
Its  date  is  uncertain. 

JUDGMENT,  JUDGMENTS. 
These  are  words  of  frequent  occurrence 
in  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and  the  sense 
of  them  is  generally  determined  by  the 
connection.  When  God's  judgments  are 
spoken  of,  the  term  may  denote  either 
the  secret  decisions  of  the  divine  will, 
Ps.  10  :  5  ;  36  :  6,  or  the  declarations  of 
God's  will  revealed  in  the  Scriptures, 
Ex.  21:1;  Deut.  7:12;  Neh.  9:  13,  or 
the  inflictions  of  punishment  on  the 
wicked.  Prov.  19  :  29  :  Eze.  25:11. 

JUDG'MENT-HALL,  a  room  or 
office  in  the  palace  of  the  Roman  gover- 
nor where  causes  were  tried  and  justice 
administered,  John  18  :  28.  The  Jews 
declined  to  enter  it  Avhen  they  were 
prosecuting  their  murderous  purpose 
against  the  Redeemer,  lest  they  should 
be  defiled  by  an  approximation  to  the 
person  of  a  heathen. 

The  Judgment-seat,  Matt.  27 :  19,  was 
an  elevated  place  in  the   hall  of  judg- 


JUD 


JUN 


which   sentence   was    pro- 
See 


Breastplate     of. 


ment,    from 
nounced. 

Judgment, 
Breastplate. 
.  Judgment  of  Urim.     See  Urim. 

Judgment,  Day  of.  Matt.  10  :  15,  that 
important  day  which  is  to  terminate  the 
present  dispensation  of  grace,  when  time 
shall  be  no  more  and  the  eternal  state  of 
all  men  shall  be  unchangeably  fixed. 
That  such  an  event  is  necessary  to 
vindicate  the  justice  of  God,  Luke  16  : 
25,  and  that  such  a  daj^  is  appointed,  is 
abundantly  evident.  Eccl.  11:9;  Matt. 
12:3();  Acts  17  :  ;U  ;  2  Thess.  1:7-10; 
Heb.  9:27;  2  Pet.  2:9:  3:7:  1  John 
4 :  17.  That  Jesus  Christ  will  officiate 
as  Judge  is  also  evident.  Matt.  25:31, 
32;  26:64;  John  5:22;  Acts  17:31: 
Rom.  2:16;  2  Cor.  5  :  10.  That  the 
judgment  will  be  universal  appears 
from  Eccl.  12  :  14 ;  John  5  :  28,  29  ;  Rom. 
14:10,11;  2  Cor.  5:10;  Rev.  20:12, 
13.  That  its  decision  will  be  final  and 
irreversible,  admitting  the  righteous  to 
the  joys  of  Christ's  kingdom  and  doom- 
ing the  wicked  to  outer  darkness  and 
eternal  despair,  appears  from  the  fore- 
going Scriptures,  and  also  from  Matt. 
26:14-46;  1  Cor.  15 :  52-57  ;  1  Thess. 
4:14-17;  Heb.  6  :  2. 

JU'DITH  [Jewess),  a  wife  of  Esau. 
Gen.  26 :  34. 

JUDITH,  THE  APOCRY- 
PHAL BOOK  OF,  one  of  the  ear- 
liest specimens  of  historical  fiction,  re- 
lates the  brave  action  of  Judith,  a  Jew- 
ish widow  distinguished  for  her  beauty, 
her  virtue,  and  her  patriotism.  When 
Holofernes,  a  general  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, was  besieging  Bethulia,  a  city  of 
Judaea,  and  had  already  reduced  the 
inhabitants  to  great  straits,  she  deter- 
mined to  deliver  her  people.  To  this 
end  she  managed  to  get  admission  into 
the  enemy's  camp,  to  win  the  confidence 
of  Holofernes,  and  at  last  to  kill  him 
with  her  own  hand  while  he  lay  drunk. 
She  then  escaped  to  the  city,  and  show- 
ing the  head  aroused  their  courage ;  and 
thus  the  discomfited  enemy  were  put  to 
flight. 

The  book  of  Judith  is  pure  fiction. 
It  was  written  in  Hebrew  during  the 
days  of  the  Maccabees,  for  the  purpose  of 
encouraging  the  people  in  their  strug- 
gle. But  its  moralitj'  is  sadly  defective. 
The  author  is  unknown. 


JU'LiIA  (feminine  of  Julius),  proba- 
bly the  wife  of  Philologus,  whom  Paul 
salutes.    Rom.  16  :  15. 

JU'LIUS,  the  captain  of  the  Roman 
guard  to  whom  Festus,  governor  of  Ju- 
daea, committed  Paul  to  be  conveyed  to 
Rome,  Acts  27  :  1.  Julius  appears  to 
have  had  great  regard  for  Paul.  He 
suffered  him  to  land  at  Sidon  and  visit 
his  friends  there,  and  in  a  subsequent 
part  of  the  voyage  he  opposed  the  vio- 
lence of  the  soldiers,  directed  against 
the  prisoners  generally,  in  order  to  save 
the  apostle.  Acts  27  :  43. 

JU'NIA,  a  Christian  at  Rome  saluted 
by  Paul.  Rom.  16  :  7. 

JU'NIPER.  Unquestionably,  the 
original  intends  the  re-tem  {Retama 
rsetum),  a  shrub  of  the  broom  family, 
attaining  a  height  of  about  12  feet. 
This  bush  grows  in  the  sandy  regions 
of  Arabia,  northern  Africa,  and  Spain, 
but  is  especially  abundant  in  the  desert 


Ketem  or  Juniper  Bush.     {After  Tristram.) 


of  Sinai,  and  is  often  the  only  possible 
shelter.  Under  its  shade  travelers  are 
glad  to  creep  on  a  sultry  day  for  a  noon- 
time nap,  and  thus  Elijah  lay  and  slept 
after  his  long  journey.  1  Kgs.  19  :  4,  5. 
The  retem  has  no  main  trunk,  but  con- 
sists of  many  stems,  mostly  small.  The 
roots  are  disproportionally  massive  and 

491 


JUN 


JUT 


dense,  and  from  them  the  Bedouins 
manufacture  charcoal,  which  is  sold  in 
Cairo  and  other  towns,  where  it  brings 
the  highest  price,  since,  of  all  charcoal, 
it  produces  the  most  intense  heat,  Ps. 
120  :  4.  In  Job  30  :  4  we  read  of  hun- 
ger so  extreme  that  the  bitter  roots  of 
this  shrub  are  used  for  food.  During 
the  wanderings  of  the  Israelites  one 
of  their  stations  was  named  Rithmah, 
doubtless  from  the  abundance  of  the 
retem  at  that  place.  Num.  33:18. 

JUNIPER,  COALS  OF.  See 
above,  and  Armor. 

JU'PITER,  the  highest  and  might- 
iest of  the  Olympian  gods,  reputed  as 
the  powerful  ruler  of  the  world,  the 
father  of  gods  and  men,  is  twice  men- 
tioned in  the  N.  T. 

1.  The  incident  at  Lystra,  Acts  14  : 
12.  When  the  Lystrians  saw  the  im- 
potent man  instantly  healed,  they  were 
disposed  to  regard  the  apostles  as  gods 
in  the  likeness  of  men ;  and  as  there 
was  a  tradition  among  them  that  their 
province  was  once  visited  by  Jupiter 
and  Mercury,  they  were  inclined  to  re- 
gard this  as  a  repetition  of  the  favor. 
Acts  14:12.  So  they  called  Barnabas 
"Jupiter,"  and  Paul,  who  was  the  chief 
speaker,  "  Mercury,''  the  god  of  elo- 
quence. The  priest  of  Jupiter,  the 
tutelar  deity  of  the  city,  whose  image 
or  temple  was  before  the  gates,  brought 
the  usual  sacrifices  decked  out  for  the 
altar,  and  would  have  joined  the  people 
in  the  religious  worship  of  the  apostles 
had  they  not  been  persuaded  to  desist 
by  their  solemn  warnings. 

2.  The  image  of  Diana  at  Ephesus 
was  said  to  have  fallen  from  Jupiter, 
Acts  19  :  35.     See  Diaxa. 

JU'SHAB-HE'SED  {lohose  love 
is  returned),  one  of  David's  posterity, 
1  Chr.  3:20. 

JUS'TIFY,  JUSTIFICA'- 
TION,  Rom.  4:25.  These  terms  in- 
492 


volve  one  of  the  fundamental  principles 
of  the  Christian  faith.  They  stand  op- 
posite to  "condemn"  and  ''condemna- 
tion." In  their  evangelical  use  they 
denote  that  act  of  God's  sovereign 
grace  by  which  he  accepts  and  receives 
those  who  believe  in  Christ  as  just  and 
righteous.  Justification  includes  the 
pardon  of  sins  and  the  imputation  of 
the  righteousness  of  Christ.  The  merits 
of  Christ  are  the  only  ground  of  justi- 
fication;  faith  is  the  only  means  of  jus- 
tification ;  good  works  are  the  neces- 
sary fruit  or  evidence  of  justification. 
The  Epistles  of  Paul  to  the  Galatians 
and  the  Romans  give  the  fullest  ex- 
position of  this  doctrine.  The  Roman 
Catholic  divines  identify  justification 
with  sanctification,  and  hence  teach 
progressive  justification  by  faith  and 
good  works.  They  appeal  especially 
to  Jas.  2  :  24.  But  James  opposes  a 
dead  faith  which  remains  "alone,"  2: 
17,  and  which  even  demons  have.  v.  19. 
It  is  only  living  or  working  faith  by 
which  we  can  be  justified  (comp.  Gal. 
5  :  6,  "faith  which  worketh  by  love"). 
JUS'TUS  ijmt).  1.  A  surname  of 
Joseph  called  Barsabas,  Acts  1 :2.3.  See 
Joseph,  10. 

2.  The  Jewish  proselyte  in  Corinth  in 
whose  house  Paul  preached — not  lodged, 
for  he  stopped  with  Aquila,  Acts  18  :  7. 

3.  A  surname  of  Jesus,  a  fellow- 
worker  of  Paul,   Col.  4  :  11. 

JUT'TAH,  a  town  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Judah,  in  the  same  group  with 
Maon  and  Carmel,  Josh.  16  :  55.  It  was 
allotted  to  the  priests,  21 :  16.  Eusebius 
describes  it  as  a  large  village,  18  miles 
southward  of  Eleutheropolis.  Reland 
conjectured  that  this  was  the  "  city  of 
Juda,"  Luke  1 :  39,  in  which  Zacharias, 
father  of  John  the  Baptist,  resided. 
But  there  is  no  positive  evidence  of 
this.  Juttah  is  identified  with  Yntta, 
on  a  hill  5  miles  south  of  Hebron. 


KAB 


KAR 


K. 


KAB,  OR  CAB,  2  Kgs.  6  :  25.  See 
Measures. 

KAB'ZEEL  {gathered  hy  God), 
called  Jekahzeel  when  rebuilt  after  the 
Captivity,  Neh.  11  :  25,  a  city  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  situated  farthest  to  the 
south,  Josh.  15:21;  was  the  birthplace 
of  Banaiah,  the  son  of  Jehoiada.  2  Sam. 
23  :  20  ;   1  Chr.  11  :  22. 

KA'DESH  {sacred),  OR  KA'- 
DESH-BAR'NEA,  a  place  on  the 
southern  frontier  of  Caanan.  It  was 
"11  days,"  or  about  165  miles,  distant 
from  Horeb,  Deut.  1:2;  on  the  border 
of  Edora,  Num.  20  :  16;  not  far  from 
Gerar,  Gen.  20  :  1 ;  to  the  east  of  Bered, 
Gen.  16  :  14 ;  in  the  desert  of  Zin.  Num. 
20  :  1 ;  27  :  14  ;  33  :  36  ;  Deut.  32  :  51 ; 
and  the  point  to  which  Chedorlaomer  re- 
turned, having  driven  the  Horites  over 
the  Arabah  into  the  Et  Tih  region,  and 
then  going  northward,  Gen.  14  :  7.  In 
Scripture  it  is  sometimes  called  Kadesh 
alone,  and  sometimes  Kadesh-barnea, 
and  is  identical  wi.th  Meribah-kadesh, 
Eze.  47  :  19  :  Josh.  15  :  3,  23  :  with  "  En- 
Mishpat"  =  1he  fountain  of  judgment, 
Gen.  14  :  7  ;  and  with  **  Rithmah  "  =  the 
broom,  Num.  33  :  18,  thus  called  from 
a  shrub  growing  in  the  desert.  At  Rith- 
mah the  Israelites  encamped  in  the  sec- 
ond summer  after  the  exodus  from 
Egypt,  Num.  33  :  18,  and  they  stayed 
there  for  months.  Spies  were  sent  into 
the  land  of  Canaan.  The  people  re- 
belled, and  were  condemned  to  40  years' 
sojourn  in  the  wilderness,  Num,  13,  14, 
during  which  time  Kadesh  seems  to 
have  been  their  chief  centre.  At  the 
end  of  40  years  they  encamped  again  at 
Kadesh  for  a  march  to  Canaan,  Num. 
20  :  1.  Here  Miriam  died  and  was 
buried,  and  the  rock  was  smitten  for 
water.  Num.  20  :  1-21.  Robinson, 
Porter,  and  many  others  located  Kadesh 
at  'Ai)i  el-  Weibeh,  which  was  long  ac- 
cepted by  English  scholars.  Rowlands, 
1842,  identified  it  with  Ala  (iadls  or 
QadtH,  40  to  50  miles  directly  south  of 
Beersheba.  This  was  stoutly  dis])uted 
by  Robinson,  but  accepted  by  Wilton, 
Palmer,   Ritter,   and   others,   and   con- 


firmed by  H.  Clay  Trumbull,  who  re-dis- 
covered the  springs  of  'Ain  Qadts  in 
1881.  It  is  described  as  an  extensive 
hill-encircled  region,  large  enough  for 
the  camping-ground  of  a  host;  land 
arable,  and  having  s}>rings  of  rare  sweet- 
ness and  abundance. 

KAD'MIEL  {before  God),  a  Levite 
who,  with  his  descendants,  returned  from 
captivity  with  Zerubbabel,  Ezr.  2  :  40  ; 
superintended  the  workmen,  Ezr.  3:9; 
and  helped  in  the  thanksgiving,  Neh. 
9:4;  12  :  8,  and  the  reforms,  Neh.  10  : 
9.  It  is  possible  that  two  persons  are 
referred  to. 

KAD'MONITE  {eastern),  a  people 
in  the  land  of  Canaan  in  Abram's  time. 
Gen.  15  :  19.  As  the  term  means  also 
"ancient,"  it  may  be  a  name  for  the 
earliest  inhabitants.  The  name  is  still 
found  among  the  Nusairiyeh,  north  of 
Tripoli,  who  say  they  were  driven  from 
Palestine. 

KA^IN  {dance),  Kenites,  q.  v.,  Num. 
24  :  22,  margin. 

KAL'LAI  i  sir  iff  r  miner  of  Jehovah), 
a  Driest,  a  chief  of  the  fathers  in  the 
days  of  Joiakim.  Neh.  12:20. 

KA'NAH  {place  of*  reeds).  1.  A 
town  in  the  district  of  Asher,  Josh.  19  : 
28 ;  now  a  village,  'Ain  Kana,  6  miles 
south-east  of  Tyre. 

2.  A  river  forming  the  boundary  be- 
tween Ephraim  and  Manassch,  Josh.  16  : 
8;  17:9.  Robinson  identifies  it  with  the 
present  Wady  Kanah,  which  rises  7  miles 
south-east  of  Nablus  and  enters  the  sea 
just  above  Jaffa;  while  Schwartz  iden- 
tifies it  with  the  present  Wady  el-Kh<i- 
vah,  "  the  reedy  river,"  which  rises  close 
to  Nablus  and  flows  more  northerly  to 
the  sea. 

KARE'AH  {bald),  father  of  Jo- 
hanan  and  Jonathan,  adherents  of  Ge- 
daliah.  Jer.  40  :  8,  13.  15,  16  ;  41  :  11,  13, 
14.16:42:1,8:43:2,4,5.  In  2  Kgs. 
25:  23  it  is  Careah. 

KARKA'A  (foundation),  a  southern 
boundary  of  Judah,  Josh.  15  :  3,  and 
therefore  of  the  Holy  Land  itself. 

KAR'KOR  (foundation),  the  scene 
of  Gideon's  final  dispersion  of  the  de- 

493 


KAE 


KEE 


feated  hosts  of  Zebah  and  Zalmunna. 
Jud.  8 :  10.  It  was  "  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, in  the  open  region  of  the  nomad 
tribes." 

KAR'TAH  {city),  a  town  of  Zebu- 
lun ;  assigned  to  the  Merarite  Levites. 
Josh.  21 :  ;U. 

KAR'TAN  {double  city),  a  town  of 
Naphtali ;  assigned  to  the  Gershonite  Le- 
vites, Josh.  21:32;  called  in  1  Chr.  6: 
76  Kirjathaim. 

KAT'TATH  {small),  a  town  of 
Zebulun.  Josh.  19  :  15. 

KE'DAR  {dark-skinned),  second  son 
of  Ishmael.  Gen.  25  :  13.  From  him 
descended  the  leading  tribes  of  Arabia 
and  of  the  land  east  of  Palestine.  They 
and  the  country  bear  the  name  of  Ke- 
dar.  Isa.  21  :  16:  Jer.  49  :  28.  They 
were  nomads,  living  in  black  hair-tents. 
Cant.  1:5,  as  the  modern  Bedouins  do, 
or  in  villages,  Isa.  42  :  11,  and  were  rich 
in  flocks  and  herds,  and  noted  as  archers 
and  mighty  men.  Ptolemy  calls  them 
Darrse,  and  Pliny,  Cedrie.  The  rabbins 
call  the  Arabs,  Kedar.  Tradition  makes 
Mohammed  a  descendant  of  Kedar. 
They  suffered  much  from  the  invasion 
of  Nebuchadnezzar. 

KED'EMAH  {eastward),  last-men- 
tioned son  of  Ishmael.  Gen.  25:15;  1 
Chr.  1:31. 

KED'EMOTH  {easternmost),  a 
town  in  the  district  east  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Reuben, 
Josh.  13  :  18,  and  assigned  to  the  Merarite 
Levites.  Josh.  21 :  37;  1  Chr.  6  :  79.  In  the 
surrounding  wilderness  Moses  encamped 
before  passing  through  the  Amorite  coun- 
try. Deut.  2  :  26. 

KE'DESH  {sanctuary).  1.  A  town 
on  the  southern  boundary  of  Judah, 
Josh.  15  :  23 ;  perhaps  identical  with 
Kadesh  or  Kadesh-barnea. 

2.  A  city  of  Issachar ;  assigned  to  the 
Gershonite  Levites.  1  Chr.  6 :  72.  In 
the  parallel  list,  Josh.  21 :  28,  its  name 
is  Kishon. 

3.  A  fortified  city  belonging  to  the 
tribe  of  Naphtali ;  allotted  to  the  Ger- 
shonite Levites,  Josh.  20  :  7  ;  21 :  32  ;  1 
Chr.  6 :  76,  and  made  a  city  of  refuge. 
It  was  the  residence  of  Barak,  Jud.  4 : 
6,  and  here  Deborah  assembled  the 
tribes  of  Zebulun  and  Naphtali.  Jud.  4  : 
11.  It  was  taken  by  Tiglath-pileser  in 
the  reign  of  Pekah,  2  Kgs.  15  :  29,  and 
here  the  battle  took  place  between  Jona- 

494 


than  Maccabaeus  and  Demetrius.  1  Mace. 
11 :  63.  Now  it  is  a  small  village,  Kades, 
10  miles  north  of  Safed  and  4  miles 
north-west  of  Merom,  beautifully  situ- 
ated on  a  high  ridge  jutting  out  in  the 
depressed  basin  through  which  the  Jor- 
dan flows  to  the  Sea  of  Merom.  It  is 
surrounded  with  ruins  ;  numerous  sar- 
cophagi have  been  found  here. 

KE'DRON,  OR  KID'RON  {Mack 
brook,  from  a  Hebrew  root  signifying 
"  black,"  not  from  cedars,  cedar-brook), 
is  a  small  stream  dry  in  summer,  but 
growing  into  a  torrent  in  the  rainy  sea- 
son ;  rises  1^  miles  north-west  of  Jeru- 
salem ;  runs  in  a  south-eastern  direc- 
tion ;  strikes  the  north-eastern  corner 
of  the  wall  of  the  city ;  sweeps  through 
the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat  in  a  deep 
gorge  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  city, 
whose  wall  rises  100  feet  above  its  bot- 
tom, while  on  the  other  side  the  peak 
of  Mount  Olivet  rises  about  500  feet; 
breaks  through  a  still  narrower  cleft 
between  the  Hill  of  Offence  and  Moriah, 
and  continues  its  course  through  a  wild 
and  dismal  channel  through  the  wilder- 
ness of  Judah,  passing  by  the  curious  con- 
vent of  Mar  Saba,  until  it  reaches  the 
north-western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Its 
name  perhaps  refers  to  the  gloom  of  the 
valley,  or  perhaps  to  the  peculiar  nature 
of  impurity  connected  with  it.  Here 
Athaliah  was  executed,  2  Kgs.  11 :  16  ; 
here  Maachah's  idols  were  burnt,  1  Kgs. 
15:13;  2  Chr.  15:16;  and  hither  the 
impurities  and  abominations  of  idol- 
worship  were  regularly  carried  and  de- 
stroyed. 2  Chr.  29:16:  30:14;  2  Kgs. 
23  :  4,  6,  12.  In  the  time  of  Josiah  it 
became  the  common  burial-place  of  the 
city,  2  Kgs.  23 :  16,  and  so  it  is  to-day. 
The  two  events,  however,  connected  with 
it,  and  which  give  it  its  greatest  interest, 
are  David's  crossing  it  on  his  flight  from 
.lerusaleni  when  Absalom  rebelled,  2  Sam. 
15  :  23,  30,  and  Christ's  crossing  it  on  his 
way  to  Gethsemane.  John  18:1;  Mark  14 : 
26  ;  Luke  22  :  39.  As  Cfesar  crossed  the 
Rubicon  for  the  military  conquest  of  the 
world,  so  Christ  crossed  the  Kedron  for 
the  salvation  of  the  world. 

KEEP'ER,  used  for  a  shepherd,  a 
jailer,  an  armor-bearer,  a  captain  of  the 
body-guard,  keeper  of  the  wardrobe, 
chief  forester,  gate-  or  door-guard,  chief 
eunuch,  vineyard-guard,  sweeper  of  the 
temple,  and  sentinel.  Ps.  121  :  5. 


KEH 


KEY 


KEHEL'ATHAH  (assembli/),  one  ' 
of  the  encampment-places  of  the  Israel- 
ites during  their  wanderings  through  the 
desert.  Num.  33  :  22,  23. 

KEI'LAH  (fortrcsfi),  Si  city  in  the 
lowland  of  Judah,  near  the  Philistine 
frontier.  Josh.  15  :  44.  When  captured 
and  plundered  by  a  Philistine  invasion 
David  came  to  its  rescue,  but  the  inhab- 
itants treacherously  plotted  with  Saul  for 
his  betrayal.  1  Sam.  23  :  l-lo.  After  the 
Captivity  its  rulers  aided  in  restoring 
the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  Neh.  3  :  17,  18; 
now  K%la,  7  miles  east  of  Beit  Jibrlu. 

KELA'IAH  [sioift  messenger  of 
God),  one  of  the  Levites  who  returned 
with  Ezra;  married  a  woman  of  the 
land ;  helped  expound  the  Law ;  en- 
tered the  covenant  to  follow  the  Law, 
and  divorced  his  heathen  wife ;  called 
also  Kelita.  Ezr.  10  :  23  ;  Neh.  8 :  7 ;  10  : 
10. 

KEL'ITA  {dwarf).    See  Kelaiah. 

KEMU'ELi  {helper,  or  assembly  of 
God).  1.  The  third  son  of  Nahor  and 
Milcah,  and  father  of  Bethuel  and  five 
older  sons.  Gen.  22:21. 

2.  Son  of  Shiphtan,  and  prince  of 
Ephraim;  one  of  the  twelve  who  divi- 
ded Canaan.  Num.  34:  24. 

3.  A  prince  of  Levi.  1  Chr.  27  :  17. 
KE'NAN.     See  Cainan. 
KE'NATH    ( possession),  a  city  of 

Gilead,  in  the  tribe  of  Manasseh;  cap- 
tured by  Nobah,  Num.  32:42;  a  place 
of  splendor  and  importance  under  Rome; 
a  Christian  bishop's  see;  20  miles  from 
Bostra  ;  novi  cnWed  Kunawat. 

KE'NAZ  {a  hunt).  1.  A  grandson 
of  Esau,  and  prince  in  Edom,  Gen.  36  : 
11,  42;  founder  of  the  Kenezites.  Josh. 
14  :  14. 

2.  Brother  of  Caleb,  and  father  of 
Othniel.  Josh.  16  :  17. 

3.  Son  of  Elah,  son  of  Caleb.  1  Chr. 
4:15  (though   see  margin). 

KEN'EZITE  {hunter),  a  Canaan- 
itish  tribe  of  which  nothing  further  is 
known.  Gen.  15  :  19.  The  same  word 
in  Hebrew  as  Kenizzite. 

KEN'ITE  {smith),  a  tribe  of  Mid- 
ian,  between  Palestine  and  Sinai  and 
east  of  the  Gulf  of  Akabah.  Their  land 
was  promised  to  Abraham.  Gen.  15:19. 
Jethro,  Moses's  father-in-law,  was  a  Ke- 
nite.  Jud.  1:16.  They  were  mentioned 
in  Balaam's  prophecy.  Num.  24  :  21. 
Part  of  the  tribe  joined  Israel,  and  lived 


south  of  Judah.  Jud.  1:16.  One  fam- 
ily migrated  to  the  far  north.  There 
Heber  dwelt.  Jud.  4  :  11.  The  Kenites 
were  friendly  with  the  Canaanites,  Ama- 
lekites,  and  Israelites.  Saul  and  David 
spared  them  in  their  raids  on  Amalek 
on    account    of   their    former    kindness. 

1  Sam.  15  :  fi  :  27  :  10  ;  30  :  29.  A  fam- 
ily of  Kenites  came  of  Hemath,  father 
of  the  house  of  Bechab.   1  Chr.  2  :  55.    ^ 

KEN'IZZITE  {hunter),  a  tribe  of 
Canaan  in  Abraham's  time.  Gen.  15:  19. 
The  same  word  in  Hebrew  as  Kenezite. 

KER'CHIEFS  {spread  out),  an 
article  of  dress  or  ornament  like  a  veil 
or  scarf,  worn  on  the  head  by  the  idol- 
atrous women  of  Israel.  Eze.  13  :  18,  21. 

KER'EN-HAP'PUCH  {paint- 
horn).  Job's  third  daughter,  born  after 
his  restoration  to  prosperity.  Job  42  :  14. 

KE'RIOTH  {cities).  1.  A  town  in 
the  south  of  Judah,  Josh.  15  :  25 ;  per- 
haps from  whence  Iscariot,  "the  man 
of  Kerioth,"  came;  perhaps  Kureitein, 
or    Umm  Kheshram,  near  Beersheba. 

2.  A  strong  city  of  Moab.  Jer.  48  :  24, 
41  :  Am.  2  :  2. 

KERN'ELS  {acrid),  grape-seeds. 
Num.  6  :  4. 

KE'ROS  {curved),  one  of  the  Neth- 
inim,  whose  '^  children  "  came  back  with 
Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  2  :  44 ;  Neh.  7  :  47. 

KET'TLE  {boiling),  a  vessel  for 
cooking  or  sacrificial  purposes.  1  Sam. 

2  :  14.  The  same  word  is  translated 
"  basket,"  Jer.  24  :  2,  "  caldron,"  2  Chr. 
35  :  13,  and  "  pot,"  Job  41  :  20. 

KETU'RAH  {incense),  the  wife  of 
Abraham  after  Sarah's  death.  Gen.  25  : 1 ; 
1  Chr.  1 :  32.  She  was  the  mother  of  six 
sons. 

KEY  (Ileb.  the  opener,  Gr.  the  doner), 
an  instrument,  of  wood  or  metal,  for 
closing  or  opening  a  lock.  Jud.  3 :  25. 
They  were  sometimes  so  large  as  to  be 
carried  on  the  shoulder.  Isa.  22  :  22. 
When  so  borne  a  key  proclaimed  the 
bearer's  importance  and  declared  him 
to  be  an  officer. 


Egyptian  lion  Key. 


(From  Wilkinson.) 


The  key  is  an  emblem  of  office,  as  of 
a  treasurer,  Isa.  22  :  22 ;  of  authority  in 

495 


KEZ 


KIN 


the  Church  of  Christ,  Matt.  16:19;  an 
emblem  of  the  means  of  gaining  know- 
ledge of  divine  truth,  Luke  11 :  52  ;  of 
Christ's  authority  over  hell  and  death, 
Rev.  1:18,:  9:1-  20 : 1 ;  and  of  king- 
ship. Rev.  3 :  7. 

Assyrian  monuments  show  strong 
gates  fastened  by  bars,  and  by  locks 
opened  by  huge  keys  like  those  of  mod- 
ern Cairo.  In  ancient  as  in  modern 
times  the  transfer  of  government  was 
made  by  giving  and  taking  a  key.  The 
rabbins  represent  God  as  holding  the 
keys  of  various  operations  of  nature. 

KEZI'A  (cassia),  Job's  second 
daughter,  born  after  his  restoration 
to  prosperity.  Job  42  :  14. 

KE'ZIZ,  a  town  on  the  eastern 
border  of  Benjamin.   Josh.  18  :  21. 

K  IB'R  Ot  H  -HATTA'A  VAH 
(graves  of  lust),  one  of  the  stations  of 
Israel  on  their  wandering  through  the 
wilderness ;  situated  about  3  days'  jour- 
ney from  Sinai  and  15  miles  from  the 
Gulf  of  Akabah.  Here  it  was  that  a 
wind  from  the  Lord  brought  immense 
swarms  of  quails  down  upon  the  en- 
campment while  the  people  were  clamor- 
ing for  flesh-meat.  They  fed  on  them 
for  a  whole  month,  but  then  a  great 
plague  smote  them  and  many  of  them 
died.  Num.  11 :  31-35  ;  33  :  16,  17  ;  Deut. 
9  :  22.  Travellers  have  often  in  these 
regions  encountered  swarms  of  quails, 
flying  with  the  wind  and  so  low  that  two 
or  three  of  them  may  be  killed  by  one 
blow  of  a  stick,  and  at  Erweis  el-Ebei- 
rig,  near  Wady  el-Hiidherah  (Hazaroth) 
Israelite  remains  have  been  found. 

KIB'ZAIiH  (two  heaps),  a  city  be- 
longing to  Ephraim  and  assigned  to 
Kohathite  Levites,  Josh.  21 :  22.  In  1 
Chr,  6  :  68  it  is  called  Jokmeam,  which 
see.  It  has  been  identified  as  the  pres- 
ent Karah,  at  the  confluence  of  two 
streams  on  the  north-western  frontier  of 
Ephraim.   Comp.  Josh.  16  :  9  ;  17  :  9,  10. 

KID,  Jud.  14  :  6,  or  the  young  of 
the  goat,  was  among  the  luxuries  of 
the  ancients,  Gen.  38  :  17  ;  Jud.  6  :  19  ; 
1  Sam.  16  :  20,  and  is  now  esteemed 
a  great  delicacy  by  Eastern  nations. 
Kids  were  among  the  sacrificial  off"er- 
ings.  Num.  7:  11-87. 

KID'NEY  (longing?).      The  leaf-fat 
around  the  kidneys  of  sacrifices  was  to 
be  burned.   Ex.  29  :  13,  etc.     The  sup- 
posed seat  of  desire.     Job  19  :  27  (mar- 
496 


gin) ;   Ps.  7  :  9,  etc.     See  Reins.     Used 
also   for   kernels    of   wheat,  from   their 
shape  and  richness.    Deut.  32  :  14. 
KID'RON.     See  Kedron. 

KI'NAH  (lamentation,  dirge),  a  city 
in  the  southern  part  of  Judah,  near  the 
frontier  of  Edom.  Josh.  15  :  22. 

KIN'DRED,    in     the    0.    T.    the 

translation  of  the  terms  signifying — 
(1)  "clan,"  persons  belonging  to  a 
common  stock.  Gen.  12  :  1 ;  24 :  4,  7, 
38,  40,  41;  (2)  "birth,"  and  so  "off- 
spring," as  Gen.  31 :  3  ;  43  :  7 ;  Esth. 
8:6;  (3)  "' knowledge,"  one  known  by 
relationship,  Ruth  3:2;  (4)  "redemp- 
tion," from  the  duty  of  a  near  relation 
to  redeem,  Eze.  11:15;  comp.  Ruth  4: 
6;  (5)  "brother,"  1  Chron.  12  :  29 ;  (6) 
the  immediate  family.  Gen.  10  :  31. 

In  the  N.  T.  it  is  used  of  (1)  relatives 
by  birth,  Luke  1  :  61 ;  Acts  7  :  13;  (2) 
family  in  the  larger  sense.  Acts  4:6;  7 : 
13,19;  (3)  tribe.  Rev.  5:9;  14:6;  (4) 
descendants  in  a  direct  line.    Acts  3  :  25. 

In  the  same  way  are  used  "  kinsfolk," 
"  man,"  "  woman." 

KINE,  Gen.  41 :  2,  is  used  by  the  sa- 
cred writers  as  the  plural  of  cow.  The 
word  is  used  figuratively  by  the  prophet, 
concerning  the  Israelites  to  describe  the 
feebleness,  idleness,  and  luxury  which 
characterized  them.  They  were  like  the 
fatlings  of  Bashan,  feeding  carelessly  and 
securely  in  rich  pastures  only  to  prepare 
them  for  the  slaughter.  Eze.  39  :  18.  See 
Cow,  Herd. 

KING,  a  general  title  for  a  supreme 
ruler.     It  is  applied  to — 

1.  God,  as  "the  Eternal,  Immortal, 
Invisible,  the  Only  AVise."  1  Tim.  1:17. 
The  titles  and  attributes  of  earthly  roy- 
alty are  applied  to  God  because  much  of 
the  language  of  Scripture  was  formed  un- 
der the  monarchical  idea,  and  the  highest 
dignity  and  splendor  was  that  of  the  king. 

2.  Christ,  as  supreme  over  all  rulers, 
1  Tim.  6:15;  over  the  Jews.  Matt.  27  : 
11;   Luke  19:  38;  John  1:49. 

3.  To  human  rulers,  without  regard  to 
the  size  or  importance  of  their  dominions ; 
e.g.  sheiks  or  chiefs  of  Edom,  Gen.  36  : 
31  ;  Midian,  Num.  31  :  8 ;  Moab,  Num. 
23  :  7,  etc.  Rulers  in  single  towns,  as 
Melchizedek,  king  of  Salem.  Gen.  14  : 
18.  To  a  victor,  Num.  23  :  21  ;  to  a  per- 
son of  splendid  appearance,  Jud.  8  :  18; 
the  Roman  emperor,  1  Pet.  2  :  13;  the 
kings  of  Egypt,  Ex.  3  :  19 ;    Judah,  2 


KIN 


KIN 


drawing  their  power  and  receiving  their 
appointment  from  him.  1  Sam.  10:1; 
1  Chr.  28  :  4.  His  office  was  sacred,  2 
Sam,  1  :  14;  he  could  declare  war,  1 
:  7 ;  levy  taxes  and  demand 
service,  2  Kgs.  23  :  ;^5 ;  1 
he   was   the   court   of  justice 


Sam.  11 
personal 
Kffs.   5; 


of  the  last  resort,  2  Sam.  15  :  2 ;   held 


David, 
ceeding 


KINGS   OF   ISRAEL  BEFORE   THE  DIVISION. 


Saul     40  years. 


David 


Solomon 


Kingdom 
Judali . 

Rehoboam    17. 


Abijam  | 3. 

Asa   41. 


40. 


40. 


Jehoshaphat    25 


Jehoram  1 6. 
Ahaziah'-|_l. 
AthaliahJ  6. 
Joash   40. 


Ainaziah 


29. 


71. 


Divided  975  B.  C. 
Israel. 

22    Jeroboam. 


2  -3  Nadab. 
24    Baasha. 


2y^'''Zimri(7d'ys) 

4  I Tibiii  and  Omri. 

8  n  Omri. 
22  p  Ahab. 


2  [2  Ahaziah. 
12  I  Jehoram. 


28 


Jehu. 


17    Jehoahaz. 
16J  Jehoash. 
41    Jeroboam  II. 


OTHER    KING- 
DOMS. 


B.C. 

1095 


Hiram  of 
Tyre. 


1000 


Kgs.  8  :  16;  Persia,  Ezr.  4  ;  3,  etc.;  to 
the  tetrarch  Herod,  Matt.  14  :  9 ;  to  the 
people  of  God,  Rev.  1 :  0  ;  5  :  10 ;  see  also 
Dan.  7:22,  27;  Matt.  19:  27;  1  Cor.  6: 
2;  1  Pet.  2:9;  to  death,  Job  18  :  14;  to 
leviathan,  Job  41:  34;  to  the  devil.  Kev. 
9:11. 

The  name  was  given  in  Israel  first  to 
Saul,  then  to  David 
and    Solomon,    and  KINGS   OF   ISRAEL   AND   JUDAH. 

then    to    the    rulers  Showing  their  Order,  Relative  Length  of  Reigns,  Contemporary 
of  Israel  and  Judah  Kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  after  the  Division,  etc. 

until  the  Captivity. 
The  divine  plan  was 
that  God  alone  should 
be  King.  But  pro- 
vision was  made  for 
the  natural  desire  of 
the  people  for  a  king 
like  those  of  other 
nations.  D  e  u  t .  17  : 
14;  1  Sam.  8:9.  He 
was  to  be  a  native 
Israelite,  was  not  to 
multiply  horses,  nor 
take  the  people  back 
to  Egypt,  nor  gather 
a  harem,  nor  accu- 
mulate great  treas- 
ure; he  was  to  keep 
a  copy  of  the  Law 
by  him  and  study  it, 
to  fear  God,  be  obe- 
dient, humble,  and 
righteous. 

After  the  transi- 
tion period  of  the 
Judges,  Samuel,  the 
last  of  the  class, 
anointed  Saul,  1 
Sam.  9,  as  a  special 
military  leader  was 
needed  at  the  siege 
of  Jabesh-gilead.  1 
Sam.  11.  After  SauFs 
disobedience  and  re- 
jection, 1  Sam.  15, 
Samuel  anointed 
For  the  suc- 
dates,  etc., 
see  the  table  at  the 
side  and  articles  un- 
der the  names  of  the 
kings. 

The  kings  over  the 
Hebrews  were  re- 
garded as  the  repre- 
sentatives  of    God, 
32 


Rezon  of 
Syria. 

Shishak  of 
Egypt. 


Benhadadl. 
of  Syria. 


Beiihadad  II. 
of  Syria. 

Hazael  of 
Syria. 


Carthage 
founded. 


Benhadad  III, 
of  Syria. 


900 


800 


497 


KIN 


KIN 


KINGS    OF    ISRAEL    AND    JUDAH.— Continded. 


KINGS  OF   ISRAEL  BEFORE   THE  DIVISION. 


Uzziah 

or 
Azariab 


52. 


OTHER    KING- 
DOMS. 


Jotham 


16. 


Ahaz   16 


irn  [Anarchy.] 
jJ  Zachariah  (6  mos.) 
I— I  Shallum  (1  mo.). 

10  I  Menaheni. 
2  CI  Pekahiah. 

20     Pekah. 

9  r[Auarchy.] 
91  Hoshea. 


Hezekiab 


29. 


Samaria  taken.  £nd  king- 
dom of  Israel.  721  B.  C. 


Manasseh 


55. 


Anion  [~2. 


Josiah 


31. 


Jehoahaz  ciS  ni. 
..Jehoiakim  1 11... 


Jerusalem  taken  605. 


PulofNineveh. 


Tiglath-Pile- 

ser  of  Assy- 
ria. 


Rezin  of  Syria. 


Shalmanezer 
and  Sargon 
of  Assyria. 

Sennacherib 
of  Assyria. 

Esar-Haddon 
of  Babylon. 


B.C. 


800 


Nebuchadnez 
zar  of  Baby- 
lon. 


700 


Jeboiachin  (^3  ni. 
Zedekiah  111. 


Jerusalem  destroyed  588. 


Babylonian  Captivity.    End  of  kingdom  of 
Juda/i. 


600 


The  king  could  ap- 
point his  own  succes- 
sor, 1  Kgs.  1:30;  2 
Chr.  11 :  21,  and  gen- 
erally chose  the  first- 
born. Anointing 
with  sacred  oil  was 
the  main  feature  of 
the  ceremony  of  in- 
auguration. 1  Sam. 
10:  1;  2  Sam.  2:4. 

Some  of  the  officers 
of  the  court  were,  (1) 
the  recorder,  2  Sam. 
8  :  16:  (2)  scribe,  2 
Sam.  8:17:  (3)  chief 
steward  or  treas- 
urer, Isa.  22:15;  (4) 
"king's  friend,"  1 
Kgs.  4:5;  (5)  keep- 
er of  the  wardrobe,  2 
Kgs.  22: 14;  (6)  cap- 
tain of  the  body- 
guard,  2  Sam.  20: 
23 ;  (7)  commander- 
in-chief,  I  Chr.  27  : 
34;  (8)  royal  coun- 
sellor, 1  Chr.  27  :  32  ; 
(9)  officers  over  store- 
houses, trees,  vine- 
yards, cattle,  and 
laborers.  1  Chr.  27: 
25.  The  king's  rev- 
enues were  from 
crown-lands,  flocks, 
tithes,  tributes,  cus- 
toms, presents,  trad- 
ing, spoils  of  war, 
and  enforced  labor.  1 
Sam.  8:  1  Kgs.  20; 
2  Chr.  27.  During 
life    they   were    sur- 


DiAGRAM  OF  THE   KiNGS. — The  design  of  the  foregoing  table  of  the 
kings  of  Israel  and  Judali  is  to  represent  to  the  eye  the  order  in  wliich 
the  kings  reigned,  and  the  dates  and  relative  duration  of  their  reigns. 
The  period  of  Jewish  history  covered  by  the  table  is  from  b.  c.  1095  to  rounded   with    splen- 
B.  c.  586,  or  about  509  years.  _  1  i    «,;(,„<,    of 

Where  the  reigns  were  very  short  (as  one  month  or  six  months),  it  was  ^i"'  auu  .  j,  ii  o  ui 
necessary  to  make  the  "  lines  "  or  "steps  "  representing  </ieir  reigns  some-  honor  :  after  death 
what  out  of  the  exact  proportion.  Frequently  jsaris  of  years  are  counted  j.j^gy  ^ygj-e  buried  in 
in  round  numbers  as  if  full  ye&is.     For  example,  Nadab's  reign  is  given         •  p+Arir 

as  "2  years,"  though  it  was  not  probably  two  full  years,  but  only  parts  tne^  royal    cemeiery. 
of  them.     This  will  explain  several  of  the  figures  given.     Jehoshapliat  1  Kgs.  2:10. 
associated  Jehoiain  with  him  during  the  last  two  years  of  his  reign,  so       "UT  T  IV  Cil  'D  O  M  • 
Jehoshaphat's  '*  25  years  "  and  Jehoram's  "  6  years  "  overlap  each  other.  ',  •        i        >« 

^  ^  J  t-  The  term ''kingdom" 


the  power  of  life  and  death,  2  Sam. 
14 ;  had  some  charge  of  the  public 
worship.  1  Kgs.  8;  2  Kgs.  23.  The 
Hebrew  monarchv  was  in  a  sense  lim- 
ited, 1  Sam.  10  :'25;  1  Kgs.  12  :  4 ;  2 
Kgs.  11  :  17,  checks  being  furnished 
by  the  Mosaic  law  and  the  protests  of 
prophets  and  people. 
498 


is  applied  to  the  territory  ruled  by  a  king, 
Num.  32  :  33 ;  to  the  right  to  be  a  king, 
2  Sam.  3  :  10,  or  to  have  power,  Esth. 
4:14;  to  a  country,  without  reference  to 
the  form  of  government,  1  Kgs.  10  :  20; 
to  supreme  power,  Dan.  7  :  14;  to  the 
priests,  Ex.  19  :  6 ;  to  the  government 
of  God  the  Father  among  men,  Dan.  4  : 


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17  ;  to  the  rule  of  the  saints,  Dan.  7:18; 
to  Christ's  rule  on  earth.  1  Cor.  15  :  24, 
and  God's  universal  dominion,  2  Chr. 
29  :  11  ;  Ps.  22  :  28;  to  the  state  of 
salvation,  Col.  1  :  13;  to  heaven.  2  Pet. 
1 :  1 1  :  to  the  rule  of  Patau.  Matt.  12  :  26. 

KINGDOM  OF  GOD,  OF 
CHRIST,  OF  HEAVEN.  When- 
ever the  last  phrase,  drawn,  probably, 
from  Daniel,  is  used  in  the  N.  T.,  the 
word  "  heavens  "  is  in  the  plural.  These 
terms  are  nearly,  if  not  exactly,  synon- 
ymous, though  emphasis  may  be  laid  at 
different  times  on  different  character- 
istics or  points  of  time.  Such  emphasis 
is  laid  on,  (1)  a  life  of  righteous  alle- 
giance to  Christ,  entered  by  faith,  lived 
by  love,  and  crowned  with  glory.  Matt. 
6  :  33,  etc. ;  (2)  the  condition  of  things 
Christ  came  to  explain,  Luke  1:13; 
Acts  1  :  3,  and  to  bring  on  earth.  Matt. 
4:17;  (3)  Christ's  rule  over  Israel,  Matt. 
21  :  13;  (4)  the  rule  that  God  offered  or 
committed  to  Israel,  Matt.  21 :  43  ;  1  Chr. 
17  :  14;  (5)  the  state  of  things  in  the 
history  of  the  Church  during  the  con- 
flict on  earth  pf  the  so-called  kingdom 
of  grace,  preparatory  to  the  kingdom 
of  glory.  Matt.  13;  (6)  Christ's  rule  in 
spiritual  and  eternal  righteousness  over 
the  redeemed  earth,  Rev.  12  :  10,  in  con- 
trast with  the  world-powers,  Dan.  7:18; 
then  the  kingdom  will  destroy  and  take 
the  place  of  the  four  monarchies,  Dan. 
7,  and  have  its  glorious  manifestation  ; 
(7)  the  visible  glory  of  Christ,  Matt.  16  : 
28;  (8)  the  rule  of  God  the  Father  over 
earth  and  heaven,  Matt.  6  :  10 ;  (9)  the 
heavenly  state.  Matt.  8:11. 

The  kingdom  of  God  is  perfectly  es- 
tablished in  the  heavens.  Matt.  6  :  10. 
The  power  and  glory  of  the  divine  king- 
dom are  shown  in  a  measure  in  creation 
and  providence.  From  the  moral  king- 
dom the  earth  has  revolted.  God  re-es- 
tablished it  in  Israel,  taking  the  king- 
ship himself.  Ex.  19  :  6  ;  Hos.  13  :  10. 
He  made  the  kingship  visible  in  David, 
1  Sam.  16,  and  permanent  in  his  fam- 
ily. Ps.  89  :  20,  28,  36.  The  kingdom 
ceased  as  a  visible  power,  with  the  loss 
of  its  inner  spirit,  when  the  nation  lapsed 
and  persisted  in  idolatry.  The  prophets 
foretold  its  restoration,  Dan.  2:7:  Ps.  2  ; 
Isa.  2  ;  Mic.  4 ;  Jer.  23  :  5  ;  Eze.  34  :  23  ; 
John  the  Baptist  came  to  announce  it. 
Matt.  3  :  2.  Jesus  Christ  preached  it. 
Matt.   4:  17;   explained   its   character 


and  demands,  as,  for  instance,  that  its 
citizens  must  be  holy,  meek.  Christlike, 
etc..  that  when  established  it  will  be  a 
condition  of  peace,  purity,  and  glory, 
Matt.  25  :  34 ;  Mark  9  :  47  ;  Acts  14  :  22  ; 
Christ  came  as  the  King  to  .lerusalem, 
Luke  19  :  38;  comp.  1  :  32,  but  was  re- 
jected, and  took  the  kingdom  from  Is- 
rael. Matt  21  :  43.  He  taught  its  mys- 
teries to  the  disciples,  especially  after 
his  resurrection.  Acts  1:3:  and  sent 
them  forth  to  ])reach  it.  He  declared 
that  the  time  of  its  manifestation  was 
known  only  to  the  Father.  Acts  1  :  7. 
He  laid  the  foundations  of  it  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost  by  the  outpouring  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  and  rules  it  from  his  throne 
in  heaven.  The  disciples  went  every- 
where preaching  the  word  of  grace,  1 
Thess.  2  :  12,  and  persuading  men  to  en- 
ter the  kingdom  by  faith  and  holi- 
ness. Acts  8:12;  20  :  25  ;  28  :  23.  The 
kingdom  is  to  be  fully  manifested 
at  the  coming  of  Christ,  the  Son  of 
man.  2  Tim.  4  :  1  ;  Dan.  7:13;  Matt. 
13  :  43  ;  Luke  22  :  29. 

At  "the  end"  Christ  is  to  deliver  up 
to  the  Father  the  mediatorial  kingdom 
that  he  received  at  his  ascension,  Eph. 
1  :  20,  after  having  reigned  and  put 
down  all  rule,  authority,  and  power, 
and  all  enemies  under  his  feet,  1  Cor. 
15  :  24 ;  and  the  kingdom  of  God,  with- 
out distinction  of  persons,  shall  be  com- 
plete and  for  ever.  Heb.  1  :  8. 

The  Church  is  not  the  kingdom,  though 
in  some  respects  like  it  and  preparatory 
to  its  full  manifestation  as  a  training- 
school  of  saints.  The  members  of  the 
''invisible  Church"  are  citizens  of  the 
kingdom  of  heaven. 

The  kingdom  of  God  is  the  greatest 
of  all  institutions.  Its  King  is  God  as 
(1)  the  universal  Ruler:  or  as  (2)  the 
covenant  God  of  a  single  nation  called 
to  keep  alive  the  thought  and  fact  of  a 
divine  kingdom  ;  or  as  (3)  the  Mediator, 
Christ,  redeeming  and  recognizing  the 
revolted  world,  making  manifest  the 
kingdom  of  grace  and  power — the  first 
mainly  to  his  friends,  the  latter  to  his 
enemies;  or  as  (4)  the  victorious  Son 
of  man,  Emperor  of  the  ransomed 
earth;  or  as  (5)  God  in  the  consum- 
mated kingdom  of  the  heavens.  The 
Holy  Spirit  explains  and  enforces  the 
constitution  of  the  kingdom,  and  en- 
lightens,  persuades,    and   enables   men 

499 


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to  enter  it.  The  Bible  is  the  history 
and  prophecy  of  the  kingdom.  Citi- 
zenship begins  Avith  faith,  its  loyalty  is 
love,  its  life  is  devotion  to  Christ  and 
those  who  are  Christ's.  It  is  opposed 
by  the  chaotic  kingdom  of  sin,  dark- 
ness, and  Satan.  In  a  world  as  yet  un- 
redeemed the  power  of  the  kingdom  is 
but  dimly  seen,  but  when  all  men  are 
citizens,  and  Christ  is  manifest,  and 
righteousness  shall  cover  the  earth,  the 
kingdom  shall  be  seen  in  its  glory. 
The  law  of  God  is  the  common  law  of 
the  kingdom;  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount 
is  its  magna  charta;  the  Gospels  are  its 
books  of  the  King.  The  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  shows  the  manner  and  method 
of  those  who  used  the  Church  and  its 
powers  to  gather  from  a  godless  world 
those  who  were  to  be  manifest  in  the 
revealed  kingdom ;  the  Epistles  are 
the  constitutional  expositions,  and  the 
Apocalypse  the  prophetic  history,  of 
the  triumphs,  glory,  and  everlasting 
peace  of  the  kingdom. 

KINGDOM  OF  IS'RAEL.  See 
Israel. 

KINGDOM  OF  JU'DAH.     See 

JUDAH. 

KING'S  POOL,  Neh.  2  :  14,  per- 
haps the  same  as  the  Solomon's  pool  of 
Josephus.     See  Siloam. 

KINGS,  THE  BOOKS  OF.   In 

the  Hebrew  canon  they  formed  one  book. 
They  follow  the  books  of  Samuel,  which 
are  also  called  books  of  the  Kings.  In- 
deed, the  whole  story,  from  the  begin- 
ning of  Judges  to  the  end  of  Kings,  runs 
on  as  one  unbroken  narrative.  First 
Kings  takes  up  the  Hebrew  history  at 
the  time  when  David  was  old  and 
stricken  in  years,  b.  c.  1015;  Second 
Kings  ends  with  the  beginning  of 
the  captivity  of  .Judah  in  Babylon, 
B.  c.  586,  and  the  burning  of  the  tem- 
ple, though  notice  is  made  of  the  liber- 
ation and  death  of  Jehoiachin  more  than 
26  years  later.  The  two  books  deal  espe- 
cially with  the  theocratic  promise  of  2 
Sam.  7  :  12;  see  1  Kgs.  14  :  7-11  ;  15  : 
29 ;  16  :  1-7 — the  promise  that  God  so 
faithfully  kept,  and  that  points  for- 
ward to  Christ,  King  and  Conqueror 
like  David,  Prince  of  peace,  Builder 
of  the  temple  of  God,  and  enduring 
King — and  treat  the  history  from  the 
kingly  side,  and  show  the  evil  of 
schism  and  the  worship  of  idols  set 
500 


up  for  political  reasons,  as  by  Solo- 
mon, 1  Kgs.  11,  and  Jeroboam,  1 
Kgs.  12  :  26.  Great  stress  is  laid  on 
the  sin  of  idolatry  as  the  breaking  of 
the  covenant  with  Jehovah  that  made 
Israel  a  peculiar  people.  The  reign 
of  Solomon  is  described,  with  a  minute 
account  of  the  glorious  temple  and  the 
royal  houses.  The  story  of  the  revolt 
of  the  larger  and  more  populous  part 
of  the  land  to  form  the  kingdom  of 
Israel  comes  next,  and  we  are  given 
exact  knowledge,  though  in  few  words, 
of  the  idolatry  of  the  northern  king- 
dom, of  the  work  of  the  great  prophets 
among  them — one  of  the  most  important 
parts  of  the  history — of  the  frequent 
changes  of  dynasty,  no  less  than  7,  which 
furnished  19  kings,  every  one  evil,  dur- 
ing the  253  years  of  its  existence.  Cap- 
tivity of  the  best  of  the  land  closed  the 
history  of  this  kingdom. 

The  same  books  also  show  that  David's 
royal  house  continued  unbroken  through 
a  series  of  19  kings,  reigning  in  Jerusa- 
lem about  130  years  longer,  till  Judah 
was  punished  for  its  Idolatry.  The 
wars  of  the  rival  kingdoms  are  de- 
scribed, and  the  disastrous  results  to 
each  of  calling  in  foreign  help — results 
seen  first  in  yielding  to  idolatry,  and 
then  in  the  uprooting  of  both  peoples. 
The  prosperity  of  a  number  of  the  pious 
kings  of  Judah  is  contrasted  with  the 
calamities  visited  on  the  wicked  rulers 
of  Israel.  The  history  shows  the  way 
by  which  God  had  led  his  people  from 
the  time  of  their  highest  prosperity  to 
the  deepest  fall,  and  that  the  only  way 
up  to  the  light  of  divine  covenant  favor 
is  by  the  path  of  repentance.  The  books 
touch,  of  course,  the  history  of  neighbor- 
ing nations,  and  the  latest  discoveries  in 
ancient  history  are  strikingly  in  agree- 
ment with  the  inspired  record. 

The  author  cannot  be  identified.  An- 
cient tradition  in  the  Talmud  names  .Jere- 
miah; some  have  supposed  them  com- 
piled by  Ezra  or  Baruch.  The  books, 
which  were  originally  one,  have  a  very 
marked  unity  of  design,  plan,  and  style, 
and  were  first  divided  in  the  Septuagint. 
They  are  in  large  measure  a  compilation 
from  existing  documents.  They  have 
always  had  a  place  in  the  Jewish 
canon.  The  concise  narrative  is  illus- 
trated, enlarged,  and  confirmed  by  the 
books  of  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah.      This 


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KIS 


history  is  referred  to  in  the  N.  T., 
Luke  4:25;  Acts  7  :  47  ;  Rom.  11  :  2  ; 
Jas.  5:17,  and  modern  research  is 
continually  bringing  new  evidence  to 
the  truth  of  the  history. 

The  style  is  quiet  and  simple  in  the 
main,  though  showing  great  vigor  in 
the  record  of  stirring  events,  and 
breaking  forth  occasionally  into  true 
poetic  fervor. 

KINS'l  OLK-MAIV,  WOMAN. 
See  Kindred. 

KIK  {wall,  or  place  surrounded  with 
walls),  the  city  from  which  the  Syrians 
emigrated  when  they  came  to  settle  in 
the  region  north  of  Palestine,  and  to 
which  Tiglath-pileser  sent  the  captive 
Syrians  after  the  conquest  of  Damas- 
cus. 2  Kgs.  16  :  9 :  Am.  1:5;  9:7. 
About  the  location  of  this  city  scholars 
disagree,  some  placing  it  in  Armenia, 
on  the  river  Kar,  others  identifying  it 
with  Carena,  or  Carna,  in  Media. 

KIR-HAR'ASETH  {hr!cl--fort- 
ress),  2  Kgs.  3  :  25,  or  KIR-HAR'E- 
SETH,  Isa.  16  :  7,  or  KIR-HA - 
RESH,  Isa.  16  :  11,  or  KIR- 
HERES,  Jer.  48  :  31,  30,  or  simply 
KIR  OF  MOAB,  Isa.  15  :  1,  a 
strong  fortress  in  Moab,  situated  near 
the  south-eastern  shore  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  It  is  now  called  Kerak,  and  was 
in  the  time  of  the  crusaders  a  place 
of  great  strength,   almost  impregnable. 

KIRIATHA'IM  {double  city), 
Jer.  48  :  1,  23;  Eze.  26  :  9,  or  KIR- 
JATHA'IM,  Num.  32  :  37 ;  Josh. 
13  :  19,  a  fortified  town  east  of  the 
Jordan  belonging  to  the  tribe  of 
Reuben,  but  afterward  occupied  by  the 
Moabites. 

KIR'IOTH,   Am.  2  :  2.     See  Ke- 

RIOTH. 

KIR'JATH  (city),  a  city  belonging 
to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  Josh.  18  :  28, 
and  probably  identical  with  Kirjath- 
iearim  ;  perhaps  Kuryet  el  Enab,  7  miles 
north-west  of  Jerusalem. 

KIRJATHA  IM.      See    Kiriath- 

AIM. 

KIR'JATH-AR'BA  [the  city  of 
Arha,  Arba  being  its  founder,  or  the 
city  of  four,  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob, 
and  Adam  having  been  buried  there) 
is  mentioned  Gen.  23  :  2;  35  :  27;  Josh. 
14:15;  15:13,  54;  20:7;  21:11;  Jud. 
1  :  10;  Neh.  11  :  25.  See  Hebrox  and 
Mamre. 


KIR'JATH-A'RIM,  Ezr.  2  :  25. 
See  Kirjath-jearim. 

KIR'JATH-BA'AL  {the  city  of 
Baal).  Josh.  15:60;  18:14.  Identical 
with  Kirjath-jearim. 

KIR'JATH-IIU'ZOTH  {the  city 
of  streets),  a  city  in  Moab.  Num.  22  : 
39. 

KIR'JATH-JE'ARIM  {the  city 
of  woods),  one  of  the  four  cities  of  the 
Gibeonites,  Josh.  9:17,  situated  on  the 
border  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  Josh. 
16:9;  18:14,  15,  but  belonging  to 
Judah,  Josh.  15:00;  Jud.  18:12;  was 
also  called  Baalah,  Josh.  15:9,  10,  or 
Baale  of  Judah,  2  Sam.  6  :  2,  or  Kirjath- 
baal.  Hither  the  ark  was  brought  from 
Beth-shemesh,  1  Sam.  6:21;  7:1,  2, 
and  here  it  remained  until  it  was  re- 
moved by  David.  1  Chr.  13  :  5 ;  2  Chr. 
1  : 4,  The  prophet  Urijah,  who  was 
put  to  death  by  Jehoiakim,  Jer.  26  : 
20,  was  born  here,  and  after  the  Cap- 
tivity the  people  of  the  city  returned  in 
numbers  to  it.  Neh.  7  :  29.  Perhaps 
Kuryet  el  Enab,  but  the  Pal.  Memoirs 
suggest  Erma,  4 miles  east  of  'Ain  Shems, 
as  its  site 

KIR'JATH-SAN'NAH  ^  (joa/m- 
city),  mentioned  in  Josh.  15  :  49,  and 
identical  with  Debir  (which  see)  and 
Kirjath-sepher ;  now  Dhdherti/eh. 

KIR'JATH-SE'PHER  {city  of 
books),  mentioned  in  Josh.  15  :  15  and 
Jud.  1  :  11,  same  as  Debir  and  Kirjath- 
sannah  ;  now  Dhdheriyeh. 

KIR    OF   MOAB.     See  Kir-ha- 

RASETH. 

KISH  (a  how).  1.  A  Levite, 
grandson  of  Merari.  1  Chr.  23  :  21  ; 
24  :  29. 

2.  A  Benjamite.  1  Chr.  8  :  30  :  9  :  36. 

3.  Father  of  King  Saul,  of  the  fam- 
ily of  Matri,  son  of  Ner.  1  Sam.  9:1. 
3 ;  10  :  11,  21  :  14  :  51  ;  2  Sam.  21  :  14  : 
1  Chr.  8  :  33  ;  9  :  39 ;  12  :  1  ;  26  :  28. 

4.  A  Levite.  2  Chr.  29  :  12. 

5.  A  Benjamite  and  ancestor  of  Mor- 
decai.  Esth.  2:5.  In  Acts  13  :  21  he  is 
called  Cis. 

KISH'I  {boio  of  Jehovah),  a  Levite 
of  the  family  of  Merari,  1  Chr.  6  :  44  ; 
called  Kushaiah,  margin,  15  :  17. 

KISH'ION  {hardness).  Josh.  19  : 
20,  OR  KI'SHON,  Josh.  21  :  28,  a  city 
belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  and 
assigned  to  the  Gershonite  Levites. 

KI'SHON  {bending,  curved),  or  in 

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KIT 


one    place,    Ps.    83  :  9,   KISON,    the 

present  Nahr  Mukutta,  a  river  which 
drains  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  passes 
through  the  plain  of  Acre,  and  falls 
into  the  Mediterranean.  Only  the 
lower  part  of  it  is  perennial,  fed  by 
some  springs  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Carmel.  The  upper  part,  rising  on 
Tabor  and  Little  Hermon,  is  dry  in 
the  summer,  but  becomes  a  torrent  in 
the  winter,  rushing  along  with  great 
impetuosity  and  transforming  parts  of 
the  plains  it  traverses  into  swamps. 
The  total  defeat  of  Sisera,  Jud.  4:7,- 
5  :  21,  and  the  executions  of  the  idol- 
priests  by  Elijah,  1  Kgs.  18  :  40,  took 
place  on  the  shores  of  this  river. 

KISS,  a  salutation  of  respect  and 
affection  used  in  most  nations  and  from 
the  earliest  times.  It  was  an  established 
custom  in  Jacob's  day.  It  is  especially 
common  in  the  East.  It  is  spoken  of 
between  parents  and  children.  Gen.  27  : 
26  :  31 :  28,  55  ;  48  :  10  ;  50  :  1 ;  Ex.  18  : 
7;  Ruth  1:9,  14;  2  Sam.  14: 
33;  1  Kgs.  19:20;  Luke  15 : 
20  ;  between  male  relatives  or 
friends.  Gen.  29:13;  33:4; 
45  :  15;  Ex.  4:  27;  1  Sam. 
20  :  41  ;  between  persons  of 
equal  rank,  given  sometimes 
honestly,  sometimes  deceit- 
fully. 2  Sam.  20  :  9  ;  Ps.  85  : 
10;  Prov.  27:6;  Luke  7  :  45  ; 
22:48;  Acts  20:37.  It  was 
.used  as  a  mark  of  conde- 
scension, 2  Sam.  15:5;  19: 
39;  of  respect,  Luke  7  :  38, 
46;  1  Sam.  10:1;  of  recon- 
ciliation, Gen.  33:4;  2  Sam. 
14  :  33  :  of  leavetaking.  Gen. 
31  :  55  ;  Ruth  1  :  14  ;  Acts 
20  :  37 ;  of  homage,  Ps.  2  : 
12;  as  an  act  symbolical  of 
Christian  love  and  brother- 
hood. Rom.  16  :  16;  1  Cor. 
16  :  20;  2  Cor.  13  :  12 ;  1 
Thess.  5  :  26;  1  Pet.  5  :  14. 
Kissing  the  lips  was  a  token 
of  love ;  on  the  cheek  or  fore- 
head or  beard,  a  kiss  was  a 
sign  of  respect  or  a  salute; 
on  the  hands  or  feet,  of  sub- 
mission or  inferiority,  Luke 
7:  45.  Sometimes  the  writing 
of  the  king  was  received  with  a  kiss, 
and  even  the  ground  was  kissed  where 
the  superior  had  stepped.  Ps.  72:9; 
502 


Isa.  49  :  23.  Respect  or  adoration  of 
idols  was  shown  by  kissing  the  image 
or  the  hand  toward  the  image.  1  Kgs. 
19:18;   Hos.  13:2. 

In  the  Christian  Church  the  kiss  of 
peace  or  holy  kiss  accompanied  social 
worship  during  and  long  after  apostolic 
days.  The  Greek  and  Russian  Catho- 
lics kiss  sacred  images. 

The  Hebrew  word  is  translated 
"ruled,"  Gen.  41  :  40  ;  "armed,"  1  Chr. 
12:2;  2  Chr.  17:17  and  Ps.  78:9; 
"touched."  Eze.  3  :  13.  The  Greek 
word  translated  "kiss"  in  Matt.  26: 
48,  and  the  parallel  passages,  Mark  14 : 
44  and  Luke  22  :  48,  is  translated  "  love  " 
in  all  other  places. 

This  extreme  sign  of  affection  and 
most  familiar  act  has  been  used  con- 
stantly in  worship.  The  character  of 
the  act  and  its  association  gave  a  pecu- 
liar aggravation  to  the  kiss  with  which 
the  traitor  saluted  our  Lord. 

KITE,    Lev.   11  :  14,   a    rapacious 


Kite.    (Milvus  regalis.    After  Tristram.) 

bird  (Milvus  regalis)  of  the  hawk  fam- 
ily, mentioned  as  unclean  by  the  cere- 
monial law.     The  common  kite  breeds 


KIT 


KOPI 


in  Northern  Palestine,  and  in  winter  is 
common  in  other  districts.  There  is 
reference  to  this  bird  in  Job  28  :  7, 
under  the  rendering  Vultuuk,  which 
see.  The  kite  is  said  to  have  a  vision 
remarkably  keen,  even  for  a  bird  of 
prey. 

KITH'LISH,  a  town  in  the  low- 
land of  Judah.  Josh.  15  :  40. 

KIT'RON  {knottii),  a  town  belong- 
ing to  the  tribe  of  Zebulun,  but  from 
which  the  Canaanites  were  not  expelled, 
Jud.  1:30. 

KIT'TIM.  Gen.  10  :  4 ;  1  Chr.  1 :  7. 
See  Chittim. 

KNEADING-TROUGHS.  See 
Bread. 

KNEE.  Besides  the  literal  use  of 
the  word,  it  is  used  figuratively.  Tak- 
ing children  on  the  knees  is  adopting 
them.  Gen.  30  :  3  ;  50  :  23.  The  knees 
were  the  seat  of  strength.  Deut.  28  :  35; 
Job  4:  4 ;  Isa.  35  :  3 ;  Nah.  2:10;  Heb. 
12  :  12.  The  head  was  put  between 
the  knees  in  abject  supplication.  1  Kgs. 
18  :  42. 

Bending  the  knee  is  the  simplest  and 
most  striking  Avay  of  making  or  declar- 
ing one's  self  inferior  to  another,  and 
thus  it  came  to  be  used  in  prayer,  wor- 
ship, or  humiliation.  2  Kgs.  1:13;  Isa. 
45  :  23  ;  Dan.  6  :  10,  11 ;  Luke  22  :  41 ; 
Rom.  11:4:  Eph.  3:14;  Phil.  2:10; 
Acts  9  :  40 ;  20  :  36. 

The  common  Hebrew  word  for  bless- 
ing is  a  form  of  the  word  translated 
"knee,"  and  it  is  used  for  invoking 
God  to  bless,  Gen.  28  :  6 ;  Josh.  24  :  10; 
for  invoking  God  for  his  blessing,  Gen. 
12  :  3  ;  18  :  18  ;  for  celebrating,  praising, 
and  adoring  God,  2  Chr.  6  :  13 ;  Dan.  6  : 
11 ;  for  invoking  blessings  on  others  in 
the  name  of  God.  Ps.  129  :  8  ;  Gen.  48  : 
9;  for  God  blessing  his  creatures.  Gen. 
1:22;  for  emphatic  greetings  among 
men.  1  Sam.  15  :  13  :  for  invoking  evil. 
1  Kgs.  21  :10;  Job  31  :  30. 

KNIFE  (Heb.  the  waster),  instru- 
ment for  eating,  separator  (once,  Prov. 
23  :  2),  that  whif  h  glides  through  (once, 
Ezr.  1:9),  an  instrument  of  stone,  Ex. 
4  :  25,  margin  ;  bone,  copper,  or  bronze, 
afterward  of  iron  ;  seldom  used  at  meals, 
but  necessary  in  killing  and  preparing 
animals  for  food  or  sacrifice.  Lev.  7 :  33, 
34 ;  8  :  15,  20,  25  ;  Ezr.  1  :  9.  They  were 
used  for  sharpening  ])ens.  Jer.  36  :  23. 
The  razor  was  used  for  Nazarite  pur- 


poses. Num.  6:5,  9,  19 ;  Eze.  5  :  1. 
Curved  knives  were  used  for  pruning- 
hooks.  Isa.  18  :  5.  The  lancets  of  the 
priests  of  Baal  were  probably  pointed 
knives.  1  Kgs.  18  :  28. 

The  word  for  "knife"  ("waster")  is 
usually  translated  "  sword,"  sometimes 
"tool,"  Ex.  20  :  25,  "dagger,"  Jud.  3  : 

16,  "mattock,"  2  Chr.  34:6  (margin 
"  mauls  "),  and  "  axes."  Eze.  26  :  9.  Of 
the  cruel  avarice  of  the  wicked,  Prov. 
30  :  14  says,  "  Their  jaw-teeth  are  as 
knives  to  devour  the  poor." 

KNOCK,  a  summons  to  open  the 
door,  Jud.  19  :  22 ;  Cant.  5:2;  Acts  12  : 
13  ;  used  as  a  sign  of  importunity.  Matt. 
7  :  7,  8  ;  Luke  13  :  25,  and  of  the  signs  of 
the  coming  of  Christ.  Luke  12  :  36  ;  Rev. 
3  :  20.  Oriental  customs  require  knock- 
ing or  calling  at  the  outer  door  or  gate, 
but  not  at  the  doors  of  rooms.  Cred- 
itors were  required  by  Moses  to  stand 
without  and  call.  Deut.  24  :  10,  11. 

KNOP.  Two  Hebrew  words  are 
thus   rendered.     One,   Ex.  25  :  31 ;   37  : 

17,  from  the  connection,  probably  de- 
notes an  imitation  of  the  fruit  of  the 
almond  used  in  the  ornamental  work  of 
the  sacred  candlestick;  translated  "lin- 
tel," margin  "chapiter"  or  "  knop." 
Am.  9:1;  Zeph.  2:14.  The  other 
describes  carvings  upon  the  cedar  wain- 
scot within  the  temple,  and  castings 
upon  the  brim  of  the  brazen  sea.  1  Kgs. 
6:18;  7  :  24.  There  is  reason  to  think 
that  these  knops  were  representations 
of  the  beautiful  fruit  of  the  colocynth. 
See  Gourd,  AVild. 

KNOWLEDGE  OF  GOOD 
AND  EVIL,  TREE  OF,  a  tree 
placed  in  Eden,  the  fruit  of  which  man 
was  not  to  eat  or  touch  under  penalty 
of  death.  It  became  the  instrument  of 
his  temptation.  Gen.  2  :  9,  17  ;  3:3. 

KO'A  (he-camel),  probably  a  prince 
or  leader,  possibly  a  city  of  Babylonia ; 
one  of  the  enemies  of  Jerusalem.  Ezr. 
23  :  23. 

KO'HATH  [assemhly),  second  son 
of  Levi;  ancestor  of  the  great  Kohath- 
ite  family  of  the  priests.  He  lived  133 
years.  Gen.  46  :  11;  Ex.  6  :  16,  18; 
Num.  3  :  17,  27  ;  26  :  57,  58;  Josh.  21 : 
5,  20.  26:    ]  Chr.  6:1. 

KO'HATHITE,  one  of  the  three 
great  families  of  Levi,  afterward  divided 
into  four  branches.  1  Chr.  23  :  12.  They 
were  Levites  of  the  highest  rank.    In  the 

503 


KOL 


KUS 


wilderness  they  encamped  on  the  south 
side  of  the  tabernacle,  and  had  charge 
of  the  ark,  table,  the  most  holy  parts  of 
the  tabernacle,  etc.,  Num.  3  :  29-31 ;  4  :  2, 
34,  carrying  them  on  their  shoulders  after 
they  had  been  covered  Ijy  the  priests. 
In  Canaan  the  Kohathite  priests  had  13 
cities  in  Judah,  Benjamin,  and  Simeon, 
the  rest  of  the  family  10  cities  in  Eph- 
raim,  Dan,  and  western  Manasseh.  Josh. 
21 ;  4,  5,  20.  They  were  included  in  the 
courses  arranged  by  David.  1  Chr.  25, 
26.  They  helped  bring  the  ark  to  Jeru- 
salem. 1  Chr.  15  :  5.  They  attained 
wealth  and  importance,  kept  the  sacred 
treasures,  and  were  judges,  officers,  and 
rulers.  1  Chr.  23  :  12;  26  :  20-26. 
They  also  appear  as  singers.  2  Chr. 
20  :  19. 

KOLAI'AH  {voice  of  Jehovah).  1. 
A  Benjamite.  Neh.  11 :  7. 

2.  Father  of  the  false  prophet  Ahab. 
Jer.  29:21. 

KO'R AH.  {baldness).  1.  Third  son 
of  Esau  and  Aholibamah,  Gen.  36  :  5, 
14,  18;  1  Chr.  1 :  35 ;  named  as  son  of 
Eliphaz.  Gen.  36  :  16. 

2.  Son  of  Izhar,  the  son  of  Kohath, 
the  son  of  Levi,  Ex.  6  :  18,  21,  24,  the 
proud  and  ambitious  ringleader  in  the 
rebellion  with  Dathan,  Abiram,  and  On, 
of  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  against  his  cou- 
sins, Moses  and  Aaron.  It  was  a  wide- 
spread political  rebellion  against  Moses, 
who  held  the  leadership,  to  which  the 
tribe  of  Reuben,  the  first-born,  aspired, 
and  from  which  they  had  been  excluded, 
and  an  ecclesiastical  rebellion  against 
Aaron  by  Korah,  a  Levite,  who,  with 
his  immediate  relations,  had  been  shut 
out  of  the  higher  priestly  service  to  the 
inferior  service  of  the  tabernacle.  With 
250  men  prominent  in  the  congregation, 
they  went  to  Moses  and  Aaron  and  im- 
pudently and  impiously  charged  them 
with  usurpation.  Moses,  astonished  at 
the  revolt — the  most  serious  that  had 
taken  place — appealed  to  Jehovah  by  a 
test  to  be  made  the  next  day  with  cen- 
sers. Then,  after  God  had  expressed 
his  intention  to  destroy  the  people,  and 
504 


Moses  and  Aaron  had  interceded  suc- 
cessfully for  them,  Moses  warned  them 
as  to  that  which  should  follow ;  the 
earth  opened  and  swallowed  Dathan 
and  Abiram  and  their  followers  and 
families,  and  fire  from  the  Lord  de- 
voured Korah  and  the  Levites  who 
off"ered  incense.  Num.  16  ;  26  :  9  ;  27  :  3. 
The  children  of  Korah  survived,  and 
became  prominent  in  the  temple  service. 
1  Chr.  6  :  22,  37  ;  9  :  19.  Jude  couples 
Korah  (Core)  with  Cain  and  Balaam  in 
his  warning  against  false  and  self-seek- 
ing teachers,  v.  11. 

3.  A  son  of  Hebron,  and  descendant 
of  Judah.   1  Chr.  2 :  43. 

KO'RAHITES,  descendants  of 
Korah.  Some  were  noted  as  singers 
among  the  Kohathites.  2  Chr.  20  :  19. 
Eleven  of  the  Psalms  bear  their  name : 
42,  44-49,  84,  85,  87,  88.  Others  were 
doorkeepers.  1  Chr.  9  :  17-19.  One, 
Mattithiah,  was  over  "things  that  were 
made  in  the  pans,"  1  Chr.  9:31;  prob- 
ably the  meat-offering. 

KO  RATHITES.  Num.  26  :  58. 
See  KoRAHiTES. 

KO'RE  {partridge).  1.  A  Korahite, 
father  of  Shallum  and  Meshelemiah, 
temple-porters.  1  Chr.  9:19;  26  :  1. 

2.  A  Levite  porter,  son  of  Imnah,  who 
had  charge  of  the  offerings  and  of  the 
east  gate.  2  Chr.  31 :  14. 

3.  To  be  translated  "  Korahite."  1 
Chr.  26:19. 

KOR'HITES.  Ex.  6:24:  Num. 
26  :  58;  1  Chr.  12  :  6 ;  2  Chr.  20  :  19. 
See  KoRAHiTES. 

KOZ  {thorn).  1.  A  descendant  of 
Judah.  1  Chr.  4  :  8.     See  Coz. 

2.  A  priest,  head  of  one  of  the 
courses.  1  Chr.  24  :  10.  See  Hakkoz. 
It  was  probably  the  descendants  of  this 
priest  who  could  not  find  the  record  of 
their  genealogy  on  the  return  from  cap- 
tivity, and  were  put  from  the  priesthood. 
Ezr.'2  :  61 ;  Neh.  7  :  63.  Meremoth,  of 
the  family  of  Koz,  repaired  part  of  the 
wall.   Neh.  3  :  4,  21. 

KUSHA'IAH.  1  Chr.  15:17.     See 

KiSHI. 


LAA 


LAC 


L. 


LA'ADAH  (order),  grandson  of  Ju- 
dah  1  Chr.  4  :  21. 

LiA'ADAN  {put  in  order).  1.  An 
Ephraimite,  ancestor  of  Joshua.  1  Chr. 
7  :  26. 

2.  Son  of  Gershon.  1  Chr.  23  :  7,  8,  9 ; 
26  :  21.  Elsewhere  and  in  the  margin 
called  Libni. 

LA'BAIV  {white),  son  of  Bethuel, 
grandson  of  Nahor,  grand-nephew  of 
Abraham,  brother  of  Rebekah,  and  father 
of  Leah  and  Rachel.  He  lived  in  Haran, 
the  old  family  home.  There  he  hos- 
pitably received  Abraham's  servant,  ac- 
cording to  the  custom  of  the  country, 
as  head  of  the  house,  and  took  the 
chief  part  in  betrothing  Rebekah  to 
Isaac.  Gen.  24  :  29  ;  25  :  20.  To 
him  Rebekah  sent  Jacob  after  their 
trick  had  angered  Esau,  Gen.  27  :  43, 
Isaac  adding  the  charge  that  his  son 
was  to  take  a  wife  of  the  daughters  of 
Laban.  Gen.  28  :  2,  5.  Laban  cordially 
received  him.  Gen.  29  :  5,  10,  and  to 
gain  his  valuable  services  engaged  him 
and  allowed  him  to  name  his  own  wages. 
He  asked  for  Rachel,  and  through  love 
for  her  served  seven  years.  At  the  end 
of  that  time  Laban  cheated  him  by 
giving  him  Leah,  v.  23,  and  afterward 
he  gave  him  Rachel,  for  whom  Jacob 
served  seven  years  more.  v.  28.  In  the 
six  additional  years  during  which  Jacob 
remained  in  Mesopotamia,  he  managed 
by  artifice  and  shepherd's  skill  to  trans- 
fer the  best  part  of  his  uncle's  flocks  to 
himself.  Gen.  30.  Then,  through  the  jeal- 
ousy of  Laban,  now  in  his  old  age,  and 
the  influence  of  his  sons,  and  the  es- 
trangement of  his  daughters,  and  the 
anger  of  Jacob  at  being  deceived,  and 
at  having  his  wages  changed  so  often, 
there  came  an  open  rupture.  While 
Laban  was  absent  shearing  sheep,  Jacob, 
expecting  to  be  plundered,  stealthily  fled 
toward  Canaan  with  his  family,  and  ret- 
inue, and  flocks,  and  household  goods. 
Gen.  31.  Laban  followed  in  wrath  and 
overtook  the  slow  caravan  among  the 
mountains  of  Gilead,  v.  25,  but  God 
checked  him  from  violence,  v.  24.  He 
was  again  outwitted  by  Rachel  in  his 


search  for  the  teraphim,  v.  34 ;  but,  after 
some  sharp  wrangling,  and  a  falsehood 
as  to  the  grounds  of  his  displeasure,  he 
and  Jacob  set  up  a  stone  and  a  cairn  as 
a  witness  of  the  covenant  proposed  by' 
Laban,  and  a  boundary  beyond  which 
neither  was  to  pass  to  harm  the  other, 
V.  44  ,•  and  Laban  then  took  a  loving 
farewell  and  went  back  to  Mesopotamia, 
and  appeared  no  more,  being  only  re- 
ferred to  as  the  past  history  is  brought 
up.  32:4;  46:  18,  25. 

Laban  appears  first  as  showing  a 
hearty  hospitality,  but  later  as  having 
hardened  into  a  tricky,  grasping,  un- 
principled, harsh,  selfish  old  man. 

LA'BAN  (white),  perhaps  Libnah, 
near  the  Elanitic  gulf  or  the  Arabah 
desert.  Deut.  1:1;  Conip.  Num.  33  :  20. 

LACE  (Heb.  twisted),  the  blue  string 
that  bound  the  breastplate  to  the  ephod, 
Ex.  28  :  28 ;  the  frontlet  to  the  mitre,  v. 
37  ;  39  :  31.  The  same  word  is  used  for 
the  cord  that  held  the  signet-ring.  Gen. 
38:18,  25  (trans,  "bracelets");  for  wires, 
Ex.  39  :  3;  for  ribband.  Num.  15:  38; 
for  a  chain  (bound)  to  hold  a  cover, 
Num.  19  :  15 ;  for  a  thread  of  tow,  Jud. 
16  :  9,  and  for  a  measuring-line.  Eze. 
40  :  3. 

IjA'CHISH  (invincible),  a  city  of  the 
Amorites,  lying  south  of  Jerusalem,  and 
toward  the  border  of  Simeon.  Josh.  10  : 
3.  It  was  one  of  the  Canaanitish  cities 
which  was  subdued  by  Joshua  and  in- 
cluded in  Judah  ;  fortified  by  Jeroboam. 
2  Chr.  11 :  9.  King  Amaziah  was  killed 
there.  2  Kgs.  14  :  19.  Lachish  was  be- 
sieged by  Sennacherib  and  perhaps 
taken.  2  Kgs.  18: 13,  14;  Isa.  36  :  1,  2. 
The  siege  is  considered  by  some  to  be  de- 
picted on  the  slabs  found  in  one  of  the 
chambers  of  the  palace  at  Kouyunjik. 
Layard  reads  the  cuneiform  inscription 
thus :  "  Sennacherib,  the  mighty  king, 
king  of  the  country  of  Assyria,  sitting 
on  the  throne  of  judgment  before  the  city 
of  Lachish, — I  give  permission  for  its 
slaughter."  Compare  2  Chr.  32  : 1 ;  2  Kgs. 
19  :  8  ;  Jer.  34  :  7.  It  was  a  place  of 
great  strength,  favorably  situated  upon 
the  side  of  a  hill.     From   Lachish  had 

605 


LAD 


LAM 


been  introduced  into  Jerusalem  the  idol- 
atry of  the  ten  tribes.  Mic.  1 :  13.  La- 
chish  was  reoccupied  after  the  Captiv- 
ity. Neh.  11 :  30.     It  has  been  identified 


v-^l-l  '     ^  chal,    David's    wife. 


Plan  of  Lachish.    (From  the  monuments.    After  Layard.) 

with  Um  Lakis,  but  better  with   Tel  el- 
He  sy. 

LiAD.  The  Hebrew  word  is  used  for 
a  new-born  infant,  Ex.  2:6;  Jud.  13  :  5, 
7  ;  of  a  boy  not  full-grown,  Gen.  21 :  16 ; 
of  a  youth  nearly  twenty,  Gen.  41  :  12, 
and  perhaps  older,  Jud.  17  :  1 ;  emphati- 
cally to  express  tender  age,  Jer.  1:6; 
for  a  servant,  Gen.  37  :  2  ;  Jud.  7  :  10; 
of  soldiers,  1  Kgs,  20  :  15;  of  a  young 
nation.   Hos.  11  :  1. 

LAD'DER  (Heb.  a  staircase,  from 
the  verb  "to  raise  up"),  the  object  seen 
by  Jacob  in  his  vision.  Gen.  28  :  12. 
The  use  of  the  word  in  other  writers 
suggests  that  the  patriarch  saw  moun- 
tains or  rocks  piled  up  as  a  staircase. 
It  was  a  symbol  of  communion  with 
heaven  through  Christ.  See  John 
1  :  51. 

LA'DY,  the  translation  of  two  He- 
brew words,  one  the  feminine  of  ''  mighty 
man,"  and  usuall3'  rendered  "mistress," 
as  distinguished  from  "servant."  Gen. 
16  :  4,  8,  9  ;  2  Kgs.  5:3;  Ps.  123  :  2  ; 
Prov.  30  :  23;  Isa.  24  :  2.  It  is  applied 
to  Babylon  as  mistress  of  nations.  Isa. 
47  :  5,  7.  The  other  word  is  rendered 
"  ladies,"  Jud.  5:29;  Esth.  1:18;"  prin- 
cess," 1  Kgs.  11 :  3  :  Lam.  1:1;  Isa.  49  : 
23;  "queens"  (margin,  "princesses"). 
In  the  N.  T.  it  occurs  in  2  John  5;  as 
a  title  or  perhaps  a  proper  name, 
kuri'a. 

506 


Li A'EL  {of  God),  a  Gershonite  prince. 
Num.  3  :  24. 

liA'HAD  (oppression),  a  descendant 
of  Judah.  1  Chr.  4  :  2. 

LAHAI'ROI. 
See  Beer-lahairoi. 

LAH'MAM  (pro- 
visions),  a  town  of 
Judah,  Josh.  15  :  40 ; 
identified  with  el  Lahm, 
2h  miles  south  of  Bei( 
Jibrtn. 

LAH'MI  (jcan-ior), 
brother  of  Goliath.  1 
Chr.  20  :  5. 

LA'ISH     (lion), 

father   of    Phaltiel,   to 

whom    Saul    gave   Mi- 

1 

^^^  Sam.    25:44;   2   Sam. 

i^        ^         3  :  15. 

LAVISH,  OR 
LESH'EM.  ].  See 
Dan.  2.  The  Laish 
mentioned  in  Isa.  10  :  30  can  hardly 
have  been  the  same  as  Dan.  The  intro- 
duction in  this  connection  of  a  place  so 
distant,  and,  moreover,  under  its  old 
half-forgotten  name,  would  be  very 
strange.  Probably  some  small  village, 
situated  between  Gallim  and  Anathoth; 
Wilton  suggests  el  'Aisaiiolyeh,  2  miles 
north  of  Jerusalem. 

LAKE.  Luke  5  : 1.  The  principal 
lakes  mentioned  in  the  Bible  are  Ti- 
berias or  Gennesaret,  the  Salt  or  Dead 
Sea,  and  Merom.     See  those  articles. 

LiA'KUM  {u-ai/-stopper,  fortress),  a 
place  situated  on  the  boundai-y  of  Naph- 
tali,  between  Jabneel  and  the  Jordan. 
Josh.  19  :  33. 

LAMB.     See  Sheep. 
LA'MECH  {strong).    1.  Son  of  Me- 
thuselah, and  father  of  Noah.  Gen.  5 : 
25,  31  ;   1  Chr.  1:3;  Luke  3  :  36. 

2.  The  fifth  descendant  from  Cain,  the 
first  polygamist,  father  of  Jabal,  Jubal, 
the  inventor  of  musical  instruments,  and 
Tubal-cain,  the  worker  of  metals.  He 
was  the  author  of  the  earliest  verses  ex- 
tant, in  which  he  addresses  his  wives  on 
account  of  having  slain  a  man.  Gen.  4  : 
18-24 : 

"Adah  and  Zillab,  hear  my  voice; 
Ye  wives  of  Laraech,  hearken  unto  my 

speech ; 
For  I  have  slain  a  man  for  my  wound, 
And  a  young  man  for  my  bruise; 


LAM 


LAM 


Truly,  Cain  shall  be  avenged  sevenfold, 
And  Lamech  seventy  and  sevenfold." 

LAMENTA'TIONS  OF  JERE- 
MI'AH.  Contents. — The  Lamentations 
are  an  elegiac  poem  on  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  and  Judah  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar and  the  Chaldees  —  a  sort  of 
funeral  dirge  of  the  theocratic  state,  yet 
not  without  hope  of  its  future  resurrec- 
tion in  a  purer  and  better  form.  The 
book  consists  of  five  separate  poems, 
each  complete  in  itself.  The  first  verse 
strikes  the  keynote,  where  Jerusalem, 
once  a  princess  among  cities,  is  personi- 
fied as  a  lonely  widow,  weeping  sorely 
in  the  night  with  none  to  comfort  her, 
her  very  friends  having  become  her 
enemies.  Chs.  1  and  2  describe  the 
calamities  of  the  siege,  its  causes  and 
destructive  results.  The  long  siege 
brought  on  the  horrors  of  famine ;  the 
city  was  taken  by  storm,  the  temple  was 
polluted,  the  priests  who  defended  it  were 
massacred,  and  it  was  then  destroyed. 
The  fortresses  of  Judah  were  thrown 
down;  the  chief  of  the  people  were  carried 
into  exile ;  under  the  rule  of  the  foreigner 
the  Sabbaths  and  solemn  feasts  were  for- 
gotten. Ch.  3  deplores  the  persecutions 
which  Jeremiah  suff'ered,  and  represents 
the  lowest  depth  of  sorrow,  almost  in  the 
midnight  darkness  of  despair,  yet  fol- 
lowed by  the  dawn  of  a  better  day.  The 
fourth  chapter  laments  the  ruin  and 
desolation  of  the  city  and  temple  and  the 
misfortune  of  Zedekiah.  The  fifth  chapter 
is  a  prayer  for  the  Jews  in  their  cap- 
tivity. 

The  poetical  form  of  this  composition 
is  a  very  elaborate  alphabetical  structure. 
The  first  four  chapters  are  acrostics,  like 
Ps.  25,  34,  37,  119,  etc.— that  is,  every 
verse  begins  with  a  letter  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet  in  regular  order.  Chs.  1,  2, 
and  4  contain  twenty-two  verses  each,  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  Hebrew  letters. 
The  third  chapter  has  three  successive 
verses  beginning  with  the  same  letter, 
making  sixty-six  verses  in  all.  The  verses 
are  nearly  of  the  same  length,  and  each 
has  three  nearly-balanced  clauses.  The 
fifth  chapter  is  not  acrostic,  but  con- 
tains the  same  number  of  verses  as  1,  2, 
and  4.  At  first  glance  this  artificial  form 
may  seem  inconsistent  with  the  subject 
and  the  spirit.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  the  purpose  of  the  author 


of  the  Lamentations  was  not  simply  to 
give  an  artistic  representation  of  the 
grief  of  the  Exile,  but  much  more  to  give 
to  the  exiles  a  means  of  assuaging  their 
grief;  and  for  this  purpose  the  peculiarly 
complicated  form  was  of  great  advantage, 
its  complications  being  so  many  aids  to 
the  memory.  And,  indeed,  few  sections 
of  the  0.  T.  have  done  their  work  more 
effectually  than  this.  It  has  soothed  the 
weary  years  of  the  Babylonian  exile,  and 
afterward  kept  up  a  lively  remembrance 
of  the  days  of  the  deepest  humiliation. 
On  the  ninth  day  of  the  month  of  Ab 
(July)  it  was  read,  year  by  year,  with 
fasting  and  weeping,  to  commemorate 
the  national  misery  and  the  final  deliver- 
ance. 

Author  ship. — The  author  is  not  named 
anywhere  in  the  Bible,  and  the  book  is 
not  quoted  in  the  N.  T. ;  but  general 
tradition  assigns  the  composition  to 
Jeremiah,  and  this  is  the  prevailing 
opinion  to  this  day.  A  cavern  is  still 
pointed  out  in  the  neighborhood  of  Jeru- 
salem, outside  of  the  Damascus  gate,  to 
which  he  retired  to  write  the  book ;  it  is 
now  called  the  Grotto  of  Jeremiah,  and 
is  by  some  regarded  as  the  true  site  of 
Calvary.  But  besides  the  old  traditions, 
the  general  fitness  of  things  also  speaks 
for  Jeremiah's  authorship,  and  the  objec- 
tions which  have  been  raised  against  it 
are  not  conclusive.  See  Jeremiah. 

LAMP.  The  lights  of  the  East  are 
of  various  kinds ;  not  only  oil,  but  pitch, 
naphtha,  and  wax  are  used  to  maintain 
the  flame.  The  wicks  were  generally 
made  of  cotton  or  of  flax.  According  to 
rabbinical  tradition,  the  wicks  of  the 
sacred  lamps  were  made  of  the  old  linen 
garments  of  the  priests.  The  form  of 
Oriental  lamps  was  fanciful,  and  often 
elegant.  We  have  no  descriptions  of  the 
forms  specially  used  by  the  Hebrews,  but 
they  were  probably  not  different  from 
those  used  in  Egypt  and  Western  Asia. 
The  materials  of  which  lamps  were  made 
were  baked  clay,  terra  cotta,  bronze,  etc. 

The  lamps  of  the  Hebrews,  it  is  prob- 
able, were  suffered  to  burn  all  night,  and 
this  occasioned  no  great  expense  in  a 
country  so  rich  in  oil.  We  are  told  that 
this  was  considered  indispensable  to  the 
comfort  of  a  family,  and  that  the  poorest 
people  would  rather  deny  themselves  food 
than  neglect  it.  The  putting  out  of  the 
light  denoted  the  ruin  and  extinction  of 

607 


LAN 


LAO 


the  family  and  the  desertion  of  the  house. 
This  gives  force  to  the  words  in  Job  18  : 
5,  6  ;  21  :  17  ;  29  :  3  :  "  The  light  of  the 
wicked  shall  be  put  out ;  *  *  *  light  shall 
be  dark  in  his  tabernacle,  and  his  candle 
shall  be  put  out  with  him."     '•  How  oft  is 


Assyrian  Terra-Cotta  and  Glass  Lamps. 
British  Museum.) 


(From 


Cluildwau  Lamp: 


Lamp  with  Christian  Inscription. 

the  candle  of  the  wicked  put  out."  Jer. 
25:10,  11:  Prov.  20:20.  Also  in  Prov. 
13:9:  "The  light  of  the  righteous  re- 
joiceth,  but  the  lamp  of  the  wicked  shall 
be  put  out ;"  and  of  the  prudent  wife, 
"  Her  candle  goeth  not  out  by  night." 
Prov.  31  :  18. 

LANCE.  .Jer.  50  :  42.     See  Armor. 

LiAlV'CET,  a  javelin  or  light  spear. 
1  Kgs.  18  :  28.     But  see  Knife. 

liAND'MARK.  According  to  the 
ordinances  given  by  Moses,  the  land, 
when  conquered,  was  divided  by  lot  and 
measurement  among  the  tribes,  families, 
and  individuals  of  the  nation.  The  lines 
508 


separating  one  man's  field  from  that  of 
another  were  sometimes  marked  by  rows 
of  trees,  but  most  often  simply  by  a  heap 
of  stones  at  the  corners.  To  remove 
these  landmarks  was  easy  enough,  and 
hence  the  severe  penalty  incurred  for 
doing  it.  Deut.  19  :  14;  27  :  17;  Prov. 
23:10. 

LjANES  were  narrow  streets  where 
the  poorer  people  lived.  Luke  14  :  21. 

LAN'GUAGE.  Gen.  2  :  20  ;  11 : 1. 
It  is  generally  supposed  that  Adam  was 
endued  with  the  power  of  speech  and  fur- 
nished with  a  language  at  his  creation, 
and  that  it  was  sufficiently  perfect  and 
comprehensive  for  all  the  purposes  of 
his  being.  This  was  the  language  of 
the  whole  earth  for  nearly  2000  years,  or 
until  about  a  century  after  the  Flood. 
It  was  then  that  the  Tower  of  Babel  was 
erected,  and  God  caused  a  confusion  of 
languages — an  event  which  forms  the 
antitype  of  the  speaking  in  tongues  by 
the  apostles  at  the  first  Pentecost.  Some 
of  the  older  divines  supposed,  without 
any  good  reason,  that  the  Hebrew  was 
the  original  language  given  by  God  to 
Adam,  and  that  all  the  other  languages 
resulting  from  the  division  and  disper- 
sion of  mankind  over  the  face  of  the  earth 
are  derived  from  that  as  the  root.  The 
modern  science  of  comparative  philol- 
ogy distinguishes  three  distinct  families 
of  languages — the  Shemitic  (to  which  the 
Hebrew  belongs),  the  Indo-Germanic  or 
Arj'an  (which  includes  the  Greek),  and 
the  Turanian,  For  a  brief  account  of 
the  languages  in  which  the  Bible  was 
written,  see  Bible. 

LAN'TERNS,  probably  some  kind 
of  covered  torch.  John  18  :  3. 

LAODIC.E'A,the  old  city  of  Dios- 
polis,  the  present  village  of  Eski-hissar, 
stood  on  the  banks  of  the  Lycus,  an  afilu- 
ent  of  the  Meander,  a  few  miles  distant 
from  Colosse  and  Hierapolis,  in  the  Ro- 
man province  of  Asia,  the  present  Asia 
Minor.  By  the  Syrian  king  Seleucus  II., 
Diospolis  was  enlarged  and  beautified, 
and  from  his  wife,  Laodice,  it  received 
its  new  name.  Under  the  Roman  rule 
it  became  a  great  commercial  centre, 
situated  as  it  was  on  the  great  route 
through  Asia,  and  acquired  great  wealth. 
When,  in  the  middle  of  the  first  century 
of  our  era,  an  earthquake  destroyed 
Colosse,  Hierapolis,  and  Laodica?a,  the 
latter  was  rebuilt  by  its  own  inhabitants 


LAO 


LAP 


without  any  aid  from  the  Roman  senate. 
A  Christian  church  was  early  established 
here,  probably  from  Ephesus,  and  to  this 
church  Paul  sent  a  salutation  when  writ- 
ing to  the  Colossians,  Col.  4:15;  it  is  also 


mentioned  in  Rev.  1:11;  3  :  14.  From 
Col.  4:16  it  appears  that  Paul  wrote  a 
letter  to  the  Laodicaians,  but  of  this  letter 
no  certain  account  can  be  made ;  some 
think  to  recognize  it  in  the  Epistle  to 


Rums  of  Laodicsea. 


the  Ephesians,  which  was  a  circular  letter. 
The  "Epistle  to  the  Laodicfenses,"  so 
called,  which  exists  only  in  Latin,  is  a 
literary  forgery  of  late  date,  and  com- 
piled from  the  Galatians  and  Ephesians. 
The  church  of  Laodicsea  flourished  for 
several  centuries.  In  the  foui-th  century 
an  important  council  gathered  here^  The 
Mohammedans  destroyed  the  city,  and  it 
is  now  only  a  heap  of  ruins  around  a  small 
and  miserable  village. 

LAODICi«:'ANS,  the  inhabitants 
of  Laodica?a.  Col.  4  :  IG  ;  Rev.  3  :  14. 

LAP,  LAP'PETH.  The  Eastern 
people  are  accustomed  to  take  v\p  water 
in  the  hollow  of  the  hand,  and  they  do  it 
with  surprising  agility,  sitting  on  their 
heels  with  the  face  close  over  the  water, 
and  putting  out  the  tongue  to  meet  the 
water.  The  alertness  of  the  men  of 
Gideon  was  tested  in  this  manner.  Jud. 
7:  5. 

LAP'IDOTH  (torches),  the  hus- 
band of  the  prophetess  Deborah.  Jud. 
4:  4. 

LAP'WING,  doubtless  the  hoopoe, 
a  bird  so  named  from  its  call-note,  of 


about  the  size  of  the  thrush,  and  of  sin- 
gular appearance  and  ways.  Lev.  11 :  19. 


Lap\Miif|  01   Ho  >i  oe 

It  is  abundant  in  Palestine  and  the 
Avarraer  parts  of  the  Old  World,  and  is 
sometimes  seen  in  England. 

509 


LAS 


LAW 


LASiE'A,  a  town  of  Crete,  near 
Fair  Haven,  now  in  ruins,  but  identified 
without  doubt.  Acts  27  :  8. 

LA'SHA  {Jissnre),  a  place  on  the 
south-eastern  boundary  of  Canaan,  Gen. 
10:  19;  identified  by  earlier  Christian 
writers  as  Callirhoe,  situated  near  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  fa- 
mous for  its  hot  springs. 

LASHA'ROX  (the  plain),  a  district 
whose  king  was  killed  by  Joshua.  Josh. 
12:  18;  now  SarSna,  near  Tabor. 

LATCH'ET.  Mark  1  :  7.  See 
Clothes. 

LAT'IN,  Luke  23  :  38,  LAT'IN 
VER'SIONS.     See  Bible. 

LAT'TICE.  2  Kgs.  1  :  2.  See 
Dwellings. 

LAUGH,  LAUGH  TER.  When 
these  forms  are  used  concerning  God,  as 
in  Prov.  1:  26;  Ps.  2 :  4;  37:  13,  they 
signify  that  he  despises  or  pays  no  re- 
gard to  the  persons  or  subject. 

LA'VER,  a  brazen  vessel  belonging 
to  the  tabernacle,  and  standing  in  the 
court,  between  the  altar  and  the  sacred 
tent.    Ex.    30:    18,    21.      It    contained 


A  Brazen  Laver  on  Wheels. 

water  for  the  priests  to  wash  their  hands 
and  feet  before  ofiering  sacrifice,  and 
probably  also  for  washing  the  things 
ofi'ered.  Its  form  is  not  described,  but 
it  was  made  from  the  brazen  mirrors  of 
the  women  who  assembled  at  the  door  of 
the  tabernacle  court.  Ex.38:  8.  In  the 
temple  of  Solomon  there  were  ten  brazen 
layers  on  feet,  1  Kgs.  7  :  27-39,  five 
510 


on  each  side  of  the  court  of  priests  which, 
wereused  for  washing  the  animals  to  be  sac- 
rificed. 2  Chr.  4 :  6.  See  Sea,  The  Molten. 

LAW,  THE.  This  term  is  applied 
in  the  N.  T.  to  the  old  dispensation,  in 
distinction  from  the  new  ;  the  dispensa- 
tion under  the  law  in  distinction  from 
the  dispensation  under  the  gospel ;  the 
dispensation  by  Moses  in  distinction 
from  the  dispensation  by  Christ.  John 
1:17;  Acts  25  :  8  ;  Heb.  10  :  1-18.  But 
besides  this  its  general  sense,  which  is 
never  entirely  lost  sight  of  by  the  writers 
of  the  N.  T.,  the  term  refers  more  spe- 
cially to  the  Mosaic  legislation,  including 
the  moral,  Matt.  5 :  17,  the  ceremonial, 
Eph.  2:  15,  and  the  political,  but  more 
especially  the  first.  Sometimes  St.  Paul 
uses  the  word  ''  law  "  (without  the  article) 
in  a  wider  sense — of  principle,  rule  of 
moral  conduct — and  speaks  of  the  hea- 
then as  having  such  a  law  written  on 
their  conscience  or  being  a  law  to  them- 
selves. Rom.  2:  li,  15. 

The  moral  law  of  the  old  dispensation, 
embodied  in  the  ten  commandments  (the 
Decalogue),  was  promulgated  with  ex- 
traordinary solemnity  on  Mount  Sinai 
by  God  himself,  under  the  manifestation 
of  his  holy  majesty,  and  recorded  by  his 
own  finger  on  two  tables  of  stone.  Ex. 
19.  Afterward  it  was  preserved  by  the 
Jews  in  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  in  the 
holy  of  holies  of  the  tabernacle  and  the 
temple,  and,  spreading  from  the  Jews 
among  other  nations,  it  forms  the  indis- 
pensable and  immovable  foundation  of 
all  social  order  and  well-being.  For, 
though  the  Decalogue  has  the  form  of  a 
law,  it  is  what  its  history  proves  it  to  be 
— something  more  than  mere  rules  of 
conduct.  It  is  a  revelation  of  the  nature 
of  God:  "Ye  shall  be  holy;  for  I  the 
Lord  your  God  am  holy,"  Lev.  19 :  2 ; 
and  therefore  Christ  says,  "  Think  not 
that  I  am  come  to  destroy  the  law  or  the 
prophets  ;  I  am  not  come  to  destroy,  but 
to  fulfil."     See  Ten  Commandments. 

The  ceremonial  law,  prescribing  the 
forms  of  Hebrew  worship,  public  and 
private,  the  modes  and  times  of  sacrifice, 
fast,  purification,  prayer,  festivals,  etc., 
rested  on  this  moral  law  and  formed  a 
transition  to  the  political  or  civil  law. 
Many  of  its  ordinances — for  instance, 
those  relating  to  diet  and  purification — 
had  a  sociiil,  a  sanitary  purpose  besides 
their  religious  meaning.     By  this  cere- 


LAW 


LAZ 


monial  law  the  Hebrews  were  formed 
into  a  nation  distinct  from  all  other  na- 
tions, and  every  single  feature  of  the 
ritual  served  to  remind  them  that  they 
were  the  chosen  people  of  (iod.  Though 
God  was  certainly  the  God  over  all  na- 
tions, he  was  by  a  special  covenant  the 
God  of  Israel.  The  ceremonial  law  was 
to  the  Jews  an  awful  dut}',  and  at  the 
same  time  a  magnificent  ])romise.  Its 
whole  character  was  typical,  prophetical. 
Its  whole  bearing  pointed  toward  Christ, 
and  when  Christ  came  it  was  thereby 
fulfilled  and  abolished,  for  ''  we  are  not 
under  the  law  but  under  grace."  Rom.  6  : 
14,15;  7:  4,6;  Gal.  3:  13,  25;  5:  18. 
The  political  or  civil  law  of  the  Mosaic 
constitution,  which  made  the  Hebrews  a 
people  and  founded  a  state,  was,  as  all 
political  or  civil  laws  must  be,  simply 
the  expression  of  a  certain  stage  of  his- 
torical development,  and  as  such  subject 
to  the  historical  laws  of  growth,  decay, 
and  destruction.  But  this  civil  law  was 
in  perfect  harmony  with  the  moral  and 
ceremonial  law,  and  was  formed  through- 
out in  accordance  with  the  same  princi- 
ples— the  principles  of  theocracy.  Civil 
law  is  confined  to  certain  relations  be- 
tween man  and  man.  Nevertheless,  at 
every  point  of  the  political  order  of  the 
Hebrew  state,  a  direct  reference  is  made 
to  God  as  the  King.  The  basis  of  the 
whole  system  is  the  absolute  sovereignty 
of  God,  and  the  principle  according  to 
which  all  the  details  are  worked  out  is, 
first,  the  relation  between  each  individual 
and  God, and  then  the  relation  between  in- 
dividual and  individual.  This  is  evident, 
for  instance,  from  the  ordinances  relat- 
ing to  property.  In  the  Roman  repub- 
lic all  land  was  held  by  the  state  ;  in  the 
feudal  monarchies  of  mediseval  Europe 
all  land  was  held  by  the  king:  in  the 
theocracy  of  the  Hebrews  all  land  be- 
longed to  Jehovah  :  ''The  land  is  mine, 
and  ye  are  strangers  and  sojourners  with 
me."  Lev.  25  :  23.  Hence  the  payment 
of  tithes,  27  :  23-26  ;  the  offering  of  the 
first-fruits,  Deut.  26:  1-10;  the  impos- 
sibility of  alienating  landed  property, 
the  ground  reverting  at  the  jubilee  year 
to  its  original  possessor,  etc.  But  not 
only  the  land  was  the  absolute  property 
of  Jehovah ;  also  the  persons  of  the 
Israelites  belonged  to  him.  Hence  the 
dedication  and  ransom  of  the  first-born, 
Ex.  13  :  2-13 ;  the  payment  of  the  half- 


shekel  at  the  numbering  of  the  people 
"  as  a  ransom  for  their  souls  to  the  Lord," 
Ex.  30:  11-1();  the  very  limited  power 
which  a  master  held  over  Hebrew  slaves. 
Lev.  25  :   39-4().  etc. 

Though  the  law,  in  the  widest  sense 
of  the  word,  denoting  the  whole  Mosaic 
constitution,  stands  before  us  a  wonder- 
ful system  both  with  respect  to  com])lete- 
ness  and  with  respect  to  consistency,  it 
is  nevertheless  essential  to  its  full  under- 
standing to  remember  that,  just  as  it 
came  itself  to  prepare  the  way  for  the 
gospel,  it  too  has  had  its  precursors 
and  had  the  way  prepared  for  it  by  the 
Abrahamic  covenant  and  its  promises. 
That,  on  the  whole,  much  of  the  mate- 
rials of  the  Mosaic  legislation  existed 
before  the  time  of  Moses  may  be  inferred 
from  the  penalties  against  murder  and 
adultery.  Gen.  9:  6;  38:  24;  from  the 
Levirate  law,  Gen.  38:  8;  from  the  dis- 
tinction of  clean  and  unclean  animals, 
Gen.  8:  20;  and  from  the  probable  ob- 
servance of  the  Sabbath.  Ex.  16 :  23, 
27,  29  :  comp.  Gen.  2:3. 

LAWYERS,  among  the  Hebrews, 
were  not  pleaders  before  a  court,  but  ex- 
pounders of  the  law  in  the  schools  and 
synagogues ;  and  it  is  even  doubtful 
whether  there  was  any  difi'erence  at  all 
between  a  lawyer  and  a  scribe.  Matt. 
22  ;  35  ;  Luke  iO  :  25 ;  comp.  Mark  12  : 
28 

LAY'ING  ON  OF  HANDS.  See 
Hand. 

Li AZ'ARUS,  an  abbreviation  of 
ELEAZAR  {tvhom  God  helps).  1.  A 
citizen  of  Bethany  residing  with  his  two 
sisters  ;  of  their  household  Christ  was  a 
frequent  guest.  He  was  raised  from  the 
grave  by  Christ  in  sight  of  the  city  of 
Jerusalem,  in  the  presence  of  the  family 
and  a  number  of  Jews,  after  he  had  been 
dead  four  days;  and  so  incensed  were 
the  Jews  at  this  that  they  sought  to  kill 
not  only  Christ,  but  even  Lazarus.  John 
11:  12:  1-11. 

2.  In  the  parable  by  which  our  Saviour 
illustrates  the  retributions  of  eternity  one 
of  the  parties  is  named  Lazarus,  Luke 
16  :  19-31  ;  and  it  is  from  this  character 
the  Knights  of  St.  Lazarus,  an  order  half 
military  and  half  monastic,  founded  in 
1119,  and  specially  destined  to  administer 
to  the  lepers,  received  their  name.  Also, 
lazaretto,  or  "  hospital,"  and  lazzarone,  or 
"  beggar,"  are  derived  from  the  name, 

511 


LEA 


LEB 


which  shows  that  the  parable  must  have 
made  an  extraordinarily  deep  impression 
on  the  medijBval  Church. 

LEAD,  a  metal  known  to  the  ancients 
from  a  very  early  period,  and  alluded  to 
in  Ex.  15  :  10  on  account  of  its  weight. 
It  is  mentioned  several  times  in  Scripture 
as  entering  into  the  process  of  purifying 
more  precious  metals,  Jer.  6  :  29 ;  Eze. 
22  :  18,  20  ,•  for  which  purpose  quicksilver 
is  now  used.  The  words  of  Job  19  :  24, 
"  That  they  were  graven  with  an  iron  pen 
and  lead  in  the  rock  for  ever!"  refer  to 
the  custom  of  pouring  molten  lead  into 
letters  carved  in  the  rock  in  order  to  make 
them  more  striking  to  the  eye. 

LEAF.  Isa.  64  :  6.  The  bright 
fresh  color  of  the  leaf  of  a  tree  or  plant 
shows  that  it  is  richly  nourished  by  a 
good  soil.  Hence  the  fresh  leaf  is  often 
used  in  Scripture  as  a  symbol  of  pros- 
perity, Ps.  1 :  .3  ;  Jer.  17  :  8 ;  Eze.  47  :  12  ; 
the  faded  leaf  as  a  symbol  of  decay.  Job 
13  :  25  ;  Isa.  1  :  30  ;  64  :  6  ;  Jer.  8:13; 
Eze.  17  :  9.  Also  other  illustrations  are 
derived  from  leaves.  Lev.  26  :  36  ;  Isa. 
34  :  4 ;  Dan.  4  :  12,  14,  21 ;  Mark  13  :  28 ; 
Rev.  22  :  2. 

LE'AH  (loearied),  the  eldest  daughter 
of  Laban,  and  married  to  Jacob  by  her 
father's  deceit.  Gen.  29.  She  bore  him 
six  sons  and  one  daughtei-,  and  died 
after  he  went  down  to  Egypt,  and  was 
buried  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah.  Gen. 
49  :  31.  She  was  aware  of  the  greater 
affection  which  Jacob  felt  for  her  sister, 
and  suffered  thereby,  Gen.  29  :  21-25, 
31-35  ;  30  :  1-25,  but  she  was  neverthe- 
less heartily  devoted  to  her  husband. 

LEAS'iNG,  lies,  falsehood.  Ps.  4: 
2;  5:6. 

LEATH'ER  was  used  by  the  Jews 
for  clothing,  Job  31 :  20  ,•  Heb.  11  :  37  ; 
for  covering,  Ex.  26  :  14;  for  girdles,  2 
Kgs.  1:8;  Matt.  3  :  4,  etc. ;  but  the  trade 
of  the  tanner,  probably  learnt  in  Egypt, 
where  it  was  highly  developed,  was  not 
held  in  high  esteem. 

LEAV'EIV,  a  ferment  mixed  with 
dough  to  make  it  light,  or  a  piece  of 
dough  or  bread  thus  mixed  and  used  to 
lighten  a  larger  mass.  Ex.  12:15.  It 
makes  a  thorough  change  in  the  whole, 
and  hence  the  force  of  the  parable.  Matt. 
13  :  33,  by  which  the  silent  influence  of 
the  gospel  on  the  heart  of  man  is  beauti- 
fully illustrated.  And  so  also  it  figu- 
ratively denotes  the  influence  of  false  and 
512 


corrupt  doctrines,  Matt.  16  :  6,  as  well  as 
the  evil  passions  of  the  depraved  and 
unregenerate  heart.  1  Cor.  5:  7,  8.  The 
Jews  were  forbidden  to  offer  leaven  and 
honey  in  the  temple.  Lev.  2:11,  and  dur- 
ing the  seven  days  of  the  Passover  leaven 
was  not  even  allowed  to  be  found  in  their 
houses  ;  whence  the  festival  was  often 
called  the  "  feast  of  unleavened  bread." 
Comp.  1  Cor.  5  :  6. 

LEB'ANA  (white),  one  whose 
descendants  returned  with  Zerubbabel. 
Neh.  7  :  48. 

LEB'ANON  {exceeding  white,  viz., 
with  snow,  as  Mont  Blanc),  a  double 
mountain-range  to  the  north  of  Pal- 
estine, consisting  of  a  western  chain, 
Lebanon  proper,  and  an  eastern,  "Leb- 
anon toward  the  sun-rising,"  Josh.  13  : 
5;  or  by  classic  writers,  Anti-Libanus, 
and  enclosing  a  valley  from  5  to  8  miles 
broad — "the  valley  of  Lebanon,"  Josh. 
11:  17;  or  by  classic  writers,  Coelo- 
Syria,  the  present  El-Bukua,  which 
connects  to  the  north  with  the  valley 
of  the  Orontes,  and  to  the  south  with 
the  valley  of  the  Jordan.  The  western 
range,  the  Lebanon  proper,  begins  on 
the  north  near  the  banks  of  the  Eleu- 
therus,  which  passes  through  the  plain 
of  Emesa,  the  "  entrance  of  Ilamath," 
Num.  34 :  8,  to  the  Mediterranean,  and 
runs  for  a  distance  of  90  geographical 
miles,  in  the  direction  from  north-east 
to  south-west,  parallel  with  the  Med- 
iterranean, to  the  banks  of  the  Litany, 
the  ancient  Leontes,  which,  draining 
Coelo-Sj^ria  and  breaking  through  the 
Lebanon  by  a  wild  gorge,  enters  the 
Mediterranean  a  few  miles  north  of 
Tyre.  The  average  height  of  this  range 
is  from  6000  to  8000  feet.  Its  highest 
peaks  are  Jebel  Mukhmel,  10,200  feet, 
and  Sannin,  9000  feet.  The  line  of  cul- 
tivation runs  at  an  elevation  of  about 
6000  feet.  The  peaks  which  pass  be- 
yond this  line  are  generally  barren  and 
covered  with  small  fragments  of  lime- 
stone, through  which  the  naked  rocks 
jut  up  in  jagged  points.  The  highest 
of  them,  however,  are  covered  with  per- 
petual snow  and  ice,  towering  aloft  in 
their  glittering  magnificence,  visible  far 
off  by  sea  and  by  land,  and  sending 
forth  streams  of  cooled  air  over  the 
scorched  plains  of  Syria  and  Palestine. 
The  eastern  descent  toward  Coelo-Syria 
is  steep,  wild,  often  forbidding;  but  to 


LEB 


LEB 


View  of  Lebanon  from  the  Sea. 


the  west  the  Lebanon  descends  gradually 
through  broad  terraces  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean, generally  facing  the  sea  with 
ranges  of  bold  limestone  cliffs.  Every- 
where broken  by  the  sudden  rise  of 
high  peaks  of  rock  or  rent  by  deep 
precipices  and  ravines,  these  terraces 
present  a  most  romantic  prospect,  and 
the  beauty  of  the  country  is  still  more 
enhanced  by  the  salubrity  of  the  air 
and  the  fertility  of  the  soil ;  by  the  lux- 
uriant vegetation  which  covers  all  forms  ,• 
pine,  oak,  and  Cedar  (which  see)  on  the 
peaks ;  mulberry  and  orange  trees,  figs, 
vines,  corn,  and  melons  on  the  slopes ; 
olive  and  cotton  trees  in  the  valleys, 
besides  a  multitude  of  fragrant  herbs 
and  gorgeous  flowers.  "  The  smell  of 
thy  garments  is  like  the  smell  of  Leb- 
anon," Cant.  4:11.  The  eastern  chain, 
the  Anti-Lebanon,  runs  nearly  parallel 
with  the  western  from  the  plain  of 
Emesa  until,  in  the  south,  it  connects 
with  the  hills  of  Galilee.  Its  highest 
point  is  Mount  Hkrmon  (which  see). 
Its  western  descent  toward  Ccelo-Syria 
is  abrupt  and  steep  ;  to  the  east  it  grad- 
ually sinks  into  the  plains  of  the  desert. 
Its  general  aspect  is  bleak  and  barren, 
the  abode  of  wild  beasts  and  birds 
of  prey.  From  both  ranges  numerous 
rivers  descend — the  Eleutherus,  Leontes, 
33 


Jordan,  Abana,  and  Pharpar  (which 
see) ;  and  the  cold-flowing  waters  of  the 
springs  and  streams  of  Lebanon  were 
and  are  still  proverbial. 

Lebanon,  the  land  of  which  Moses 
said,  "  I  pray  thee  let  me  go  over  and 
see  the  good  land  that  is  beyond  Jor- 
dan, that  goodly  mountain,  and  Leb- 
anon," Deut.  3  :  25,  was  in  the  oldest 
times  inhabited  by  the  Hivites  and 
Giblites,  Jud.  3:  3*;  Josh.  13:  5,  6,  of 
whom  the  latter  built  the  city  of  Gebal, 
the  Greek  Byblus,  the  present  Jebail. 
The  land  was  assigned  to  the  Israelites, 
but  never  conquered  by  them.  Josh.  13: 
2-6;  Jud.  3  :  1-3.  It  "stood  under  Phoe- 
nician rule.  1  Kgs.  5  :  2-6 ;  Ezr.  3  :  7. 
In  the  times  of  David  and  Solomon, 
however,  the  Jews  became  quite  inti- 
mately acquainted  with  the  country, 
and  the  deep  impression  it  made  on 
them  is  apparent  throughout  the  books 
of  the  0.  T.  Its  cedars.  Cant.  5  :  15, 
its  wines,  Hos.  14  :  7,  its  cold  waters, 
Jer.  18  :  14,  etc.,  are  repeatedly  men- 
tioned, and  from  it  the  sacred  writers 
very  frequently  take  the  materials  for 
their  most  striking  similes.  Ps.  72  :  16; 
29  :  5,  6  ;  104  :  16-18  ;  Isa.  35  : 2  :  60  :  13  ; 
Zech.  11  :  1,  2,  etc.  Anti-Lebanon  stood 
under  the  rule  of  Damascus,  though  in 
the  southern  part   several    fierce  tribes 

513 


LEB 


LEN 


remained  independent  up  to  a  very- 
late  date.  1  Chr.  5  :  19-23.  When  the 
whole  region  came  under  the  sway  of 
the  SeleucidEe,  b.  c.  312-65,  several 
large  and  important  cities  were  built 
here,  such  as  Laodicsea,  Chalcis,  Abila, 
etc.  (which  see),  and  as  a  Roman  prov- 
ince the  prosperity  of  the  country  still 
increased,  as  the  ruins  of  Chalcis  and 
Baalbek  show.  Also,  during  the  wars 
with  the  Saracens  and  Turks,  it  re- 
mained comparatively  undisturbed,  and 
it  is  now  inhabited  by  some  200,000 
or  300,000  Christians,  Maronites,  and 
Druses.  In  Anti-Lebanon,  however, 
most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Mohammed- 
ans, and  the  governor  is  a  Turkish 
oflBcial  of  the  common  stamp ;  while  the 
governor  of  Lebanon  is  a  Christian, 
and  his  position  is  guaranteed  by  the 
powers  of  Europe. 

LEB'AOTH  {lionesses),  a  town  be- 
longing to  the  tribes  of  Judah;  prob- 
ably identical  with  Beth-Lebaoth  or 
Beth-Birei.  Josh.  15:   32  j  now  Btreh. 

LjEBB^E'US  {hearty,  courageous), 
one  of  the  names  of  the  apostle  Jude, 
Matt.  10  :  3. 

LEBO'NAH  {frankincense),  the 
present  El-Lubhan,  south  of  Nabhis,  is 
mentioned,  Jud.  21  :  19,  as  a  place  in 
the  vicinity  of  Shiloh. 

LE'CAH  {loalkinfj,  course)  occurs 
only  in  the  genealogies  of  Judah,  1  Chr. 
4  :  21,  and  possibly  is  the  name  of  a 
town. 

LEECH.     See  Horse-leech. 

LEEK,  a  bulbous  vegetable  like  the 
onion,  a  particular  species  of  which  has 
been  cultivated  in  Egypt  from  a  very 
early  period.  Num.  11  :  5.  It  is  eaten 
raw  with  bread.  In  the  passage  cited 
it  is  supposed  that  lettuce,  salads,  or 
savory  herbs  generally  may  be  intend- 
ed, as  the  original  word  in  the  0.  T.  is 
twelve  times  rendered  '*  grass"  and  once 
'-  herb." 

LEES.  "Wines on thelees,"  Isa.  25  : 
6,  means  well-preserved,  full-bodied  wine. 
"  He  hath  settled  on  his  lees,"  however, 
is  used  figuratively,  Jer.  48  :  11 ;  Zeph. 
1  :  12,  as  an  expression  of  sloth  and 
indifference.  To  drink  the  lees  or 
"  dregs,"  Ps.  75  :  8,  denotes  extreme 
suffering. 

LE'GION,  a  band  of  soldiers  in 
the  Roman  army,  consisting  of  from 
6000  to  7000  men  :  the  ordinary  number 
514 


Common  Leek.    {Allium  pon-um.) 

was  6200  foot  and  730  horse.  In  Matt. 
26  :  53,  and  also  in  Mark  5  :  9,  15,  it 
means  a  large  but  indefinite  number, 
and  corresponds  to  the  "  hosts  "  of  the 
0.  T.  Gen.  32  :  2 ;   Ps.  148  :  2. 

LE'HABIM  ijiery,  Jiaming),  Gen. 
10  :  13:  1  Chr.  1:  11,  LU'BIM  or 
LIB'YANO,  Dan.  11  :  43 ;  2  Chr.  12  : 
3 ;  16  :  8  ;  Nuh.  3:9;  is  the  name  of  a 
people  which  in  the  Egyptian  inscrip- 
tions is  called  "  Lebu,"  and  in  classic  and 
modern  literature  "  Libyans."  They  were 
of  Hamitic  descent,  and  inhabited  the 
northern  part  of  Africa,  west  of  Egypt. 
At  Carthage  they  were  thrown  back  to- 
ward the  interior  by  a  Phoenician  colony, 
at  Cyrene  by  a  Greek  colony ;  and  the 
country  Libya  became  finally  a  part  of 
the  Roman  empire.  In  the  oldest  times, 
however,  the  Libyans  seem  to  have  been 
allies  rather  than  the  subjects  of  the 
Egyptians. 

LE'HI  {Jawbone),  a  place  in  Judah, 
between  the  Philistine  frontier  and  the 
cliflF  of  Etam,  where  Samson  slew  the 
Philistines.  Jud.  15:9  fl'.;  possibly  Beit 
Likia,  or  'Ai/un  Kara. 

LEM'UEL  {dedicated  to  God),  the 
name  of  the  king  to  whom  the  counsels, 
contained  in  Prov.  31  :  2-9  are  addressed 
by  his  mother.  The  Rabbins  identify 
Lemuel  with  Solomon  ;  others  consider 
the  name  a  mere  personification  ;  nothing 
is  known  with  certaintv. 

LEND,  LEND'ER.     See  Loan. 

LEN'TILES  {Ervum  Ie7i8),  a  culti- 


LEO 


LEP 


vated   plant 
pea,   but  of 


smaller  than  the  garden 
the  same  family.  In  the 
markets  of  Palestine  red  lentiles  are  still 
sold  as  the  best  variety,  and  from  them 
a  pottage  is  made  which  Dr.  Robinson 


Lentiles.     (Ervum  lens.) 

and  others  who  have  eaten  it  affirm 
would  be  a  savory  meal  for  a  weary 
hunter.  Gen.  25  :  29,  30.  The  ''piece 
of  ground  full  of  lentiles,"  2  Sam.  23  : 
11,  is  still  common  in  the  Holy  Land, 
and  the  poor  not  infrequently  make  len- 
tiles into  bread.  Eze.  4  :  9.  This  pulse 
is  much  used  in  Roman  Catholic  coun- 
tries during  Lent,  and  from  it  the  name 


Le'.>i>aid.     (Fdis  leopardus.) 

of  the  season  is  said  to  be  derived.     As 

a  crop  it  is  cut  and  threshed  like  wheat. 

LEOP'ARD     (Heb.     spotted).     In 


the  Bible  there  Is  frequent  reference  to 
this  fierce  animal,  which  still  lurks 
among  the  forests  of  Gilead,  the  jungles 
of  the  Jordan,  and  more  rarely  among 
the  thickets  of  Tabor  and  Carmel.  Jer. 
13  :  23.  The  local  names  Nimrim,  "  leop- 
ard," and  Beth-Nimrah,  "house  of  the 
leopard"  (perhaps)  are  to  be  remem- 
bered. Near  the  latter  place  Tristram 
saw  the  fresh  footprints  of  these  crea- 
tures, "clear  and  unmistakable,  on  the 
moist  ooze."  It  is  the  habit  of  the  leop- 
ard to  wait  patiently  hour  after  hour 
that  it  may  pounce  upon  cattle.  Jer.  5  : 
6  ;  Hos.  13  :  7.  Isa.  11  :  6  alludes  to  its 
cruelty,  and  Dan.  7  :  6  to  its  power.  But 
it  is  thought  there  is  reference  under 
the  same  name  in  Ilab.  1  :  8  to  the  chee- 
tah, a  similar  but  smaller  animal  still 
found  in  Palestine,  the  rush  of  which 
upon  its  prey  exceeds  in  swiftness  the 
motion  of  any  other  carnivorous  animal. 
LEP'ER,  Leprosy  is  a  loathsome 
disease  still  prevalent  in  Egypt  and 
Syria,  and  occurring  also  in  India, 
China,  the  Crimea,  and  Norway.  The 
bones  and  the  marrow  are  pervaded  with 
the  disease,  so  that  the  joints  of  the 
hands  and  feet  lose  their  power,  the 
limbs  of  the  body  fall  together,  and  the 
whole  system  assumes  a  most  deformed 
and  loathsome  appearance.  The  pro- 
gress and  effect  of  the  disease  are  de- 
scribed in  Job  2  :  7,  8,  12 ;  6  :  2  j  7:3-5; 
19  : 14-21. 

There  are  two  forms  of  the  disease — 
the  tuberculated,  incrusting  the  whole 
person  with  ulcerous  tubercles,  and  the 
anaesthetic,  making  the  skin  mummy- 
like— but  under  both  forms 
"  Death  lives,"  and  the  dis- 
eased is  a  "walking  tomb," 
"a parable  of  death."  There 
was  also  a  milder  form  of  the 
disease,  the  so-called  "  white 
leprosy,"  often  attacking  only 
one  limb,  and  generally  cur- 
able, as  when  "  Moses'  hand 
ivas  leprous  as  snow."  Ex. 
4  :  6.  Notice  also  the  cases 
of  Miriam,  Num.  12  :  10  ;  Ge- 
hazi,  2  Kgs.  5  :  27 ;  and  Uz- 
ziah.   2  Chr.  26:16-23. 

Although  the  laws  respect- 
ing this  disease  which  we  find 
in  the  Mosaic  code  are  exceedingly  rigid, 
it  is  by  no  means  clear  that  the  leprosy  was 
considered  contagious.     The  horror  and 

515 


LEP 


LET 


disgust  which  was  felt  toward  a  disease  so 
foul  and  loathsome  might  be  a  sufficient 
reason  for  such  severe  enactments,  and 


strict  seclusion  was  at  all  events  an  effect- 
ive means  of  arresting  the  progress  of 
the  disease  by  preventing  intermarriage 


Leprous  Beggars. 


between  lepers  and  the  sound.  The 
leper  was  excluded  from  the  tabernacle 
and  the  camp,  and  when  he  was  healed 
his  restoration  to  social  intercourse  with 
his  fellow-men  was  twofold,  performed 
both  in  the  camp  and  in  the  tabernacle. 
Lev.  14  :  3-32.  A  house  for  lepers  was 
built  outside  Jerusalem  on  the  hill  of 
Gareb — i.  e.,  "  the  hill  of  scraping,"  Jer. 


Head  of  a  Leper. 

31  :  40  ;  Job  2  :  8 — and  the  leper  was 
compelled  to  wear  mourning.  Lev.  13  :  45. 
With  respect  to  the  leprosy  of  houses 
and  of  clothes,  Lev.  14  :  55,  the  expres- 
sion is  only  analogical,  referring  to  the 
spots  and  disfigurations  which  appeared 
516 


upon  the  walls  and  articles  of  clothing, 
resembling  the  leprous  spots,  and  orig- 
inating from  a  species  of  mould  or  mil- 
dew, indicating  a  great  degree  of  damp- 
ness, corrupting  the  air,  injurious  to 
health,  and  often  the  occasion  and  pre- 
cursor of  fatal  diseases.  The  rites  or- 
dained for  cleansing  and  purifying  this 
kind  of  "leprosy"  are  in  their  sym- 
bolical bearing  strictly  analogous  to  the 
laws  concerning  leprosy  jiroper.  Lev. 
13  :  47-59  :  14  :  33-53. 

LEP'ROSY.     See  Leper. 

LES'BOS.       Acts     20  :  14.       See 

MiTVLENE. 

LE'SHEM,  an  ancient  form  for 
liAISH,  the  original  name  of  Dan 
(which  see).  Josh.  19  :  47. 

LET  is  used  in  the  old  sense  "to 
hinder  "  in  Ex.  5:4;  Isa.  43  :  13 ;  Rom. 

1  :  13  ;  2  Thess.  2  :  7. 

LE'THECH,  occurring  in  the  mar- 
gin of  Hos.  3  : 2,  is  derived  from  a  root  sig- 
nifying *'  to  empty,"  "  to  pour  out,"  and 
denotes  a  measure  of  grain — half  a  homer. 

LET'TER.     The  letters  mentioned, 

2  Sam.  11  :  14,  2  Kgs.  10  :  1  ;  Ezr.  4  : 
11,  were  in  the  form  of  rolls,  not  unlike 
those  used  in  the  East  at  the  present 
day.  Thus  the  Arabs  roll  up  their 
letters,  and  then  flatten  them  to  the 
breadth  of  an  inch  and  paste  up  the  end 
instead  of  sealing  them,  and  the  Per- 
sians make  up  their  letters  in  the  form 
of  rolls,  about  6  inches  long,  and  paste 


LET 


LEV 


a  bit  of  paper  around  them  with  gum  and 
seal  them  with  an  impression  of  ink. 
When  sent  to  inferiors  they  were  often 


Part  of  a  Turkish  Firman. 

sent  open,  Neh.  6:5;  but  when  sent  to 
equals  or  superiors  they  were  enclosed 
in  a  purse  or  bas;.     See  Writing. 

LETU'SHIM  {sharpened,  ham- 
mered), an  Arabian  tribe  descended 
from  Dedan,  the  son  of  Jokshan.  Gen. 
25  :  3. 

IjEUM'MIM  {peoples,  nations),  an 
Arabian  tribe  descended  from  Dedan, 
the  son  of  Jokshan.  Gen.  25  :  3. 

LE'VI  {joining).  1.  The  third  son  of 
Jacob  and  Leah,  thus  named  by  the 
mother  because  "  now  will  my  husband 
be  joined  unto  me,  because  I  have  born 
him  three  sons."  Gen.  29  :  34.  To- 
gether  with    Simeon    he    avenged    the 


wrongs  of  their  sister  Dinah  by  slaying 
the  Shcchemites,  Gen.  34:25-31,  but 
thereby  he  incurred  the  curse  of  Jacob. 
Gen.  49  :  5-7.  By  the  zeal,  how- 
ever, of  his  descendants  on  occa- 
sion of  the  golden  calf,  Ex.  32  : 
26-29,  the  curse  was  transformed 
into  a  blessing.  He  had  three 
sons,  Gershon,  Kohath,  and  Me- 
rari,  and  died  in  Egypt  137 
years  old.  Ex.  6  :  16. 

2.  Two  of  the  ancestors  of  our 
Lord.  Luke  3  :  24,  29. 

3.  The  original  name  of  Mat- 
thew, the  publican  and  after- 
ward the  apostle,  son  of  Al- 
pheeus.    Mark    2  :  14;    Luke    5: 

27,  29  :   Matt.  9  :  9. 

LEVI'ATHAN,  the  Hebrew  name 
of  an  animal  minutely  described  in  Job 
41,  the  monster  of  the  water,  as  behe- 
moth was  of  the  land.  Probabl}-  the 
crocodile  is  here  intended  —  a  reptile 
which  resembles  the  alligator,  but  is 
larger  and  more  formidable,  with  nar- 
rower snout,  and  feet  webbed  to  the  end 
of  the  toes.  "The  whole  head,  back, 
and  tail  are  covered  with  quadrangular 
horny  plates  or  scales,  which  not  only 
protect  the  body — a  rifle-ball  glancing 
off  from  them  as  from  a  rock — but  also 
serve  as  ballast,  enabling  the  creature  to 
sink   rapidly,   on    being    disturbed,   by 


Leviathan.     {Crocodilus   Vulgaris.     After  Tristram.) 


merely  expelling  the  air  from  its  lungs." 
—  Tristram. 

It  is  believed  that  the  crocodile  was 
once  abundant  in  the  lower  Nile  to  its 


mouth,  but  it  is  now  rarely  seen  within 
the  confines  of  Egypt.  This  reptile 
once  abounded  also  in  the  Zerka  or 
Crocodile    River,    which    flows    through 

517 


LEV 


LEV 


the  Plain  of  Sharon,  and  doubtless  in 
the  Tigris. 

The  crocodile  seems  to  be  meant  by 
the  word  "leviathan"  in  Ps.  74:14; 
Isa.  27  : 1.  But  in  Ps.  104  :  26  the  word 
is  evidently  used  for  some  sea-monster, 
perhaps  the  whale.  Several  large  ceta- 
ceous animals  are  found  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

LE'VITES.  In  analogy  with  the 
names  of  the  other  tribes  of  Israel,  the 
term  should  mean  all  the  descendants  of 
Levi,  the  whole  tribe  of  Levi,  and  in  this 
sense  it  is  used  in  Num.  35  :  2 ;  Josh. 
21  :  3,  41 ;  Ex.  6  :  25  ;  Lev.  25  :  32,  etc. 
As,  however,  the  "sons  of  Aaron  "  were 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  descend- 
ants of  Levi  and  consecrated  priests,  the 
term  came  to  denote  a  distinction  within 
the  tribe  itself;  and  the  Levites  com- 
prised only  those  descendants  of  Levi 
who  were  not  "  sons  of  Aaron  " — that  is, 
priests.  1  Kgs.  8:4;  Ezr,  2  :  70 ;  John 
1 :  19,  etc.  Sometimes,  also,  the  term  was 
used  as  an  epithet  —  "the  priests  the 
Levites,"  Josh.  3:3;  Deut.  17  :  18— but 
its  general  acceptance  was,  and  is,  that 
of  the  second  sense  here  given. 

No  allusion  is  made  in  Genesis  to  the 
consecrated  character  of  the  Levites.  It 
was  given  on  the  occasion  of  the  making 
of  the  golden  calf  by  the  Israelites  while 
encamped  about  Mount  Sinai.  Ex.  32  : 
25-29.  When  Moses  came  down  from 
the  mountain  and  discovered  the  idol,  he 
cried  out:  "Who  is  on  the  Lord's  side? 
let  him  come  unto  me."  The  Levites 
immediately  gathered  around  him,  and 
in  reward  of  their  faithfulness  on  this 
occasion  they  were  selected  as  the  special 
servants  of  the  Lord  and  the  ministers  of 
his  sanctuary.  Deut.  10  :  8,  9  ;  18  :  1,  2  ; 
33  :  8-11.  Their  number  was  at  this  time 
22,000,  and  corresponded  nearly  to  that 
of  the  first-born  males  of  the  whole 
people.  Since  the  day  when  the  first-born 
of  Egypt  were  slain,  while  those  of  Israel 
were  spared,  all  first-born  males  of  Israel 
belonged  to  the  Lord.  They  numbered 
22,273,  and  in  their  place,  as  the  special 
inheritance  of  Jehovah,  the  Levites  were 
now  substituted,  the  273  surplus  being 
redeemed  at  five  shekels  each,  Num.  3  : 
45-51,  which  was  the  fixed  ransom  for  a 
victim  vowed  in  sacrifice.  Num.  18:  16; 
Lev.  27  :  6.  Thus  the  Levites  came  to 
occupy  in  the  Hebrew  theocracy  a  posi- 
tion midway  between  the  priests  and  the 
518 


people.  They  were  not  allowed  to  oflFer 
sacrifice,  to  burn  incense,  to  see  the 
"  holy  things"  until  covered.  Num.  4  :  5, 
etc.,  but  they  marched  nearer  the  ark 
than  the  people,  they  carried  the  sacred 
tent  in  parts,  they  pitched  it  again  at 
halting-stations,  etc.  For  service  they 
were  purified  by  bathing,  shaving,  etc., 
and  consecrated  by  the  imposition  of 
hands.  The  duties  of  their  ofl&ce  during 
the  wanderings  in  the  wilderness  were 
minutely  described.  They  consisted  uf 
three  great  families,  the  Kohathites,  the 
Gershonites,  and  the  Merarites,  of  which 
the  first  carried  the  sacred  vessels,  the 
second  the  hangings  and  curtains  of  the 
tabernacle,  and  the  third  the  boards  and 
pillars.  They  also  kept  the  book  of  the 
Law,  Deut.  17  :  8-12,  and  served  as 
judges,  etc. 

Forty-eight  cities,  with  one  thousand 
cubits  of  the  country  surrounding,  were 
appropriated  for  the  residence  and  main- 
tenance of  the  Levites.  These  cities,  of 
which  thirteen  were  allotted  to  the  priests 
and  six  were  cities  of  refuge,  were  selected 
by  lot,  and  lay  scattered  all  over  the 
country  in  the  following  way  :  in  Judah 
and  Simeon :  Hebron  or  Kirjath-arba, 
Libnah,  Jattir,  Eshtemoa,  Holon  or 
Hilen,  Debir,  Ain  or  Ashan,  Juttah, 
Beth-shemesh ;  in  Benjamin:  Gibeon, 
Geba,  Anathoth,  Almon  or  Alemeth ;  in 
Ephraim :  Shechem,  Gezer,  Kibzaim  or 
Jokmeam,  Beth-horon;  in  Dan  :  Eltekeh, 
Gibbethon,  Aijalon,  Gath-rimmon ;  in 
Manasseh  :  Taanach  or  Aner,  Gath-rim- 
mon or  Bileam,  Golan,  Beeshterah  or 
Ashtaroth ;  in  Issachar :  Kishon  or  Ke- 
desh,  Dabareh  or  Daberath,  Jarmuth  or 
Ramoth,  En-gannim  or  Anem  ;  in  Asher : 
Mishal  or  Mashal,  Abdon,  Helkath  or 
Hukok,  Rehob ;  in  Naphtali:  Kedesh, 
Hammoth-dor  or  Hammon,  Kartan  or 
Kirjathaim  ;  in  Zebulun  :  Jokneam,  Kar- 
tah,  Dimnah,  Nahalal  or  Rimmon,  and 
Tabor ;  in  Reuben  :  Bezer,  Jahazah  or 
Jahzah,  Kedemoth,  Mephaath;  in  Gad: 
Ramoth,  Mahanaim,  Heshbon,  and  Jazer. 
Besides  these  cities,  with  adjacent  dis- 
tricts, the  Levites  received  a  tithe  of  all 
produce,  animal  and  vegetable,  but  of 
this  they  paid  a  tithe  to  the  priests. 
Num.  18  :  20-32.  Another  tithe  they  re- 
ceived every  third  year,  and  special  pro- 
vision was  made  for  them  during  the 
term  they  administered  in  the  sanctuary. 

In  the  time  of  David  their  number  had 


LEV 


Lie 


increased  to  38,000,  of  which  24,000  were 
set  apart  for  the  ordinary  services,  6000 
for  the  teaching  of  the  Law  and  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice,  4000  as  porters, 
and  4000  as  musicians.  They  were 
divided  into  courses,  and  caiue  up  from 
their  cities  to  the  sanctuary  in  regular 
rotation.  1  Chr.  23 :  24  :'20-31  ;  25 ; 
26.  When  the  separation  took  phice 
between  the  kingdom  of  Israel  and  the 
kingdom  of  Judah,  all  the  Levites  gath- 
ered to  Judah,  2  Chr.  11  :  13-15,  and 
they  continued  to  play  a  conspicuous 
part  in  the  destinies  of  this  kingdom, 
under  Jehoshaphat,  2  Chr.  19  :  8-11  ,•  20  : 
14-28  ;  Joash,  2  Chr.  23  :  1-8  ;  Hezekiah, 
2  Chr.  29  :  3-36  ;  30  :  21,  22  ;  31 :  2-4 ; 
under  Josiah.  2  Chr.  34  :  12  ;  35  :  3-18, 
etc.  After  the  Captivity,  however,  only 
a  small  number  of  them  returned,  Ezr. 
2 :  36-42  ;  3:10;  6  :  18,  but  in  the  new 
organization  they  assumed  their  old 
positions.  They  settled  in  the  villages 
near  Jerusalem,  received  their  old  tithes, 
etc.  Neh.  10  :  37-39 ;  12  :  29.  In  the 
N.  T.  they  occur  as  representatives  of  a 
formal  worship  destitute  of  love.  Luke 
10  :  32.  The  distinction  of  Levite  is  still 
maintained  among  the  Jews. 

LEVIT'ICUS  is  the  name  of  the 
third  book  of  the  Pentateuch,  derived 
from  its  contents.  Only  the  chapters 
8-10  are  history;  the  rest  treats  of  the 
Levitical  services — namely,  chs.  1-7,  the 
laws  of  offerings;  8-10,  the  consecration 
of  Aaron  and  his  family  ;  11-15,  the  laws 
concerning  that  which  is  clean  and  that 
which  is  unclean  ;  16,  the  atonement  as 
the  sum-total  of  all  means  of  grace ; 
17-20,  the  separation  of  Israel  from 
heathendom  in  food,  marriage,  etc. ; 
21,  22,  the  holiness  of  priests  and  offer- 
ings;  23,  24,  the  holiness  of  convoca- 
tions, Sabbaths;  25,  on  redemption;  26, 
on  repentance  ;  27,  on  vows. 

The  authenticity  and  integrity  of  this 
book  are  generally  admitted,  and  the 
doubts  which  have  been  raised  concern- 
ing its  Mosaic  authorship  by  some 
modern  critics  regard  only  minor  points 
or  passages.  See  Law  and  Penta- 
teuch. 

LEWD'NESS.  This  word,  which 
occurs  Acts  18  :  14,  is  not  used  there  in 
its  present  common  acceptation,  but  in 
the  wider  sense  of  "  wicked"  or  "  vil- 
lany."     See  Rev.  Version. 

LIB'ERTINES,  mentioned  only  in 


Acts  6 :  9,  were  Jews  who,  having  been 
taken  prisoners  in  the  Syrian  wars,  were 
carried  to  Rome  and  reduced  to  slavery, 
but  afterward  emancipated.  That  their 
number  was  considerable  is  apparent 
from  the  fact  that  4000  of  them  were 
banished  from  Rome  in  A.  D.  19.  In  Je- 
rusalem they  had  a  synagogue,  and  there 
they  came  in  collision  with  Stephen. 

LIB'NAH  (Wii7e//e«s).  1.  The  fifth 
station  at  which  Israel  encamped  on 
their  journey  from  Sinai;  situated  be- 
tween Rimmon-parez  and  Rissah,  Num. 
33  :  20,  21,  but  not  yet  identified. 

2.  A  city  of  Canaan,  in  the  lowland  of 
Judah,  was  taken  by  Joshua,  Josh.  10  : 
29-32,39;  12:15,  and  assigned  to  the 
priests.  Josh.  15  :  42  ;  21 :  13  ;  1  Chr.  6  : 
57 ;  revolted  against  Joram,  2  Kgs.  8 : 
22;  2  Chr.  21:10;  was  besieged  by 
Sennacherib,  2  Kgs.  19  :  8;  Isa.  37:  8; 
and  has  been  identified  by  some  with 
Arak-el-Menshiyeh,  and  by  others  with 
Tell-es-Safieh. 

LIB'NI  (ivhite).  1.  A  Levite,  eldest 
son  of  Gershon.  Ex.  6:17;  Num.  3:18; 
1  Chr.  6:  17. 

2.  A  Levite,  grandson  of  Merari.  1 
Chr.  6 :  29. 

LIB'NITES,  the  descendants  of 
Libni,  the  eldest  son  of  Gershon.  Num. 
3:  21;  26:  58. 

LiIB'YA,  occurring  only  in  Eze.  30  : 
5  and  Acts  2  :  10,  is  the  classic  name  of 
Northern  Africa,  west  of  Egypt.  It  was 
inhabited  by  a  Hamitic  race,  spoken  of 
in  the  0.  T.  under  the  name  of  Lehabim 
or  LuBiM,  Avhich  see. 

LICE.  Ex.  8:16.  These  parasitic 
insects  are  still  a  pest  in  the  Nile  valley. 
Herodotus  tells  us  that  the  ancient 
Egyptians  peculiarly  abhorred  such  ver- 
min, and  were  taught  by  their  priests 
that  contact  with  lice  rendered  them 
ceremonially  unclean. 

Some  authorities  have  held  that  gnats 
were  here  intended,  but  there  is  less 
ground  for  this  opinion  than  for  that  of 
Sir  S.  W.  Baker  {Nile  Tributaries,  p. 
122),  which  the  writer's  own  observation 
inclines  him  to  favor  :  '*  The  louse  that 
infects  the  human  body  and  hair  has  no 
connection  whatever  with  'dust,'  and  if 
subject  to  a  few  hours'  exposure  to  the 
dry  heat  of  the  burning  sand  it  would 
shrivel  and  die;  but  the  tick  is  an  in- 
habitant of  the  dust — a  dry,  horny  in- 
sect without   any  apparent   moisture  in 

519 


LIE 


LIL 


its  composition.  It  lives  in  hot  sand 
and  dust,  where  it  cannot  possibly  ob- 
tain nourishment  until  some  wretched 
animal  should  lie  down  upon  the  spot 
and  become  covered  with  these  horrible 
vermin.  I  have  frequently  seen  dry 
places  so  infested  with  these  ticks  that 
the  ground  was  perfectly  alive  with  them, 
and  it  would  have  been  impossible  to 
have  rested  on  the  earth  ;  in  such  spots 
the  passage  in  Exodus  has  frequently 
occurred  to  me  as  bearing  reference  to 
these  vermin,  which  are  the  greatest 
enemies  to  man  and  beast."  These  ticks 
are  much  larger  than  lice.  The  body  is 
ordinarily  about  the  size  of  a  small  pea; 
the  legs  are  long,  and  the  creature  runs 
rapidlv. 

LIEUTEN'ANTS,  the  general 
name  of  the  satraps  or  viceroy's  of  the 
provinces  of  the  Persian  empire,  Ezr. 
8  :  36;  called  princes  in  Dan.  3:2;  6  : 
1,  etc. 

LIFE  is  used  in  Scripture  both  in  a 
natural  and  in  a  spiritual  sense.  In  the 
former  it  means  physical  life  as  opposed 
to  death.  Gen.  2:7;  25:7;  Luke  16: 
25;  Acts  17:25;  and  hence  the  expres- 
sions "tree  of  life,"  Gen.  2:9;  3  :  22  ; 
Rev.  2:7;  22  :  2  ;  "  bread  of  life,"  John 
6  :  35,  51 ;  "  water  of  life,"  Rev.  22  :  1, 17, 
etc.  In  the  latter  it  means  moral  conduct 
as  opposed  to  mere  animalism,  and  hence 
the  identification  of  life  with  that  which 
is  good,  Deut.  30  :  15  ;  John  3:16;  5  : 
24;  Rom.  5:12,  etc.,  and  of  death  with 
that  which  is  evil.  Jer.  21 :  8  :  John  6  : 
50;  Rom.  1:32. 

LIGHT.  By  an  easy  transition  from 
the  physical  to  the  moral  sphere,  light  is 
used  in  Scripture  in  numerous  figurative 
expressions  imaging  forth  the  mysteries 
of  the  spiritual  world.  Not  only  are 
cheerfulness,  joy,  intellectual  clearness, 
moral  truth,  and  divine  blessedness  re- 
peatedly described  as  light,  but  tlie  ex- 
pression is  also  applied  to  the  sources  of 
these  states ;  to  men,  John  5:35;  Matt. 
4:16:  to  angels,  2  Cor.  11  :  14  :  to  Christ 
Luke  2  :  32  ;  John  1 :  7-9  ;  8  :  12  ;  12  :  35  ; 
and  to  God  himself.  Jas.  1:17;  1  John 
1:5:1  Tim.  6:16. 

LIGHTENING.  The  terrors  of  the 
divine  wrath  are  often  represented  by 
thunder  and  lightning;  and  thunder,  on 
account  of  its  awful  impression  on  the 
minds  of  mortals,  is  often  spoken  of  in 
Scripture  as  the  voice  of  the  Lord.  Ex. 
520 


9  :  28  ;    Job   28  :  26  ;    37  :  3,  5  ;  38  :  25  ; 
40:9. 
LIGN-AL^OES.     See  Aloes. 

l-IG'URE.  There  is  more  difficulty 
in  identifying  this  stone  than  any  other 
in  the  breastplate  of  the  high  priest, 
Ex.  28  :  19.  No  mineral  is  at  the  pres- 
ent day  known  by  this  name.  Some  high 
authorities  suppose  that  the  ligure  is 
amber  because  Pliny  and  Theophrastus 
mention  that  amber  is  found  in  Liguria, 
whence  this  name  might  naturally  be  de- 
rived. But  it  is  objected  that  amber  was 
too  soft  for  permanent  engraving.  The 
opinion  that  the  ligure  was  red  tourma- 
line or  rubellite — sometimes  called  red 
sapphire — finds  much  favor.  This  hard 
and  often  transparent  stone  is  certainly 
used  as  a  gem.     See  Amber. 

LIK'HI  {/earned),  a  grandson  of 
Manasseh.  1  Chr.  7  :  19. 

LIK'ING,  as  a  noun,  means  "  condi- 
tion." and  as  a  participle  ''  conditioned." 
Job  39:4:  Dan.  1:10. 

LIL'Y  (Heb.  shusnn ;  Arabic  sti- 
sa7i).  The  Arabs  use  this  word  for  any 
beautiful  flower  resembling  a  lily,  and  in 
this  general  sense  it  is   probably  em- 


Scarlet  Lily.    (Lilium  Chalcedonicum.) 

ployed  in  the  Bible,  the  connection  often 
suggesting  to  an  Oriental  mind  the  par- 
ticular species  meant. 

The  only  true  lily  now  found  in  Pal^ 


LIM 


LIO 


estine  is  the  scarlet  martagon  {Liliiim 
chulcedonicum).  It  is  likely  that  a  white 
and  fragrant  kind  {L.  candidum)  was 
once  found  on  the  coast,  and  this  may 
have  been  the  species  referred  to  in  such 


{Anemone  coronarla.) 


passages  as  Cant.  2:1.  But  neither  kind 
was  probably  ever  generally  abundant. 
Many  related  flowers  of  great  beauty  are 
common,  such  as  irises,  tulips,  hyacinths, 
and  a  gladiolus. 

If  any  particular  plant  is  meant,  the 
scarlet  anemone  (Anemone  coronaria) 
best  answers  the  conditions  of  color, 
Cant.  5:13,  universal  abundance,  and 
gorgeousness.  Matt.  6:28,  29.  This 
flower  is  called  a  lily  by  the  Arabs. 

In  the  scarcity  of  wood  the  common 
flowering  weeds  of  the  fields  are  ordi- 
narily gathered  for  fuel,  and  under  the 
hot  sun  and  dry  wind  Matt.  6  :  30  is  often 
literally  fulfilled. 

LIME,  a  well-known  substance  ob- 
tained byburning  limestone,  bones,  shells, 
etc.,  and  used  for  plaster  or  the  cement 
of  brick-work.  Deut.  27  :  2  ;  Isa.  33:12. 
It  is  inferred  from  the  above  passage, 
and  from  Am.  2:1,  that  the  modern 
mode  of  manufacturing  this  article  was 
known    to  the   apcients.      Untempered 


mortar  is  that  which  is  so  imperfectly  or 
unskilfully  mixed  that  it  cannot  be 
worked.  Eze.  13  :10,  11. 

LIN'EAGE,  family  or  race.  Luke 
2:4. 

LIN'EN,  a  cloth  made  of  flax.  It 
was  much  valued  and  used  in  ancient  as 
it  is  in  modern  times.  Fine  white  linen 
is  in  Scripture  the  emblem  of  innocence 
or  moral  purity.  Rev.  15  :  6,  though  it  is 
also  mentioned  as  a  mark  of  luxury. 
Luke  16:  19. 

The  best  linen  was  anciently  made  in 
Egypt,  as  that  country  aff'orded  the  finest 
flax.  The  dress  of  the  Egyptian  priests 
was  made  of  linen,  and  so  was  the  dress 
of  state  in  which  Pharaoh  arrayed 
Joseph.  Gen.  41 :  42.  Also  the  sheets  in 
which  mummies  were  wrapped,  and  which 
formerly  were  held  to  be  some  kind  of 
cotton  fabric,  have  been  proved  by  micro- 
scopic examination  to  consist  of  linen. 

In  the  Hebrew  text  several  difi'erent 
words  are  employed  to  denote  linen.  The 
exact  distinction  between  these  words 
has  not  been  made  out,  but  it  is  probable 
that  they  denote  native  fabrics  in  dis- 
tinction from  those  imported  from  Egypt 
and  Syria,  or  perhaps  only  difi'erent  kinds 
of  the  same  native  product.  For  linen 
in  general  was  highly  valued  and  much 
used  among  the  Jews.  The  temple  veil, 
2  Chr.  3  :  14;  2 :  14,  the  holy  garments 
of  the  priests,  1  Chr.  15  :  27,  and  of  the 
Levite  choir,  2  Chr.  5  :  12,  the  over-gar- 
ment of  the  king,  1  Chr.  15  :  27,  etc.,  were 
made  of  it. 

LINES.  This  expression  refers  to 
the  mode  of  measuring  land  with  a  cord 
or  line,  Am.  7:17;  Zech.  1:16;  2:1,2, 
and  came  thus  to  denote  a  definite  allot- 
ment of  real  estate,  an  inheritance.  Ps. 
16:6. 

LIN'TEL,  the  head-piece  of  a  door- 
frame, by  which  the  superimposed  mass 
is  supported.  The  Hebrews  were  com- 
manded to  strike  blood  upon  it  on  the 
Passover  night.  Ex.  12  :  22. 

LI'NUS,  a  Christian  of  Rome,  a 
friend  of  St.  Paul  and  Timothy,  2  Tim. 
4 :  21,  and,  according  to  tradition,  the 
first  bishop  of  Rome  after  Peter. 

LI'ON.  This  animal  was  found  in 
Palestine  as  late  as  the  twelfth  century, 
but  has  disappeared  with  the  forests. 
Doubtless  it  was  of  the  Asiatic  species, 
with  a  short  curly  mane,  smaller,  more 
compact,  and  less  formidable  than  the 
.       521 


LIP 


LOA 


African  lion.  The  king  of  beasts  is  men- 
tioned about  one  hundred  and  thirty 
times  in  the  Bible.  Besides  the  general 
name,  six  Hebrew  words  are  used  foi  this 
animal,  marking  different  conditions  of 


Lion. 

age  and  prowess.  His  roar  is  described 
by  four  words,  and  his  movements  by 
six.  Lebaoth,  Arieh,  Laish,  and  other 
places  were  named  from  this  animal. 

Lions  were  captured  in  pitfalls,  to 
which  there  is  allusion  in  Eze.  19  :  4,  8  ; 
2  Sam.  23  :  20.  Shepherds  occasionally 
attacked  them  single-handed.  1  Sam. 
17  :  36.  The  Scriptures  record  how  the 
lion,  when  famished,  often  attacked  the 
flock,  devoured  men,  and  even  ravaged 
villages.  This  animal  was  partial  to  the 
jungles  of  the  Jordan,  and  when  driven 
thence  by  the  annual  freshet  was  much 
enraged.  Jer.  49  ;  19  ;  50  :  44.  As  the 
symbol  of  royal  power  and  strength,  the 
most  princely  of  all  the  tribes  bore  this 
animal  on  its  banner.  Gen.  49  :  9,  and  in 
the  Revelation  Christ  is  called  "the  Lion 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah." 

The  representations  of  this  animal  in 
the  sculptures  of  Solomon's  temple  and 
palace  will  be  remembered,  as  will  also 
frequent  rhetorical  references  to  it  as  the 
symbol  of  various  well-known  character- 
istics, such  as  courage  and  ferocity. 

LIPS.  This  word  has  various  peculiar 
significations  in  the  Scriptures.  Unclean 
lips,  Isa.  6  :  5,  are  lips  polluted  by  sinful 
words;  calves  of  our  lips,  Hos.  14:2, 
sacrifices  of  praise;  burning  lips,  Prov. 
523 


26  :  23,  lips  through  which  the  expres- 
sions of  malice,  envy,  and  other  malig- 
nant passions  are  continually  passing. 
Acts  9  :  1,  or,  as  it  is  oftener  interpreted, 
burning  with  false  professions  of  piety 
and  friendship. 
Covering  the  lips, 
Eze.  24  :  22,  or 
chin  with  the 
outer  garment 
was  a  token  of 
mourning.  The 
word  occurs,  be- 
sides, in  a  great 
number  of  meta- 
phorical expres- 
sions easy  to  un- 
derstand. 

LIQ'UOR, 
OR  LIQUORS, 
the  translation  of 
three  different  He- 
brew words.  One 
denotes  a  "tear" 
— i.  e.,  the  juice 
of  the  olive  and 
grapes,  Ex.  22 : 
29 ;  the  second  denotes  "  maceration  " — 
i.  e.,  drink  prepared  by  steeping  grapes. 
Num.  6:3;  the  last,  "  mixture  " — i.  e., 
highly-flavored  wine.  Cant.  7  :  2.  See 
Wine. 

LIT^TER,  a  covered  chair  shelter- 
ing the  occupant  against  rain  and  the 
sun,  and  carried  either  by  men  or  animals. 
Isa.  66:20. 

LIVE'LY,  in  1  Pet.  2  :  5,  means 
"living;"  in  Ex.  1:19  it  means  "full 
of  life,"  "  vigorous." 

LIVER.  The  expression  "the 
caul  above  the  liver,"  so  frequently  oc- 
curring in  the  Pentateuch,  Ex.  29  :  13, 
22;  Lev.  3  :  4,  10,  15 ;  4:9;  7:4;  8: 
16;  9:10,  etc.,  means  one  of  the  lobes 
of  the  liver,  which  was  to  be  burned 
on  the  altar,  and  not  eaten  as  sacri- 
ficial food. 

LIZ'ARD  (that  lohich  clings  to 
the  ground).  Lev.  11  :  30.  Many  species 
of  these  reptiles  abound  in  Palestine, 
some  of  which  are  very  slow  in  their 
movements,  while  others  run  very  rapid- 
ly. Some  kinds  are  eaten  by  the  very 
poor  inhabitants.  See  Chameleon, 
Ferret,  Mole,  Snail,  and  cut  on  next 
page. 

LOAF.  1  Chr.  16  :  3.     See  Bread. 
LO-AM'MI    {not    my  people),  the 


LOA 


LOC 


name  applied  symbolically  to  the  son 
of  the  prophet  Hosea.  representing 
Israel.    Hos.  1  :  9.     See  Lo-uuhamah. 

LOAN.  The  Mosaic  law  repeatedly 
enjoined  it  on  the  rich  to  come  to  the  re- 
lief of  the  poor,  not  only  with  alms,  but 


Lizard. 

also  with  loans.  Ex.  22  :  25 ;  Lev.  25  : 
35-37,-  Deut.  16:3,-  7-10;  23:19,20. 
No  interest  was  to  be  taken,  Ex.  22  :  25  ; 
Lev.  25  :  36  ;  Deut.  23  :  19,  and  a  pledge 
or  security  onlj'  under  certain  restric- 
tions ;  the  creditor  was  not  allowed  to 
enter  the  house  of  the  debtor  in  claim  of 
the  pledge,  Deut.  24  :  10,  11  ;  a  widow's 
raiment  could  not  be  taken  as  a  pledge, 
Deut.  24  :  17,  or  a  millstone,  Deut. 
24  :  6,  nor  could  a  poor  man's  raiment 
be  kept  over-night.  It  was  allowed  to 
hold  a  debtor  in  bondage,  but  only  to 
the  jubilee — that  is,  for  six  years  at  the 
utmost,  Lev.  25  :  39-41,  and  in  the  sab- 
batical year  all  debts  were  cancelled 
and  all  pledges  returned.  Deut.  15  :  1-3, 
7-10.  These  laws,  however,  had  no 
reference  to  foreigners,  from  whom  the 
Jews  took  interest  and  retained  forfeited 
pledges;  they  also  kept  them  as  slaves. 
Nor  were  these  laws  kept  strictly  for  a 
very  long  time.  Sons  were  later  on 
seized  for  their  fathers'  debts,  2  Kgs.  4 : 
1,  and  interests  were  exacted,  Neh.  5  : 
1,  13 ;  and  in  the  time  of  our  Lord  the 
economic  principles  of  the  Jews  seem  to 
have  approached  very  nearly  to  those  of 
the  rest  of  the  commercial  world.  Matt. 
5  :  42  ;  25  :  27 ;  Luke  6  :  35  :  19  :  13. 

LOCK.  The  doors  of  the  ancient 
Hebrews  were  secured  by  bars  of  wood 
or  iron,  though  the  latter  were  almost 
entirely  appropriated  to  the  entrance  of 
fortresses,  prisons,  and  towns.  Thus  we 
find  it  mentioned    in  1  Kgs.  4  :  13,  as 


something  remarkable  concerning  Bash- 
an  that  there  were  threescore  great  cities 
having  walls  and  brazen  bars.  These 
were  almost  the  only  locks  known  in 
early  times,  and  they  were  furnished 
with  a  large  and  clumsy  key,  which  was 
applied  to  the  bar  by  pushing  the  whole 
arm  through  an  orifice  from  the  outside- 
Cant.  5  :  4.  There  were  also  smaller 
contrivances  for  inner  doors,  Jud.  3  :  24, 
and  probably  projecting  pieces  by  which 
to  push  the  bolt  with  the  hand.  See 
Key. 

LO'CUST,  an  insect  of  the  grass- 
hopper family,  remarkable  for  numbers 
and  voracity,  and  hence  one  of  the  most 
dreadful  scourges  of  Eastern  countries. 
Locusts,  when  mature,  can  fly  to  a  con- 
siderable height,  and,  occasionally  alight- 
ing for  food  and  rest,  they  are  often  borne 
by  the  wind  hundreds  of  miles.  There 
are  many  species  of  these  insects  found 
in  the  United  States,  but  none  precisely 
such  as  live  in  the  Orient.  The  locusts 
most  destructive  and  doubtless  ordinarily 
referred  to  by  the  Bible  are  of  two  kinds, 
Acrydium  peregrinnm  and  CEclipoda  mi- 
gratoria.  In  our  English  Bible  seven 
terms  probably  describe  this  insect  or 
allied  species — viz.,  locust,  bald  locust, 
beetle,  canker-worm,  caterpillar,  grass- 
hopper, palmer-worm.  These  seven 
terms  are  made  to  translate  nine  He- 
brew names.  The  confusion  of  the  en- 
tire subject  may  be  seen  by  the  fact  that 
''locust"  represents  four  original  words, 
''grasshopper"  two,  and  "caterpillar" 
two,  while  two  original  words  have  each 
a  twofold  translation.  Doubtless  the  Jews 
themselves  applied  some  of  these  terms 
as  loosely  and  widely  as  we  do  such  a 
word  as  "worm." 

It  is  probable  that  several  of. the  seven 
names  mentioned  describe  locusts  in  their 
immature  state.  After  leaving  the  egg 
this  insect  passes  through  changes  an- 
swering to  those  of  the  butterfly,  but  is 
never  dormant  as  a  chrysalis.  From  first 
to  last  it  is  voracious,  but  when  it  is  ma- 
ture and  can  fly,  it  lays  its  eggs  and  drifts 
away  in  vast  clouds,  perhaps  to  perish  in 
the  ocean.  The  locusts  which  the  writer 
saw  devastating  portions  of  Syria  were 
fully  thiee  inches  long  when  their  wings 
were  closed.  Lev.  11  :  22  describes  four 
distinct  insects  of  the  locust  order. 
"Beetle"  is  plainly  a  mistranslation  for 
some  one  of  these  leapers,  since  what- 

$23 


LOO 


LOG 


Locusts. 
1.  Truxalis.    2.  Acridum  peregrinum.    3.  CEdipoda  migratoria.     (After  Tristram.) 


ever  only  crept  and  flew  might  not  be 
eaten,  vs.  21,  23.  Joel,  1  :  4,  probably 
names,  as  has  been  suggested,  four  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  locust  or  stages  of  its 
growth. 

These  insects  were  often  the  instru- 
ments of  divine  judgment.  Ex.  10  : 
4-15  ;  Deut.  28  :  :]8-42  ;  1  Kgs.  8  :  37  ; 
Joel  2  :  1-11.  The  last-named  passage 
gives  a  most  vivid  and  accurate  descrip- 
tion of  this  fearful  visitation.  As  locusts 
enter  Palestine  from  the  south  or  east, 
the  "  northern  army,"  Jo.el  2  :  20,  prob- 
ably describes,  under  the  figure  of  lo- 
custs, the  Assyrians,  who  entered  the 
land  in  similar  swarms,  but  from  a  dif- 
ferent quarter. 

The  account  in  Joel  2  is  illustrated  by 
the  following  extract  from  the  journal  of 
an  Eastern  traveller :  "  The  locusts,  prop- 
524 


erly  so  called,  which  are  so  frequently 
mentioned  by  sacred  as  well  as  profane 
authors,  are  sometimes  gregarious  be- 
yond expression.  Those  which  I  saw 
were  much  bigger  than  our  common 
grasshoppers,  and  had  brown  spotted 
wings,  with  legs  and  bodies  of  a  bright 
yellow.  Their  first  appearance  was  to- 
ward the  latter  end  of  March,  the  wind 
having  been  some  time  from  the  south. 
In  the  middle  of  April  their  numbers 
were  so  vastly  increased  that  in  the 
heat  of  the  day  they  formed  themselves 
into  large  and  numerous  swarms,  flew 
in  the  air  like  a  succession  of  clouds, 
and,  as  the  prophet  Joel  expresses  it, 
'  the  sun  .  .  .  shall  be  dark.'  When  the 
wind  blew  briskly,  so  that  these  swarms 
were  crowded  by  others  or  thrown  one 
upon  another,  we  had  a  lively  idea  of 


LOG 


LOG 


that  comparison  of  the  Psalmist,  Ps. 
109  :  23,  of  being  'tossed  up  and  down 
as  the  locust.'  In  the  month  of  May, 
when  the  ovaries  of  these  insects  were 
ripe  and  turgid,  each  of  these  swarms 
began  gradually  to  disappear,  and  re- 
tired into  the  Metijiah  and  other  ad- 
jacent   plains,    where    they    deposited 


Locust  Flying. 

their  eggs.  These  were  no  sooner 
hatched,  in  June,  than  each  of  the 
broods  collected  itself  into  a  compact 
body  of  an  eighth  of  a  mile  square,  and, 
marching  afterward  directly  forward  to- 
ward the  sea,  they  let  nothing  escape 
them,  eating  up  everything  that  was 
green  and  juicy,  not  only  the  lesser  kinds 
of  vegetables,  but  'the  vine'  likewise, 
'the  fig  tree, . .  .  the  pomegranate  tree,  the 
palm  tree  also,  and  the  apple  tree,  even  all 
the  trees  of  the  field,' Joel  1 :  11, 12  ;  in  do- 
ing which,  they  kept  their  ranks  like  men 
of  war,  climbing  over,  as  they  advanced, 
every  tree  or  wall  that  was  in  their  way; 
nay,  they  entered  into  our  very  houses 
and  bedchambers  like  thieves.  The  in- 
habitants, to  stop  their  progress,  made 
a  variety  of  pits  and  trenches  all  over 
their  fields  and  gardens,  which  they 
filled  with  water,  or  else  they  heaped 
up  therein  heath,  stubble,  and  such-like 
combustible  matter,  which  were  sever- 
ally set  on  fire  upon  the  approach  of  the 
locusts.  But  this  was  all  to  no  purpose, 
for  the  trenches  were  quickly  filled  up 
and  the  fires  extinguished  by  infinite 
swarms  succeeding  one  another,  whilst 
the  front  was  regardless  of  danger  and 
the  rear  pressed  on  so  close  that  a  retreat 
was  altogether  impossible.    A  day  or  two 


after  one  of  these  broods  was  in  motion 
others  were  already  hatched  to  march 
and  glean  after  them,  gnawing  off  the 
very  bark  and  the  young  branches  of 
such  trees  as  had  before  escaped  with  the 
loss  only  of  their  fruit  and  foliage.  So 
justly  have  they  been  compared  by  the 
prophet  to  a  great  army,  who  further 
observes  that  'the  land  is  as  the  garden 
of  Eden  before  them,  and  behind  them 
a  desolate  Avilderness.' " 

Van  Lennep  says  :  "  The  ground  over 
which  their  devastating  hordes  have 
passed  at  once  assumes  an  appearance 
of  sterility  and  dearth.  Well  did  the 
Romans  call  them  '  the  burners  of  the 
land,'  which  is  the  literal  meaning  of 
our  word  'locust.'  On  they  move,  cov- 
ering the  ground  so  completely  as  to 
hide  it  from  sight,  and  in  such  numbers 
that  it  often  takes  three  or  four  days  for 
the  mighty  host  to  pass  by.  When  seen 
at  a  distance  this  swarm  of  advancing 
locusts  resembles  a  cloud  of  dust  or  sand, 
reaching  a  few  feet  above  the  ground  as 
the  myriads  of  insects  leap  forward.  The 
only  thing  that  momentarily  arrests  their 
progress  is  a  sudden  change  of  weather, 
for  cold  benumbs  them  while  it  lasts. 
They  also  keep  quiet  at  night,  swarm- 
ing like  bees  on  the  bushes  and  hedges 
until  the  morning  sun  warms  and  revives 
them  and  enables  them  to  proceed  on 
their  devastating  march.  Nah.  3  :  17. 
They  'have  no  king'  nor  leader,  yet 
they  falter  not,  but  press  on  in  serried 
ranks,  urged  in  the  same  direction  by  an 
irresistible  impulse,  and  turn  neither  to 
the  right  hand  nor  to  the  left  for  any  sort 
of  obstacle.  Prov.  30  :  27.  When  a  wall 
or  a  house  lies  in  their  way  they  climb 
straight  up,  going  over  the  roof  to  the 
other  side,  and  blindly  rush  in  at  the 
open  doors  and  windows.  Ex.  10:6; 
Joel  2  :  9.  When  they  come  to  water, 
be  it  a  mere  puddle  or  a  river,  a  lake 
or  the  open  sea,  they  never  attempt  to 
go  round  it,  but  unhesitatingly  leap  in 
and  are  drowned;  and  their  dead  bodies, 
floating  on  the  surface,  form  a  bridge 
for  their  companions  to  pass  over.  The 
scourge  thus  often  comes  to  an  end,  but 
it  as  often  happens  that  the  decomposi- 
tion of  millions  of  insects  produces  pes- 
tilence and  death.  Joel  2  :  20.  History 
records  a  remarkable  instance  which  oc- 
curred in  the  year  125  before  the  Chris- 
tian era.    The  insects  were  driven  by  the 

525 


LOG 


LOI 


wind  into  the  sea  in  such  vast  numbers 
that  their  bodies,  being  driven  back  by 
the  tide  upon  the  land,  caused  a  stench, 
■which  produced  a  fearful  plague,  where- 
by 80,000  persons  perished  in  Libya,  Gy- 
rene, and  Egypt. 

"  The  locust,  however,  soon  acquires 
its  wings,  and  proceeds  on  its  way  by 
flight  whenever  a  strong  breeze  favors 
its  progress.  Our  attention  has  often 
been  attracted  by  the  sudden  darken- 
ing of  the  sun  in  a  summer  sky,  accom- 
panied by  the  peculiar  noise  which  a 
swarm  of  locusts  always  makes  moving 
through  the  air,  and,  glancing  upward, 
we  have  seen  them  passing  like  a  cloud 
at  a  height  of  200  or  300  feet.  Joel  2:10. 
Some  of  them  are  constantly  dropping  to 
the  earth,  and,  after  resting  a  while,  are 
driven  by  a  common  impulse  to  rise  again 
and  proceed  with  the  wind ;  so  that,  be- 
sides the  principal  cloud,  single  locusts 
or  a  few  together  may  be  seen  in  almost 
every  part  of  the  sky.  During  a  great 
flight  they  sometimes  drop  so  thickly 
upon  the  ground  that  it  is  impossible 
to  step  without  treading  upon  some  of 
them,  and  the  poor  villagers,  in  con- 
sternation, busy  themselves  kindling 
fires,  whose  smoke  serves  to  prevent 
the  locusts  from  alighting  upon  their 
fields,  orchards,  or  vineyards.  The 
people  of  Syria  believe  noise  to  be  as 
effectual  in  driving  away  locusts  as  in 
attracting  a  swarm  of  bees  ;  hence,  upon 
the  appearance  of  a  flight  of  these  dread- 
ed insects  the  inhabitants  of  the  villages, 
men,  women,  and  children,  rush  out, 
armed  with  any  tin  or  copper  pans  or 
kettles  or  rattles  they  can  lay  hold  of, 
and  strive,  by  their  deafening  shouts  and 
din,  Jer.  51  :  14,  to  scare  the  unwelcome 
visitors  away." 

Some  species  of  the  locust  are  eaten 
at  this  day  in  Eastern  countries,  and  are 
even  esteemed  a  delicacy  when  properly 
cooked.  Lev.  11 :  22;  Matt.  3  :  4.  After 
tearing  off  the  legs  and  wings  and  taking 
out  the  entrails,  they  stick  them  in  long 
rows  upon  wooden  spits,  roast  them 
at  the  fire,  and  then  proceed  to  devour 
them  with  great  zest.  There  are  also  other 
ways  of  preparing  them.  For  example, 
they  cook  them  and  dress  them  in  oil,  or, 
having  dried  them,  they  pulverize  them, 
and  when  other  food  is  scarce  make  bread 
of  the  meal.  The  Bedouins  pack  them 
with  salt  in  close  masses,  which  they  carry 
526 


in  their  leathern  sacks.  From  these  they 
cut  slices  as  they  may  need  them.  When 
the  Arabs  have  them  in  quantities,  they 
roast  or  dry  them  in  an  oven  or  boil  them 
and  eat  them  with  salt.  The  Arabs  in  the 
kingdom  of  Morocco  boil  the  locusts,  and 
the  Bedouins  eat  locusts,  which  are  col- 
lected in  great  quantities  in  the  begin- 
ning of  April,  when  they  are  easily 
caught.  After  having  been  roasted  a 
little  upon  the  iron  plate  on  which  bread 
is  baked  they  are  dried  in  the  sun,  and 
then  put  into  large  sacks  with  the  mix- 
ture of  a  little  salt.  They  are  never 
served  up  as  a  dish,  but  every  one  takes 
a  handful  of  them  when  hungry.  The 
food  of  John  the  Baptist  consisted  of 
such  dried  locusts,  and  not  of  the  fruit 
of  the  carob  tree.     See  Husks. 

In  the  book  of  Revelation,  9  :  7,  we  have 
a  literal  description  of  the  symbolical  lo- 
cust, which  gives  us  a  terrific  impression 
of  their  power,  and  which  is  curiously 
illustrated  by  a  passage  from  an  Eastern 
traveller.  An  Arab  from  Bagdad,  he  says, 
compared  the  head  of  the  locust  to  that  of 
the  horse;  its  breast  to  that  of  the  lion: 
its  feet  to  those  of  the  camel ;  its  body  to 
that  of  the  serpent ;  its  tail  to  that  of  the 
scorpion  ;  and  so  of  other  parts.  In  like 
manner  the  Italians  still  call  locusts  little 
horses,  and  the  Germans  call  them  hay- 
horses. 

LOD.  1  Chr.  8  :  12.     See  Lydda. 

LO-DE'BAR,  a  place  in  the  tribe 
of  Gad,  not  far  from  Mahanaim,  north 
of  the  Jabbok,  east  of  the  Jordan.  2  Sam. 
9:4;  17  :  27.  Here  dwelt  Machir  the 
Ammonite,  who  assisted  David  when  he 
retired  from  Absalom's  usurpation,  and 
in  whose  house  lived  Mephibosheth, 
Jonathan's  lame  son,  who  sat  at  David's 
table  and  received  from  him  all  that  per- 
tained to  Saul  and  his  house.  Some  sup- 
pose it  to  be  the  same  as  Debir,  Josh. 
13  :  26,  but  by  modern  travellei-s  it  has 
not  yet  been  identified. 

LODGE.  Isa.  1 :  8.     See  Garden. 

LODGE,  TOj  means,  except  in 
Josh.  2: 1,*'  to  stay  over-night."  Isa.  1:21. 

LOG.  Lev.  14: 10.     See  Measures. 

LOIIVS.  The  dress  of  the  Oriental 
nations  being  loose,  it  was  necessary, 
when  they  were  travelling  or  working, 
to  gird  up  their  garments  and  fasten 
them  about  their  loins.  See  Clothes. 
Hence  the  expression  is  figuratively 
used,  1  Pet.  1  :  13,  to  denote  a  state  of 


LOT 


LOK 


mind  in  which  the  soul  is  prepared  to 
work  and  exert  itself  under  the  influence 
of  divine  grace. 

LOIS,  the  grandmother  of  Timothy. 
2  Tim.  1:  5. 

LOOKED    means,   in  Acts  28  :  6, 

a  PYT)GCt.GCl 

LOOK'ING-GLASS.  What  is 
thus  translated  was  in  fact  a  plate  of 
metal  polished  so  highly  as  to  produce  a 
very  good  reflection  of  objects.  Gener- 
ally, these  mirrors  were  of  a  round  shape 
and  provided  with  a  handle.  Ex.  38  :  8 ; 
Job  37: 18;  Isa.  3:23. 

LORD.  This  word  is  in  our  trans- 
lation of  the  0.  T.  the  rendering  of  the 
two  Hebrew  words  "Jehovah"  and 
*'Adonai."  When  it  represents  the  for- 
mer, which  may  be  considered  a  proper 
name,  it  is  printed  with  capitals.  Gen. 
15:  4.  When  it  represents  the  latter,  of 
which  it  is  the  translation,  it  is  printed 
with  a  capital  initial.  Ps.  97  :  5,  etc. 

LORD'S  DAY,  Rev.  1:  10.  From 
the  times  of  the  apostles  the  first  day  of 
the  week  was  kept  sacred  by  the  Chris- 
tians in  commemoration  of  the  resurrec- 
tion of  Christ,  and  it  is  invariably  desig- 
nated as  the  Lord's  day  by  the  Fathers 
of  the  primitive  Church  up  to  the  time 
of  the  edict  of  Constantino  (321),  when 
the  name  Sunday  became  common.  See 
Sabbath. 

LORD'S  PRAYER,  the  name 
given  to  the  prayer  which  our  Lord  him- 
self taught  his  disciples,  and  which  is  re- 
corded Matt.  6  :  9-13;  Luke  11 : 2-4.  "  The 
Lord's  Prayer  is  the  Prayer  of  prayers, 
as  the  Bible  is  the  Book  of  books  and 
the  Apostles'  Creed  the  Creed  of  creeds. 
It  is  the  best  and  most  beautiful,  the 
simplest  and  j'et  the  deepest,  the  shortest 
and  yet  the  most  comprehensive,  of  all 
forms  of  devotion.  Only  from  the  lips 
of  the  Son  of  God  could  such  a  perfect 
pattern  proceed.  An  ancient  Father 
calls  it  a  summary  of  Christianity  or  the 
gospel  in  a  nutshell.  It  embraces  all 
kinds  of  prayer,  petition,  intercession, 
and  thanksgiving,  all  essential  objects 
of  prayer,  spiritual  and  temporal,  divine 
and  human,  in  the  most  suitable  and 
beautiful  order,  commencing  with  the 
glory  of  God,  gradually  descending  to 
man's  needs,  then  rising  to  the  final  de- 
liverance from  all  evil,  and  ending  in 
thanksgiving  and  praise,  as  all  prayer 
must  end  at  last,  in  heaven,  where  all  our 


wants  shall  be  supplied.  It  accompanies 
the  Christian  from  the  cradle  to  the 
grave.  It  can  never  be  superseded.  If 
we  have  exhausted  the  whole  extent  of 
our  religious  wants  and  the  whole  vo- 
cabulary of  devotion,  we  gladly  return 
to  this  model  prayer  as  infinitely  supe- 
rior to  all  our  own  eff"usions.  It  may 
indeed,  be  abused,  like  every  gift  of 
God,  and  become  a  dead  form — Luther 
called  it  in  this  respect  'the  greatest 
martyr  on  earth ' — but  this  is  no  argu- 
ment against  its  proper  and  frequent 
use.  It  is  not  intended,  of  course,  to 
supersede  other  forms  or  extemporane- 
ous prayers,  but  it  should  serve  as  a 
general  pattern  and  directory  to  all  our 
devotions,  and  breathe  into  them  the 
proper  spirit." — Schaff. 

The  Lord's  Prayer  is  divided  into 
three  parts — the  address  ("Our  Father 
who  art  in  heaven"),  the  petitions  (six 
or  seven),  and  the  doxology.  The  ad- 
dress or  preface  puts  us  into  the  proper 
filial  relation  to  God  as  our  Father,  to 
our  fellow-men  as  our  brethren  ("our"), 
and  into  the  proper  attitude  of  prayer 
as  an  ascension  of  the  soul  to  heaven 
("  who  art  in  heaven  ")  as  our  final  home. 
The  petitions  are  divided  into  two 
classes.  The  first  three  refer  to  the 
name,  the  kingdom,  and  the  will  of  God; 
the  other  three  or  four  to  the  temporal 
and  spiritual  wants  of  man  till  his  final 
deliverance  from  all  evil  (or,  better,  from 
"  the  evil  one  " — that  is,  from  Satan,  sin, 
and  its  consequences).  The  doxology  is 
wanting  in  Luke  and  in  the  oldest  manu- 
scripts of  Matthew;  it  probably  found 
its  way  into  the  margin  and  then  into 
the  text  from  the  habit  of  the  Christians, 
inherited  from  the  Jews,  to  wind  up  their 
prayers  with  a  doxology.  It  is  certainly 
very  ancient  and  ajipropriate,  and  will 
never  drop  out  of  use,  whatever  critics 
may  do  with  the  text. 

The  Lord's  Prayer  is  intended  for  his 
disciples.  He  himself  addressed  God, 
not  as  "our  Father,"  but  as  "my  Fa- 
ther," or  simply  "Father,"  owing  to  his 
unique  relation  to  him  as  the  eternal  and 
only  begotten  Son;  and,  being  free  from 
sin  and  guilt,  he  had  no  need  to  pray, 
"  Forgive  us  our  debts." 

LORD'S  SUPPER,  or  THE 
HOLY  COMMUNION,  is  the  ordi- 
nance which  commemorates  the  dying 
love  and  sacrifice  of  Christ  for  the  sins 

527 


LOR 


LOT 


of  the  world.  Christians  are  commanded 
to  observe  it  till  he  shall  return  in 
glory.  It  was  instituted  in  the  night 
preceding  the  crucifixion.  The  Lord 
Jesus,  after  eating  the  paschal  supper 
with  his  disciples,  took  bread  and 
blessed  it,  and  brake  it,  and  gave  it  to 
the  disciples,  and  said.  Take,  eat,  this 
is  my  body,  which  is  broken  for  you : 
this  do  in  remembrance  of  me.  After 
the  same  manner  also  he  took  the  cup, 
and  gave  thanks  and  gave  it  to  them, 
saying,  Drink  ye  all  of  it;  for  this  is 
the  new  covenant  in  my  blood,  which  is 
shed  for  many  for  the  remission  of  sins; 
this  do  ye  as  oft  as  ye  drink  it  in  re- 
membrance of  me.  Matt.  26  :  19-30 ; 
Mark  14  :  16-26;  Luke  22  :  13-20;  1 
Cor.  11  :  23-26.  Nothing  can  surpass 
the  touching  simplicity  and  appropriate- 
ness of  this  memorial  service,  which  has 
always  been  regarded  in  the  Christian 
Church  as  the  holy  of  holies  of  worship 
and  communion  with  the  crucified  and 
ever-living  Saviour. 

In  course  of  time,  as  the  development 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  ordinance  became 
the  subject  of  theological  controversy, 
three  difi"erent  explanations  of  the  words 
of  institution  led  to  three  difi'erent  the- 
ories— the  Roman  Catholic  dogma  of 
transubstantiation,  or  the  miraculous 
transformation  of  the  sacramental  ele- 
ments into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ; 
the  Lutheran  doctrine  of  the  co-exist- 
ence of  the  real  body  and  blood  of  Christ 
in,  with,  and  under  the  elements  during 
the  time  of  sacramental  transaction,  and 
their  participation  by  all  communicants; 
and  the  figurative  explanation  of  the 
words  of  institution  with  the  idea  of  a 
spiritual  fruition  of  Christ  by  faith  only, 
as  held  in  the  Reformed  Churches. 

It  is  a  sad  reflection  that  the  ordinance 
of  the  Lord's  Supper — this  feast  which 
should  bind  all  pious  hearts  to  Christ 
and  to  each  other  and  fill  them  with  the 
holiest  and  tenderest  affections  —  has 
been  the  innocent  occasion  of  the  bitter- 
est and  most  violent  passions  and  the 
most  uncharitable  abuse.  The  eucharis- 
tic  controversies,  before  and  after  the 
Reformation,  are  among  the  most  un- 
refreshing  and  apparently  fruitless  in 
Church  history. 

Happily,  the  blessing  of  the  holy 
communion  does  not  depend  upon  the 
scientific  interpretation  and  understand- 
628 


ing  of  the  words  of  institution,  however 
desirable  this  may  be,  but  upon  the 
promise  of  the  Lord  and  upon  child- 
like faith.  And  therefore  even  now 
Christians  of  different  denominations 
and  holding  different  opinions  can  unite 
around  the  table  of  their  common  Lord 
and  Saviour,  and  feel  one  with  him  and 
in  him. 

With  respect  to  the  views  held  by  the 
various  evangelical  Protestant  churches, 
at  least,  the  chief  elements  of  recon- 
ciliation, when  subordinate  differences 
and  scholastic  subtleties  are  yielded, 
may  be  found  in  the  following  proposi- 
tions. The  Lord's  Supper  is,  1.  A  com- 
memorative ordinance,  a  memorial  of 
Christ's  atoning  death;  2.  A  feast  of 
living  union  of  believers  with  the  Sa- 
viour, whereby  we  truly,  though  spiritu- 
ally, receive  Christ,  with  all  his  benefits, 
and  are  nourished  with  his  life  unto  life 
eternal ;  3.  A  communion  of  believers 
with  one  another  as  members  of  the 
same  mystical  body  of  Christ. 

LO-RU'HAMAH  {the  nncompas- 
sionated),  the  name  of  the  daughter  of 
Hosea  the  prophet,  and  referring  to  the 
hopeless  condition  of  the  kingdom  of 
Israel,  from  whom  Jehovah  seemed  to 
have  withdrawn  his  mercy.  Hos.  1 :  6,  8. 

LOT  (a  covering,  veil),  the  son  of 
Ilaran  and  nephew  of  Abraham,  was 
born  in  Ur,  a  city  of  Chaldea,  where  his 
father  died,  and  followed,  with  Abraham 
and  Terah,  to  Mesopotamia,  where  the 
latter  died  at  Haran.  Gen.  11  :  31,  32, 
thence  to  Canaan,  Gen.  12  :  4,  5,  and 
probably  also  to  Egypt.  After  the  re- 
turn from  Egypt  the  herds  of  Abraham 
and  Lot  had  greatly  increased.  The 
tract  of  land  they  occupied  was  incon- 
veniently small ;  strife  arose  between 
their  herdmen,  and  Abraham  proposed 
they  should  separate,  leaving  the  choice 
to  Lot  whether  he  would  go  eastward  or 
westward.  Lot  chose  that  region  of  the 
valley  of  the  Jordan  in  which  Sodom 
and  Gomorrah  were  situated,  but  there- 
by he  became  involved  in  the  warfare 
waged  by  Chedorlaomer  against  the  two 
cities,  was  carried  away  as  a  prisoner 
of  war,  and  was  only  rescued  by  the 
valor  of  Abraham,  who  attacked  and 
defeated  Chedorlaomer.  Lot  returned 
to  Sodom,  and,  though  he  loathed  the  life 
of  perdition  which  was  led  in  that  city, 
he  remained  there  and  chose  his  sons-in- 


LOT 


LUD 


law  among  the  Sodomites.  When,  at  last, 
the  measure  of  iniquity  was  full  and 
doom  was  passed  over  the  city,  Lot  and 
his  family  were  saved  only  by  the  aid  of 
special  messengers  from  the  Lord,  who 
accompanied  them  from  Sodom  to  Zoar; 
but  Lot's  "  wife  looked  back  from  be- 
hind him,  and  she  became  a  pillar  of 
salt."  Gen.  19  :  26.  Lot  removed  from 
Zoar  and  dwelt  in  the  mountains,  after 
which  he  disappears  from  history.  The 
nations  of  the  Ammonites  and  Moabites 
descended  from  him. 

LO'TAN  {covering),  the  eldest  son 
of  Seir  the  Horite,  and  chief  of  his  tribe 
in  the  land  of  Edom.  Gen.  36  :  20,  22. 
29  ;  1  Chr.  1 :  38,  39. 

LOTS,  a  method  used  to  determine 
chances  or  preferences  or  to  decide  a  de- 
bate. The  decision  by  lot  was  often  re- 
sorted to  in  former  times,  but  always 
with  the  strictest  reference  to  the  inter- 
position of  God  ;  as  in  the  choice  of  the 
apostle  Matthias,  Acts  1  :  26,  and  in  the 
cases  of  Saul  and  Jonathan,  and  Jonah 
and  his  companions  to  determine  who 
had  offended  God.  1  Sam.  14  :  41,  42 ; 
Jon.  1:7.  In  the  division  of  the  Prom- 
ised Land  among  the  tribes  of  Israel  the 
use  of  the  lot  was  expressly  commanded 
by  God  himself,  it  being  understood  that 
the  extent  of  territory  should  be  pro- 
portioned to  the  population  of  each 
tribe.  Num.  26  :  55.  So  the  selection  of 
the  scapegoat  on  the  daj'  of  atonement 
was  to  be  determined  by  lot.  Lev.  16  : 
8.  Property  was  divided  in  the  same 
way.  Ps.  22:18;  Matt.  27:35.  The 
orders  of  the  priests  and  their  daily  ser- 
vice were  also  assigned  by  lot.  1  Chr. 
24,  25. 

As  to  the  manner  of  casting  lots  we 
have  no  certain  information.  It  is  sup- 
posed by  some  that  the  stones  or  marks 
which  were  used  in  determining  the  lot 
were  thrown  together  into  the  lap  or  fold 
of  a  garment,  or  into  an  urn  or  vase,  and 
that  the  person  holding  them  shook  them 
violently,  so  that  there  should  be  a  per- 
fect mingling  of  the  whole  contents,  to 
prevent  all  preference  by  the  hand  of  him 
who  should  draw ;  so  that  the  passage 
Prov.  16  :  33  is  paraphrased  thus  :  "  In 
a  lot-vase  the  lots  are  shaken  in  all  direc- 
tions ;  nevertheless,  from  the  Lord  is  the 
whole  decision  or  judgment." 

LOTS,  FEAST  OF.     See  Purim. 

LOVE.     This  term  signifies  one  of 
34 


the  constituent  principles  of  our  nature, 
and  in  the  perfect  exercise  of  it  is  com- 
prehended the  whole  of  our  duty  to  God 
and  to  our  fellow-creatures.  Matt.  22 : 
37-40;  Rom.  13:  8,  10;  Gal.  5:14; 
Jas.  2  :  8.  Hence  it  evidently  com- 
prehends all  holiness  of  heart  and  life. 
The  highest  and  most  glorious  display 
of  the  divine  character  which  has  ever 
been  made  to  man  is  the  love  of  God  in 
Jesus  Christ,  Rom.  5  :  8,  and  the  great 
principle  and  fruit  of  both  faith  and 
obedience  consists  in  the  possession  and 
exercise  of  love.  John  13  :  34,  35. 

LOVE-FEASTS  were  held  in  con- 
nection with  the  Lord's  Supper,  and 
paid  for  out  of  the  common  fund.  Jude 
12;  2  Pet,  2:13.  When  the  community 
of  goods  had  ceased,  Chrysostom  says, 
the  rich  provided  them.  Originally 
these  feasts  were  held  in  the  churches, 
but  this  was  forbidden  by  the  Council 
of  Laodicaea  A.  it.  320.  and  in  the  follow- 
ing century  the  custom  was  dropped  or 
assumed  other  forms. 

LU^BIM  [thirsty  ;  thence,  chvellers  in 
a  scorched  land).  2  Chr.  12  :  3  ;  16  :  8  ; 
Dan.  11  :  43;  Nah.  3  :  9.  See  Lehabim 
and  Libya. 

LU'CAS.     Phile.  24.     See  Luke. 

LU'CIFER.  This  word,  signifying 
"light-giver,"  occurs  but  once  in  our 
Bible,  Isa.  14:12,  and  is  then  applied 
to  the  king  of  Babylon  to  indicate  his 
glory  as  that  of  a  morning  star,  or, 
figuratively,  "a  son  of  the  morning." 
Tertullian  and  some  others  suppose  the 
passage  to  relate  to  the  fall  of  Satan,  and 
hence  the  term  is  now  usually  applied 
in  that  way,  though,  as  it  seems,  without 
suflicient  warranto 

LU'CIUS.  1.  A  kinsman  of  St. 
Paul,  Rom.  15  :  21,  and,  according  to 
tradition,  bishop  of  Cenchraea,  from  which 
place  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  was 
written.     He  is  perhaps  identical  with — 

2.  Lucius  of  Cj'rene,  a  Christian 
teacher  in  Antioch.  Acts  13  : 1. 

LUD,  son  of  Shem,  from  whom  the 
Lydians  of  Asia  Minor  are  supposed  to 
have  descended.   Gen.  10  :  22. 

LU'DIM,  son  of  Mizraim,  whosepos- 
terity,  also  called  Lydians,  Jer.  46  :  9, 
settled  on  the  continent  of  Africa,  as  we 
infer  from  the  connection  in  which  they 
and  their  country  are  mentioned,  Isa. 
66:  19;  Eze.27  :  10;  30  :  5 ;  Gen.  10: 
13.     Their  precise  location  is  unknown. 

529 


LUH 


LUN 


LiU'HITH  (made  of  bonrda),  a  place 
in  Moab.  Isa.  15  :  5  ;  Jer.  48  :  5. 

LUKE  (Greek  Lucas),  Col.  4:14; 
2  Tim.  4:11;  Phile.  24,  is  probably  an 
abbreviation  of  Lucanus,  possibly  of 
Lucilius,  but  not  of  Lucius.  Acts  13  :  1  ; 
Rom.  16:  21.  The  evangelist  was  not  a 
•lew,  as  is  evident  from  Col.  4  :  14,  where 
the  "  beloved  physician  "  is  distinguished 
from  "  those  of  the  circumcision."  The 
opinion  that  he  was  a  native  of  Antioch 
may  have  arisen  from  confounding  him 
with  Lucius.  That  he  was  one  of  the 
Seventy  or  of  the  two  who  were  walking 
to  Emmaus  is  unlikely,  as  he  was  not 
himself  an  ''eye-witness,"  1:2,  of  the 
gospel  facts.  According  to  the  N.  T.,  he 
was  a  physician,  and  his  style  in  gene- 
ral, as  well  as  his  mode  of  desci-ibing 
diseases,  proves  him  to  have  been  an 
educated  physician.  Tradition  adds  that 
he  was  also  a  painter.  He  comes  into 
historical  prominence  as  the  companion 
of  Paul  in  his  later  journeys,  though  his 
presence  is  modestly  indicated  in  his  own 
narrative  only  by  the  change  to  the  first 
person  plural.  Joining  the  apostle  at 
Troas,  Acts  16  :  10,  he  accompanied  him 
to  Philippi  on  bis  second  journey;  re- 
joining him  some  years  later  at  the  same 
place,  Acts  20  :  5,  he  remained  with  Paul 
until  the  close  of  his  first  Roman  cap- 
tivity. Acts  28  :  30.  Of  his  subsequent 
life  nothing  certain  is  known.  Accord- 
ing to  common  consent  and  internal 
evidence,  he  is  the  author  of  the  Gospel 
named  after  him,  and  of  the  Acts. 

Luke,  The  Gospel  of,  was  written 
primarily  for  the  use  of  one  Theophilus. 
Luke  1 :  3.  As  this  name  means  "  lover 
of  God,"  some  have  supposed  that  it 
ought  to  be  applied  to  any  Christian 
reader  in  general,  but  it  is  better  to  re- 
fer it  to  a  person  of  high  rank  ("  most 
excellent,"  equivalent  to  our  word  "hon- 
orable"), who  was  either  a  convert  or  a 
catechumen.  To  the  same  person  the  Acts 
are  dedicated.  Acts  1  : 1.  The  minute  de- 
scription of  places  in  Palestine  indicates 
that  this  person  was  not  an  inhabitant  of 
that  country,  while  the  mention  of  small 
places  in  Italy  as  familiarly  known.  Acts 
27  :  8-16,  makes  it  probable  that  his 
home  was  at  Rome — a  view  confirmed 
by  the  abrupt  conclusion  of  Acts.  In 
any  case,  he  was  a  Gentile,  and  the  Gos- 
pel was  designed  mainly  for  Gentile 
Christians,  representing  the  universal 
630 


import  of  the  coming  of  Christ  for  all 
nations  and  for  all  classes  of  men.  This 
agreement  with  Paul  is  a  natural  result 
from  the  close  personal  intimacy  between 
the  apostle  and  the  author,  but  there  is 
no  evidence  that  Paul  dictated  the  Gos- 
pel or  referred  to  it  as  his  Gospel.  2  Tim. 
2  :  8.  The  verbal  resemblances,  espe- 
cially in  the  account  of  the  words  of  in- 
stitution of  the  Lord's  Supper,  Luke  22  : 
19,  20;  1  Cor.  11  :  23-25,  are  such  as 
would  naturally  result  from  companion- 
ship with  Paul.  In  other  respects  the 
peculiarities  of  the  third  Gospel  are 
marked.  The  style  closely  resembles 
that  of  the  Acts,  but  has  a  larger  num- 
ber of  Hebraisms,  especially  in  the  first 
two  chapters,  which  indicate  the  use  of 
Hebrew  documents  by  the  evangelist. 
Where  he  describes  scenes  he  had  wit- 
nessed himself,  the  style  is  far  more  pure. 
A  large  number  of  words  are  peculiar  to 
Luke,  and  to  him  we  are  indebted  for 
nearly  all  the  chronological  notices  which 
link  the  Gospel  facts  with  ancient  his- 
tory in  general.  The  narrative  is  more 
complete  than  the  others,  and  contains 
several  portions  peculiar  to  it ;  as,  for 
instance,  the  account  of  the  Nativity,  the 
presentation  in  the  temple,  the  mirac- 
ulous draught  of  fishes,  the  sending  out 
of  the  Seventy,  the  parables  of  the  Good 
Samaritan,  the  Barren  Fig  Tree,  the  Lost 
Sheep,  the  Prodigal  Son,  the  Unjust 
Steward,  Dives  and  Lazarus,  etc.  The 
Gospel  was  written  before  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  and  also  before  the 
Acts.  Acts  1:1.  It  is  probable  that  it 
was  written  at  Caesarea  in  Palestine  dur- 
ing Paul's  imprisonment  there,  58-60. 
Some,  however,  date  it  still  earlier. 

LUKE'WARM  denotes  the  indiffer- 
ent, who  receive  the  call  from  the  Lord, 
but,  without  either  accepting  or  formally 
refusing  it,  remain  entirely  unimpressed 
by  it.  Rev.  3:16. 

'  LU'NATIC.  It  was  formerly  sup- 
posed that  the  changes  of  the  moon 
(Luna)  had  an  influence  upon  certain 
diseases  of  a  paroxysmal  character,  and 
persons  affected  with  those  diseases  were 
therefore  called  lunatics ;  hence,  dis- 
tracted persons  who  are  sane  at  intervals 
are  still  called  lunatic^  though  the  idea 
of  their  being  at  all  under  the  influence 
of  the  moon  is  generally  regarded  as 
irrational. 

In  the  two  places  in  which  the  word 


LUS 


LYS 


occurs  in  our  translation  of  the  Bible, 
Matt.  4  :  24;  17:  15,  it  seems  to  be  nearly 
identical  with  "  epileptic." 

LiUST  was  not  used  formerly  in  its 
present  restricted  sense,  butof  any  strong 
desire.  In  the  A.  V.  it  is  the  translation 
of  three  Hebrew  and  four  Greek  words. 
"  To  lust  "  appears  six  times  in  the  A.  V. 
Ps.  81:12;  Rom,  1:24-27. 

LUS'TY,"  vigorous."  Jud.  3  :  29. 

Ij\] Z  {almoud  tree).  1.  The  Canaan- 
ite  name  for  the  place  in  which  Jacob 
rested  and  had  a  prophetic  vision,  and 
afterward  the  city  of  Bethel ;  now  Bei- 
tin.  Gen.  28:19;  35:6:  48:3;  Josh. 
16:2;  18:13:  Jud.  1:23. 

2.  A  cit}'  in  the  land  of  the  Hittites, 
built  by  an  inhabitant  of  the  original 
Luz,  who  was  spared  when  the  city  was 
sacked.  Jud.  1  :  23 ;  now  Lxnoeiziyeh,  4 
miles  north-west  of  Banias. 

LYCAO'NIA,  a  province  of  Asia 
Minor  which  the  apostle  Paul  twice 
visited.  Acts  14  :  1-23  ;  16  :  1-6  ;  18  : 
23  ;  19  :  1.  It  was  separated  from  Phry- 
gia,  and  bounded  north  by  Galatia,  east 
by  Cappadocia,  south  by  Cilicia,  and 
west  by  Pisidia  and  Phrygia.  It  con- 
sisted of  a  plateau  with  a  hilly  surface, 
not  very  fertile,  but  affording  excellent 
sheep-walks.  Its  principal  industry  was 
wool-growing.  Its  chief  towns  were 
Iconium,  Derbe,  and  Lystra. 

The  speech  of  this  province.  Acts  14  : 
11,  is  supposed  to  have  been  either  a 
Syrian  or  a  corrupted  Greek  dialect,  and 
the  standard  of  civilization  seems  not  to 
have  been  so  very  high. 

liY'CIA  (lish'ia),  a  region  of  Asia 
Minor,  extending  along  the  Mediterra- 
nean, just  opposite  to  the  island  of  Rhodes, 
between  Caria  and  Pamphylia,  and 
"overed  by  the  spurs  of  the  Taurus. 
Having  belonged  to  the  empire  of  Alex- 
ander and  the  Seleucidse,  it  was  for  some 
time  in  the  possession  of  Rhodes,  but 
made  itself  independent  and  became  very 
prosperous,  as  the  ruins  of  its  two  largest 
cities,  Patara  and  Myra,  testify.  It  also 
acquired  some  political  importance,  as 
shown  by  1  Mace.  16 :  23.  In  the  reign 
of  Claudius  it  became  a  Roman  province. 
Paul  visited  it,  and  preached  the  gospel 


both  at  Patara,  Acts  21  :  1,  and  at  Myra. 
Acts  27 :  5. 

LYD'DA,  the  Greek  name  for  the 
Hebrew  Lod,  the  present  Lydd,  now  a 
village,  but  in  ancient  time  a  flourishing 
town  situated  in  the  plain  of  Sharon,  a 
few  miles  east  of  Jopj)a,  on  the  road  to 
Jerusalem.  It  was  burnt  several  times 
by  the  Romans,  but  again  rebuilt.  Ves- 
pasian gave  it  the  name  of  Diospolis, 
*'  city  of  Jupiter,"  but  the  old  name  pre- 
vailed. It  was  the  birthplace  of  St. 
George,  the  patron  saint  of  England, 
and  Justinian  built  a  church  in  his 
commemoration.  By  the  Saracens  it  was 
again  burnt,  but  rebuilt  by  the  Crusa- 
ders. Now  the  church  is  in  ruins,  but 
the  village  is  prospering.  Here  St. 
Peter  healed  the  paralytic  ^neas.  Acts 
9:32. 

LYD'IA,  a  Jewish  proselyte  from 
the  city  of  Thyatira,  in  Lydia,  engaged 
in  the  purple  trade,  possessed  of  wealth, 
and  temporarily  residing  at  Philippi, 
where  she  heard  Paul  preach.  Acts  16  : 
14.  She  accepted  the  Gospel,  was  bap- 
tized together  with  her  household,  and 
tendered  hospitality  to  the  apostle. 

LYD'IA,  a  coast-region  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor, extending  along  the  Mediterranean 
from  the  promontory  of  Mycale  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Hermas.  It  formed  in 
olden  times  the  centre  of  a  great  empire 
under  Croesus ;  afterward  it  belonged 
successively  to  Syria,  Pergamus,  and 
the  Romans.  Its  principal  cities  were 
Sardis,  Thyatira,  and  Philadelphia.  It 
is  mentioned  in  1  Mace.  8 :  8  among  the 
provinces  which  the  Romans  transferred 
from  Syria  to  Pergamus. 

LYRE.     See  Harp. 

LYSA'NIAS.     See  Abilene. 

LY'SIAS.     See  Clattdius. 

LYS'TRA,  a  city  of  Lycaonia,  sit- 
uated in  the  eastern  part  of  the  great 
plain,  probably  at  the  present  Bi-hir- 
Kilisheh.  Paul  visited  this  place  twice, 
the  first  time  in  company  with  Barnabas, 
Acts  14,  when  he  was  saluted  as  the 
god  Mercury,  but  afterward  stoned,  the 
second  time  in  company  with  Silas. 
Acts  16.  Timothy  was  probably  born 
here.  2  Tim.  3  :11. 

631 


,,,..?;,. 


MAA 


MAA 


M. 


MA'ACAH  ioppresiiion),  2  Sam.  3  :  3, 
OR  MA'ACHAH,  1  Chr.  3  :  2,  a  daugh- 
ter of  Talmai,  king  of  Geshur,  was  taken 
in  battle  by  David,  according  to  Hebrew 
tradition,  and  made  one  of  his  wives  and 
bore  him  Absalom. 

MA' AC  AH,  2  Sam.  10  :  6,  or 
MAACHAH,  1  Chr.  19  :  6,  7,  a  small 
district  or  kingdom  on  the  north-eastern 
frontier  of  Palestine,  situated,  like  Ti- 
beath  and  Tebach,  in  connection  with 
which  it  is  mentioned,  between  Argob 
to  the  west  and  the  desert  to  the  east. 
Its  king  brought  into  the  field  only  1000 
men  to  the  assistance  of  the  Bene- 
Ammon  against  Joab.  It  can  hardly 
have  been  in  the  region  of  Abel-beth- 
maachah. 

MA'ACHAH.  1.  The  daughter  of 
Nahor,  Abraham's  brother,  by  his  concu- 
bine Reumah.  Gen.  22  :  24. 

2.  The  father  of  Achish,  who  was  king 
of  Gath  at  the  beginning  of  Solomon's 
reign,  1  Kgs.  2  :  39  ;  is  also  called  Moach. 
1  Sam.  27  :  2. 

3.  The  daughter,  or  more  probably  the 
granddaughter,  of  Absalom,  and  the  third 
wife  of  Rehoboam,  mother  to  Abijah  and 
grandmother  to  Asa.  1  Kgs.  15 :  2  ;  2  Chr. 
11 :  20-22.  In  2  Chr.  13  :  2  she  is  called 
"  Michaiah,  the  daughter  of  Uriel  of 
Gibeah,"  "  Michaiah,"  being  a  variation 
of  "  Maachah,"  and  Uriel  being  the 
husband  of  Absalom's  daughter  Tamar. 
In  the  beginning  of  Asa's  reign  she  held 
the  dignity  of  queen-mother,  1  Kgs.  16  : 
2,  10,  13  ;■  2  Chr.  11  :  20-22  ;  but  when 
Asa  came  of  age  she  lost  the  dignity  as  a 
punishment  because  she  had  introduced 
idolatry.  2  Chr.  15:  16. 

4.  A  concubine  of  Caleb,  the  son  of 
Hezron.  1  Ciir.  2  :  48. 

5.  A  descendant  of  Benjamin,  and  the 
wife  of  Machir  the  Manassite.  1  Chr.  7  : 
12,  15,  16. 

6.  The  wife  of  Jehiel,  the  founder  of 
Gibeon,  and  the  ancestor  of  the  family 
of  Saul.  1  Chr.  8:29;  9  :  35. 

7.  The  father  of  Hanan,  one  of  David's 
warriors.  1  Chr.  11 :  43. 

8.  The  father  of  Shephatiah,  chief  of 
the  Simeonites.  1  Chr.  27  :  16. 

532 


MAACH'ATHI,  Deut.  3  :  14,  or 
MAACH'ATHITES,  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Maachah.  Josh.  12  :  5  :  13  :  11,  13; 
2  Sam.  23  :  34  ;  2  Kgs.  25  :  23  ;  1  Chr.  4 : 
19  ;  Jer.  40  :  8. 

MAAD'AI  {the  ornament  of  Jehovah), 
one  of  the  sons  of  Bani,  who  had  taken  a 
foreign  wife.   Ezr.  10  :  34. 

MA  AD  I' AH,  a  priest  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel,  Neh.  12:5;  is  called 
Moadiah  in  v.  17. 

MAA'I  [compassionate),  a  Levite,  one 
of  the  Bene-Asaph,  who  partook  in  the 
dedication  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem. 
Neh.  12  :  36. 

MAAL'EH-ACRAB'BIM  {the 
ascent  of  scorjjioits).  Josh.  15  :  3.  The 
form  is  given  elsewhere  as  Akrabbim. 

MA'ARATH  {open  jylace),  a  town 
in  the  mountains  of  Judah.  Josh.  15  :  59. 
The  Pal.  Memoirs  suggest  Beit  Ummar, 
7  miles  north  of  Hebron,  as  its  site. 

MAASE'IAH  {tvork  of  Jehovah). 
1.  Three  priests — one  a  descendant  of 
Jeshua,  Ezr.  10  :  18,  another  of  the  sons 
of  Harim,  Ezr.  10  :  21,  and  a  third  of  the 
sons  of  Pashur,  Ezr.  10  :  22 — who  had 
married  foreign  wives. 

2.  A  laj'man  who  divorced  his  foreign 
wife.   Ezr.  10  :  30. 

3.  The  father  of  Azariah.  Neh.  3  :  23. 

4.  One  who  assisted  Ezra  when  he  read 
the  Law  to  the  people.  Neh.  8  :  4. 

5.  A  Levite  who  expounded  the  Law 
to  the  people,  Neh.  8  :  7. 

6.  One  whose  descendants  signed  the 
covenant  with  Nehemiah.  Neh.  10  :  25. 

7.  Two  whose  descendants  dwelt  in 
Jerusalem  after  the  return  from  Babylon. 
Neh.  11:5,  7. 

8.  Two  priests  who  took  part  in  the 
musical  service  at  the  dedication  of  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem.  Neh.  12  :  41,  42. 

9.  The  father  of  Zephaniah.  Jer.  21 : 
1;  29:25. 

10.  The  father  of  the  false  prophet 
Zedekiah.  Jer.  29:21. 

11.  A  Levite  appointed  a  porter  for  the 
ark  by  David.   1  Chr.  15  :  18,  20. 

12.  The  son  of  Adaiah  ;  partook  in  the 
revolution  by  which  Joash  was  placed  on 
the  throne.  2  Chr.  23  :  1. 


MAA 


MAC 


13.  An  officer  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah. 
2  Chr.  26:  11. 

14.  A  son  of  King  Ahaz.  2  Chr.  28  :  7. 

15.  The  governor  of  Jerusalem  under 
King  Josiah.  2  Chr.  34  :  8. 

16.  A  doorkeeper  at  the  temple.  Jer. 
35:4. 

MAASE'IAH  {rcfiuje  of  Jehovah),  a 
priest,  the  father  of  Keriah,  and  the 
grandfather  of  Baruch  and  Seraiah,  Jer. 
32:  12;   51:59. 

MAAS'IAI  {work  of  Jehovah),  a 
priest.    1  Chr.  9  :  12  ,•  comp.  Neh.  11  :  13. 

MA'ATH  (small),  an  ancestor  of 
Jesus.  Luke  3  :  26. 

MA'AZ  (anger),  a  son  of  Ram,  a  de- 
scendant of  Judah.  1  Chr.  2  :  27. 

MAAZI'AH  (Jehovah's  consolation). 
1.  Head  of  the  twenty-fourth  course  of 
priests  in  the  reign  of  David.  1  Chr. 
24 :  18. 

2.  One  of  the  priests  who  signed  the 
covenant  with  Nehemiah,  Neh.  10  :  8. 

MACCABEES,  THE  BOOKS 
OF  THE,  five  in  number,  and  con- 
taining the  history  of  the  Jewish  rising 
under  the  leadership  of  the  family  of  the 
Maccabees,  belong  to  the  Apocryphal 
books  of  the  0.  T.  The  first  two  books, 
however,  which  are  found  in  the  Vulgate, 
the  earliest  English  versions,  and  also  in 
the  Cambridge  Bible,  were  received  into 
the  canon  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
by  the  Council  of  Trent ;  the  fifth  exists 
only  in  Arabic. 

1.  The  first  book  begins  with  the  acces- 
sion of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  to  the 
Syrian  throne  in  B.C.  175,  and  narrates  the 
revolt  of  the  Jews  under  Mattathias,  their 
brilliant  successes  under  Judas  Macca- 
baeus,  and  the  continuation  of  the  contest 
under  Jonathan  and  Simeon  till  the  death 
of  the  latter,  in  b.  c.  135.  It  was  originally 
written  in  Hebrew,  in  the  first  decades 
of  the  first  century  before  Christ,  and 
afterward  translated  into  Greek  ;  but  we 
know  only  the  translation.  Its  character 
is  very  different  from  that  of  the  histor- 
ical books  of  the  0.  T. ;  it  is  a  simple 
exposition  of  merely  human  exploits. 
But  the  author  is  veracious,  and  his 
apparent  ignorance  of  Roman  or  other 
foreign  aft'airs  does  not  impugn  his 
trustworthiness  when  he  speaks  of  Jew- 
ish affairs. 

2.  The  second  book  begins  in  the  last 
time  of  the  reign  of  Seleucus  IV.  Philo- 
pator,  and  ends  with  the  victory  of  Judas 


Maccabaeus  over  Seleucus  Nikanor  in  160. 
It  thus  comprises  a  much  shorter  period 
than  the  first  book ;  and  where  it  relates 
the  same  events,  it  deviates  very  much 
from  it.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  how- 
ever, which  of  the  two  accounts  is  the 
more  trustworthy.  The  second  book  is 
an  extract  from  a  larger  work  on  the 
subject  by  one  Jason  of  Cyrene,  but  we 
know  neither  this  Jason  nor  his  work, 
nor  the  epitomizer.  The  extract  must 
have  been  made  before  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  and  is  written  in  an  exag- 
gerated and  rhetorical  style  and  with  a 
definite  religious  tendency. 

3.  The  third  book  narrates  the  visit 
of  Ptolomeus  IV.  Philopator  to  the 
temple  of  Jerusalem  in  217;  his  demand 
to  enter  the  holy  of  holies,  and  the  pun- 
ishment of  his  audacity  by  the  hand  of 
God  ;  his  attempt  to  take  vengeance  on 
the  Jews  of  Alexandria,  and  the  im- 
mediate interference  of  God  on  their  be- 
half; and  finally,  his  conversion  into  a 
friend  and  benefactor  of  the  Jewish 
people.  The  style  in  which  this  book  is 
written  is  as  bombastic  and  affected  as 
its  contents  are  fabulous.  The  historical 
kernel  is  very  small,  and  even  this  little 
is  not  correctly  rendered. 

4.  The  fourth  book  begins  with  a  philo- 
sophical dissertation  on  the  supremacy  of 
reason  over  the  passions,  and  illustrates 
this  subject  with  an  account  of  the  mar- 
tyrdom of  Eleazar,  and  the  mother  with 
her  seven  sons,  following  2  Mace.  6,  7. 

5.  The  fifth  book  gives  the  history  of 
the  Jews  from  Heliodorus  to  Herodes — 
that  is,  from  B.  c.  184  to  B.  c.  86. 

MACCABEES,  THE  FAMILY 
OF  THE.  The  proper  name  of  this 
family  was  "Asmona?ans"  or  "Hasmonse- 
ans,"  from  Chasmon,  the  great-grand- 
father of  Mattathias  "  of  the  sons  of 
Jehoiarib."  1  Chr.  24  :  7.  "  Maccabaeus" 
was  a  surname  originally  given  to  Judas, 
one  of  the  sons  of  Mattathias,  and  then 
extended  first  to  the  whole  family  and 
then  to  the  whole  party  which  arose 
against  the  despotism  of  the  Seleucides. 
The  meaning  of  this  surname  has  been 
variously  given  as  "  the  hammer,"  *'  the 
extinguisher,"  "  destruction,"  and  some 
regard  it  as  a  combination  of  the  initial 
letters  of  the  Hebrew  sentence,  *'  Who 
among  the  gods  is  like  unto  thee,  Jeho- 
vah ?"  on  Judas'  banner. 

When   the    emissaries    of    Antiochus 


MAC 


MAC 


Epiphanes  came  to  Modin  and  required 
the  people  to  ofifer  idolatrous  sacrifices, 
Mattathias,  a  priest  of  the  course  of 
Joarib,  slew  the  first  Jew  who  approached 
the  altar  to  renounce  his  faith,  then  the 
emissaries  themselves,  and  then  he  fled 
to  the  mountains  with  his  sons,  in  B.  c. 
168.  Numbers  of  his  countrj-men  who 
held  dear  their  religion  joined  him  here, 
and  thus  the  revolt  began.  In  166  Mat- 
tathias died,  and  his  son,  Judas,  succeeded 
him  as  leader  of  the  movement.  After 
the  brilliant  victories  at  Beth-horon  and 
Emmaus,  Judas  occupied  Jerusalem,  and 
the  temple  was  purified  exactly  three 
years  after  its  profanation.  By  the  still 
more  brilliant  victory  at  Adassa,  161, 
over  Seleucus  Nikanor,  the  independence 
of  the  Jews  was  practically  established, 
but  Judas  fell  shortly  after  in  the  battle 
of  Eleasa.  The  contest  was  continued 
with  success  by  his  two  brothers,  Jona- 
than, died  14.3,  and  Simon,  died  135. 
Under  the  latter  the  office  of  high  priest 


was  made  hereditary  in  the  family  of 
the  Asmonaeans.  Simon's  son,  Johannes 
llyrcanus,  135-105,  changed  the  tradi- 
tional policy  of  the  family  and  sought 
support  with  the  Sadducees,  and  his  two 
sons,  Aristobulus  I.,  105-104,  who  as- 
sumed the  title  of  king,  and  Alexander 
Jannseus,  104-78,  pursued  the  same  line 
of  conduct.  After  the  death  of  Alex- 
andra, 78-69,  a  civil  war  broke  out  be- 
tween her  two  sons,  Aristobulus  II.  and 
Hyrcanus  II.  The  Romans  interfered, 
and  Aristobulus  II.,  69-63,  having  been 
defeated  by  Pompey,  was  dethroned.  His 
brother  Hyrcanus  II.  succeeded,  63-40, 
as  high  priest  and  prince  under  Roman 
supremacy,  but  without  the  title  of  king. 
With  Antigonus,  40-37,  a  son  of  Aristobu- 
lus II.,  the  Asmonsean  dynasty  ceased  to 
reign,  and  with  Aristobulus'  two  grand- 
children, Aristobulus  and  Mariamne,  it 
became  extinct.  Herodes  became  its  heir. 
MACEDO'NIA  (extended  land),  a 
noted  country  and  kingdom  lying  north 


^    N  S     ^ 

Map  of  Macedonia. 


of  Greece.  The  kingdom  was  founded 
about  B.  c.  814,  and  became  famous  in 
the  world's  history  in  the  time  of  its 
great  rulers,  Philip  and  Alexander.  It 
was  the  first  part  of  Europe  which  re- 
ceived the  gospel,  and  hence  its  import- 
ance in  biblical  history. 

Situatton  and  Extent. — The  boundaries 
of  Macedonia  varied  at  different  periods, 
534 


but  in  N.  T.  times  Macedonia  may  be 
described  as  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  range  of  Hacraus  or  the  Balkan 
Mountains,  separating  it  from  Moesia : 
on  the  east  by  Thrace  and  the  ^gean 
Sea ;  on  the  south  by  the  province  of 
Achaia  (Greece)  ;  on  the  west  by  Epirus 
and  Illyricum,  from  which  it  was  sepa- 
rated by  the  Pindus  range. 


MAC 


MAC 


Physical  Features. — Macedonia  is  situ- 
ated in  a  great  basin  nearly  surrounded 
by  the  mountains  and  the  sea.  There  are 
two  great  plains,  one  watered  by  the  river 
Axius,  whose  mouth  is  near  Thessalonica, 
and  the  other  by  the  Strymon,  which 
flows  into  the  iEgean  Sea  below  Amphi- 
polis.  Between  the  mouths  of  these  two 
rivers  projects  a  peninsula  divided  into 
three  points,  on  one  of  which  is  Mount 
Athos,  whose  peak  rises  nearly  into  the 
region  of  perpetual  snow.  Across  the 
neck  of  this  peninsula  ran  the  great  road 
(Via  Ignatia)  along  which  Paul  and  his 
companions  passed. 

History. — Macedonia  is  a  name  familiar 
to  school-children  in  connection  with 
King  Philip  of  Macedon  and  his  son 
Alexander  the  Great.  The  third  great 
world-kingdom,  the  Macedonian  empire, 
received  its  name  from  this  compara- 
tively little  spot.  Comp.  Dan  8  :  5-8,  21. 
The  Romans  conquered  the  territory  from 
Perseus.  It  was  at  first  divided  into  four 
districts,  afterward  consolidated  into  one 
with  its  capital  at  Thessalonica,where  the 
proconsul  resided.  There  are  numerous 
allusions  to  the  Macedonians  in  the  books 
of  the  Maccabees.  In  N.  T.  history 
Macedonia  holds  an  important  place  be- 
cause of  the  labors  of  the  apostles.  Paul 
was  called  there  by  the  vision  of  the 
"man  of  Macedonia,"  and  made  a  most 
successful  missionary-tour.  Acts  16  :  10  ; 
17  : 1-12.  He  visited  it  again,  Acts  20  : 
1-6.  and  probably  for  a  third  time.  Comp. 
1  Tim.  1:3;  Phil.  2  :  24.  His  Epistles  to 
the  Thessalonians  and  Philippians  show 
that  the  Macedonian  Christians  exhibited 
many  excellent  traits.  The  details  of  his 
work  can  be  studied  in  connection  with 
the  cities  of  Macedonia  visited  by  him. 
See  Neapolis,  Philippi,  Apollonia, 
Thessalonica,  Ber^a.  Macedonia  has 
been  for  many  years  under  the  control 
of  the  Turks,  and  is  called  Makadonia. 

MACHiE'RUS  is  not  mentioned 
in  the  Bible,  but  is  supposed  to  be  the 
castle  in  which  John  the  Baptist  was 
imprisoned  and  beheaded.  It  is  nine 
miles  east  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Mark  6  : 
21-29. 

MACH'BANAI  {one  fat,  thick,  or 
who  like  my  sons?)  a  Gadite  chief  who 
joined  David  at  Ziklag.     1  Chr.  12:  13. 

MACH'BENAH  {hillock,  or  cloak), 
a  name  occurring  in  the  genealogical 
list  of  Judah,  1  Chr,  3  :  49,  and  probably 


signifying  a  town  founded  or  colonized 
by  Sheva  and  his  family. 

MA^CHI  {decrease),  the  father  of 
Geuel  the  Gadite,  who  went  with  Caleb 
and  Joshua  as  a  spy  into  Canaan.  Num. 
13:15. 

MA'CHIR  (so/£^).  1.  The  eldest  son 
of  Manasseh  by  an  Aramite  or  Syrian 
concubine,  1  Chr.  7:14;  the  father  of 
Gilead,  Num.  26  :  29  ;  27  :  1 :  36  :  1  ; 
and  a  daughter,  Abiah.  1  Chr.  2  :  21,  24. 
At  the  time  of  the  Conquest  the  family 
of  Machir  had  become  very  large  and 
powerful,  and  subdued  the  land  to  the 
east  of  the  Jordan.  Num.  32:39;  Deut. 
3:15. 

2.  The  son  of  Ammiel,  in  whose  house 
Mephibosheth  was  received  and  lived  un- 
til David  called  him  to  Jerusalem.  2  Sam. 
9  :  4,  5  •  17  :  27. 

mVcHIRITES,  the  descendants 
of  Machir.     Num.  26  :  29. 

MACH'NADE'BAI  {what  like  the 
liberal  f),  on.Q  viho  divorced  his  foreign 
wife  on  command  of  Ezra.     Ezr.  10  :  40. 

MACHPE'LAH  {duuhle  cave),  a 
field  in  Hebron  containing  the  cave  which 
Abraham  bought  of  Ephron  the  Hittite 
as  a  burial-place  for  his  family.  A  full 
account  of  the  negotiations,  carried  on 
after  the  Oriental  forms  still  prevalent, 
is  given  in  Gen.  23.  That  cave  became 
the  burial-place  of  Abraham  and  Sarah, 
Isaac  and  Rebekah,  Jacob  and  Leah. 
Gen.  23  :  19  ;  25  :  9  ;  49  :  29-32  ;  50  :  12, 
13.  The  name  does  not  occur  except  in 
the  book  of  Genesis.  The  cave  Mach- 
pelah  is  one  of  the  Bible  sites  which  are 
positively  known.  It  was  situated  on 
the  western  slope  of  a  hill  in  Hebron, 
the  town  lying  for  the  most  part  to  the 
south  and  west. 

Present  Appearance. — A  large  struc- 
ture called  El  Haram,  "  The  Sacred 
Enclosure,"  surrounds  the  ancient  cave. 
It  stands  high  up  the  slope  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  valley,  conspicuous  at  a 
distance  for  its  size.  The  outer  wall, 
which  contains  not  a  single  window,  is 
194  feet  long,  109  feet  wide,  and  from  48 
to  58  feet  high.  The  stones  are  of  im- 
mense size  (one  of  them  38  feet  long  and 
4  wide),  dressed  and  fitted  with  great 
care,  and  resemble  those  of  the  sub- 
structure of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 
Opinions  differ  as  to  the  age  of  this 
building.  Some  ascribe  it  to  David  or 
Solomon,  others  to  the  period  after  the 

535 


MAC 


MAD 


Captivity,  still  others  to  the  time  of 
Herod,  who  rebuilt  the  temple  ;  but  there 
seems  to  be  no  good  reason  for  disputing 
the  view  of  Robinson,  who  regarded  the 
external  structure  of  the  Haram  as  the 
work  of  Jewish  hands,  erected  long  be- 
fore the  destruction  of  the  nation.  Tris- 
tram and  Stanley  also  accept  the  identi- 
fication of  Machpelah  as  certain,  and 
hold  it  beyond  doubt  that  the  main 
stone  enclosure  was  built  by  the  kings 
of  Judah,  and  most  probably  by  Solomon 
or  David.  Within  the  enclosure  is  a 
mosque,  which  was  probably  erected  in 
the   time    of   Justinian    as    a  Christian 


church.  Visitors  are  rigidly  excluded ; 
but  by  a  special  firman  of  the  sultan 
the  Prince  of  Wales  was  admitted  in  1862. 
He  was  accompanied  by  Dean  Stanley, 
and  a  full  account  of  the  visit  is  found 
in  Stanley's  Jewish  Church  (first  series, 
appendix  ii.).  In  separate  apartments 
they  were  shown  tombs  or  cenotaphs 
purporting  to  be  those  of  Abraham, 
Isaac,  Jacob,  Sarah,  Rebekah,  and  Leah, 
These  tombs  were  of  stone  and  overhung 
with  cloth  embroidered  with  gold  and 
silver.  Joseph's  tomb  is  shown  in  a 
structure  joining  the  Haram  on  the  west 
side.     Between  the  tombs  of  Isaac  and 


Mosque  at  iiebioii,  covering  the  Cave  at  Machpelah. 


Rebekah  was  a  circular  opening  into  a 
cavern  below,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
the  real  cave  of  Machpelah.  Of  the  cave 
itself  there  is  no  detailed  and  trust- 
worthy account.  Captain  Warren  was 
told  that  it  had  not  been  entered  for  600 
years.  The  Moslems  have  a  superstition 
that  whoever  attempts  to  enter  it  will  be 
struck  dead,  and  their  fanaticism  causes 
them  to  prohibit  any  one  from  making 
the  attempt.  It  is  thought  to  be  possi- 
ble that  the  embalmed  body  of  Jacob 
may  still  be  preserved  in  the  cave,  as 
Egyptian  mummies  have  been  found  of 
as  early  a  date.  Since  the  visit  of  the 
^36 


Prince  of  Wales,  the  marquis  of  Bute 
(1866)  and  the  Crown-Prince  of  Prussia 
(1S69)  have  been  admitted  to  the  mosque. 
See  Hebron. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  political 
changes  going  on  in  the  East  may  open 
the  way  for  explorers  to  solve  the  ancient 
mystery  respecting  the  cave  of  Machpe- 
lah, and  perhaps  bring  to  light  the  em- 
balmed body  of  Jacob. 

MAD  is  the  translation  of  various 
Hebrew  and  Greek  words,  sometimes  de- 
noting actual  insanity,  1  Sam.  21:  IS- 
IS; 1  Cor.  14:  23,  but  generally  signify- 
ing an  uncontrollable  excitement  only, 


MAD 


MAG 


caused  either  by  fierce  wrath,  Deut.  28  : 
28,  34 ;  2  Kgs.  9 :  11 ;  Luke  6:11;  Acts 
26:  11,  or  the  frenzy  of  idolatrous  wor- 
ship, 1  Kgs.  18  :  2(5,  28,  or  real  inspira- 
tion, 1  Sam.  19  :  21-24  ;  comp.  2  Kgs.  9  : 
11 ;  Jer.  29  :  2(5 :  Acts  2  :  13.  Only  once 
in  Scripture  is  madness  connected  with 
demoniacal  possession.  John  10 :  20. 
Among  the  Orientals,  as  among  all  semi- 
civilized  people,  madness  was  generally 
looked  upon  partly  with  pity,  because 
(jiod's  hand  was  laid  heavily  on  the  mad- 
man, partly  with  reverence,  because  the 
mad  mind,  being  shut  up  against  all  or- 
dinary impressions,  was  considered  open 
to  supernatural  or  spiritualistic  influ- 
ences. Thus  it  became  possible  for  David 
to  effect  his  escape  from  the  court  of 
Achish  by  feigning  madness.  1  Sam.  21: 
13-15. 

MAD'AI  [middle  land),  the  third 
son  of  Japheth,  from  whom  the  Medes 
descended.  Gen.  10:  2;  1  Chr.  1:  5. 

MA'DIAN.  Acts  7  :  29.    See  Midian. 

MADMAN'NAH  {diwfihiU),  a  town 
in  the  South  of  Judah,  Josh.  15  :  31, 
known  in  the  time  of  Eusebius  and  Je- 
rome as  Menois,  and  not  far  from  Gaza. 
Wilton  would  identifj'  it  with  el-Minydy, 
15  miles  from  Gaza;  the  Pal.  Memoirs 
suggest  Unun  Deimueli,  12  miles  north- 
east of  Beersheba,  as  its  more  probable 
site.  Madmannah  corresponds  with 
Beth-marcaboth,  "house  of  chariots," 
in  Josh.  19  :  5;  1   Chr.  4  :  31. 

MAD'MEN  (dvnghill),  probably  the 
name  of  a  place  in  Moab  threatened  with 
destruction  in  the  denunciations  of  Jere- 
miah. 48  :  2. 

MADME'NAH  (dnnghill),  a  Benja- 
mite  village  north  of  Jerusalem,  the  in- 
habitants of  which  were  frightened  away 
by  the  approach  of  Sennacherib  along 
the  northern  road.  Isa.  10:31.  If  the 
places  in  Sennacherib's  march  are  men- 
tioned in  order,  Madmenah  should  be 
between  Gibeah  of  Saul  and  Nob. 

MA'DON  {contention),  a  royal  city  of 
the  Canaanites,  Josh.  11  :  1 ;  12  :  19, 
whose  king  was  slain  by  Joshua;  prob- 
ably Madin,  near  Hatthi. 

MAG'BISH  (gatherituf),  probably 
the  name  of  a  place.  Ezr.  2  :  30,  as  all 
the  names  from  Ezr.  2  :  20  to  34,  except 
Elam  and  Harim,  are  names  of  places. 
It  is  not  in  the  corresponding  list  in 
Neh.  7.  The  place  was  doubtless  in  the 
territory  of  Benjamin. 


MAG'DALA  [toioer).  In  the  chief 
manuscripts  and  versions  the  name  is 
given  as  "  Magadan."  Magdala  is  found 
only  in  Matt.  15  :  29.  Christ  came 
thither  by  boat  over  the  Lake  of  Galilee 
after  his  miracle  of  feeding  the  four 
thousand  on  the  mountain  on  the  eastern 
side,  Matt.  15:  39;  and  from  thence  he 
returned  in  the  boat  to  the  opposite 
shore.  The  parallel  passage,  Mark  8  : 
10,  has  the  "parts  of  Dalmanutha,"  on 
the  western  edge  of  the  lake.  The  two 
regions  or  districts  were  probably  near 
each  other.  The  Magdala  Irom  which 
Mary  Magdalene  was  named  is  perhaps 
identical  with  Migdal-el,  Josh.  19:38, 
and  may  be  the  modern  el-Mejdel,  a 
miserable  little  Moslem  village  of  fifteen 
or  twenty  hovels,  on  the  water's  edge,  at 
the  south-east  corner  of  the  plain  of 
Gennesaret. 

MAG'DALA,  COASTS  OF. 
Matt.  15  :  39.     See  Dalmanutha. 

MAG'DIEL  {the  praise  of  God),  one 
of  the  chiefs  of  Edom.  Gen.  36:43;  1 
Chr.  1  :  54. 

MA'GI,  a  word  of  Median  or  Chal- 
da^an  origin,  was  the  name  of  the  sacer- 
dotal caste  which  among  the  Medians, 
Persians,  Chaldaeans,  and  other  Eastern 
nations  occupied  an  intermediate  posi- 
tion of  great  influence  between  the  despot, 
to  whose  council  they  often  were  called, 
and  the  people,  whose  leaders  in  revolt 
they  often  were.  As  the  administrators 
of  the  religion  of  Zoroaster  they  were  the 
priests  among  the  population  belonging 
to  the  Medo-Persian  empire.  They  alone 
had  the  right  to  perform  the  religious 
ceremonies.  Distinguished  by  a  pecu- 
liar dress,  living  apart  by  themselves, 
and  forming  a  complete  hierarchy,  they 
were  engaged  in  keeping  alive  the  sa- 
cred fire  on  the  altar  of  Ormuzd  and 
combating  the  evil  plans  of  Ahriman. 
But  they  were  not  only  the  priests  of  the 
Persian  nation  ;  they  were  also  its  schol- 
ars. Deeply  versed,  according  to  the 
measure  of  the  time,  in  philosophy  and 
the  sciences,  especially  astronomy,  they 
accompanied  the  king  even  in  war  as  his 
advisers,  Jer.  39 :  3 ;  but  as,  at  that 
time,  a  practical  application  of  science 
did  not  mean  the  subjugation  of  natural 
powers  and  their  employment  for  useful 
purposes,  but  the  divination  of  future 
events  and  their  possible  modification 
through  spiritual  and  mysterious  agen- 

637 


MAG 


MAH 


cies,  the  Magi  became  on  this  field  mere 
soothsayers,  fortune-tellers,  dream-in- 
terpreters, not  to  snj  sorcerers  and  en- 
chanters. When  the  Greeks  became 
acquainted  with  Persian  religion  and 
civilization,  and  here  discovered  a  sys- 
tem of  divination  and  oracles  quite  dif- 
ferent from  their  own,  it  was  natural 
enough  for  them  to  throw  a  special 
odium  on  the  representatives  of  this 
system  ,•  and  in  the  Greek-Roman  litera- 
ture the  Magi  always  appear  as  impos- 
tors. Not  so  in  the  0.  T.  During  the 
Captivity  the  Jews  became  well  acquaint- 
ed with  them,  and  Daniel  describes 
them  as  men  of  wisdom,  1 :  20 :  he  in- 
tercedes for  them  with  Nebuchadnezzai", 
2:  24;  and  accepts  a  position  as  their 
chief  or  master.  5  :  11. 

The  same  impression  of  dignity,  truth- 
fulness, and  aspiration  after  the  true  re- 
ligion is  conveyed  by  the  narrative  in 
Matt.  2  :  1-14.  Whence  these  Magi 
came  we  have  no  means  of  ascertaining, 
but  it  is  a  very  probable  inference  that 
by  the  intercourse  between  the  Magi  and 
the  exiled  Jews  some  seeds  of  Messianic 
expectations  were  sown  and  took  root 
among  the  former,  and  by  special  Provi- 
dence these  wise  men  were  led  to  the 
cradle  of  the  Messiah  as  a  sign  of  the 
coming  of  the  Gentiles.  They  were  the 
forerunners  of  the  heathen  converts.  The 
Christian  legend  represents  them  as  three 
kings.  Their  memory  is  celebrated  on 
Epiphany,  the  6th  of  January,  or  the  fes- 
tival of  Christ's  manifestation  to  the  Gen- 
tiles.    See  Star  of  the  Wise  Men. 

MAG'IC  was  the  art  of  influencing 
future  events  and  changing  their  course 
by  dark  and  secret  means.  The  magician 
was  believed  to  stand  in  connection  with 
demons,  and  even  Avith  the  gods  them- 
selves, and  to  be  able  to  compel  them  to 
act  according  to  his  will.  Of  the  religion 
of  the  Egyptians,  Chaldceans,  Persians, 
etc.,  magic  formed  an  essential  element, 
and  of  the  Egyptian  magicians,  in  their 
conflict  with  Moses  and  Aaron,  Exodus 
gives  a  vivid  account.  7  :  11,  12,  22;  8  : 
7.  Of  the  religion  of  the  Jews  magic 
did  not  only  not  form  a  part,  but  the  law 
forbade  the  consulting  of  magicians,  un- 
der penalty  of  death.  Lev.  19  :  31 ;  20  : 
6.  Nevertheless,  from  their  neighbors 
magic  crept  in  among  the  Israelites  too, 
and  there  were  those  among  the  people 
who  believed  in  it  and  resorted  to  it. 
538 


The  most  remarkable  instance  is  that 
of  Saul  and  the  sorceress  of  Endor.  1 
Sam.  28  :  3-20.  Also  in  the  N.  T.  we 
find  it  mentioned.  Acts  8:9,  10;  13: 
6-12;  19:  13-19. 

MAG'ISTRATE  is  used  in  our 
translation  both  in  its  general  sense, 
signifying  civil  olficers  with  legal  au- 
thority, Ezr.  7  :  25;  Luke  12  :  11;  Tit. 
3:1;  and  in  a  special  sense,  signifying 
the  Roman  colonial  officers — the  duum- 
viri, corresponding  nearly  to  prsetorey. 
Acts  16  :  20,  22,  25,  etc. 

MA'GOG  {region  of  Gog),  the  second 
son  of  Japheth,  Gen.  10  :  2  ;  1  Chr.  1  :  5, 
and  the  name  of  a  people  descending 
from  him,  or  the  country  inhabited  by 
that  people,  and  of  which  Gog  was  the 
king.  Ezr.  38  :  2 ;  39  :  1,  6,  etc.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  the  Syrians  applied  the 
name  of  Magog  to  xlsiatic  Tartary,  and 
the  Arabians  to  the  region  between  the 
Caspian  and  the  Black  Seas.  Generally 
the  people  of  Magog  are  identified  with 
the  Scythians,  who,  in  the  times  when 
Ezekiel  wrote,  were  well  known  in  West- 
ern Asia.  Descending  from  the  Cauca- 
sian mountain-regions  in  the  beginning 
of  the  seventh  century  b.  c,  they  con- 
quered Sardis,  the  capital  of  Lydia,  in 
629,  and  defeated  Cyaxares,  king  of 
Media,  in  624.  They  penetrated  even 
into  Egypt,  but  were  bribed  ofi"  by  Psam- 
metichus.  They  were  not  expelled,  how- 
ever, from  Western  Asia  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  next  century.  By  Ezekiel 
they  are  described  as  excellent  horsemen, 
skilled  in  the  use  of  the  bow,  38  :  15  ;  39  : 
3,  and  exactly  the  same  traits  ai'e  promi- 
nent in  the  descriptions  of  the  Scythians 
by  the  classical  historians.  In  Rev.  20  : 
7-9  the  terms  Gog  and  Magog  are  evi- 
dently used  as  types  of  the  enemies  of 
Christianity.     See  GoG. 

MA'GOR-MIS'SABIB  {terror  on 
every  side),  a  sj'mbolical  name  given 
by  Jeremiah,  Jer.  20  :  3,  to  the  priest 
Pashuu,  which  article  see. 

MAG'PIASH  {moth-killer),  one  of 
the  chiefs  who  sealed  the  covenant  with 
Nehemiah.  Neh.  10  :  20. 

MAHA'LAH  {sickness),  a  descend- 
ant of  Manasseh  by  a  sister  of  Gilead.  1 
Chr.  7  :  18. 

MAHA'LALEEL  {praise  of  God). 
1.  The  son  of  Cainan,  the  fourth  in  de- 
scent from  Adam.  Gen.  5  :  12,  13,  15-17; 
1  Chr.  1:2;  called  Maleleel  in  Luke  3  :  37. 


MAH 


MAK 


2.  A  descendant  of  Perez  or  Pharez, 
whose  family  lived  in  Jerusalem  after 
the  return  from  the  Captivity.  Neh.  11 :  4. 

MA'HAIjATH  [titritti/cd  instrument, 
harp,  lyre).  1,  The  daughter  of  Ishmael, 
and  one  of  the  wives  of  Esau,  Gen.  28 : 
9;  called  Bashemath  Gen.  36:3,  4,  10, 
etc. 

2.  The  granddaughter  of  David,  and 
one  of  the  wives  of  Rehoboam.  2  Chr. 
11  :  IS. 

MA'HALATH,  Ps.  53.  and  MA- 
HALATH-LEAN'NOTH,  Ps.  88, 
occurring  only  in  the  titles  of  these  two 
Psalms,  are  by  most  commentators  held 
to  be  the  names  of  some  musical  instru- 
ment used  in  the  performance  of  the 
Psalm,  or  to  contain  some  musical  instruc- 
tions with  respect  to  the  melody.  Others, 
however,  deriving  the  word  from  a  root 
meaning  "  sickness,"  consider  it  a  con- 
densed or  enigmatical  indication  of  the 
idea  of  the  Psalm. 

MA'HALI  (sick),  a  son  of  Merari. 
Ex.  6:19.     The  same  as  Mahli. 

MAHANA'IM  {two  cam])s),  a  town 
east  of  the  Jordan ;  named  by  Jacob. 
Gen.  32  :  1,  2.  It  was  assigned  to  the 
Levites,  Josh.  13  :  26,  80 ;  21  :  38  j  1 
Chr.  6  ;  80,  and  lay  within  the  territory 
of  Gad,  north  of  the  torrent  Jabbok. 
Mahanaim  became  in  the  time  of  the 
monarchy  a  place  of  mark.  2  Sam.  2 : 
9,  12  5  4:6.  Abner  fixed  Ishbosheth's 
residence  there,  and  David  took  ref- 
uge in  it  when  driven  out  of  the  west- 
ern part  of  his  kingdom  by  Absalom. 
2  Sam.  17:24;  1  Kgs.  2:8.  Mahanaim 
was  the  seat  of  one  of  Solomon's  com- 
missariat officers,  1  Kgs.  4  :  14,  and  it 
is  alluded  to  in  his  Song,  6  :  13.  Dr. 
Merrill  locates  Mahanaim  in  the  Jordan 
valley,  6  miles  north  of  the  Jabbok,  at  a 
ruin  called  Suleikhdt.  Here  water  is 
abundant;  the  ruins  are  extensive  and 
about  300  feet  above  the  plain  and  near 
the  dividing  line  between  Gad  and  Ma- 
nasseh.  It  answers  the  biblical  require- 
ment better  than  other  suggested  sites, 
like  Mahneh  and  Gerasa. 

MA'HANEH-DAN  [the  camp  of 
Dan),  a  place  ''  behind  Kirjath-jearim," 
Jud.  18:12,  and  "between  Zorah  and 
Eshtaol."  13  :  25. 

MAHAR'AI  (swift,  impetnous),  a 
descendant  of  Zerah,  and  one  of  David's 
captains.  2  Sam.  23  :2S;  1  Chr.  11 :  30  : 
27  :  13. 


MA'HATH  (grasping).  1.  A  Ko- 
hathite  Levite.   1  Chr.  6  :  35. 

2.  Another  Kohathite  Levite  in  the 
time  of  Hezekiah.  2  Chr.  29  :  12  ;  31  ;  13. 

MA'HAVITE,  the  designation  of 
Eliel,  one  of  David's  warriors,  1  Chr.  11  : 
46  ;  of  uncertain  signification. 

MAHA'ZIOTH  (visions),  a  Ko- 
hathite Levite,  one  of  the  sons  of  Heman, 
and  chief  of  the  twenty-third  course  of 
musicians.   1  Chr.  25  :  4,  30. 

MATHER-  SHAL'AL-HASH'- 

BAZ  (hasting  to  the  spoil,  he  sjieeds  to 
the  prey),  the  symbolical  name  given  to 
the  son  of  Isaiah  to  indicate  the  capture 
and  plunder  of  Damascus  and  Samaria 
by  the  king  of  Assyria.  Isa.  8  :  1,  3. 

MAH'LiAH  (disease),  one  of  the 
daughters  of  Zelophehad,  in  favor  of 
whom  the  laws  of  inheritance  were  al- 
tered. Num.  27:  1-11. 

MAH'LI  (sickly).  1.  A  Levite,  son 
of  Merari.  Num.  3  :  20  :  1  Chr.  6  :  19,  29  ; 
23  :  21 ;  24  :  26;  Ezr.  8  :  18;  called  Ma- 
hali,  Ex.  6  :  19. 

2.  Another  Levite,  a  grandson  of  Me- 
rari. 1  Chr.  6  :  47  ;  23  :  23. 

MAH'LITES,  a  family  of  Levites 
descending  from  Mahli.  Num.  3:33; 
26  :  58. 

MAH'IjON  (sickly),  one  of  the  sons 
of  Elimelech  and  Naomi,  and  the  first 
husband  of  Ruth ;  died  in  the  land  of 
Moab.  Ruth  1 :  2,  5 ;  4:9,  10. 

MA'HOL  [da nee),  fsiiher  of  four  sons 
who  next  to  Solomon  had  the  greatest 
fame  for  wisdom.  1  Kgs.  4  :  31. 
MAIL.  1  Sam.  17  :  5.     See  Arms. 
MAIN'SAIL.     Acts   27  :  40.      See 
Ship. 

MA'K  AZ  (end),  a  place  where  one  of 
Solomon's  officers  resided.  1  Kgs.  4  :  9. 
Conder  suggests  that  it  is  the  modern 
Mokkiis. 

MAKHE'LOTH  (^^lace  of  asaem- 
hlies),  a  station  of  the  Hebrews  in  the 
desert.  Num.  33  :  25. 

MAK'KEDAH  (place  of  shep- 
herds), a  roj'al  city  of  the  Canaanites  in 
the  plains  of  Judah,  where  Joshua  exe- 
cuted the  five  confederate  kings.  Josh. 
10:10;  12:16;  15:41.  Warren  would 
identify  it  with  el-Mughdr,  25  miles 
north-west  from  Jerusalem,  and  Conder 
describes  it  as  on  the  north  side  of  the 
valley  Sorek,  25  miles  from  Gibeon, 
close  to  the  main  road  from  Gaza  to 
Lydda.     There  is  a  promontorv  divided 

539 


MAK 


MAL 


into  three  tops,  the  last  of  which  falls 
abruptly  and  supports  a  large  mud  vil- 
lage upon  the  steep  eastern  side  and 
huddled  around  the  caves.  There  are 
still  two  caves  wherein  five  men  might 
crowd,  and  the  entrance  could  be  easily 
blocked  with  the  great  stones  which  lie 
scattered  near.  One  cave  has,  curiously 
enough,  five  loculi  rudely  scooped  in  its 
side,  and  an  enthusiast  might  contend 
that  this  was  the  very  place  of  sepulchre 
of  the  five  kings  who  were  hidden  at 
Makkedah. 

MAK'TESH  (mortar),  a  place  in 
Jerusalem  denounced  by  Zephaniah.  1  : 
11.  Ewald  conjectures  that  it  was  the 
"  Phoenician  quarter  "  of  the  city,  and 
the  Targum  identifies  it  with  the  Kedron. 
Jerome  places  it  in  the  lower  city,  where 
were  bazaars  of  merchants  at  the  time  of 
the  siege  by  Titus. 

JUALi'ACHI  (messenger  of  Jehovah), 
the  last  of  the  prophets,  and  called  '*'the 
seal "  because  his  prophecies  form  the 
closing  book  of  the  canon  of  the  0.  T. 
Of  his  personal  life  nothing  is  known 
but  what  can  be  gleaned  from  his  book. 
He  flourished  after  the  Captivi^^y,  later 
than  Haggai  and  Zechariah,  at  a  time 
when  the  temple  was  completed,  and  was 
probably  a  contemporary  of  Nehemiah, 
B.  c.  433.  His  prophecies  are  at  once 
denunciatory  of  prevailing  vices,  and 
consolatory  by  the  Messianic  promise. 
Showing  how  vain  were  the  murmurings 
of  the  people  against  the  Lord,  he  re- 
proves them  for  their  neglect  of  his  ser- 
vice, censures  intermarriage  with  foreign 
wives,  etc.,  and  warns  them  that  judg- 
ment will  be  established  (5ver  them.  He 
closes  with  a  prophecy  of  the  coming  of 
Messiah,  and  foretells  that  Elijah  will  re- 
turn as  a  forerunner  of  Messiah — a  pre- 
diction which  found  its  striking  fulfil- 
ment by  the  mission  of  John  the  Baptist. 
Mai.  4  :  6j  Luke  1  :  17;  Matt.  11  :  14; 
17:  12. 

MAL'CHAM  (their  Idmj).  1.  ABen- 
jamite  chief.  1  Chr.  8  :  9. 

2.  As  occurring  in  Zeph.  1  :  5,  it  is  un- 
derstood by  some  as  an  idol  in  general, 
by  others  as  signifying  Moloch. 

MALCHI'AH  {Jehovah's  king).  1. 
A  Gershonite  Levite,  the  ancestor  of 
Asaph.  1  Chr.  6  :  40. 

2.  Two  who  had  married  foreign  wives. 
Ezr.  10  :  25,  31,  the  latter  probably  the 
same  as  Malchijah.  Neh.  3  :  11. 
540 


3.  Two  who  helped  to  repair  the  wall 
of  Jerusalem.  Neh.  3  :  14. 

4.  A  priest  who  stood  beside  Ezra 
when  he  read  the  Law  to  the  people  in 
the  street  before  the  Water-gate.  Neh. 
8:4. 

5.  A  priest,  the  father  of  Pashur,  Neh. 
11  :  12  ;  probably  the  same  as  Melchiah, 
Jer.  21 :  1 ;  Neh.  11  :  12 ;  38  :  1,  and  Mal- 
chijah. 

6.  An  officer  in  whose  cistern  Jeremiah 
was  thrown,  Jer.  38  :  6,  the  dry  cistern 
being  used  in  Palestine  as  a  dungeon. 

MAL'CHIEL(  (Corf's  A;/»(/),  a  grand- 
son of  Asher,  and  the  ancestor  of  the 
Malchielites.  Gen.  46  :  17  ;  Num.  26  :  45; 
1  Chr.  7:31. 

MALCHI'JAH  (Jehovah's  king).  1. 
The  same  as  Malchiah,  5. 

2.  A  priest,  chief  of  the  fifth  course  in 
the  reign  of  David.  1  Chr.  24  :  9. 

3.  One  who  had  taken  a  foreign  wife. 
Ezr.  10  :  25. 

4.  One  who  assisted  in  repairing  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem,  Neh.  3:11;  the  same 
as  Malchiah  in  Ezr.  10  :  31. 

5.  One  who  took  part  in  the  dedication 
of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.    Neh.  12  :  42. 

MALCHI'RAM  (king  of  altitude), 
a  son  of  Jehoiachin,  king  of  Judah.  1 
Chr.  3  :  IS. 

MAL'CHISHU'A  (king  of  help),  1. 
Chr.  8  :  33;  9  :  39 ;  10  :  2,  OR  MEL- 
CHISUA,  1  Sam.  14:49:  31:2,  one 
of  the  sons  of  King  Saul. 

MAL'CHUS  (reigning),  the  high 
priest's  servant  whose  ear  Peter  cut  off" 
when  Josus  was  apprehended  in  the  gar- 
den. Matt.  26  :  51  ;  Mark  14  :  47 ;  Luke 
22  :  50  :  John  18  :  10. 

MALE'LEEL.  Luke  3  :  37.  See 
Mahalaleel.  1. 

MAL'LOTHI  (mj/  fulness),  a  Ko- 
hathite  Levite,  son  of  Hem  an,  and  chief 
of  the  nineteenth  course  of  singers.  1  Chr. 
25  :  4,  26. 

MAL 'LOWS.  Job  30  :  4.  Several 
species  of  mallows  grow  in  Bible  lands 
and  are  eaten  as  potherbs  by  the  poor. 
But  it  is  believed  that  the  Hebrew  here 
denotes  a  plant  of  saline  taste,  or  one 
that  grows  in  salt  places.  The  shrubby 
sea-oracle  [Atriplex  halimus),  closely 
connected  with  the  saltwort  of  our  coasts, 
has  both  these  qualifications,  and  is  most 
generally  agreed  upon  as  the  mallows  of 
Job,  although  other  plants  have  their 
advocates. 


MAL 


MAN 


MAL'LUCH  {reiguing).  1.  A  Merar- 
ite  Levite,  ancestor  of  Ethan.  1  Chr.  6 : 
44. 

2.  Two  who  had  married  foreign  wives. 
Ezr.  10  :  29,  32. 

3.  A  priest  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel,  Neh.  12  :  2,  and  signed  the  cove- 
nant with  Nehemiah,  Neh.  10  :  4  ;  prob- 
ably the  same  as  Melicu. 

MAM'MON,  a  Chaldee  or  Syrian 
word  denoting  "wealth:"  used  twice  by 
our  Lord.  Matt.  6  :  24;  Luke  16  :  9-11. 

MAM'RE  {fatness,  strength),  an 
Amorite  chief  with  whom  Abraham 
made  an  alliance,  Gen.  14  :  13,  and  who 
gave  his  name  to  certain  localities  in 
his  possessions. 

MAM'RE,  a  place  near  Hebron, 
so  called  after  the  Amorite  chief,  Gen. 
14  :  13,  24;  23  :  19;  35  :  27,  and  it  is 
also  the  name  of  a  plain  and  a  grove 
at  Hebron  by  which  Abraham  dwelt 
and  entertained  three  angels.  Gen.  13  : 
IS;  18:1-  It  was  near  Machpelah. 
Gen.  23  :  17,  19;  25  :  9 ;  49  :  30;  50  : 
13.  The  grove  of  terebinths  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  place  called  by  the  Arabs 
er-Rameh  or  liamet-et-KhuW ,  one  hour 
from  Hebron.  The  site  of  Mamre  is 
shown,  on  the  sheet-maps  of  the  Pales- 
tine Exploration  Fund,  at  BaJUttet  Seltn, 
or  "  oak  of  rest,"  a  fine  old  tree  near  the 
modern  Russian  hospice.  The  tree  is 
called  Abraham's  Oak.  Near  the  site 
is  a  spring.     See  Hebron. 

MAN  is,  in  ourEnglish  Bible,  the  ren- 
dering of  four  diiferent  Hebrew  words. 

1.  Adam,  Gen.  1 :  26,  from  a  root  which 
signifies  "'to  be  red"  or  "■  ruddy,"  which 
among  the  Shemites  means  as  much  as 
*'  fair."  This  word  is  generally  used  as 
the  generic  name  for  the  human  race. 
Gen.  5:2;  8  :  21 ;  Deut.  8  :  3. 

2.  hh,  man  as  distinguished  from 
woman,  1  Sam.  17  :  33;  then  husband. 
Gen.  3:16;  Hos.  2:16;  superior,  Prov. 
8:4;  Ps.  141  :  4  ;  the  male  of  animals. 
Gen.  7  :  2,  etc. 

3.  Geber,  from  a  root  signifying  "to 
be  strong,"  denotes  man  in  contradis- 
tinction from  woman,  Deut.  22  :  5,  or 
from  children,  Ex.  12  :  37,  though  it  is 
also  used  collectively.  Job  4:17;  14  : 
10. 

4.  Methim,  "mortal."  Isa.  12  :  14.  See 
Adam  and  Sox  of  Man. 

MAN'AEN  {consoler),  one  of  the 
teachers  of  the  church  of  Antioch,  and 


foster-brother    of    Herod    Antipas    the 
tetrarch.   Acts  13  :  1. 

MAN'AHATII  {rest).  1.  A  de- 
scendant of  Seir  the  Horite.  Gen.  36  : 
23 ;  1  Chr.  1  :  40. 

2,  A  place  in  Benjamin.  1  Chr.  8  :  6. 
Probably  Mdlhah,  3  m.  from  Jerusalem. 

MANA'HTHITES,  THE,  the 
descendants  of  Manahath  or  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  place  of  that  name.  1  Chr. 
2  :  52. 

MANAS'SEH.  1.  The  first-born 
of  Joseph.  AVhen  he  and  his  brother 
Ephraim  were  boys,  and  Jacob,  their 
grandfather,  was  about  to  die,  Joseph 
took  them  into  the  patriarch's  presence 
to  receive  his  blessing.  On  this  occasion 
he  adopted  them  into  his  own  family 
as  his  own  children,  and  predicted  the 
superiority  of  Ephraim  over  Manasseh. 
Gen.  48  :  5-20.  Nothing  further  is 
known  of  the  personal  history  of  Man- 
asseh. His  oldest,  and  as  it  would 
seem  his  only,  son  was  Machir,  whose 
children  were  embraced  by  Joseph.  On 
their  way  to  Canaan  the  Israelites  con- 
quered a  large  territory  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, and  some  of  them  whose  posses- 
sions were  chiefly  in  cattle  desired  to 
have  their  portion  assigned  them  among 
the  rich  pastures  and  fruitful  hills  of 
Bashan  and  the  surrounding  country. 
This  request  was  granted,  and  half  the 
tribe  of  Manasseh  received  the  territory 
stretching  from  near  to  Ca}sarea-Philippi 
along  the  Jordan  down  nearly  to  Maha- 
naim.  The  other  half  had  its  portion  on 
the  west  of  the  Jordan,  between  Ephraim 
and  Issachar,  across  the  country  from  the 
Jordan  to  the  Mediterranean. 

Several   great  men,   such   as    Gideon, 
and  probably  also  Jephthah,  issued  from 
Manasseh.    The  eastern  part  of  the  tribe 
prospered   much   and  spread  to   Mount 
Hermon,  but  they  finally  mixed  with  the 
Canaanites,  adopted  their  idolatry,  be- 
came scattered  as  Bedouins  in  the  desert, 
and  were  the   first  to  be  carried  away 
into  captivity  by  the  kings  of  Assyria. 
1   Chr.  5  :  25.     The  western   Manasseh, 
of  which  only  a  few  glimpses  are  visible 
in    the    later   history  of  Israel,   always 
j  showed  itself  on  the  right  side ;  as,  for 
I  instance,  in  the  cases  of  Asa,  2  Chr.  15  : 
I  9,  Hezekiah,  2  Chr.  30  :  1,   11,  18,  and 
j  Josiah.  2  Chr.  34  :  6,  9. 

2.   Son    and   successor   of    Hezekiah, 
I  king  of  Judah,  ascended  the  throne  at 

541 


MAN 


MAN 


the  age  of  twelve  years,  B.  c.  696.  The 
former  part  of  his  reign  was  distin- 
guished for  acts  of  impiety  and  cruelty, 
2  Kgs.  21,  and  he  succeeded  in  drawing 
his  subjects  away  from  the  Lord  to  such 
an  extent  that  the  only  kind  of  worship 
which  was  not  allowed  in  Judah  was  that 
of  Jehovah.  2  Kgs.  21  :  2-9.  Having 
supported  the  Babylonian  viceroy  in  his 
revolt  against  Assyria,  he  was  at  last 
taken  captive  by  the  Assyrian  king  and 
ignominiously  transported  to 
Babylon.  Upon  his  repent- 
ance, hovrever,  he  was  liber- 
ated, and  returned  to  his  cap- 
ital, where  he  died  b.  c.  641, 
after  having  done  much  to  re- 
pair the  evils  of  his  former 
life.  2  Chr.  33  :  1-20. 

MANAS'SEH  [forget- 
ting),  the  territory  occupied  by 
a  tribe  descended  from  Joseph, 
and  divided  into  two  portions, 
one  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  the 
other  west  of  it. 

1.  East  of  the  Jordan. — The 
country  of  Manasseh  east  of  the 
Jordan  included  half  of  Gilead 
the  Hauran,  Bashan,  and  Ar- 
gob.  It  extended  from  the 
middle  of  Gilead,  on  the  south, 
to  Mount  Hermon  and  Damas- 
cus, on  the  north,  I  Chr.  5  :  18- 
23,  and  from  the  Jordan  and 
the  Sea  of  Galilee,  on  the  west,  to 
the  Arabian  desert,  on  the  east. 
It  is  even  now  the  granary  of 
Syria.  The  extensive  pastures 
of  Gilead  and  Bashan  gave  the 
best  scope  for  the  half-nomad 
and  herdsman's  life  led  by  this 
portion  of  the  tribe.  Jud.  5 : 
15.  The  people  were  powerful 
and  brave,  taking  a  leading 
part  in  the  wars  of  Gideon,  of  Jephthah, 
and  of  David.  See  also  Gilead  and 
Bashax. 

2.  West  of  the  Jordan. — The  portion 
of  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  on  the 
west  of  the  Jordan  extended  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  Jordan,  and  lay 
between  Asher  and  Issachar  on  the  north 
and  Ephraim  on  the  south.  Josh.  17  :  7- 
10.  They  also  gained  some  towns  in 
Carmel  within  the  bounds  of  Issachar, 
probably  by  capturing  them  from  the 
ancient  Canaanites.  Josh.  17  :  11-18. 
The  dominant  position  of  Ephraim  seems 

642 


to  have  obscured  the  power  of  Manasseh, 
and  this  portion  of  their  country  is  fre- 
quently joined  with  Ephraim  in  the 
biblical  allusions.  For  further  notice 
see  Palestink  and  Samaria. 

MANAS'SITES,  THE,  descend- 
ants of  Manasseh  the  patriarch.  Deut. 
4  :  43  :  Jud.  12  :  4  :  2  Kgs.  10  :  33. 

MAN'D RAKES  (Heb.  love-plants). 
Modern  Bible  scholars  apply  this  name 
to  a  member  of  the  potato  family  [Man- 


Mandrake.     {Atropa  Mandragora.     After  Tristram.) 


dragora  officinalis).  This  is  a  stem- 
less  plant  with  a  disk  of  leaves  almost 
as  long,  but  not  nearly  as  broad,  as  those 
of  the  garden  I'hubarb,  which  it  some- 
what resembles,  except  in  its  blossoms. 
These  are  of  a  rich  purple,  and,  appear- 
ing among  the  leaves  very  early,  are 
followed  about  wheat-harvest  by  a  round 
yellow  pulpy  fruit  of  the  size  of  a  large 
plum  and  of  a  sweet  and  agreeable 
flavor.  The  odor  of  the  plant  seems  to 
be  enjoyed  by  Orientals,  Cant.  7  :  13, 
and  by  some  Occidentals.  Many  strange 
superstitions    are    connected   with  this 


MAN 


MAN 


plant,  and  the  idea  of  Rachel's  time  still 
prevails  that  c()ncej)tion  is  ensured  by 
eating  the  fruit  of  this  plant.  Gen.  30  : 
14-1  f). 

MA'NEH.     See  Measures. 

MAN'NA  (Heb.  ichat  i><  this  f),  a  sub- 
stance miraculously  furnished  to  the 
children  of  Isrnel  on  their  journey 
through  the  wilderness,  and  designed  as 
ii  substitute  for  bread,  the  material  for 
which  they  could  not  raise  during  their 
wanderings.  It  was  called  the  bread 
from  heaven,  and  its  character  and  his- 
tory are  most  fully  described  in  Ex.16. 

The  most  remarkable  things  about  the 
manna  of  the  Israelites  were,  1.  That 
double  the  quantity  was  supplied  on  the 
day  preceding  the  Sabbath  or  seventh 
day  ;  2.  That  on  the  Sabbath  or  seventh 
day  none  was  furnished ;  3.  That  what 
they  kept  from  the  sixth  day  to  the 
seventh  was  sweet  and  good,  wliile  what 
they  kept  from  any  other  day  to  the 
next  day  bred  worms  and  became  offen- 
sive. These  miracles  were  wrought  in 
attestation  of  the  sanctity  of  the  Sab- 
bath. 

The  manna  of  the  Jews  is  described 
as  "  a  small  round  thing,"  as  small  as 
"  the  hoarfrost  on  the  ground,"  "like  co- 
riander seed"  (in  shape  doubtless,  per- 
haps in  size  and  density),  "of  the  color 
of  bdellium,"  "  and  the  taste  of  it  like 
wafers  made  with  honey."  Wafers  were 
small  thin  cakes  of  fine  flour  mingled 
with  oil  and  used  in  various  offerings. 
Lev.  2:4;  7:12.  If  to  this  mixture 
was  added  a  portion  of  honey,  there 
would  be  the  nourishment  of  the  flour, 
the  flavor  of  fresh  oil,  and  the  sweetness 
of  honey. 

For  forty  years  this  miraculous  supply 
of  food  was  furnished  daily  to  between 
3,000,000  and  4,000,000  of  people.  Deut. 
29  :  5,  6.  It  ceased  while  they  were  en- 
camped at  Gilgal,  immediately  after 
they  had  celebrated  the  Passover  for  the 
first  time  in  the  Land  of  Promise.  To 
commemorate  this  long-continued  and 
wonderful  miracle,  Moses  was  instructed 
that  a  golden  pot  should  be  provided, 
Ex.  16  :  33 ;  Heb.  9  :  4,  and  that  an 
omer  (or  one  man's  portion)  of  the 
manna  should  be  put  up  for  preserva- 
tion and  placed  in  or  near  the  ark,  that 
succeeding  generations  might  see  with 
their  own  eyes  the  very  substance  on 
which   their   fathers  were  miraculously 


fed  in  their  long  and  perilous  journey- 
ingS  from  Egypt  to  Canaan. 

The  manna  which  is  now  used  in 
medicine  as  a  mild  laxative  is  the  dried 
juice  of  the  ash  (Ornitfi),  and  is  obtained 
froui  Southern  Europe.  It  evidently  has 
no  connection  with  the  food  of  the  Israel- 
ites. Various  natural  exudations  from 
Eastern  shrubs  and  trees  arc  called  by  this 
name,  their  sweet  taste  and  tlie  globular 
form  under  which  they  are  ordinarily 
found  occasioning  a  fancied  resemblance 
to  the  manna  of  the  Israelites.  Espe- 
cially notable  is  that  which  drops  from 
the  twigs  of  the  tamarisk,  or  tarfa,  in 
the  deserts  of  Mount  Sinai,  and  is  gath- 
ered by  the  Arabs  for  food  and  sold  to 


Tamaiit<k  or  Maniui  Tree  of  the  Sinaitic 
Peninsula. 

travellers  as  a  curiosity.  Although  the 
natives  call  this  substance  manna,  the 
manna  which  the  Israelites  found  in  the 
same  locality  was  entirely  different  in 
several  particulars.  The  Arab  manna 
falls  only  where  the  tamarisks  grow  and 
during  early  summer;  it  may  be  kept 
years  without  breeding  worms;  it  cannot 
be  ground  or  beaten  into  meal,  Num.  11 : 
8,  more  than  could  thick  honey  ;  it  comes 
on  Sabbath  and  week-day  in  equal  quan- 
tities. It  is  plain  that  the  Israelites 
never  saw  their  manna  before  or  after  the 
Exodus.  Deut.  8  :  3, 16  ;  Ex.  16  :  15, 32, 33. 

543 


MAN 


MAN 


An  Eastern  traveller  gives  the  following 
account  (in  part  verified  by  the  wrJler) 
of  the  modern  manna  of  Arabia :  •'  This 
substance  is  called  by  the  Bedouins  mann, 
and  accurately  resembles  the  description 
of  manna  given  in  the  Scriptures.  In 
the  month  of  June  it  drops  from  the 
thorns"  (the  fresh  stems;  the  tamarisk 
has  no  thorns)  "  of  the  tamarisk  upon 
the  fallen  twigs,  leaves,  and  thorns 
which  always  cover  the  ground  be- 
neath that  tree  in  the  natural  state; 
the  manna  is  collected  before  sunrise, 
when  it  is  coagulated ;  but  it  dissolves 
as  soon  as  the  sun  shines  upon  it.  The 
Arabs  clean  away  the  leaves,  dirt,  etc., 
which  adhere  to  it,  boil  it,  strain  it 
through  a  coarse  piece  of  cloth,  and  put 
it  in  leathern  skins.  In  this  way  they 
preserve  it  till  the  following  year,  and 
use  it  as  they  do  honey — to  pour  over 
unleavened  bread  or  to  dip  their  bread 
into.  I  could  not  learn  that  they  ever 
made  it  into  cakes  or  loaves.  The  manna 
is  found  only  in  years  when  copious 
rains  have  fallen ;  sometimes  it  is  not 
produced  at  all.  I  saw  none  of  it  among 
the  Arabs,  but  I  obtained  a  small  piece  of 
the  last  year's  produce  in  the  convent  (of 
Mount  Sinai),  where,  having  been  kept 
in  the  cool  shade  and  moderate  temper- 
ature of  that  place,  it  had  become  quite 
solid  and  formed  a  small  cake.  It  be- 
came soft  when  kept  some  time  in  the 
hand  ;  if  placed  in  the  sun  for  five  min- 
utes, it  dissolved;  but  when  restored  to 
a  cool  place,  it  became  solid  again  in  a 
quarter  of  an  hour.  In  the  season  at 
which  the  Arabs  gather  it,  it  never  ac- 
quires that  state  of  hardness  which  will 
allow  of  its  being  pounded,  as  the  Is- 
raelites are  said  to  have  done  in  Num. 
11  :  8,  Its  color  is  a  dirty  yellow,  and 
the  piece  which  I  saw  was  still  mixed 
with  bits  of  tamarisk  leaves ;  its  taste  is 
agreeable,  somewhat  aromatic,  and  as 
sweet  as  honey.  If  eaten  in  any  con- 
siderable quantity,  it  is  said  to  be  slightly 
medicinal.  The  quantity  of  manna  col- 
lected at  present,  even  in  seasons  when 
the  most  copious  rains  fall,  is  trifling, 
perhaps  not  amounting  to  more  than  500 
or  600  pounds.  It  is  entirely  consumed 
among  the  Bedouins,  who  consider  it 
the  greatest  dainty  which  their  country 
affords.  The  harvest  is  usually  in  June, 
and  lasts  for  about  six  weeks." 

Some  authors  have  also  suggested  a 
644 


lichen  {Lecanora  esculenta)  as  the  manna 
of  the  Israelites.  This  small  plant 
grows  on  the  desei-ts  and  mountains  of 
the  East,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Caucasus  especially.  It  forms  small 
grayish  lumps,  sometimes  as  large  as  a 
hazel-nut,  yielding  the  same  nourish- 
ment to  the  tribes  of  the  Asiatic  steppes 
as  does  the  larger  lichen  called  trijie  de 
roche  to  our  Arctic  explorers  in  their  ex- 
tremity. The  natives  consider  that  this 
food  comes  from  heaven,  and  call  it 
manna.  In  considerable  quantity  it  is 
sometimes  taken  up  by  the  wind  and  let 
fall  at  a  distance.  Parrot  says  that 
these  **  rains  of  manna"  have  been 
known  to  cover  the  ground  in  some  parts 
of  Persia  to  the  depth  of  five  or  six 
inches. 

The  sugary  exudation  from  the  leaves 
and  branches  of  the  camel's  thorn  {Al- 
hagi  ninurorum)  of  the  Sinai  deserts  has 
been  called  Persian  manna,  and  been 
believed  by  a  few  to  have  supplied  the 
Israelites. 

"  Wherever  the  manna  is  referred  to 
in  Scripture,  it  is  invariably  regarded  as 
a  miraculous  food  sent  directly  from 
God.  The  Lord  Jesus,  when  he  accepted 
the  manna  as  a  type  of  himself — the 
living  Bread  which  came  down  from 
heaven — corrects  the  error  of  those  who, 
in  seeking  a  sign  from  him,  insinuated 
that  the  bread  from  heaven  given  by 
Moses,  by  which  he  secured  the  confi- 
dence of  their  fathers,  was  a  greater 
miracle  than  the  feeding  of  the  five 
thousand,  and  says  that  it  was  the  gift 
of  God,  and  not  of  Moses.  We  are  led 
to  the  same  conclusion  by  comparing  its 
properties  and  amount  and  the  manner 
of  its  occurrence  with  what  is  known  of 
the  natural  mannas,  and  we  must  regret 
all  attempts  to  identify  the  '  corn  of 
heaven '  with  any  of  them.  Yet  we 
have  no  doubt  that  this  wilderness-food 
so  closely  resembled  in  general  appear- 
ance the  Egyptian  manna  as  to  justify 
the  name  given  to  it  by  those  who  first 
saw  it.  In  the  same  way,  emigrants 
apply  names  of  familiar  home-plants  to 
the  strange  trees  and  plants  they  meet 
with  because  of  some  observed  resem- 
blance, though  they  are  widely  removed 
from  each  other  in  scientific  character. 
The  adopting  a  manna-like  appearance 
for  the  miraculous  food  is  in  accordance 
with  the  general  plan  of  God's  miracles 


MAN 


MAR 


as  recorded  in  his  word.  For  example, 
the  Loj'd  Jesus  did  not  bring  bread  from 
heaven  to  feed  the  hungering  multitudes 
on  the  green  slopes  of  the  Sea  of  (iali- 
lee,  but  employed  the  loaves  and  fishes 
which  were  the  common  food  of  the  coun- 
try, and  by  miraculously  increasing  the 
small  sui)ply  found  in  the  possession  of 
one  in  the  company  made  it  sufficient  for 
all.  So,  when  his  people  hungered  for 
flesh  in  the  desert,  God  sent  them  quails 
— migrating  birds  which  occasionally 
passed  in  flocks  over  the  wilderness;  and 
when  they  wanted  bread,  in  full  keeping 
with  the  locality,  God  gave  them  '  manna,' 
as  if  he  were  only  multipljing  the  nat- 
ural product  of  the  wilderness." —  W. 
Carruthers. 

Manna  is  called  the  "  corn  of  heaven  " 
and  ''angels'  food,"  Ps.  78  :  24,  25,  per- 
haps in  allusion  to  the  mode  by  which 
it  was  supplied. 

The  phrase  "  hidden  manna,"  Rev.  2  : 
17,  figuratively  describes  the  support 
which  Christ  furnishes  to  the  true  be- 
liever, of  which  the  world  does  not  and 
cannot  partake.     Comp.  John  6  :  49,  61. 

MANO'AH  {resf),  a  native  of  the 
town  of  Zorah,  in  the  tribe  of  Dan,  and 
the  father  of  Samson,  whose  birth  is  re- 
corded in  Jud.  13  :  1-23.  Manoah  is 
again  mentioned,  Jud.  14 : 2-4  at  the 
occasion  of  Samson's  marriage,  but 
seems  to  have  died  before  the  son,  whose 
body  was  brought  up  from  Gaza  by  his 
brethren,  not.  as  Milton  has  it,  by  his 
father.  Jud.  16  :31. 

MAN' SLAYER.  When  man- 
slaughter occurred  by  a  blow  in  a  sud- 
den quarrel,  by  a  stone  or  other  mis- 
sile thrown  at  random,  Num.  35  :  22,  23, 
by  the  blade  of  an  axe  flying  from  its 
handle,  etc.,  the  manslayer  was  allowed 
to  escape  by  retiring  into  one  of  the  cit- 
ies of  refuge,  on  the  principle  that  in 
these  and  other  such  cases  the  person 
slain  had  been  delivered  into  the  hands 
of  the  manslayer  by  the  Almighty  him- 
self. 

MAN'TLE  is  the  rendering  of  four 
different  Hebrew  words  denoting — 

1.  A  coarse  fabric  in  the  form  of  a 
plaid  used  by  the  Arabs  for  making  beds 
in  their  tents.  Jud.  4:  18. 

2.  The  garment  which  Samuel's  moth- 
er made  in  imitation  of  the  official 
priestly  robe  for  her  young  son  in  the 
holy  tent  at  Shiloh.  1  Sam.  15  :  27. 

3a 


3.  A  wrapper  with  sleeves  used  by  la- 
dies. Isa.  3  :  22. 

4.  The  chief  garment  of  the  prophet 
Elijah.  1  Kgs.  19:13,  19;  2  Kgs.  2:8, 
13.  14. 

MA'OCH  {brenst-handf),  the  father 
of  Achish,  king  of  Gath,  1  Sam.  27:2; 
called  Maachah  in  1  Kgs.  2  :  39. 

MA'ON  {habitation),  the  founder  of 
Beth-zur.   1  Chr.  2:45. 

MA'ON,  one  of  the  cities  of  Judah, 
in  the  mountains,  Josh.  15  :  55,  and  a  dis- 
trict where  David  hid  from  Saul,  and  near 
which  Nabal  had  possessions.  1  Sam.  23 : 
24,  25.  The  name  of  Maon  still  exists  in 
Main,  a  lofty  conical  hill  100  feet  high, 
about  8  miles  south  from  Hebron. 

MA'ONITES,  THE,  mentioned  in 
Jud.  10  :  1 2  among  the  enemies  of  Israel ; 
probablv  the  same  as  the  Mehunim. 

MA'RA  {bitter).  Ruth  1  :  20.  See 
Naomi. 

MA'RAH  (bitterness),  a  place  in  the 
wilderness  of  Shur  or  Etham,  three  days' 
journey,  Num.  33  :  8,  9,  from  the  place 
at  which  the  Israelites  crossed  the  Red 
Sea.  There  was  at  Marah  a  spring  of 
bitter  water,  sweetened  subsequently  by 
the  casting  in  of  a  tree  which  "  the  Lord 
showed  "  to  Moses.  Ex.  15  :  23,  24 ;  Num. 
33  :  8,  9.  At  'Ain  Hawarah,  distant  47 
miles  from  Ai/iin  Mousa,  is  a  spring  whose 
fountain  rises  from  a  large  mound  in  the 
Wadi/  el-Atnarah,  and  is  considered  by 
the  Arabs  as  the  worst  water  in  the  dis- 
trict. The  soil  is  impregnated  with  na- 
tron, which  accounts  for  the  bitterness. 
This  spring  has  been  identified  with 
Marah.  It  is  of  course  impossible  to 
determine  whether  this  is  the  precise 
spring  of  which  the  Israelites  drank, 
but  it  is  certain  that  it  must  have  been 
in  this  neighborhood. 

MAR'-ALAH  {treniblinff),^  bound- 
ary of  Zebulun,  Josh.  19:11;  Porter 
identifies  it  with  M'ahd,  4  miles  south- 
west of  Nazareth,  where  are  the  ruins  of 
a  temple. 

MARANATH'A,  an  Aramaic  ex- 
pression signifying  "our  Lord  has 
come."  1    Cor.  16  :  22. 

MAR'BLE,  limestone  of  a  compact 
texture  and  capable  of  receiving  a  high 
polish.  Rev.  18:12.  The  Bible  word 
seems  to  be  used,  however,  for  almost 
any  shining  stone,  and  much  of  the  ma- 
terial of  Solomon's  architectural  work 
may  have  been  common  limestone.  Some 

545 


MAR 


MAR 


of  it  was  doubtless  true  marble,  as  was 
certainly  much  of  the  stone  used  in 
Herod's  temple.  This  substance  was 
probably  used  in  very  early  times  for 
building  material,  1  Kgs.  6  :  7,  M6  ;  7  : 
9-12;  IChr.  2b:2,  and  for  many  kinds 
of  vessels.  The  colors  of  marble  are 
various  and  beautiful,  and  pieces  of  all 
sizes  may  be  so  wrought  together  as  to 
resemble  a  beautiful  painting.  Such 
was  probably  the  pavement  and  columns 
of  the  Persian  palace  described  in  Esth. 
1:6. 

MAR'CUS.  Col.  4  :  10.     See  Mark. 

MARK'SUAH  {possession},  one  of 
the  settlers  in  Hebron,  belonging  to  the 
family  of  Caleb.  1  Chr.  2  :  42. 

MA  RE' SHAH  {top  of  a  hill),  a 
city  of  Judah  in  the  low  country.  Josh. 
15:44.  It  was  fortified  and  garrisoned 
by  Rehoboam  after  the  rupture  with  the 
northern  kingdom.  2  Chr.  11 :  8.  Near  it 
the  great  battle  between  Zerah  and  Asa 
was  fought.  2  Chr.  14:9-12.  It  is  men- 
tioned once  or  twice  in  the  history  of 
the  Maccabtean  struggles.  1  Mace.  5 :  2 
Mace.  12:35.  About  b.  c.  110  it  was 
taken  from  the  Iduma^ans  by  John  Hyr- 
canus.  It  was  in  ruins  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, when  Eusebiusand  Jerome  describe 
it  as  in  the  second  mile  from  Eleuther- 
opolis.  The  ruin  el-Merash,  about  a 
mile  and  a  half  south-south-west  of  Beit 
Jebrin,  marks  the  site  of  ancient  Mar- 
eshah.  In  the  rocky  banks  of  the  val- 
ley south  of  the  ruin  there  are  numerous 
excavated  caverns  resembling  subterra- 
nean towns.  Conder  suggested  el-Marah, 
south  of  the  valley  of  Elah,  as  Mareshah, 
but  lately  has  accepted  M'ernsh  as  the  site. 

MARK,  OR  JOHN  MARK,  as  he 
is  also  called,  Acts  12:12,25;  15:37, 
was  a  Jew,  probably  a  native  of  Jerusa- 
lem, where  his  mother,  Mary,  resided. 
Acts  12  :  12.  She  was  a  person  of  some 
repute  among  the  early  Christians,  as 
Peter,  when  released  from  prison,  natu- 
rally went  to  her  house.  Mark  was  proba- 
bly converted  through  that  apostle,  who 
calls  him  "  his  son."  1  Pet.  5:13,  and  the 
minute  account  of  the  young  man  who 
followed  Jesus  on  the  night  of  the  betray- 
al, Mark  14:51,52,  together  with  the 
omission  of  the  name,  points  to  the 
evangelist  as  the  person  concerned.  Go- 
ing with  Paul  and  Barnabas,  who  was 
his  cousin.  Col.  4  :  10,  as  their  minister, 
Acts  12 :  25,  on  their  first  missionary 
546 


journej',  he  left  them  at  Perga,  Acts  13  : 
13,  and  in  consequence  became,  the  oc- 
casion of  "  sharp  contention  "  between 
them.  Acts  15:36-40.  Afterward  he 
appears  as  a  companion  of  Paul  in  Rome. 
Col.  4:10;  Phile.  24.  He  was  with  Pe- 
ter when  that  apostle  wrote  his  first 
Epistle,  1  Pet.  5  :  13,  but  was  at  Ephesus 
with  Timothy  at  a  date  probably  later. 
2  Tim.  4:11.  Respecting  his  after-life 
trustworthy  details  are  wanting,  but 
ancient  writers  agree  in  speaking  of  him 
as  the  "interpreter"  of  Peter,  which 
may  mean  that  he  translated  for  the 
apostle,  but  more  probably  means  that 
he  wrote  his  Gospel  in  close  conformity 
to  Peter's  preaching. 

According  to  the  unanimous  testimony 
of  antiquity,  the  second  Gospel  in  our 
canon  was  written  by  Mark,  and  numer- 
ous details  of  the  work  indicate  the  close 
relation  between  its  author  and  Peter. 
Many  events  are  recorded  as  if  from 
the  lips  of  an  eye-witness,  and  some 
have  suggested  that  the  Gospel  is  based 
upon  a  diary  of  Peter,  sketching  his 
fresh  impressions  of  events  as  they  oc- 
curred. The  style  shows  the  influence 
of  that  apostle.  Peter's  address  to  Cor- 
nelius, Acts  10,  has  been  called  the 
Gospel  of  Mark  in  a  nutshell.  A  compari- 
son of  the  accounts  in  Matt.  16  :  13-23 
and  Mark  8  :  27-33  indicates  that  Peter 
himself  (or  an  enemy  of  his,  which  is 
impossible)  occasioned  the  omission  of 
the  praise,  and  yet  the  insertion  of  the 
rebuke.  Mark  alone  mentions  the  two 
cock-crowings,  14  :  72,  thus  increasing 
the  guilt  of  Peter's  denial. 

Although  written  in  Greek,  the  Gospel 
was  designed  for  Roman  readers,  and  is 
especially  adapted  to  their  minds,  so  eas- 
ily impressed  by  exhibitions  of  energy 
and  power.  It  exhibits  Christ  as  the 
spiritual  Conqueror  and  Wonder-worker, 
the  Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  filling  the 
people  with  amazement  and  fear.  Mark 
introduces  several  Latin  terms ;  he  even 
substitutes  Roman  money  for  Greek,  12  : 
42,  which  Luke  does  not,  and  notices 
that  Simon  of  Cyrene  was  the  father 
of  Alexander  and  Rufus,  15 :  21,  who 
probably  were  Christians  in  Rome. 
Rom.  16  :  13.  It  is  therefore  most  likely 
that  the  Gospel  was  written  in  that  city. 
The  great  similarity  between  the  Gospel 
of  Mark  and  that  of  Matthew  has  led 
some   to    consider    the   former   a   mere 


MAR 


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abridgment  of  the  latter,  but  without 
sufficient  reason.  It  occupies  an  inde- 
pendent position  as  the  connecting-link 
between  Matthew  and  Luke,  Peter  and 
Paul, "the  Jewish  and  the  Gentile  Chris- 
tianity. The  last  part  of  the  closing 
chapter,  16  :  9-20,  is  not  found  in  the 
two  oldest  and  best  manuscripts  of  the 
Bible,  of  which  circumstance  some  have 
taken  occasion  to  declare  it  a  later  ad- 
dition. But  it  has  been  recognized  as 
part  of  the  Gospel  and  quoted  bj'  the 
Fathers  of  the  second  century — for  in- 
stance, Irenteus,  whose  testimony  is 
older  than  the  oldest  manuscript.  Pos- 
sibly it  was  a  later  postscript  of  Mark, 
added  to  a  second  copy ;  hence  its  omis- 
sion in  some  manuscripts. 

MAR^KET,  OR  MARKET- 
PLACE. The  market  of  an  ancient 
Greek  or  Roman  town  occupied  generally 
one  side  of  an  area,  the  other  sides  being 
occupied  by  public  buildings,  temples, 
courts,  and  offices  of  various  kinds.  Laws 
were  promulgated  here;  judicial  inves- 
tigations were  instituted;  questions  of 
philosophy  and  public  interest  were 
discussed ;  and  all  kinds  of  trade  and 
business  were  carried  on.  It  was  fre- 
quented by  business-men  and  by  crowds 
of  idlers  and  loungers.  In  a  strictly 
Oriental  city,  such  as  Jerusalem,  the 
market  had  not,  like  the  forum,  this 
character  of  being  the  centre  of  all  public 
life.  Still,  it  was  always  a  lively  place, 
generally  situated  just  within  the  gate, 
and  the  principal  scene  of  trade  and 
traffic. 

In  the  0.  T.  this  word  occurs  only 
once,  Eze.  27  :  3 ;  in  the  N.  T.  oftener. 
Matt.  23  :  7  :  Mark  12  :  38  ;  Luke  11 :  43  ; 
20  :  46  ;  Acts  16  :  19,  etc.,  and  we  learn 
1-ora  Matt.  20  :  3  that  not  only  were  all 
kinds  of  produce  offered  for  sale  here,  but 
hither  resorted  also  the  laborers  to  find 
amployment. 

MA'ROTH  {bittervexf!),  a  place  in 
the  western  plains  of  Judah.  Mic.  1  :  12. 

MAR'RIAGE.  Its  origin  is  re- 
corded in  Gen.  2  :  18-25,  and  its  consti- 
tution is  confirmed  by  our  Lord.  Matt. 
19  :  5,  6  ;  Mark  10  :  5-10.  Marriage,  in 
its  primitive  and  normal  state,  is  an  in- 
separable union  between  one  man  and 
one  woman  for  mutual  comfort  and  hap- 
piness, and  for  the  propagation  of  the 
race.  It  dates  from  Paradise  before  the 
fall.    It  is  indissoluble  except  on  account 


of  fornication.  Polygamy  first  appeared 
among  the  Cainites,  Gen.  4  :  19,  and  in 
spite  both  of  the  example  of  Noah  and 
his  sons,  who  were  monogamists.  Gen. 
7  :  13,  and  of  the  general  discourage- 
ment and  special  restrictions  which  the 
Mosaic  law  placed  in  its  way,  it  still 
prevailed  up  to  the  time  of  the  Captivity. 
It  must  be  noticed,  however,  that  among 
the  Hebrews  polj'gamy  never  assumed 
those  degraded  and  degrading  forms 
under  which  we  meet  it  among  pagan 
nations,  or  even  among  the  Mohammed- 
ans. A  distinction  was  always  made 
between  the  chief  wife  and  the  secondary 
wives,  between  the  legitimate  wife  and 
the  concubines ;  and  thus  the  principle  of 
monogamy  was  always  retained,  though 
not  always  carried  out.  The  Mosaic  law 
enjoined  the  kings  not  to  multiply  their 
wives,  Deut.  17  :  17;  prohibited  any  one 
from  marrying  two  sisters  at  the  same 
time.  Lev.  18  :  18  ;  asserted  the  matri- 
monial rights  of  each  wife  within  certain 
limits,  Ex.  21 :  10, 11  ;  and  entailed  con- 
siderable ritual  observances  on  the  man. 
Lev.  15  :  18.  Nevertheless,  instances  of 
polygamy  are  of  frequent  occurrence, 
such  as  Gideon,  Jud.  8  :  30;  Elkanah,  1 
Sam.  1:2;  Saul,  2  Sam.  12  :  8  ;  David,  2 
Sam.  6:13;  Solomon,  1  Kgs.  11  :  3  ;  the 
sons  of  Issachar,  1  Chr.  7:4;  Shaharaim, 
1  Chr.  8  :  8,  9  ;  Rehoboam,  2  Chr.  11  :  21  ; 
Abijah,  2  Chr.  13  :  21;  Joash,  2  Chr. 
24:3. 

After  the  Captivity  the  0.  T.  has  no 
instance  of  polygamy  on  record,  but  the 
books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  and  the 
post-Exilian  prophets  warned  the  Jews 
against  mixed  marriages  with  heathen 
women.  The  monogamic  spirit  of  the 
Mosaic  law,  in  consonance  with  the  gene-, 
ral  spirit  of  the  0.  T.,  had  now  so  far 
worked  itself  out  into  the  details  of  prac- 
tical life  that  monogamy  had  become 
the  rule.  Yea,  in  the  period  before  the 
advent  of  Christ,  a  view  had  arisen 
among  the  Jews  according  to  which  even 
the  propriety  of  marriage  was  doubted. 
It  was  the  sect  of  the  Essenes  which  rep- 
resented this  view,  some  of  them  reject- 
ing marriage  altogether,  while  others 
accepted  it  only  with  many  restrictions. 
Nevertheless,  instances  of  polygamy  still 
occurred,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  earliest 
commentators  on  1  Tim.  5  :  9.  Ilerod 
the  Great  had  at  one  time  nine  wives. 
Thus  Christianity  had  to  contend  at  once 

547 


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MAR 


against  both  extremes — the  polygamists 
and  the  ascetics.  With  the  former  the 
contest  was  very  short;  polygamy  soon 
disappeared  from  the  Christian  marriage. 
But  in  spite  of  Col.  2  :  16-23,  1  Tim.  4  : 
3,  and  other  passages  of  the  N.  T.  in 
which  the  propriety  of  marriage  is 
strongly  inculcated,  the  unmarried  state 
was  still  held  to  be  more  honorable  and 
of  greater  holiness  up  to  the  very  time 
of  the  Reformation. 

In  the  pre-Mosaic  period  marriages 
between  near  relatives  were  not  uncom- 
mon among  the  Hebrews.  The  great 
anxiety  to  keep  the  blood  of  the  family 
pure,  the  strong  feeling  of  exclusiveness 
toward  foreigners,  and  the  smallness  of 
the  tribe  led  naturally  to  such  measures. 
By  the  Mosaic  law,  Lev.  18  :  6-18,  the 
degrees  of  relationship  which  made 
marriage  illegal  were  sharply  defined — 
mother,  stepmother,  sister,  half-sister, 
granddaughter,  aunt,  daughter-in-law, 
brother's  wife,  stepdaughter,  wife's  moth- 
er, step-granddaughter,  or  wife's  sister 
during  the  lifetime  of  the  wife.  With 
respect  to  a  brother's  wife,  an  exception 
was  made  in  the  case  of  the  brother 
having  died  childless.  Deut.  25  :  5.  In 
this  case  the  brother  married  the  widow, 
according  to  the  so-called  Levirate — from 
the  Latin  levir,  "  brother-in-law." — law, 
but  the  progeny  which  issued  from  this 
connection  was  in  all  legal  respects  to  be 
reckoned  as  the  progeny  of  the  dead 
man.  Marriages  between  Israelites  and 
foreigners  were  comparatively  rare;  the 
marriages  of  Joseph  with  an  Egyptian, 
Gen.  41  :  45,  of  Manasseh  with  a  Syrian, 
1  Chr.  7  :  14,  of  Moses  with  a  Midianitish, 
Ex.  2 :  21,  and  afterward  with  a  Cushite, 
woman.  Num.  12  :  1,  were  exceptional 
cases.  Absolute  prohibition,  however, 
did  not  exist  except  with  respect  to  the 
Canaanites,  Ex.  34  :  16  ;  Deut.  7  :  3,  4, 
though  the  legal  disabilities  of  the  Am- 
monites and  Moabites,  Deut.  23  :  3,  had 
nearly  the  same  effect.  On  the  whole, 
marriages  between  Israelite  women  and 
foreigners  were  much  rarer  than  mar- 
riages between  Israelites  and  foreign 
women.  After  the  Captivity  this  latter 
form  of  intermarriage  became  so  common 
as  to  endanger  the  national  character  of 
the  people,  and  the  prohibition  against 
the  Canaanites  was  then  extended  also 
to  the  Ammonites.  Moabites,  and  Philis- 
tines. Neh.  13  :  23-25. 
548 


Among  the  more  special  regulations 
of  the  Mosaic  marriage-law  may  be  men- 
tioned :  the  high  priest  was  forbidden  to 
marr}'  any  but  a  virgin  out  of  his  own 
peo])le.  Lev.  21 :  13,  14.  Thus  the  Levi- 
rate law  could  never  be  applied  to  him. 
The  priests  were  forbidden  to  marry 
prostitutes  and  divorced  women.  Lev. 
21  :  7.  An  heiress  was  forbidden  to 
marry  out  of  her  own  tribe.  Num.  36  : 
5-9,  etc.  Among  the  Jews  divorce  was 
not  an  act  of  the  civil  judicature,  based 
on  proper  evidence  on  the  part  of  the 
injured  party.  The  husband  could  from 
a  mere  caprice,  from  having  "  found  in 
her  the  nakedness  of  a  thing,"  put  away 
his  wife  by  simply  writing  for  her  a  bill 
of  divorce,  and  a  woman  thus  divorced 
could  afterward  marry  whom  she  liked. 
Deut.  24  : 1-4.  In  this  Christianity  made 
a  great  change,  our  Lord  admitting  only 
one  sufficient  reason  for  a  divorce — 
adultery — and  adding  :  "Whosoever  mar- 
rieth  her  that  is  put  away  doth  commit 
adultery."  Matt.  19  :  9.  As  the  Mosaic 
law  did  not  absolutely  discountenance 
polygamy,  its  conception  of  adultery  was 
limited  to  the  unlawful  intercourse  with 
a  married  or  betrothed  woman,  but  the 
penalty  was  death  to  both  the  guilty 
parties.  Lev.  20:10;  Deut.  22:22-24, 
and  the  manner  of  execution  seems  to 
have  been  stoning.  Eze.  16  :  38-40 ; 
John  8  :  5.  It  depended,  however,  on 
the  husband  to  transform  the  death- 
penalty  into  a  simple  bill  of  divorce, 
and  this  seems  to  have  been  the  pre- 
vailing custom  in  the  time  of  the  N, 
T.     See  Matt.  1  :  19. 

Generally,  the  marriage  was  negoti- 
ated exclusively  by  the  parents,  no  regard 
being  paid  to  the  wishes  of  the  young 
folks.  This  is  still  the  case  in  Eastern 
countries,  especially  among  the  Moham- 
medans. Often,  however,  we  find  that 
the  bridegroom  exercised  some  influence 
on  the  choice  of  his  wife,  but  there  is  no 
instance  on  record  in  which  the  consent 
and  pleasure  of  the  bride  were  asked  for  : 
from  this  humiliating  subjection  Christi- 
anity alone  has  succeeded  in  elevating 
woman.  After  the  selection  of  the  bride 
followed  the  espousal  or  betrothal — a 
contract  made  under  oath  and  accom- 
panied by  presents  ;  a  written  contract 
was  not  in  use,  however,  until  after  the 
Captivity.  A  marriage-dowry  was  given 
— not  by  the  father  to  his  daughter,  but 


MAR 


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by  the  bridegroom  to  the  parents  of  the 
bride.  The  primitive  idea  of  the  Hebrew 
marriage  was  evidently  that  the  bride 
was  bought,  and  in  many  cases  the  bride- 
groom paid  tlie  dowry  in  actual  service; 
as,  for  instance,  Jacob,  Gen.  29  ;  Joseph, 
Gen.  41  :  4j  ;  Moses,  Ex.  2  :  21 ;  3:1; 
Othniel.  Jud.  1  :  12,  etc.  After  the  be- 
trothal the  bride  was  considered  as  a 
wife,  and  any  unfaithfulness  by  her 
was  punished  as  adultery.  She  re- 
mained, however,  for  some  time  in  the 
parental  house,  and  during  this  period 
all  communications  between  her  and  the 
bridegroom  were  carried  b}'  the  ''friend 
of  the  bridegroom."  When  the  marriage- 
feast  was  to  be  consummated,  the  bride- 
groom came  to  the  house  of  the  bride 
anointed,  arrayed  in  festive  garment, 
with  the  nuptial  turban  on  his  head, 
Ps.  45  :  8  ;  Cant.  4:10, 11  ;  Isa.  61  :  10 ; 
Cant.  3  :  11,  and  accompanied  by  a  num- 
ber of  his  friends — ''the  cliildren  of  the 
bride-chamber."  Matt.  9:16.  The  bride 
he  found  veiled,  adorned  with  jewels  and 
the  bridal  chaplet,  and  surrounded  by 
her  maidens.  Ps.  46  :  13, 14  ;  Isa.  49  :  18  ; 
61  :  10  ;  Rev.  19  :  8 ;  21  :  2.  In  a  great 
procession,  with  torchlights  and  lamps. 
Matt.  22  :  1-10  ;  25  :  1-10  ;  Luke  14  :  8  ; 
John  2:1-10;  Rev.  19  :  9,  he  then  carried 
her  to  his  house,  where  the  feast  was 
prepared ;  and  often  this  feast  lasted  for 
seven  days. 

Both  in  the  0.  T.  and  in  the  N.  T.  the 
betrothal,  marriage-feast,  and  marriage 
have  given  rise  to  numerous  allegorical 
and  typical  allusions,  the  relation  be- 
tween Jehovah  and  his  chosen  people 
being  the  point  of  comparison  in  the  0. 
T.,  Isa.  54  :  5  ;  Jer.  3  :  14  ;  Hos.  2:19,  etc., 
that  of  Christ  and  his  Church  in  the  N. 
T.  Matt.  9  :  15  ;  John  3  :  29 ;  2  Cor. 
11 :  2  ;   Rev.  19  :  7. 

MARS'  HILL,  better  known  by  the 
name  of  AREOPAGUS.  This  was  a 
rocky  height  in  Athens  opposite  the 
western  end  of  the  Acropolis.  It  rises 
gradually  from  the  northern  end  and 
terminates  abruptly  on  the  south,  over 
against  the  Acropolis,  at  which  point  it 
is  about  50  or  60  feet  above  the  valley. 
The  court  held  here  existed  as  a  criminal 
tribunal  before  the  time  of  Solon,  and 
was  the  most  ancient  and  venerable  of 
all  the  Athenian  courts.  It  consisted 
of  all  persons  who  had  held  the  office  of 
archon,  and  who  were  members  of  it  for 


life  unless  expelled  for  misconduct.  Be- 
fore the  time  of  Solon  the  court  tried 
only  cases  of  wilful  murder,  wounding, 
poison,  and  arson,  but  he  gave  it  exten- 
sive powers.  The  council  continued  to 
exist  even  under  the  Roman  emperors. 
Its  meetings  were  held  on  the  south- 
eastern summit  of  the  rock.  On  the 
eastern  and  western  side  is  a  raised  block. 
From  this  spot  Paul  delivered  his  address 
to  the  men  of  Athens.  Acts  17  :  22-31.  He 
also  ''disputed"  in  the  "market,"  or  agora, 
"daily,"  17:1 7, which  was  south  of  the  Are- 
opagus, in  the  valley  Ij'ing  between  this 
hill  and  those  of  the  Acropolis,  the  Pnj'x, 
and  the  Museum.  "  Certain  philosophers 
of  the  Epicureans  and  of  the  Stoics" 
brought  him  up  from  the  valley,  probably 
by  the  stone  steps,  to  the  Areopagus 
Hill  so  that  they  might  listen  to  him  more 
conveniently.     See  Areopagus. 

MAR'THA,  the  feminine  form  of 
an  Aramaic  word  signifying  "  lord," 
"master,"  was  the  sister  of  Lazarus  and 
Mary,  and  seems  to  have  been  the  eldest 
of  the  family,  as  she  is  always  mentioned 
before  Mary  and  generally  represented 
as  the  mistress  of  the  house.  She  was 
more  active  in  practical  life  than  the 
younger  sister,  but  lacked  her  concentra- 
tion on  the  one  thing  needful  ;  but  she 
was,  nevertheless,  sincere,  devoted,  and 
beloved  by  Christ,  John  11  :  5,  and  her 
energy,  somewhat  encumbered  by  the 
distractions  of  actual  life,  became  at  last 
concentrated  in  her  faith  in  the  Saviour. 

MAR'TYR  occurs  thrice  in  the  N.  T. 
Acts  22  :  20  ;  Rev.  2:13;  17  :  6.  In 
other  places  the  Greek  word  of  the  text 
is  rendered  with  "witness,"  Matt.  18  :  16; 
Luke  24  :  48,  which  is  its  original  mean- 
ing. It  was  not  until  after  the  apostolic 
age  that  the  word  came  to  denote  a  wit- 
ness who  seals  his  testimony  with  his 
blood,  but  in  the  above  passages  we  may 
observe  it  in  a  state  of  transition. 

MA'RY,  corresponding  to  the  "Mir- 
iam "of  the  0.  T. 

1.  The  virgin  mother  of  our  Lord  (and 
hence  "  blessed  among  women  "),  was  of 
the  tribeof  Judah.of  the  lineage  of  David, 
and  by  marriage  connected  with  Elisa- 
beth, the  mother  of  John  the  Baptist. who 
was  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  of  the  lineage  of 
Aaron.  After  the  incidents  belonging  to 
the  infancy  of  Jesus — the  visit  of  the 
shepherds,  the  circumcision,  the  adora- 
tion of  the  wise  men,  the  presentation 

549 


MAR 


MAS 


in  the  temple,  and  the  flight  into  Egypt 
— Mary  is  mentioned  only  four  times  in 
the  records  of  sacred  history :  at  the 
marriage  of  Cana  of  (xalilee,  John  2:3; 
the  attempt  to  speak  to  Jesus  while  he 
was  teaching,  Matt.  12  :  46  ;  Mark  3  :  21, 
31;  Luke  8  :  19;  the  crucifixion,  John 
19  :  26  ;  and  during  the  days  succeeding 
the  ascension.  Acts  1 :  14.  She  was  pres- 
ent at  the  marriage  in  Cana,  which  took 
place  in  the  three  months  between  the 
baptism  of  Christ  and  the  Passover  of 
the  year  27,  and  at  which  Jesus  wrought 
his  first  miracle,  after  she  had  called 
attention  to  the  lack  of  wine  at  the 
feast.  She  also  sought  an  interview 
with  him,  in  company  with  others  of 
the  family,  when  he  was  preaching  to  a 
crowd  in  a  country  place.  She  was  pres- 
ent at  his  crucifixion,  and  was  there  com- 
mended by  the  expiring  Redeemer  to  the 
filial  kindness  and  attention  of  the  be- 
loved John;  and  she  is  mentioned  as  one 
among  the  praying  company  in  the  upper 
room  at  Jerusalem  after  the  ascension  of 
our  Saviour.  A  great  multitude  of  le- 
gends have  clustered  around  her  name, 
referring  to  her  life  before  the  birth  of 
Christ  and  after  his  death,  but  most  of 
them  are  extremely  fabulous,  and  none 
of  them  seems  to  contain  any  historical 
kernel. 

2.  The  wife  of  Cleophas,  was  present 
at  the  crucifixion  and  burial  of  our  Lord, 
Matt.  27  :  56,  61,  was  among  those  who 
went  to  embalm  him,  Mark  16  :  1-10, 
was  among  the  earliest  to  whom  the  news 
of  his  resurrection  was  announced,  Luke 
24  :  6, 10,  and  on  her  way  to  the  disciples 
with  the  intelligence  she  met  her  risen 
Lord  and  worshipped  him.  Matt.  28  : 1, 9. 

3.  The  mother  of  John  Mark,  Acts 
12  :  12,  and  aunt  to  Barnabas,  Col.  4  : 
10,  a  godly  woman  residing  at  Jerusalem 
at  whose  house  the  disciples  were  con- 
vened the  night  Peter  was  miraculously 
delivered  from  prison. 

4.  The  sister  of  Lazarus  and  Martha, 
and  a  devoted  friend  and  disciple  of  our 
Saviour,  from  whom  she  received  the 
testimony  that  she  had  chosen  the  good 
part  which  should  not  be  taken  from  her. 
Luke  10  :  41,  42.  Compared  with  her 
sister,  she  appears  of  a  more  contem- 
plative turn  of  mind  and  more  occupied 
with  the  "  one  thing "  needful.  John 
11  :  1  ;  12  :  2. 

5.  Mary  Magdalene,  or  Mary  of  Mag- 

550 


dala.  Luke  8  :  2.  The  general  impres- 
sion that  she  was  an  unchaste  woman  is 
entirely  without  foundation.  There  is 
nothing  to  warrant  the  opinion  that  she 
was  identical  with  the  woman  who  was 
a  sinner.  On  the  contrary,  she  was  a 
woman  in  good  circumstances  and  of 
unblemished  character.  Having  been 
relieved  of  a  demoniacal  possession  by 
the  divine  power  of  our  Saviour,  she 
became  his  follower,  Luke  8  :  2,  3,  and 
evinced  her  attachment  to  him  and  his 
cause  to  the  very  last.  She  was  at  his 
crucifixion,  John  19  :  25,  and  burial, 
Mark  15  :  47,  and  was  among  those  who 
had  prejjared  the  materials  to  embalm 
him,  Mark  16  :  1,  and  who  first  went  to 
the  sepulchre  after  the  resurrection;  and 
what  is  particularly  interesting  in  her 
history,  she  was  the  first  to  whom  the 
risen  Redeemer  appeared,  Mark  16  :  9, 
and  his  conversation  with  her  is  ex- 
ceeded in  interest  and  pathos  by  no 
passage  of  history,  sacred  or  profane. 
John  20  :  11-18. 

6.  A  Christian  woman  in  Rome  to 
whom  Paul  sends  his  salutation.  Rom. 
16:  6. 

MAS'CHIL  is  found  in  the  title  or 
inscription  of  thirteen  Psalms — namely, 
32,  42,  44,  45,  52-55,  74,  78,  88,  89, 
142 — and  is  by  some  explained  as  an 
jBsthetical  term  meaning  "  didactic,"  by 
others  as  a  musical  term  referring  to  the 
melody. 

MASH,  Gen,  10  :  23,  or  ME'- 
SHECH,  1  Chr.  1 :  17,  a  son  of  Aram, 
and  the  ancestor  of  one  branch  of  the 
Aramaic  race,  settled  probably  at  the 
Mons  Masius  of  classical  writers,  the 
present  Karja  Baghlar,  situated  on  the 
northern  frontier  of  Mesopotamia. 

MA'SHAIj  {entreaty),  a  Levitical 
city  in  Asher,  1  Chr.  6  :  74 :  also  called 
Misheal,  Josh.l9  :  26,  and  Mishal.  Josh. 
21  :  30.     It  was  near  Mount  Carmel. 

MA'SON.  The  Hebrews  no  doubt 
learnt  the  art  of  masonry  during  their 
residence  in  Egypt,  Ex.  1  :  11,  14,  though 
at  a  later  period  we  find  Phoenician 
workmen  employed  by  David  and  Sol- 
omon. 1  Kgs.  5  :  17,  18;  1  Chr.  14  :  1. 
By  the  erection  of  the  temple  great  skill 
in  the  art  of  masonry  was  evinced,  both 
in  the  great  wall  which  supported  the 
temple-platform,  and  which  consisted  of 
huge  blocks  held  together  by  lead,  and 
in  the  temple-wall  itself,  in  which  the 


MAS 


MAT 


stones  were  so  accurately  cut  that  they 
could  be  laid  without  the  application  of 
tools.  In  common  buildings  plaster- 
ing with  mortar  was  used  both  with- 
out and  within.  Lev.  14  :  40-42 ;  Matt. 
23  :  27.  There  seems  also  to  have  been 
a  kind  of  plastering  with  mere  mud. 
called  untempered.  Eze.  13  :  10-15. 

MAS'ORA.     See  Bible. 

MAS'IiEKA  {vineyard  of  noble 
vines),  a  place  apparently  in  Idumsea, 
and  seat  of  an  early  king  of  Edom. 
Gen.  36  :  36;  1  Chr.  1  :  47. 

MAS'SA  {gift,  tribute),  a  son  of  Ish- 
mael,  Gen.  25  :  14;  1  Chr.  1  :  .30,  and 
probably  the  ancestor  of  the  Masani, 
settled  in  the  north-eastern  part  of 
Arabia,  near  the  Babylonian  frontier. 

MAS 'S  AH  [temptation),  a  name 
given  to  the  place,  also  called  Meribah, 
where  the  Israelites  tempted  Jehovah. 
Ex.  17  :  7  ;   Ps.  95  :  8,  9 ;  Heb.  3  :  8. 

MAS'TER  is  in  our  translation 
often  the  rendering  of  a  Greek  word 
meaning  "teacher,"  Luke  6  :  40  ;  John 
3:10;  hence  its  frequent  application  to 
our  Lord.   Matt.  22  :  16,  24,  36,  etc. 

MATHU'SALA,  the  Greek  form 
of  Methuselah.  Luke  3  :  37. 

MA'TRED  {2}ropelling),  a  daughter 
of  Mezahab,  and  mother  of  Mehetabel, 
who  was  the  wife  of  Hadar,  king  of 
Edom.  Gen.  36  :  39 ;  1  Chr.  1  :  50. 

MA'TRI  {rain  of  Jehovah),  a  Ben- 
jamite  family  to  which  Saul  the  king 
belonged.  1  Sam.  10  :  21. 

MAT'TAN  {a  gift).  1.  One  of 
Baal's  priests,  who  was  slain  before  his 
idolatrous  altar  at  the  deposition  of 
Athaliah.  2  Kgs.  11  :  18 ;  2  Chr.  23  : 
17. 

2.  The  father  of  Shephatiah,  who 
wished  to  put  Jeremiah  to  death.  Jer. 
38  •  1. 

MAT'TANAH  {gift,  present),  a 
station  of  the  Hebrews  between  the 
desert  and  the  borders  of  Moab.  Num. 
21  :  18,  19.  Maschana,  on  the  Arnon, 
12  miles  from  Dibon,  has  been  sug- 
gested as  marking  Mattanah. 

MATTAIVI'AH  {gift  of  Jehovah). 
1.  The  original  name  of  the  son  of 
Josiah  who  was  made  king  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, 2  Kgs.  24  :  17,  and  whose 
name  was  changed  to  Zedekiah,  which 
see. 

2.  A  Levite  singer  of  the  sons  of 
Asaph,    1    Chr.    9  :  15,    who,    after   the 


restoration  of  the  temple,  was  the 
leader  of  the  choir  in  the  time  of 
Nehemiah.  Neh.  11:17;  12:8.  25, 
35. 

3.  A  Levite,  son  of  Heman,  and  chief 
of  the  ninth  division  of  singers.  1  Chr. 

25  :  4,  16. 

4.  A  Levite,  a  descendant  of  Asaph, 
and  ancestor  of  Jahaziel.  2  Chr.  20  : 
14. 

5.  A  Levite  who  assisted  in  the  puri- 
fication of  the  temple  in  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah.  2  Chr.  29  :  13. 

6.  A  Levite,  father  of  Zaccur,  and  an- 
cestor of  Hanan.  Neh.  13  :  13. 

7.  I\)ur  persons  who  had  married  for- 
eign wives  in  the  time  of  Ezra.  Ezr.  10  : 

26  27   30    '^1 

MAT'TATHA  {gift  of  Jehovah),  a 
son  of  Nathan,  and  grandson  of  David 
in  the  genealogv  of  Jesus.  Luke  3  :  31. 

MAt'TATHAH,  one  who  had 
married  a  foreign  woman  in  the  time 
of  Ezra.  Ezr.  10  :  33. 

MATTATHI'AS.  1.  Two  per- 
sons in  the  genealogy  of  Jesus.  Luke 
3  :  25,  26. 

2.  The  head  of  the  Maccabaean  family. 
See  Maccabees. 

MATTENA'I  {gift  of  Jehovah).  1. 
Two  persons  who  had  married  foreign 
women  in  the  time  of  Ezra.  Ezr.  10  : 
33,  37. 

2.  A  priest  in  the  time  of  Joiakim. 
Neh.  12  :  19. 

MAT'THAN,  a  person  in  the  gene- 
alogy of  Christ.  Matt.  1  :  15. 

MAT'THAT  {gift  of  God),  two 
persons  in  the  genealogy  of  Jesus. 
Luke  3  :  24.  29. 

MAT'THEW,  derived  from  the 
same  word  as  MATTHI'AS,  Acts 
1  :  23,  26  {gift  of  God),  apostle,  and 
author  of  the  first  canonical  Gospel. 
His  original  name  was  Levi,  jMark  2  : 
14;  Luke  5  :  27,  29,  which,  like  that  of 
Simon  and  of  Saul,  was  changed  on  his 
being  called  to  the  apostleship.  He  was 
a  publican  or  tax-gatherer  near  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  on  the  route  between  Damascus 
and  the  Phoenician  seaports,  and  was 
called  by  our  Lord  immediately  from 
the  toll-booth.  This  avocation  was  re- 
garded by  the  Jews  with  contempt,  but 
it  doubtless  gave  him  an  extensive 
knowledge  of  human  nature,  and  accu- 
rate business  habits,  which  tended  to 
fit  him  for  his   great  work  as  an    evan- 

551 


MAT 


MAT 


gelist.  The  N.  T.  is  silent  in  regard  to 
his  special  labors,  but  he  was  among 
those  who  met  in  the  upper  room  at 
Jerusalem  after  the  ascension  of  our 
Lord.  Acts  1  ;  13.  The  tradition  of 
his  martyrdom  in  Ethiojna  is  le- 
gendary. 

The  Gospel  according  to  Matthew 
was  probably  written  in  Palestine,  and 
certainly  for  Jewish  Christians.  It  pre- 
sents Christ  as  the  last  and  greatest 
Lawgiver  and  Prophet,  as  the  Fulfiller 
of  the  0.  T.,  as  the  Messiah  and  King 
of  the  true  people  of  Israel.  Its  ar- 
rangement is  not  strictly  chronological, 
but  topical,  grouping  together  the  works 
and  sayings  of  Christ  according  to  their 
similarity.  Though  a  simple  narrative 
in  its  form,  and  not  proposing  any 
definite  design  on  the  part  of  the 
author,  it  is  in  fact  an  historical  proof 
that  Jesus  of  Nazareth  is  the  Messiah. 
The  frequent  references  to  the  fulfilment 
of  0.  T.  prophecy  suggest  this  purpose. 
While  it  is  not  certain  that  it  was  the 
first  in  time,  it  deserves  the  first  place 
in  the  N.  T.,  forming,  as  it  does,  the  best 
link  between  the  0.  and  the  N.  T.,  be- 
tween the  Law  and  the  Gospel.  It  occu- 
pies the  same  position  in  the  canon  of 
the  N.  T.  as  the  Pentateuch  in  that  of  the 
0.  T.,  giving  us,  in  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount,  a  counterpart  of  the  legislation 
from  Mount  Sinai,  the  fundamental  law 
of  the  Christian  Church.  The  genealogy, 
the  revelation  to  Joseph,  the  visit  of  the 
Magi,  peculitir  to  this  Gospel,  all  com- 
bine to  make  the  impression,  as  one  be- 
gins to  read,  that  here  is  the  fulfilment, 
not  the  abolition,  of  the  old  dispensation ; 
and  this  impression  is  deepened  by  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount,  the  parables  of 
the  kingdom  of  heaven,  the  discourse 
against  the  Pharisees,  and  the  repeated 
citations  from  the  0.  T.  prophecies 
which  are  declared  to  be  fulfilled  in 
Christ. 

With  respect  to  the  language  in  which 
this  Gospel  first  was  written,  two  diff'er- 
ent  views  have  been  set  forth  :  1.  That 
it  was  originally  composed  in  Hebrew — 
i.e.,  Syro-Chaldaic,  or  Western  Aramaic, 
the  dialect  spoken  in  Palestine  by  the 
Jewish  Christians ;  2.  That  it  was  writ- 
ten in  Greek,  as  we  now  possess  it.    The  j 
testimony    of  the    early    Church    unan- 
imously favors   the  first  view.      Those  | 
Fathers  who  assert  that  Matthew  wrote  I 
552 


in  Hebrew  also  assert  that  his  work  was 
translated  into  Greek,  and  unhesitatingly 
employ  the  present  Greek  Gospel  as  a 
faithful  representative  of  the  apostolic 
production.  If  we  accept  a  Hebrew 
original,  then  we  must  also  conclude 
that  when  the  necessity  for  a  Greek 
version  became  obvious,  Matthew  him- 
self made,  or  caused  to  be  made,  the 
present  Greek  Gospel.  Of  this  there 
is  no  positive  and  direct  proof,  but  it 
accords  with  the  testimony  of  the  Fa- 
thers and  accounts  for  the  double  as- 
signment of  dates  which  we  find,  and 
also  for  the  universal  acceptance  of  our 
Gospel.  On  the  other  side,  it  has  been 
urged  in  favor  of  a  Greek  original  or 
of  the  original  character  of  our  Gospel, 
not  only  that  the  testimony  of  the  Fathers 
is  insufficient,  unsatisfactory,  and  at  times 
confused,  but  that  the  evidence  from  the 
Gospel  itself  is  abundantly  conclusive 
on  this  point.  The  theory  of  a  version 
by  Matthew  himself  will  account  for  the 
early  citation  of  the  present  Greek  text, 
but  not  so  readily  for  certain  facts  in  the 
Gospel  itself.  It  agrees  most  exactly 
with  the  other  two  synoptists,  Mark  and 
Luke,  in  the  discourses,  especially  those 
of  our  Lord,  and  diff'ers  from  them  most 
in  the  narrative  portions.  And  further, 
where  citations  from  the  0.  T.  occur  in 
the  discourses,  they  are  usually  from  the 
Septuagint,  while  those  in  the  narrative 
appear  to  be  indejjendent  translations 
from  the  Hebrew,  It  is  argued  that  a 
mere  translator  could  not  have  done 
this,  but  an  independent  writer,  using 
the  Greek  tongue  and  wishing  to  con- 
form his  narrative  to  the  oral  teaching 
of  the  apostles,  might  have  used  for  the 
quotations  the  well-known  Greek  0.  T. 
used  by  his  colleagues.  The  whole  ques- 
tion is  an  open  one,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  some  future  archteological  discover- 
ies will  settle  it.  The  drift  of  scholarly 
opinion,  however,  is  toward  the  accept- 
ance of  a  Greek  original.  In  any  case, 
there  is  no  reason  for  doubting  the  gen- 
uineness of  the  canonical  Gospel. 

With  regard  to  the  time  when  it  was 
written  there  is  great  uncertainty.  Evi- 
dently, Jerusalem  had  not  been  destroy- 
ed, but  its  destruction  is  foretold,  ch.  24, 
in  a  manner  that  is  only  explicable  on 
the  assumption  of  its  being  still  a  future 
event  to  the  writer.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  evident  that  some  time  had  elapsed 


MAT 


MEA 


since  the  events  it  records  had  occurred. 
27  :  7,  8 ;  28  :  15.  Some  of  the  ancients 
give  the  eighth  year  after  the  Ascension 
as  the  date,  others  the  fifteenth.  If  tliere 
was  an  original  Hebrew  Gospel,  the  ear- 
lier date  belongs  to  it ;  but  we  would 
place  our  present  Gospel  between  CO  and 
66 — a  period  during  which  both  Mark 
and  Luke  probably  wrote  their  Gospels. 

MATTHI'AS  {gift  of  Jehovah),  a 
disciple  of  Christ,  and  a  constant  attend- 
ant on  his  travels  and  ministry  from 
their  commencement  until  his  ascen- 
sion, was  appointed  by  lot  to  supply  the 
vacancy  in  the  company  of  the  twelve 
apostles  occasioned  by  the  apostasy  of 
Judas.  Acts  1:21  et  seq.  Of  his  after- 
life and  ministry  nothing  is  known  with 
certainty.  According  to  one  tradition, 
he  preached  in  Ethiopia  and  suflFered 
martyrdom  there  ;  according  to  another, 
he  labored  in  Juda?a  and  was  stoned  by 
the  Jews. 

MATTITHI'AH  (gift  of  Jehovah). 
1.  A  Korahite  Levite  presiding  over  the 
offerings  made  in  the  pans.   1  Chr.  9:31. 

2.  A  Levite  appointed  by  David  to 
play  the  harp.  1  Chr.  15  :  18,.  21 ;  16  :  5 ; 
comp.  25:3,  21. 

3.  One  who  had  married  a  foreign  wife 
in  the  time  of  Ezra.  Ezr.  10  :  43. 

4.  A  priest  who  stood  at  the  right 
hand  of  Ezra  when  he  read  the  Law  to 
the  people.  Keh.  8  :  4. 

MAT'TOCK,  an  agricultural  im- 
plement for  loosen- 
ing the  ground ;  a 
pick-axe;  a  hoe. 
Isa.  7:25.  See 
Agricultttre. 

MAUL,  a  mace, 
club,  or  hammer, 
much  used  in  Ori- 
ental warfare,  and 
used  with  frightful 
effect.  Prov.  25  :  1 8. 

MAUZ'ZIM 
{fortresses),  in  the 
margin  of  Dan.  11  : 
38,  where  the  text  has  "  god  of  forces." 
Its  signification  is  uncertain,  but  it  prob- 
ably refers  to  the  dedication  by  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  of  a  temple  in  Antioch  to  Ju- 
piter Capitolinus. 

MAZ'ZAROTH,  Job  38  :32,  or 
MAZZALOTH,  2  Kgs.  23  :  5  {phm- 
ets),  the-name  of  the  twelve  signs  of  the 
zodiac. 


Mattock    or    Esyptian 
Hoe.  {After  Wilkinson.) 


MEAD'OW  is  in  Gen.  41  :  2  the 
rendering  of  an  Egyptian  word  denoting 
rushes  or  water-plants  in  general.  In 
Jud.  20  :  33  the  Hebrew  words  rendered 
with"  meadow"  would,  by  a  slight  change 
in  the  punctuation,  read  '*  cave,"  which 
seems  more  appropriate. 

ME'AH  ((r  hundred),  a  tower  in  Je- 
rusalem, standing  between  the  Sheep- 
gate  and  the  tower  of  Ilananeel.  Neh. 
3  : 1.     See  Jerusalem. 

MEALS.     See  Eating  and  Feast. 

MEA'RAH  (a  cave,  cavern).  In 
Josh.  13  :  4  this  word  occurs  as  the  name 
of  a  cave  not  far  from  Sidon  ;  the  mar- 
gin reads,  *'  the  cave."  Robinson,  in  his 
journey  from  Tyre  to  Sidon,  observed 
many  sepulchral  grottoes  hewn  out  of 
the  hard  limestone  rock.  This  may  be 
the  spot  spoken  of  by  William  of  Tyre 
as  the  Tyrian  cave  in  the  territory  of 
Sidon ;  Keil  makes  Mearah  "  the  cave 
of  Jezzin,"  east  of  Sidon,  in  Lebanon,  a 
hiding-place  of  the  Druses  now  ;  Ritter 
refers  it  to  a  district  of  deep  caves  like 
the  ravines  near  Sidon  and  Dan. 

MEASURES  AND  WEIGHTS. 
The  Jewish  law  contains  two  precepts 
respecting  weights  and  measures.  The 
first,  Lev.  19  :  35,  36,  refers  to  the  stand- 
ards kept  in  the  sanctuary,  and  the  sec- 
ond, Deut.  25  :  13-15,  to  copies  of  them 
kept  by  every  family  for  its  own  use. 
The  models  or  standards  of  the  weights 
and  measures  preserved  in  the  temple 
were  destroyed  with  the  sacred  edifice, 
and  afterward  the  measures und  weights 
of  the  people  among  whom  the  Jews 
dwelt  were  adopted ;  which,  of  course, 
adds  to  the  perplexities  of  the  subject. 

I.  Measures  of  Length. — The  He- 
brews, like  all  other  ancient  nations, 
took  the  standard  of  their  measures  of 
length  from  the  human  body.  They 
made  use,  however,  only  of  the  finger, 
the  hand,  and  the  arm,  not  of  the  foot  or 
the  pace.  The  handbreadth  or  palm,  1 
Kgs.  7  :  26,  was  four  digits,  or  the  breadth 
of  the  four  fingers — from  three  to  three 
and  a  half  inches. 

A  span.  Lam.  2:20,  which  expresses 
the  distance  across  the  hand  from  the 
extremity  of  the  thumb  to  the  extremity 
of  the  little  finger,  when  they  are 
stretched  as  far  apart  as  possible,  say 
nine  to  ten  inches. 

A  cubit,  the  distance  from  the  elbow 
to  the  extremity  of  the  middle  finger,  or 

553 


MEA 


MEA 


about  eighteen  inches.  The  different 
expressions  used  in  the  0.  T.  about  this 
measure — such  as  "  after  the  cubit  of  a 
man,"  Deut.  3:11;  *'  after  the  first  meas- 
ure," 2  Chr.  3:3;  "a  great  cubit/'  Eze. 
41 :  8 — show  that  it  varied. 

A  fathom,  Acts  27  :  28,  was  from  six 
to  six  and  a  half  feet. 

The  measuring-reed,  Eze.  42  :  16,  com- 
prised six  cubits,  or  from  ten  to  eleven 
feet,  and  the  measuring-line,  Zech.  2:  1, 
a  hundred  and  forty-six  feet. 

The  furlong,  Luke  24  :  13,  was  a  Greek 
measure,  and  nearly  the  same  as  at  pres- 
ent— viz.,  one- eighth  of  a  mile,  or  forty 
rods. 

The  mile,  mentioned  only  once.  Matt. 
5  :  41,  belonged  to  the  Roman  system  of 
measurement,  as  stadium  to  the  Greek. 
The  Koman  mile  was  one  thousand  six 
hundred  and  twelve  yards.  The  Jewish 
mile  was  longer  or  shorter,  in  accordance 
with  the  longer  or  shorter  pace  in  use  in 
the  various  parts  of  the  country. 

The  Sabbath  day's  journey,  Acts  1  :  12, 
■was  about  seven-eighths  of  a  mile,  and 
the  term  denoted  the  distance  which 
Jewish  tradition  said  one  might  ti'avel 
without  a  violation  of  the  law.  Ex.  16  : 
29.  It  is  supposed  that  this  distance 
extended  first  from  the  tabernacle  to  the 
remotest  section  of  the  camp,  and  after- 
ward from  the  temple  to  the  remotest 
parts  of  the  holy  city. 

The  term  a  day's  journey.  Num.  11  : 
31 ;  Luke  2  :  44,  probably  indicated  no 
certain  distance,  but  was  taken  to  be  the 
ordinary  distance  which  a  person  in  the 
East  travels  on  foot,  or  on  horseback  or 
camel,  in  the  prosecution  of  a  journey — 
about  twenty  miles. 

II.  Measures  op  Capacity.  —  (1.) 
Dry.  A  cab,  or  kab  (holloio),  2  Kgs.  6  : 
25,  one-third  of  an  omer,  or  two  pints. 

An  omer  {heap,  sheaf),  Ex.  16:36, 
one-tenth  of  an  ephah,  or  six  pints. 

The  seah  (measure),  Gen.  18:6;  Matt. 
13  :  33;  Luke  13  :  21,  one-third  of  an 
ephah,  or  twenty  pints,  was  the  ordinary 
measure  for  household  purposes. 

The  ephah — a  word  of  Egyptian  origin, 
but  often  occurring  in  the  0.  T.,  Ex.  16  : 
36 ;  Lev.  5:11;  Num.  5:15;  Jud.  6  : 
19,  etc. — ten  omers,  or  three  seahs,  or 
sixty  pints. 

The    homer    (heap),   Isa.  5  :  10,  when 
used    for    dry    measure,    one    hundred 
omers,  or  six  hundred  pints. 
654 


The  Greek  word  translated  "bushel," 
Matt.  5  :  15,  is  supposed  by  some  to  an- 
swer to  the  Hebrew  word  seah.  The  Ro- 
man bushel  was  very  nearly  the  same 
with  the  English  peck. 

(2.)    Liquid. — The    log    (basin).    Lev. 


Measures  of  Capacity. 

14  :  10,  six  egg-shells  full,  one-tenth  of  a 
hin,  or  nearly  one  pint. 

The  hin — a  word  of  Egyptian  origin, 
but  often  used  in  the  0.  T.,  Ex.  29  :  40  ; 
30  :  24;  Num.  15  :  4,  etc. — one-sixth  of 
a  bath  or  ten  pints. 

The  bath  (measured),  the  largest  of  the 
liquid  measures,  contained  one-tenth  of 
a  homer,  seven  and  a  half  gallons,  or 
sixty  pints.  1  Kgs.  7  :  26 ;  2  Chr.  2:10; 
Isa.  5  :  10. 

The  firkin,  John  2  :  6,  was  a  Greek 
measure,  containing  seven  and  a  half 
gallons. 

III.  Weights. — In  the  time  of  Moses 
the  common  weight  was  a  shekel,  which 
signifies  a  "  weight."  There  were  also 
the  parts  of  a  shekel,  as  the  fourth, 
third,  and  half.  The  shekel,  the  maneh, 
and  the  talent  were  all  originally  names 
of  weights.  When  the  phrase  "  shekel 
of  the  sanctuary"  is  used,  Ex.  30  :  13, 
it  means,  not  that  this  was  different  from 
the  common  shekel,  but  that  it  was  a 
true  standard  weight,  according  to  the 
authorized  standard  preserved  in  the 
sanctuary,  or,  as  we  should  say,  a  sealed 
weight  or  measure,  to  denote  that  its 
accuracy  is  certified  by  authority.  To 
weigh  substances  the  Jews  had — 

The  shekel,  Am.  8  :  5,  half  an  ounce 
avoirdupois. 

The  mineh  or  mina,  Eze.  45  :  12,  one 
hundred  shekels,  or  fifty  ounces,  equal 
to  three  pounds  two  ounces  avoirdupois. 

The  talent,  2  Sam.  12  :  30,  three  thou- 
sand shekels,  thirty  maneh,  fifteen  hun- 
dred ounces,  equal  to  ninety-three 
pounds  twelve  ounces  avoirdupois. 


MEA 


MED 


MEAT,  MEATS.  The  import  of 
this  word  seems  to  have  undergone  a 
considerable  change  since  our  version 
was  made,  for  in  this  it  means  food  in 
general,  or,  when  confined  to  one  species 
of  food,  always  meal,  flour  or  grain,  but 
never  flesh,  which  is  now  its  usual  accep- 
tatiop.  A  "  meat-ofl'ering  "  in  the  Scrip- 
tures is  always  a  vegetable  and  never  an 
animal  offering,  a  cake  made  of  flour 
and  oil.  Lev.  2  ;  6:  14-23. 

Meat-Offering.  At  the  first  settling 
of  the  church  there  were  many  disputes 
concerning  the  use  of  meats  off'ered  to 
idols.  Some  newly-converted  Christians, 
convinced  that  an  idol  was  nothing,  and 
that  the  distinction  of  clean  and  unclean 
creatures  was  abolished  by  our  Saviour, 
ate  indiff"erently  of  whatever  was  served 
up  to  them,  even  among  pagans,  with- 
out inquiring  whether  the  meat  had  been 
offered  to  idols.  They  took  the  same 
liberty  in  buying  meat  sold  in  the  mar- 
ket, not  regarding  whether  it  were  pure 
or  impure  according  to  the  Jews,  or 
whether  it  had  been  offered  to  idols  or 
not.  But  other  Christians,  weaker  or 
less  instructed,  were  offended  at  this  lib- 
erty, and  thought  that  eating  of  meat 
which  had  been  offered  to  idols  was  a 
kind  of  partaking  in  that  wicked  and 
sacrilegious  act. 

This  diversity  of  opinion  produced 
some  scandal  until  Paul  stepped  forward 
and  gave  his  decision  that  all  things 
were  clean  to  such  as  were  clean.  Tit.  1 : 
15,  and  that  an  idol  was  nothing  at  all ; 
that  a  man  might  safelj'  eat  of  whatever 
was  sold  in  the  market,  and  need  not 
scrupulously  inquire  from  whence  it 
came;  and  that  if  an  unbeliever  should 
invite  a  believer  to  eat  with  him,  the 
believer  might  eat  of  whatever  was  set 
before  him,  etc.  1  Cor.  10  :  2;),  etc.  But 
at  the  same  time  he  enjoins  that  the 
laws  of  charity  and  prudence  should  be 
observed,  that  believers  should  be  cau- 
tious of  scandalizing  or  offending  weak 
minds ;  for  though  all  things  might  be 
lawful,  yet  all  things  were  not  always 
expedient. 

MEBUN'NAI  (building  of  Jehovah), 
one  of  David's  warriors,  2  Sam.  23  :  27; 
called  Sibbechai  in  2  Sam.  21:18:  1 
Chr.  20 :  4,  and  Sibbecai  in  1  Chr.  11  : 
29;  27:11. 

MECH'ERATHITE,  THE,  the 
designation  of  one  of  David's  warriors, 


1  Chr.  11  :  36 ;  elsewhere  called  the 
Maachathite,  probably  with  reference 
to  some  locality. 

ME'DAD  (love),  one  who,  together 
with  El'iad,  prophesied  in  the  Israelite 
camp  in  the  wilderness.  Num.  11:  26,  27. 

ME'DAN  (contention),  one  of  the 
sons  of  Abraham  by  Keturah.  Gen.  26: 

2  ;   1  Chr.  1  :  32. 

MED'EBA  (waters  of  quiet),  one 
of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  Moab. 
first  mentioned  with  Heshbon  and 
Dibon  in  the  antique  poem  quoted  in 
Num.  21 :  30.  It  was  afterward  taken 
by  the  Israelites  and  allotted  to  the  tribe 
of  Reuben.  Josh.  13  :  16.  The  Ammon- 
ites were  in  possession  of  it  during  the 
reign  of  David,  and  there  Joab  gained 
his  great  victory  over  the  combined 
hordes  with  theif  32,000  chariots  from 
Mesopotamia,  Syria,  Maacah,  Zobah, 
and  the  whole  region  between  the  Jor- 
dan and  the  Euphrates.  1  Chr.  19:7-15. 
In  the  time  of  Isaiah  it  had  again  re- 
verted to  Moab.  Isa.  15  :  2.  After  the 
return  from  the  Captivity  it  was  alter- 
nately in  the  possession  of  the  Jews  and 
of  the  Gentiles.  John  Maccabaeus  was 
slain  there,  and  his  death  was  bloodily 
avenged  by  his  brothers.  The  city  after- 
ward surrendered  to  Hyrcanus  after  a  six 
months'  seige.  During  the  Christian 
period  it  was  the  seat  of  a  bishopric. 


liuiued  LoluiiiuB  at  I\lL'deba.      {Aj'lcr  Tnstram.) 

Situation  and  Prenent  Appearance. — 
The  site  of  Medeba  is  8  miles  south-south- 
west of  Heshbon,  and  14  miles  east  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  around 

555 


MED 


MED 


which  the  old  city  extended  a  consider- 
able distance  into  the  plain.  On  the 
southern  side  of  the  town  lies  a  large 
pool  360  feet  square.  On  the  eastern 
and  northern  sides  are  other  smaller 
pools.  All  three  are  now  dry.  These 
tanks  may  explain  the  name  Medeba, 
"  waters  of  quiet."  The  ruins  of  a  large 
temple  exist,  of  which  two  columns  are 
standing.  The  access  to  the  city  on  the 
east  was  by  a  paved  road  leading  through 
a  massive  gateway.  Within  is  a  large 
square  280  paces  long  and  240  paces 
wide.  The  eastern  extent  of  the  city 
is  over  1000  yards.  Around  the  city, 
ruined  villages  lie  thick  in  all  direc- 
tions, but  most  of  them  are  very  small. 

ME'DIA.  Name.— The  name  is  the 
same  as  Madai, '^middle  land,"  one  of 
Japheth's  sons.  Gen.  10  :  2.  The  Hebrew 
word  thus  translated  ''  Madai"  is  also 
rendered  "  Medes,"  2  Kgs.  17  :  6,  etc.,  and 
''  Media,"  Esth.  1  :  3,  etc.,  and  also 
"  Mede."  Dan.  11 :  1.  In  the  period  of 
which  Herodotus  writes  the  people  of 
Media  were  called  Aryans. 

Situation  and  Extent. — The  general 
boundaries  seem  to  have  been  the  river 
Araxes  and  the  Caspian  Sea  on  the 
north  and  north-east;  Parthiaand  Hyr- 
cania  and  the  great  salt  desert  of  Iram 
on  the  east;  Persia  and  Susiana  on  the 
south ;  Assyria  and  Armenia  on  the 
west.  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to 
south  was  550  miles,  its  average  breadth 
250  to  300  miles,  and  its  area  150,000 
square  miles,  or  about  one-fifth  more 
than  the  area  of  Great  Britain.  See 
map,  "Lands  of  the  Jewish  Captivities." 

Physical  Features  and  Political  Diviti- 
ions. — Media  was  divided  originally  into 
six  provinces,  which  in  Greek  and  Ro- 
man times  were  reduced  to  two,  Media 
Atropatene  and  Media  Magna. 

1.  Media  Atropatene,  the  northern  di- 
vision, embraced  the  tract  between  the 
Caspian  and  the  mountains,  north  of 
the  Zagros.  This  is  a  tract  lying  on  an 
average  3000  feet  above  the  sea-level  and 
diversified  by  mountains  and  valleys. 
The  soil  is  tolerably  fertile,  and  produces 
a  great  variety  of  vegetables  and  fruits. 

2.  Media  Magna,  lying  to  the  south 
and  east  of  Atropatene.  This  tract  is 
mountainous  toward  the  west,  but  well 
wooded  and  fertile ;  while  toward  the 
east  and  south-east  it  is  bare,  rocky,  and 
sandy,  shading  away  into  the  great  salt 

556 


desert  of  Iram.  Each  of  these  provinces 
seems  to  have  had  Ecbatana  for  its  cap- 
ital. 

Media  was  also  divided  into  smaller 
divisions,  concerning  which  there  is  lit- 
tle information.  George  Smith  discov- 
ered on  an  octagonal  cylinder  of  Sargon 
a  list  of  twenty-four  Median  chiefs.  This 
list  belongs  to  B.  c.  713,  and  is  curious 
as  showing  the  divided  state  of  Media 
at  that  time  {Asuyr.  Discoveries,  p.  288). 
Media  is  now  included  in  the  dominions 
of  the  Shah  of  Persia. 

History. — The  early  history  of  the 
Medes  is  very  obscure.  Their  origin  is 
given  in  Gen.  10:2.  Assyrian  records 
show  that  about  B.  c.  880  an  Assyrian 
monarch  invaded  their  territory.  Their 
first  appearance  in  Scripture  history  is 
in  connection  with  the  captivity  of  Is- 
rael. 2  Kgs.  17:  6;  18  :  11.  Isaiah,  in  his 
prophecy  against  Babylon,  reveals  the 
agency  and  character  of  the  Medes.  Isa. 
13:17,  18;  21:2.  But  Media  was  not 
incorporated  with  Assyria,  although  Sar- 
gon, and  afterward  Sennacherib,  subdued 
its  people  and  exacted  tribute.  In  b.  c. 
633  an  independent  kingdom  was  set  up 
by  Cyaxares,  who  in  b.  c.  625  took  a  lead- 
ing part  in  the  destruction  of  Nineveh. 
Media  then  became  a  great  and  powerful 
monarchy,  comprising,  besides  Media 
proper,  Persia,  Assyria,  Armenia,  and 
other  adjoining  countries.  It  extended 
from  the  river  Halys  on  the  north-west 
to  the  Caspian  Gates,  and  included  the 
territory  between  the  Black  and  Caspian 
Seas  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Euphrates 
and  Persian  Gulf  on  the  other.  The 
empire  was  1500  miles  long,  450  miles 
wide,  and  had  an  area  of  600,000  square 
miles.  Under  Cyrus  the  two  kingdoms 
were  united,  B.  c.  558.  There  are  refer- 
ences in  Scripture  to  this  kingdom  under 
the  title  of  the  "Medes  and  Persians." 
Dan.  5:28;  6:8,  12,  15;  comp.  Esth.  1; 
19.  The  only  city  in  Media  alluded  to  in 
the  canonical  Scriptures  is  Achmetha, 
or  Ecbatana.  Ezr.  6  :  2.  The  Medes  re- 
volted unsuccessfully  in  the  reign  of 
Darius,  son  of  Hystaspes,  B.  c.  500,  and 
in  that  of  Darius  Nothus,  b.  c.  420. 
This  region  was  absorbed  in  the  Mace- 
donian empire  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
Later  an  independent  Median  kingdom 
held  sway  until  the  Christian  era,  after 
which  it  became  a  part  of  the  Parthian 
empire.     Medes  are  mentioned  in  con- 


MED 


MEG 


nection  with  Parthians,  etc.,  in  the  N. 
T.  Acts  2  :  9. 

MEDI'ATOR,  one  who  interposes 
between  two  parties  at  variance  with  the 
view  of  effecting  a  reconciliation  between 
them.  Gal.  3  :  19.  The  title  belongs 
pre-eminently  to  the  divine  Redeemer, 
in  and  by  whom  God  is  reconciling  the 
world  unto  himself.  1  Tim.  2:5;  Heb. 
8  :  () :  12  :  24.  He  is  the  only  mediator 
between  God  and  men. 

MED'ICINE.  The  scrupulous  at- 
tention paid  in  Egypt  to  the  dead  was 
favorable  to  the  development  of  the 
science  of  medicine ;  thus  the  more 
elaborate  methods  of  embalming  in- 
volved processes  of  anatomy  and  led  to 
the  study  of  this  branch  of  medical 
science.  Herodotus  says  that  in  Egypt 
every  part  of  the  human  body  was 
studied  by  distinct  practitioners,  and 
the  teeth  of  the  mummies  often  exhibit 
a  dentistry  which  is  not  inferior  in  exe- 
cution to  the  best  workmanship  of  our 
days ;  also,  the  reputation  of  Egyptian 
physicians  and  surgeons  was  so  great 
that  members  of  their  profession  were 
invited  to  Persia  by  both  Cyrus  and 
Darius.  That  Moses,  who  was  initiated 
in  all  the  wisdom  of  Egypt,  was  possessed 
also  of  its  medical  knowledge  may  be 
inferred  from  the  direct  bearing  which 
the  Mosaic  legislation  has  on  sanitary 
relations.  Its  numerous  hygienic  and 
dietetic  prescriptions  had  not  only  a 
ceremonial  purpose,  but  were  no  doubt 
intended  for  the  preservation  and  de- 
velopment of  the  race.  They  stood  in 
the  most  perfect  harmony  with  the  cli- 
mate and  soil  which  the  Hebrews  in- 
habited, and  it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that 
during  the  whole  course  of  their  history 
the  Hebrews  were  singularly  exempted 
from  those  plagues  and  e))idemics  which 
devastated  their  neighbors.  On  the 
other  side,  however,  this  same  law,  which 
proved  so  beneficial  in  preventing  dis- 
eases, did  not  encourage  or  favor  the 
study  of  medicine.  The  science  of  med- 
icine depends  to  a  great  extent  on  anat- 
omy, but  the  great  horror  of  uncleanli- 
ness,  more  especially  uncleanliness  from 
contact  with  a  corpse,  prevented  the 
Hebrews  from  making  a  thorough  study 
of  anatomy  and  embarrassed  the  devel- 
opment of  medical  science  among  them. 
Solomon  enjoyed  a  great  fame  as  a  phy- 
sician.    His    works    show    that    he    was 


possessed  of  considerable  knowledge  of 
remedial  treatment,  Prov.  3:8;  6:15; 
12  :  18  ;  17  :  22 ;  20  :  30 ;  29  :  1  ;  Eccl.  3  : 
?>,  and  the  Talmudists  ascribe  to  him 
a  *'  volume  of  cures."  But  Josephus 
speaks  of  his  repute  in  magic  and  of 
the  spells  which  he  used,  and  Jewish 
tradition  ascribes  similar  proceedings  to 
various  of  the  prophets.  In  the  times 
of  the  N.  T.  the  whole  view  taken  of 
diseases  and  their  cure  was  Greek,  al- 
most without  a  trace  of  any  specifically 
Hebrew  element,  and  the  language  of 
St.  Luke,  the  ''  beloved  physician,"  who 
practised  in  Antioch  before  he  was  called 
to  labor  in  the  Church,  shows  that  he 
was  a  pupil  of  Hippocrates. 

Among  the  diseases  mentioned  in  the 
0.  T.  are  ophthalmia,  Gen.  29  :  17,  which 
seems  to  be  more  common  in  vSyria  and 
Egypt  than  anywhere  else  in  the  world, 
and  which  sometimes  resulted  in  partial, 
or  even  total,  blindness,  2  Kgs.  6:18; 
barrenness  of  women,  which  the  man- 
drake was  believed  to  cure,  Gen.  20  : 
18;  burning  boils.  Lev.  13  :  23,  whose 
effect  resembled  that  of  fire,  identical 
with  our  carbuncle ;  scab  and  scurvy. 
Lev.  21:20;  22:22;  Deut.  28  :  27— a 
skin-disease  not  necessarily  incurable, 
and  therefore  not  considered  a  curse, 
but  only  a  blemish  ;  a  disease  attacking 
the  knees  and  legs  and  consisting  in  a 
''sore  blotch  that  cannot  be  healed," 
Deut.  28:35;  the  disease  of  King  An- 
tiochus,  consisting  in  boils  breeding 
worms;  the  disease  of  Herod  the  Great, 
consisting  in  ulcers  breeding  lice,  etc. 
Other  diseases,  such  as  fever,  leprosy, 
epilepsy,  palsy,  etc.,  are  spoken  of  in 
separate  articles.  Medicaments  were 
given  in  the  form  of  liniments,  plasters, 
decoctions,  syrups,  etc..  and,  besides 
water,  wine,  vinegar,  honey,  milk,  and 
oil,  also  mustard,  pepper,  salt,  wax,  gall 
of  fish,  poppy,  laurel,  saliva,  and  other 
stuffs  were  used.  But  one  of  the  most 
common  remedies  was  the  bath.  In  many 
cases  it  was  ceremonial I3'  enjoined,  but 
its  great  value,  both  as  a  luxury  and  as 
a  cure,  was  fully  appreciated.  It  was 
enjoyed  both  in  running  water  and  in 
closed  bath-rooms.  Lev.  15:  13;  2  Kgs. 
5:10;  2  Sam.  11  :  2.  Public  baths,  how- 
ever, as  well  as  vapor-baths,  were  not 
introduced  until  after  the  Jews'  contact 
with  the  (Treeks  and  Romans.    See  Bath. 

MEGID'DO   {place  of  troops?),  a 

557 


MEH 


MEL 


city  of  Manasseh,  situated  within  the 
borders  of  Issachar,  and  formerly  a 
royal  city  of  the  Canaanites,  whose 
king  and  its  neighboring  towns  were 
conquered  by  Joshua.  Josh,  12  :  21 ;  17  : 
11;  Jud.  1:27;  1  Kgs.  4  :  12;  9:15;  1 
Chr.  7  :  29.  It  has  generally  been  iden- 
tified with  the  place  afterward  called  by 
the  Romans  Legio,  now  i/e;yMH,where  are 
ancient  foundations  and  prostrate  col- 
umns. The  neighboring  stream,  prob- 
ably the  ''  waters  of  Megiddo,"  is  the 
largest  perennial  tributary  of  the  Kishon, 
and  feeds  three  or  four  mills.  Jud.  5  :  19. 
The  valley  or  plain  of  Megiddo,  also 
called  "  Megiddon,"  was  part  of  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon.  2  Kgs.  9  :  27  ;  23  :  29, 
30;  2  Chr.  35:22;  Zech.  12  :  11.  Here 
Barak  and  Deborah  gained  a  great  vic- 
tory over  the  Canaanites  under  Sisera, 
Jud.  4 :  6-17,  and  it  has  been  the  great 
battle-field  of  Palestine.  Ahaziah,  mor- 
tally wounded,  died  there ;  Josiah  was 
defeated  by  Pharaoh-necho,  and  mor- 
tally wounded,  2  Kgs.  33  :  29 ;  2  Chr. 
35  :  20-24;  and  the  place,  in  Hebrew,  is 
called  Armageddon,  ''city  of  Megiddo." 
Rev.  16  :  16.  The  modern  Lejjun,  which 
has  generally  been  regarded  as  repre- 
senting Megiddo,  is  on  the  south-western 
edge  of  the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon,  6 
miles  from  Mount  Carmel,  11  from  Naz- 
areth, and  14  from  Tabor.  It  commands 
the  important  pass  to  the  plain  of  Phil- 
istia.  A  stream  flows  near  it,  and  there 
is  a  large  spring  which  some  regard 
as  the  "  waters  of  Megiddo."  A  few 
ruins  remain,  and  from  them  a  wide 
view  is  gained  of  the  famous  battle- 
ground. Conder  declines  to  accept  the 
above  identification,  and  suggests  Mu- 
Jedd'n,  a  large  ruin  near  Beisan,  and  10 
miles  from  Jenin,  as  Megiddo.  There 
are  four  springs  of  clear  water,  and  a 
considerable  stream  flowing  to  the  north- 
west into  the  Nahr  Jnlud.  This  would 
place  the  valley  of  Megiddo  in  the  broad 
valley  leading  from  Jezreel  to  Beth- 
shean. 

MEHET'ABEET.  {whoyn  God  does 
good  to),  the  ancestor  of  Shemaiah.  Neh. 
6:  10. 

MEHET'ABEL,  daughter  of  Mat- 
red,  and  wife  of  Hadad,  king  of  Edom. 
Gen.  38:39;   1  Chr.  1:50. 

MEHI'DA    {famouft,  vohle),   whose 
descendants  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  2  :  52  ;  Neh.  7  :  54. 
558 


MENHIR  (price),  a  descendant  of 
Judah.   1  Chr.  4:  11. 

MEHOL'ATHITE,     THE,      a 

designation  of  Adriel,  son  of  Barzillai, 

1  Sam.  18  :  19,  signifying  that  he  came 
from  a  place  called  Mehola. 

MEHU'JAEL  {smitten  of  God),  a 
son  of  Irad,  and  descendant  of  Cain. 
Gen.  4:  18. 

MEHU'MAIV  {true,  faithful),  one 
of  the  seven  eunuchs  of  Ahasuerus. 
Esth.  1  :  10. 

MEHU'NIM  {habitations),  a  family 
among  the  non-Israelites  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel,  Ezr.  2: 
50  ;  probably  the  same  as  the  Mehunims, 

2  Chr.  26  :  7,  against  whom  King  Uzziah 
waged  a  successful  war,  and  who  are  also 
mentioned  in  1  Chr.  4  :  41  as  a  Hamitic 
tribe  settled  from  of  old  in  Palestine, 
and  oppressing  the  Israelites.     See  Ma- 

ONITES. 

ME  JAR'KON  {waters  of  yellowness), 
a  town  of  Dan  ;  named  after  a  spring, 
Josh.  19  :  46;  probably  the  el  'Aujeh. 

MEK'ONAH  {base,  or  standing- 
place),  a  place  in  the  South  of  Palestine 
near  Ziklag.  Neh.  11 :  28.  Reland  locates 
it  8  miles  from  Eleutheropolis,  on  the 
way  to  Jerusalem,  and  Conder  suggests 
Mekenna,  north  of  Beit  Jibrin,  as  its  site. 

MELATI'AH  {delivered  by  Jeho- 
vah), a  Gibeonite  wlio  assisted  in  rejDair- 
ing  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  Neh.  3  :  7. 

MEL'CHI  {Jehovah's  king),  two 
persons  in  the  genealogy  of  Jesus.  Luke 
3 " 24  28 

MElVcHI'AH.     See  Malchiah. 

MELCHISHU'A.      See  Malchi- 

SHUA. 

MELCHIZ'EDEK,     or     MEL- 

CHIS'EDEC,  the  Greek  form  under 
which  the  name  occurs  in  the  N.  T. 
{kinq  of  righteousness),  is  mentioned  in 
Gen".  14  :  18-20  as  king  of  Salem  and 
priest  of  the  Most  High  God,  meeting 
Abram  in  the  valley  of  Shaveh,  bringing 
out  bread  and  wine  to  him,  blessing  him, 
and  receiving  tithes  from  him  ;  in  Ps. 
110  :  4,  where  Messiah  is  described  as  a 
priest  "  after  the  order  of  Melchizedek  ;" 
and  finally,  in  Heb.  5  :  6,  7.  where  the 
typical  relations  between  Melchizedek 
and  Christ  are  elaborately  defined,  both 
being  priests  without  belonging  to  the 
Levitical  tribe,  superior  to  Abram,  of 
unknown  beginning  and  end,  and  kings 
of  righteousness  and  peace.     The  short 


MEL 


MEL 


but  impressive  apparition  of  Melchizedek 
in  Genesis,  and  the  striking  though 
mystical  applications  made  of  this  ap- 
parition in  the  Psalms  and  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews,  have  given  rise  to  vari- 
ous interpretations.  One  Jewish  tradi- 
tion considers  him  to  be  a  survivor  of 
the  Deluge,  the  patriarch  Shem,  and  thus 
entitled  by  his  very  age  to  bless  the 
father  of  the  faithful,  and  by  his  position 
as  ruler  of  Canaan  to  confer  his  rights  to 
Abram.  Anotlier  tradition,  equally  old, 
but  not  so  widely  accepted,  considers 
him  to  be  an  angel,  the  Son  of  God  in 
human  form,  the  Messiah.  Modern 
scholars,  arguing  back  from  the  exposi- 
tions given  in  tlie  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
consider  him  to  be  a  descendant  of  Ham, 
living  among  and  ruling  his  own  kin ; 
but,  as  Balaam  was  a  prophet,  so  Mel- 
chizedek was  a  priest,  among  the  hea- 
thens, constituted  by  God  himself,  and 
given  a  title  above  that  of  the  ordinary 
patriarchal  priesthood,  even  above  that 
of  Abram. 

ME  L£A  {fnll,  fulness  ?),  an  ances- 
tor of  Joseph  in  the  genealogy  of  Jesus. 
Luke  3  :  31. 

ME'LECH  [king),  son  of  Micah, 
grandson  of  Mephibosheth.  and  therefore 
a  descendant  of  Saul.   1  Chr.  9  :  41. 

MEL'ICU.  Neh.  12  :  14.     See  Mal- 

LUCH. 

MELi'ITA   {honey,  or  sweetness),   an 

island  in  the  Mediterranean  upon  which 
Paul  was  shipwrecked  during  his  voyage 
to  Rome.  Acts  28  :  1-14.  Two  islands 
formerly  bore  the  name  Melita  :  (1)  Mel- 
ita,  in  the  Adriatic  Sea,  and  (2)  Malta, 
in  the  Mediterranean.  The  location  of 
the  first  would  not  answer  the  require- 
ments of  the  scriptural  narrative.  Malta, 
the  ancient  Melita,  is  about  60  miles  in 
circumference,  and  was  successively  sub- 
ject to  the  Phoenicians,  Greeks,  Cartha- 
ginians, Romans,  Vandals,  Goths,  Sar- 
acens, Normans,  and  French,  until 
Charles  V.  surrendered  it  to  the  Knights 
of  St.  John,  at  Jerusalem,  who  in  1798 
were  dispossessed  by  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte. In  1800  the  French  garrison  sur- 
rendered to  an  English  force,  and  the 
island  has  been  ever  since  a  dependency 
of  the  British  crown.  The  island  is  (i2 
miles  south-west  of  Sicily,  is  17  miles  long 
and  8  or  9  miles  wide,  and  is  now  reck- 
oned 9fi0  miles  from  Gibraltar,  840  miles 
from  Alexandria,  and   1200  miles  from 


Jerusalem.  It  is  of  an  irregular  oval 
shape,  the  coast  indented  with  numerous 
bays.  The  soil,  naturally  barren,  has 
been  made  productive;  frost  and  snow 
are  unknown. 

According  to  Acts  27  :  1-44,  it  was 
about  the  time  of  the  autumnal  equinox, 
when  sailing  was  dangerous,  that  Paul 
and  his  companions  embarked  at  Cajsarea 
for  Italy.  Mr.  Smith  of  Jordan  Hill,  a 
nautical  man,  in  his  work  On  tlieVni/afje 
and  Shipwreck  of  St.  Paul,  has  shown, 
from  a  personal  examination  of  the  lo- 
calities of  the  shipwreck,  compared  with 
the  incidents  in  the  narrative  of  Luke, 
that  the  ship  could  not  have  been  wrecked 
anywhere  but  at  Malta.  The  following 
is  a  summary  of  his  statements.  Paul's 
company  on  the  second  day  touched  at 
Sidon,  78  miles  from  Ca3sarea.  Loosing 
thence,  they  were  forced  by  strong  wes- 
terly winds  to  leave  Cyprus  on  the  left 
hand.  Thence,  favored  by  the  land- 
breeze  and  currents,  they  arrived  at 
Myra,  in  Lycia.  At  this  port  they  were 
then  transferred  to  a  ship  from  Alexan- 
dria bound  for  Italy.  Their  progress, 
on  account  of  unfavorable  winds,  was 
extremely  slow,  for  it  was  "many  days" 
before  they  came  over  against  Cnidus, 
not  more  than  150  miles  from  Mj'ra. 
Sailing  in  the  direction  of  Salmone,  the 
eastern  promontory  of  Crete,  they  coasted 
along,  with  north-west  winds,  as  far  as 
Cape  Matala,  the  south  side  of  the  island. 
Here,  however,  the  land  bends  suddenly 
to  the  north,  and  they  made  for  the  Fair 
Havens,  a  roadstead  near  the  port  of 
Lasea,  as  being  the  nearest  to  Cape  Ma- 
tala. As  the  season  of  safe  navigation 
had  passed,  Paul  urged  the  officers  to 
winter  at  Fair  Havens,  but  his  advice 
was  overruled  ;  and,  improving  a  gentle 
north  wind  that  blew,  they  set  sail  for 
Phenice,  a  harbor  on  the  coast  about  40 
miles  farther  west.  The  harbor  seems 
to  have  been  the  one  now  called  Lutro, 
which  opens  in  the  sa7ne  direction  in 
which  the  wind  Libs  blows — ?.  e.,  to- 
ward the  north-east — and  is  situated 
exactly  opposite  to  the  island  of  Clauda. 
But  soon  the  weather  changed  ;  the  ship 
was  caught  in  a  typhoon,  and  the  wind 
euroclydon  (east  north-east),  which  blew 
with  such  violence,  forced  them  to  run 
under  the  south  shore  of  Clauda,  now 
Clozzo,  about  20  miles  south-west  by  west 
from  Fair   Havens.     Here  they  availed 

559 


MEL 


MEL 


themselves  of  the  smooth  water  to  secure 
the  boat  and  undergird  the  ship  by  frap- 
ping  it  round  the  middle  with  a  cable,  to 
prepare  it  to  resist  the  fur}'  of  the  storm. 
But,  fearing   they  should    be  driven  to- 


2%<^^ 


<b' 


22C, 


/C*- 


^^^ 


J^^ 


30 


23" 


Map  of  Place  of  Shipwreck,  Si.  Paul's  Bay.  The  figures  denote  fathoms 

ward  the  Syrtis — ;'.  e.,  the  quicksands  of 
the  coast  of  Africa — they  lowered  the 
gear;  and  the  ship  thus  borne  along  was 
not  only  made  snug,  but  had  storm-sails 
set  and  was  on  the  starboard  tack — /.  e., 
with  her  right  side  to  the  wind — which 
was  the  only  course  by  which  she  could 
avoid  falling  into  the  Syrtis.  On  the 
next  day  they  threw  overboard  the  main- 
yard,  an  immense  spar  probably  as  long 
as  the  ship.  The  storm  continued  with 
unabated  fury  for  eleven  days  more,  and 
all  hope  was  taken  away.  At  length,  on 
the  fourteenth  night,  the  seamen  sus- 
pected the  approach  of  land,  probably 
from  the  noise  of  the  breakers,  sounded, 
and  found  the  depth  20  fathoms,  and  then 
15  fathoms.  Fearing  lest  they  should 
fall  upon  rocks,  they  cast  four  anchors 
out  of  the  stern,  and  lightened  the  ship 
by  throwing  the  wheat  into  the  sea. 
When  the  day  broke  they  succeeded  in 
running  the  ship  aground  in  a  creek, 
where  she  went  to  pieces,  but  the  whole 
ship's  company  escaped  safe  to  land. 
The  place  proved  to  be  a  bay  on  the 
north-east  side  of  Malta,  now  known  as 
St.  Paul's  Bay,  an  inlet,  with  a  creek, 
about  2  miles  deep  and  a  mile  broad. 
Mr.  Smith  has  shown  by  calculation  that 
a  ship  starting  late  in  the  evening  from 
Clauda,  would,  by  midnight  on  the  four- 
teenth day,  be  less  than  3  miles  from 
the  entrance  of  St.  Paul's  Bay — i.  e.,  a 
560 


distance  of  476  miles.  In  1810  the  Brit- 
ish frigate  Lively  went  to  pieces  on  those 
very  breakers,  at  the  point  of  Koura,  at 
the  entrance  of  the  bay.  The  crew,  like 
Paul's  shipmen,  at  the  distance  of  a  quar- 
ter of  a  mile,  could  not 
see  the  land,  but  they 
saw  the  sui-f  on  the 
shore.  So,  also,  Mr. 
Smith  has  shown  that 
every  ship  approach- 
ing the  land  must  here 
pass  over  20  fathoms, 
and  not  only  must  this 
depth  be  close  to  the 
spot  where  they  had 
the  indications  of 
land,  but  it  must  bear 
east  by  south  from  the 
15  fathom  depth.  The 
15  fathom  depth  is,  as 
nearly  as  possible,  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  from 
the  shore,  which  is  here 
girt  with  mural  precipices,  and  on  which 
the  sea  must  have  been  breaking  violently. 
Atthe  bottom  of  the  Bay  of  St.  Paul'sthere 
is  a  communication  with  the  sea  outside 
by  a  channel  not  more  than  a  hundred 
yards  in  breadth,  formed  by  the  separa- 
tion of  Salmone  Island,  a  long  rocky 
ridge,  from  the  main  land.  Near  this 
channel,  where  "  two  seas  meet,"  are  two 
creeks,  into  one  of  which  they  ran  the 
ship  ashore ;  the  forepart  stuck  fast  in 
the  mud  and  clay,  while  the  stern  was 
dashed  to  pieces  by  the  force  of  the 
waves. 

It  has  been  asserted  that  no  vipers 
exist  in  Malta,  but  Lewin  saw  a  serpent 
there  which  he  regarded  as  a  viper;  but 
even  if  not  found  on  the  thickly-popu- 
lated island  now,  this  would  not  prove 
that  they  did  not  exist  in  Paul's  day  and 
have  since  been  exterminated. 

MEL'ONS.  Num.  11  :  5.  Melons  of 
all  kinds  have  ever  been  largely  cultivated 
in  Egypt,  and  during  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer often  form  the  chief  food  and  drink 
of  the  lower  classes.  The  muskmelon 
was  grown  there  at  the  time  of  the  Ex- 
odus, and  perhaps  the  watermelon,  which 
came  from  Persia.  "A  traveller  in  the 
East  who  recollects  the  intense  gratitude 
which  a  gift  of  a  slice  of  melon  inspired 
while  journeying  over  the  hot  and  dry 
plains  will  readily  comprehend  the  re- 
gret   with    which    the    Hebrews    in    the 


MEL 


MEN 


Arabian  desert  looked  back  upon  the 
melons  of  Egypt." — Kitto. 

MEL'ZAR  (probably  of  Persian 
origin,  and  signifying  head  cup-bearer), 
not  a  proper  name,  but  the  title  of  an 
officer,  corresponding  at  once  to  our 
"steward"  and  ''tutor."  Dan.  1:11,  16. 

MEM'PHIS  (in  Hebrew  Noph),  a 
city  of  ancient  Egj-pt,  Hos.  9  :  6,  situated 
on  the  western  bank  of  the  Nile.  It  is 
mentioned  by  Isaiah,  19  :  13.  Jeremiah, 
2  :  16;  46  :  14,  19,  and  Ezekiel.  30  :  13- 
16,  as  Noph.  The  monuments  of  Mem- 
phis are  believed  to  be  of  higher  antiquity 
than  those  of  Thebes.  Memphis  has 
three  distinct  names  on  the  monuments  : 

(1)  Seht-liet,  "the  city  of  white  walls  ;" 

(2)  Men-nept,  "  the  good  abode  ;"  (3)  Te- 
paneh,  "the  world  of  life."  The  sacred 
name  was  Hn-ptah,  or  Pa-ptah,  "  the 
house  of  Ptah."  Its  site  is  about  10  miles 
south  of  Cairo  and  5  miles  from  the 
Great  Pyramids  and  the  Sphinx.  From 
the  ancient  maps  of  Ptolemy,  it  appears 
that  the  sea  extended  about  40  miles  far- 
ther south  than  at  present.  The  depos- 
its of  mud  carried  down  annually  by  the 
Nile,  forming  the  Delta,  have  caused  the 
sea  to  be  filled  in,  so  that  in  the  times  of 
the  ancient  Pharaohs  the  sea  may  have 
extended  nearly  to  Memphis,  making 
that  city  a  seaport,  instead  of,  as  now, 
an  inland  site.  Some  infer  that  its 
name,  Men-Nofer,  implies  that  it  was 
a  coast-town,  3000  or  4000  years  before 
Christ. 

History. — Herodotus  dates  its  founda- 
tion from  Menes,  the  first  king  of  Egypt. 
The  city  is  said  to  have  had  a  circumfer- 
ence of  about  19  miles.  The  temple  of 
Apis  was  one  of  its  most  noted  structures. 
This  temple  stood  opposite  the  southern 
portico  of  the  temple  of  Ptah,  and  Psam- 
metichus,  who  built  that  gateway,  also 
erected  in  front  of  the  sanctuary  of  Apis 
a  magnificent  colonnade  supported  by 
colossal  statues  or  Osiride  pillars  such 
as  may  still  be  seen  at  the  temple  of 
Medeenet  Haboo  at  Thebes.  Through 
this  colonnade  the  Apis  was  led  with 
great  pomp  upon  state  occasions.  At 
Memphis  were  the  reputed  burial-place 
of  Isis  and  a  temple.  Memphis  had  also 
its  Serapeum,  which  probably  stood  in 
the  western  quarter  of  the  city.  The 
Necropolis,  near  Memphis,  was  on  a 
scale  of  grandeur  corresponding  with  the 
city  itself.  At  this  place  as  capital  for 
36 


several  centuries  a  Meraphite  dj'nasty 
ruled  over  all  Egypt,  and  Lcpsius,  Bun- 
sen,  and  Brugsch  agree  in  regarding  the 
third,  fourth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth 
dynasties  of  the  old  empire  as  Mem])hite, 
reaching  through  a  period  of  about  1000 


Sarcophagus  in  the  Senpeiim  at  Memphis  con 
taining  a  Mummy  of  the  Sacred  Bull. 

years.  The  city's  overthrow  was  pre- 
dicted Isa.  19  :  13, •  Jer.  46  :  19.  The 
latest  of  these  predictions  was  uttered 
nearly  600  years  before  Christ,  and  half 
a  century  before  the  invasion  of  Egypt 
by  Cambyses,  B.  c.  625.  The  city  never 
recovered  from  the  blow  inflicted  by 
Cambyses.  The  rise  of  Alexandria  has- 
tened its  decline.  The  caliph  conquerors 
founded  Old  Cairo  upon  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  Nile,  a  few  miles  north  of 
Memphis,  and  brought  materials  from 
the  old  city  to  build  their  new  capital, 
A.  D.  638.  At  length  so  complete  was 
the  ruin  of  Memphis  that  for  a  long  time 
its  very  site  was  lost.  Recent  explora- 
tions have  brought  to  light  many  of  its 
antiquities,  and  specimens  of  its  relics 
are  now  in  museums  in  Europe  and 
America.  A  little  village  stands  upon  a 
portion  of  the  site  of  ancient  Memphis. 

MEMU'CAN,  a  Persian  prince  at 
the  court  of  Ahasuerus.  Esth.  1  :  14. 

MEN'AHEM  {eonHoler)  was  the  son 
of  Gadi,  and,  having  slain  Shallum,  king 
of  Samaria,  reigned  in  his  stead.  His 
reign,  which  lasted  ten  years,  B.  c.  771- 
760,  was  distinguished  for  cruelty  and 
oppression.  2  Kgs.  15  :  14-20. 

ME 'NAN,  an  ancestor  of  Joseph  in 
the  genealogy  of  Jesus.  Luke  3  :  31. 

ME'NE,  ME'NE,  TE'KEL, 
UPHAR'SIN.  This  sentence,  which 
appeared  on  the  wall  of  Belshazzar's 
banqueting-hall  to  warn  him  of  the  im- 

561 


MEN 


MEB 


pending  destruction  of  Babylon,  is  in  the 
pure  Chaldee  language,  and  reads,  when 
translated  literally,  Mene,''he  is  num- 
bered;" Mene,  "he  is  numbered;"  Tekel, 
"he  is  weighed;"  Upharnin,  "they  are 
divided."  "  Peres,"  in  the  original  lan- 
guage, is  the  same  word  with  "  Uphar- 
sin,"  but  in  a  different  case  or  number. 
It  means.  '•  he  was  divided."  Dan.  5  :  25. 

ME'NI  {fate,  fortnae),  th.Q  marginal 
reading  to  Isa.  65  :  11,  a  proper  name 
designating  some  idol  worshipped  by 
the  Jews  in  Babylon,  but  not  yet  identi- 
fied with  any  known  heathen  god. 

MEX'UCHA.     See  Seraiah. 

ME.VU'CHAH  {rest,  ease),  the  mar- 
ginal reading  to  Jud.  20  :  43,  rendered 
in  the  text  by  "  with  ease,"  but  con- 
sidered by  some  to  be  the  name  of  a 
place  :  identical  with  Manahath. 

MENU'CHITES,  one  of  the  mar- 
ginal readings  to  1  Chr.  2  :  52  ;  the  same 
as  Manahathites. 

MEOiV'EiVIM,  THE  PLAIN 
OF  {oak  of  finothsayers),  an  oak  or  tere- 
binth, Jud.  9:37;  comp.  Deut.  18:10, 
14;  Mic.  5:12,  "soothsayers."  The 
meaning  of  the  name  seems  to  connect  it 
with  some  old  diviners,  probably  of  the 
pagan  inhabitants.  Conder  suggests  its 
identity  with  the  plain  of  Muklniah. 

MEOX'OTHAI  {my  dwelling),  a 
descendant  of  Judah.   1  Chr.  4  :  14. 

MEPH'AATH  {splendor,  or  lofty 
place),  a  Levitical  city  in  Reuben,  after- 
ward belonging  to  Moab.  Josh.  13:18; 
21:37;  1  Chr.  6:79;  Jer.  48:21.  Je- 
rome speaks  of  it  as  a  military  post,  and 
it  must  have  been  one  of  the  most  east- 
erly localities. 

MEPHIB'OSHETH  {extermina- 
tio)i  of  idols).  ].  A  son  of  Saul,  who, 
with  his  brother  and  five  others  of  the 
family,  suffered  a  violent  death  at  the 
hands  of  the  Gibeonites.  2  Sam.  21  :  8. 

2.  Or  Meribbaal,  1  Chr.  8  :  34,  was  a 
son  of  Jonathan,  and  grandson  of  Saul, 
who  at  the  age  of  five  years  fell  from  his 
nurse's  arms  and  was  ever  after  a  cripple. 
When  David  was  in  quiet  possession  of 
his  kingdom  he  sought  out  this  branch 
of  the  family  of  Jonathan  his  friend, 
and  not  only  gave  him  an  honorable 
place  in  his  palace,  but  restored  to  him 
the  estates  of  his  father.  During  Absa- 
lom's rebellion,  however.  Mephibosheth 
showed  some  signs  of  disaffection,  and 
on  David's  return  he  lost  one-half  of  his 
662 


estates.  2  Sam.  4:4;  9  :  6 ;  16  :  1-4  ;  19  : 
24-30  ;  21 :  7.  He  is  called  Merib-baal 
in  1  Chr.  8  :  34  :  9  :  40. 

ME'RAB,  the  eldest  daughter  of 
Saul,  who  promised  her  to  David  in  mar- 
riage ;  but  she  married  Adriel  of  Meho- 
lath,  by  whom  she  had  five  sons,  and 
David  took  her  sister  Miehal.  1  Sam.  14  : 
49.  The  five  sons  of  Merab  suffered  a 
violent  death  at  the  hands  of  the  Gibeon- 
ites. 2  Sam.  21  :  8. 

MERAI'AH  {rehelUon)  a  priest  in 
the  days  of  Joiakim.  Neh.  12  :  12. 

MERAI'OTH(/-efte//(OMs).  1.  Two 
priests  in  the  line  of  Eleazar,  respect- 
ively mentioned  in  1  Chr.  6:6,  7,  52  ; 
Ezr.  7  :  3,  and  1  Chr.  9:11;  Neh.  11 :  11. 

2.  A  priest  who  went  to  Jerusalem 
with  Zerubbabel,  Neh.  12:15;  called 
Meremoth  in  Neh.  12  :  3. 

MER'ARI  {hitter).  1.  The  third 
son  of  Levi,  and  head  of  the  family  of 
the  Merarites.  Gen.  46  :  11 ;  Ex,  6  :  16, 
19;  1  Chr.  6:1,  16. 

2.  The  father  of  Judith.  Jud.  8:1; 
16:7. 

MERARITES,  THE,  one  of  the 
three  great  families,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi, 
numbering,  when  the  census  was  taken 
in  the  wilderness,  6200  males  above  one 
month  old,  of  whom  3200  were  between 
thirty  and  fifty  years  of  age,  Num.  3  : 
34  ;  4  :  44,  and  divided  into  two  branches, 
the  Mahlites  and  the  Mushites.  Num.  3  : 
33.  They  marched  between  Judah  and 
Reuben,  pitched  to  the  north  of  the  tab- 
ernacle, and  had  charge  of  all  the  pillars, 
bars,  boards,  etc.,  belonging  to  the  tab- 
ernacle and  the  surrounding  court.  Num. 
3  :  33-37 ;  4  :  29-33 ;  7  :  8.  When  Ca- 
naan was  conquered,  twelve  cities  in  the 
tribes  of  Reuben,  Gad,  and  Zebulun  were 
allotted  to  them.  Josh.  21  :  7,  34-39 ;  1 
Chr.  6:63.  77-81. 

MERATHA'IM  {donhle  rebellion), 
a  symbolical  name  for  Babylon.  Jer.  50  : 
21. 

MER^CHANTS.  The  earliest  mode 
of  commerce  was  by  caravans.  The 
commerce  with  India  was  carried  on  in 
this  way  by  the  merchants  of  Arabia 
and  Egypt,  and  it  was  to  the  merchants 
of  an  Egyptian  caravan  that  Joseph  was 
sold.  There  was,  however,  considerable 
intercourse  between  many  countries  by 
water.  The  Phoenicians  held  the  first 
rank  in  this  respect,  and  their  fleet 
passed  through  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar 


MER 


MER 


into  the  Atlantic.  It  must  be  noticed, 
however,  that  in  those  times  a  merchant 
always  travelled  himself  from  place  to 
place,  buying  and  selling  his  goods,  and 
the  Hebrew  word  for  "  merchant  "  means 
''traveller,"  '' vovager."  Gen.  23:10; 
37  :  28  ;  Eze.  27  :  21,  36  ;  1  Kgs.  10  :  28  ; 
2  Chr.  1:U:   Prov.  31 :  14  ;   Isa.  23  :  2. 

MERCU'RIUS,  a  character  of  the 
Latin  mythology,  identical  with  the 
Greek  Hermes,  the  god  of  eloquence  and 
lying,  of  commerce  and  cheating.  An 
old  myth  told  a  story  of  Jupiter  and  Mer- 
curius  once  wandering  about  unrecog- 
nized in  Phrygia,  and  this  myth,  which 
probably  belonged  to  the  folk-lore  of 
Asia  Minor,  led  the  simple  people  of 
Lystra  to  mistake  Barnabas  and  Paul 
for  the  two  pagan  deities.  Acts  14  :  11- 
13. 

MER'CY-SEAT  was  the  name  of 
the  lid  or  cover  of  the  ark  of  the  cove- 
nant. It  was  made  of  gold,  two  and  a 
half  cubits  long  and  one  and  a  half 
cubits  broad,  and  two  cherubs,  also  of 
gold,  were  placed  one  at  each  end, 
stretching  their  wings  toward  each  other, 
and  forming  a  kind  of  throne,  upon 
which  God  was  believed  to  be  present  in 
a  peculiar  manner  to  hear  and  answer 
prayer,  and  to  make  known  his  holy 
wilf.  Ex.  25  :  17-22  ;  30  :  6  ;  31  :  7  ;  37  : 
6-9  ;  1  Chr.  28  :  11 ;  2  Chr.  6  :  7,  8  ;  Ps. 
80  :  1 ;  99  :  1.  Before  and  upon  the 
mercy-seat  the  high  priest  sprinkled  the 
blood  of  the  sin-offerings  on  the  day  of 
atonement  as  a  propitiation.  Lev.  16  : 
11-16,  which,  under  the  new  dispensa- 
tion, received  its  typical  signification. 
Heb.  9:5:  Rom.  3  ":  25.     See  Ark. 

ME'RED  {rebellion),  mentioned  in 
the  genealogy,  1  Chr.  4  :  17,  as  a  son  of 
Ezra,  a  descendant  of  Judah,  and  hus- 
band of  Bithiah.  a  daughter  of  Pharaoh. 

MER'EMOTH  {/leights).  1.  A 
priest  who  was  appointed  to  weigh  and 
register  the  gold  and  silver  vessels  be- 
longing to  the  temple  in  the  time  of 
Ezra,  Ezr.  8  :  24-33,  and  who  took  active 
part  in  the  rebuilding  of  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem.  Neh.  3  :  4. 

2.  One  who  married  a  foreign  wife  and 
put  her  away.  Ezr.  10  :  36. 

3.  A  priest  who  sealed  the  covenant. 
Neh.  10  :  5. 

MER'IBAH  (quarrel,  strife).  1.  The 
fountain  near  Rephidim  which  issued 
from  the  rock  in   Horeb   which   Moses 


smote  by  the  divine  command  ;  also  called 
'' Massah  "  ("temptation,  trial").  Ex. 
17  : 1-7  ;  Deut.  6  :  1 6  ;  9  :  22.  Wilson  and 
Warren  would  place  this  fountain  in 
Wndij  Feiraii,  near  Mount  Serbal ;  Hol- 
land puts  it  in  the  pass  al-  Watiyeh,  at 
the  eastern  end  of  W'ody  es-Sheikh. 

2.  Another  fountain,  produced  in  the 
same  manner  and  under  similar  circum- 
stances as  the  preceding,  near  Kadesh, 
in  the  desert  of  Zin  ;  also  called  waters 
of  Meribah  and  Meribah  Kadesh.  Deut. 
33:8;  Ps.  95:8;  106  :  32.  This  miracle 
occurred  near  the  close  of  the  wanderings 
of  the  Hebrews  in  the  desert.  Num.  20: 
1-24;  27:  14:  Deut.  32  :  51  ;  Ps.  81:7; 
Eze.  47  :  19.  Some  erroneously  regard 
the  two  as  identical,  but  this  view  is  in- 
consistent with  the  scriptural  narrative. 
See  Kadesh. 

MER'IB  -  BAAL.  1  Chr.  8  :  34. 
See  Mkphibosheth. 

MERO'DACH  (death,  slavghfer), 
the  name  of  an  idol-god  of  the  Babylo- 
nians; Belus,  and  represented  by  the 
planet  Jupiter,  and  often  applied  as  a 
surname  to  the  Babylonish  monarchs. 
Isa.  39  :  1  :  Jer.  50  :  2. 

MERO'DACH- BALLAD  AN 
(Merodach,  ivorshipper  of  Baal),  a  king 
of  Babylon,  b.  c.  721,  who  sent  ambas- 
sadors to  Hezekiah.  2  Chr.  32  :  31  ;  Isa. 
39  :  1.  In  2  Kgs.  20  :  12  he  is  called 
Berodach-baladan. 

ME'ROM,  WATERS  OF  (waters 
of  the  hiijh  jilace),  the  name  of  a  lake  in 
the  northern  part  of  Palestine,  where 
Joshua  crushed  the  confederacy  of  the 
northern  tribes  under  Jabin.  Josh.  11  : 
5,  7.  It  is  usually  identified  with  "  Lake 
Samachonitis "  of  Josephus  and  the 
modern  el-Huleh  of  the  Arabs,  though 
Grove,  Keil,  and  some  others  question 
this  identification.  Lake  Huleh  is  11 
miles  north  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  It  is 
triangular  in  shape,  about  6  miles  long, 
3i  miles  wide,  11  feet  deep,  and  270  feet 
below  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  covered 
in  parts  by  several  acres  of  papyrus.  The 
marsh  around  it  is  about  10  miles  long, 
and  is  covered  with  reeds  and  rushes, 
but  on  the  west  there  is  a  beautiful 
and  fertile  plain.  The  lake  abounds  in 
wild  duck,  pelican,  and  other  fowl.  On 
the  north  is  an  impenetrable  jungle, 
the  wallowing-place  of  buffaloes.  The 
miasma  from  the  marshes  renders  the 
district  very  unhealthy.  (See  cut,  p.  564.) 

563 


Lake  Huleh,  or  Waters  of  Merotn,  from  the  Souih-wedt. 


MERON'OTHITE,  a  designation 
applied  to  Jehdeiah,  1  Chr.  27  :  80,  and 
Jadon,  Neh.  3  :  7,  and  probably  referring 
to  some  place  not  known. 

ME'ROZ  {refiKje),  a  place  in  the 
northern  part  of  Palestine,  the  inhabit- 
ants of  which  were  accursed  for  not 
having  taken  the  field  with  Barak  against 
Sisera.  Jud,  5  :  23.  W3'lie  supposes  the 
ruins  el-Mazranh,  near  the  river  Kishon, 
to  mark  the  site  of  Meroz ;  Wilson  pre- 
fers Keft-  Mma,  south  of  Tabor ;  and 
Thomson  Meiroii,  6  miles  west  of  Safed, 
as  the  representative  of  Meroz. 

ME'SECH,  Ps.  120  :  5,  or  ME'- 
SHECH,  Eze.  32  :  26,  a  son  of  Japheth, 
whose  descendants  are  supposed  to  have 
settled  in  Armenia.  They  had  consider- 
able commerce  with  Tyre.  Eze.  27  :  18. 
Some  suppose  the  Muscovites  were  of  this 
race. 

ME'SHA  {deliverance).  1.  A  king 
of  Moab  who  refused  to  pay  to  Jehoram, 
king  of  Israel,  the  annual  tribute  which 
he  had  been  accustomed  to  pay  to  his 
father  Ahab.  For  this  offence  Jehoram 
determined  to  punish  him  ;  and  calling 
to  his  aid  Jehoshaphat,  king  of  Judah, 
and  the  king  of  the  Edomites,  he  invaded 
564 


the  territory  of  Moab,  signally  defeated 
him,  desolated  the  country,  and  at  last 
the  king  and  his  army  were  closely  be- 
sieged in  a  walled  town.  In  this  ex- 
tremity Mesha  attempted  to  cut  his  way 
through  the  enemy's  ranks  ;  but.  failing 
in  this,  he  made  the  hon-ible  sacrifice  of 
his  eldest  son  to  some  idol-god,  and  it 
was  done  openly  upon  the  Avail,  in  sight 
of  the  camp  of  Israel,  who,  fearing  to 
have  incurred  the  anger  of  God  by  hav- 
ing given  occasion  to  a  human  sacrifice, 
retreated  to  their  own  country.  2  Kgs. 
3  :  4-27.  A  most  wonderful  corrobora- 
tion of  the  Scripture  history  is  found 
in    the    famous    Moabite    Stone.        See 

DlBON. 

2.  A    son    of    Caleb,  and   brother  of 
Mareshah.   1  Chr.  2  :  42. 

3.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shaharaim.  1 
Chr.  8:9. 

ME'SHA  {retreat),  a  place  on  the 
eastern  border  of  the  possessions  of  the 
Joktanites.  Gen.  10  :  30.  Some  regard  it 
as  Mese»ie  or  Meinaii,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Pasitigris,  where  it  empties  into  the 
Persian  Gulf;  others  locate  it  in  the  Zo~ 
men  range  or  Nefd  mountains  of  Arabia: 
i  and  some  place  lit  in  north-western  Yunca, 


MES 


MES 


at  Moosa,  a  port  on  the  Red  Sea.  The 
first  is  the  more  probable  location  of 
Mesha. 

ME'SHACH.  Dan.  1  :  7.  See 
Abeunego. 

ME'SHECH.  Eze.  27  :13.  See 
Mesech. 

MESHELEMI'AH  {whom  Jehovah 
repaj/s),  a  Levite,  gatekeeper  at  the  tem- 
ple in  the  time  of  David,  1  Chr.  9  :  21  : 
26  :  1,  2,  9;  he  is  called  Shelemiah  in  1 
Chr.  26  :  14. 

MESHEZ'ABEEL  {delivered  hy 
God).  1.  The  grandfather  of  Meshul- 
1am,  who  assisted  in  rebuilding  the 
wall.  Neh.  3  :  4. 

2.  One  who  sealed  the  covenant.  Neh. 
10  :  21. 

3.  A  descendant  of  Zerah,  the  son  of 
Judah.  Neh.  11  :  24. 

MESHIL'LEMITH  [retributUm, 
requital),  a  priest  of  the  course  of  Im- 
mer,  1  Chr.  9  :  12;  called  Meshillemoth 
in  Neh.  11  :  13. 

MESHIL'LEMOTH.  1.  An 
Ephraimite  in  the  reign  of  Pekah.  2 
Chr.  28  :  12. 

2.  Neh.  11  :  13.     See  Meshillemith. 

MESHUL'LAM  {friend).  1.  The 
grandfather  of  Shaphan  the  scribe  in  the 
reign  of  Josiah.  2  Kgs.  22  :  3. 

2.  A  son  of  Zerubbabel.  1  Chr.  3  :  19. 

3.  A  descendant  of  Gad  in  the  reign 
of  King  Jotham  of  Judah.  1  Chr.  5:13. 

4.  Three  Benjamites  mentioned  re- 
spectively in  1  Chr.  8:17:  9  :  7,  8. 

5.  High  priest  in  the  reign  of  Ammon, 
1  Chr.  9  :  11 ;  Neh.  11  :  11;  called  Shal- 
lum  in  1  Chr.  6  :  12 :  Ezr.  7  :  2. 

6.  A  priest  of  the  course  of  Immer.  1 
Chr.  9  :  12. 

7.  A  Kohathite  Levite  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah.  2  Chr.  34  :  12. 

8.  One  who  was  sent  b}' Ezra  to  induce 
the  Levites  to  rejoin  the  caravan  return- 
ing to  Palestine.  Ezr.  8:16. 

9.  One  who  assisted  Ezra  in  abolishing 
marriages  with  foreign  wives.  Ezr.  10  : 
15. 

10.  One  who  had  married  a  foreign 
wife.  Ezr.  10  :  29. 

11.  Two  who  assisted  in  repairing  the 
wall.  Neh.  3  :  4,  6,  30;  6  :  18. 

12.  A  priest  and  a  chief  of  the  y)eop]e 
who  sealed  the  covenant.  Neh.  10  :  1 , 
20. 

13.  Two  priests  in  the  days  of  Joiakim. 
Neh.  12  :  13,  16. 


14.  A  Levite  porter,  Neh.  12  :  25  ;  also 
called  Meshcmiah,  1  Chr.  26  :  1,  Shele- 
miah, 1  Chr.  26  :  14,  or  Shullam.  Neh. 
7  :  45. 

15.  One  who  partook  in  the  dedica- 
tion of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  Neh. 
12  :  33. 

MESHUL'LEMETH  {friend), 
wife  of  Manasseh  and  mother  of  Am- 
mon, kings  of  Judah.  2  Kgs.  21  :  19. 

MESOBA'ITE,  a  designation  ap- 
plied to  Jasiel,  one  of  David's  warriors, 
1  Chr.  11  :  47;  it  is  not  known  what  it 
refers  to. 

MESOPOTA'MIA  {the  region  be- 
tween the  rir^ers),  the  name  given  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  to  that  tract  of  fer- 
tile country  lying  between  the  rivers 
Euphrates  and  Tigris.  Acts  2:9;  7:2. 
It  was  called  by  the  Hebrews  Aram- 
naharaim,  or  "  Aram  or  Syria  of  the 
two  rivers :"  Gen.  24  :  10  :  Deut.  23  : 
4;  Jud.  3:8,  10;  1  Chr.  19  :  6  ;  and 
Padan-aram  or  "Plain  of  Syria,"  Gen. 
25  :  20  ;  28  :  2-7 ;  46  :  15  :  also  Aram 
or  "  Syria."  Num.  23  :  7  ;  Gen.  31  :  20, 
24.  On  the  Egyptian  monuments,  the 
upper  part  is  called  Naharina,  and  on 
the  Assyrian,  Nahiri.  This  region  is 
now  called  by  the  Arabs  el-Jezirah,  or 
"  the  Peninsula  "  or  "  Island."  Strabo 
and  Pliny  describe  Mesopotamia  as 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Tigris ;  on 
the  south  by  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Persian  Gulf;  on  the  west  by  the  Eu- 
phrates ;  and  on  the  north  by  Mount 
Taurus,  the  length  being  800  miles,  and 
the  breadth,  which  is  very  irregular, 
360  miles.  The  great  plains  of  Meso- 
potamia possess  a  nearly  uniform,  level, 
good  soil,  but  barren  from  want  of  irri- 
gation. The  exceptions  are  where  the 
plains  are  intersected  by  hills  or  ranges 
of  hills.  The  climate  of  these  plains 
is  characterized  by  great  dryness,  com- 
bined with  very  great  variations  in  the 
temperature  of  the  air.  According  to 
Mr.  Layard,  in  March  the  pastures 
abound  in  rich  and  luxuriant  herbage 
and  the  meadows  are  enamelled  with 
flowers  of  every  hue.  See  map,  "  Lands 
of  Jewish  Captivities." 

We  first  hear  of  Mesopotamia  in  Scrip- 
ture as  the  country  of  Nnhor.  Gen.  24  : 
10.  Here  lived  Bethuel  and  Laban,  and 
hither  Abraham  sent  his  servant  to  fetch 
Isaac  a  wife.  v.  38.  A  century  later  Jacob 
came  on  the  same  errand,  and  hence  he 

565 


MES 


MET 


returned  with  his  two  wives  after  an  ab- 
sence of  twenty-one  years.  No  mention 
of  Mesopotamia  again  occurs  till  the 
close  of  the  wanderings  in  the  wilder- 
ness. Deut.  23  :  4.  Though  Drs.  Beke 
and  Merrill  object  to  the  view  that  Ba- 
laam came  from  the  Mesopotamia  beyond 
the  Euphrates,  and  Dr.  Beke  proposed  to 
place  '*  Syria  between  the  two  rivers," 
near  Damascus,  his  view  has  not  been 
accepted.  About  half  a  century  later, 
Mesopotamia  appears  as  the  seat  of  a 
powerful  monarchy.  Jud.  3.  The  chil- 
dren of  Amnion,  having  provoked  a  war 
with  David,  "  sent  a  thousand  talents  of 
silver  to  hire  them  chariots  and  horse- 
men out  of  Mesopotamia,  and  out  of 
Syria-maachah,  and  out  of  Zobah."  1 
Chr.  19  :  6.  Assyrian  inscriptions  and 
the  Scripture  record  show  that  Meso- 
potamia was  inhabited  in  the  early 
times  of  the  empire,  b.  c.  1200-1100, 
by  a  vast  number  of  petty  tribes,  each 
under  its  own  prince,  and  all  quite  in- 
dependent of  each  other,  Jud.  3  :  8-10  ; 
2  Kgs.  19  :  12,  13 ;  Isa.  37  :  12,  until 
subjugated  by  the  kings  of  Assyria. 
Even  after  Mesopotamia  became  an 
Assyrian  province  it  formed  part  of 
the  great  monarchies  which  succes- 
sively arose  in  Upper  Asia,  the  Baby- 
Ionian,  Persian,  and  Macedonian.  The 
conquests  of  Cyrus  brought  it  wholly 
under  the  Persian  yoke,  and  thus  it 
continued  to  the  time  of  Alexander. 
The  whole  region  is  studded  with 
mounds  and  ruins  of  Assyrian  and 
Babylonian  greatness.     See  Assyria. 

MES'SENGER.  The  laws  and 
edicts  of  the  Jewish  kings  were  pro- 
claimed near  the  royal  residence  by 
public  criers ;  but  they  were  made 
known  to  more  distant  towns  and  prov- 
inces by  messemjers  sent  for  that  pur- 
pose. 1  Sam.  11 :  7  ;  2  Chr.  36  :  22  ;  Am. 
4  :  5.  The  messengers  stood  in  the  gate, 
where  the  largest  mass  of  people  might 
be  found,  and  proclaimed  the  law  or  mes- 
sage, as  in  Jer.  11  :  6;  17  :  19,  20.  At 
Jerusalem  these  messages  were  pro- 
claimed in  the  temple,  where  a  con- 
course of  people  was  always  found. 

MESSI'AH  is  a  Hebrew  word  sig- 
nifying "  anointed,'"  and  corresponding 
exactly  to  the  Greek  Chn'ston.  As  in 
ancient  times  not  only  the  king,  but 
also  the  priest  and  the  prophet,  was 
consecrated  to  his  calling  by  being 
5&6 


I  anointed,  the  word  "  Messiah "  often 
occurs  in  the  0.  T.  in  its  literal  sense, 
{  signifying  one  who  has  been  anointed, 
1  Sam.  24  :  6  ;  Lam.  4  :  20  ;  Eze.  28  :  14; 
Ps.  105  :  15  ;  but  generally  it  has  a  more 
specific  application,  signifying  the  One 
who  was  anointed,  the  supreme  Deliv- 
erer who  was  promised  from  the  begin- 
ning. Gen.  3  :  15,  and  about  whom  a 
long  series  of  prophecies  runs  through  the 
whole  history  of  Israel  from  Abram,  Gen. 
12  :  3  ;  22  :  18  ;  Jacob,  Gen.  49  :  10:  Ba- 
laam, Num.  24  :  17  ;  Moses,  Deut.  18  :  15, 
18,  and  Nathan,  2  Sam.  7:16;  through 
the  Psalmists  and  prophets,  Ps.  2 ;  16 : 
22 ;  40  ;  45 ;  110  ;  Isa.  7  :  10-16  ;  9  : 
1-7;  11;  13;  53;  61;  Jer.  23:5,  6; 
Mic.  5:2;  Mai.  3  :  1-4,  to  his  im- 
mediate precursor,  John  the  Baptist. 
The  character  of  these  prophecies  is 
very  definite.  The  lineage  from  which 
Messiah  should  descend  was  foretold, 
Gen.  49  :  10  ;  Isa.  11  :  1,  the  place  in 
which  he  should  be  born,  Mic.  5  :  2, 
the  time  of  his  appearance,  Dan.  9  :  20. 
25 ;  Hag.  2:7;  Mai.  3  :  1,  etc.  Never- 
theless, in  the  vanity  of  their  hearts,  the 
Jews  mistook  the  true  meaning  of  these 
prophecies.  They  expected  a  mere  phys- 
ical deliverer  who  would  take  revenge  on 
their  enemies  and  oppressors,  and  give 
into  their  hands  the  empire,  the  glory, 
and  the  wealth  of  the  world.  Thus  many 
of  them  were  unable  to  recognize  the 
Messiah  in  Jesus  of  Nazareth;  and  when 
he  and  his  disciples  demonstrated  the 
spiritual  meaning  of  the  prophecies  and 
their  glorious  fulfilment.  Matt.  26  :  54; 
Mark  9:12:  Luke  18  :  31  ;  22  :  37  ;  John 
5:39;  Acts  2:  16-31;  26:22,23;  Eph. 
4:8;  1  Pet.  1 :  11,  the  Jews  felt  scandal- 
ized. They  expected  a  triumphant  being, 
according  to  Ps.  2;  Jer.  23  :5,  6;  Zech. 
9  :  9,  and  that  his  triumph  was  to  be 
accomplished  by  suflferings  and  death 
thev   did  not  understand. 

MESSI'AS,  the  Greek  form  of  Mes- 
siah. John  1  :  41  :  4  :  25. 

MET'ALS.  The  Hebrews  were  from 
ancient  times  acquainted  with  all  the 
principal  metals — gold,  silver,  copper, 
iron,  tin,  and  lead.  They  produced  them 
from  their  own  soil  or  procured  them  by 
commerce  with  foreign  nations.  Pales- 
tine and  Syria  are  rich  in  copper  and  iron, 
and  mining  operations,  as  well  as  the 
various  processes  in  the  manufacture  of 
metals,  such  as  smelting,  calcining,  re- 


MET 


MIA 


fining,  etc.,  are  often  alluded  to.  Job 
28  :  1-11  ;  Ex.  20  :  5  ;  32  :  2-4.  20  :    Isa. 

1  :  25  ;  40  :  19,  20  ;  44  :  12  ;  Mai.  3  :  3. 
Whether  they  knew  steel  is  uncertain. 
The  Hebrew  word  thus  translated  in  2 
Sam.  22:36;  Job  20:24;  Ps.  18:34; 
Jer.  15  :  12  is  translated  "  brass"  in  all 
other  places,  and  means  jjrobably  bronze. 
The  "northern  iron"  of  Jer.  15:12 
seems  to  correspond  more  closely  to 
what  we  call  steel.  As  zinc  is  not  men- 
tioned in  the  0.  T.,  it  is  probable  that 
composition  of  zinc  and  copper  called 
brass  was  not  known  at  all  to  the  He- 
brews. Where  our  translation  has 
''brass,"  probably  bronze,  a  composi- 
tion of  copper  and  tin,  is  meant. 

Gold  was  not  found  in  Palestine,  but 
was  brought  thither  from  Ophir,  1  Kgs. 

9  :  27,  28,  Parvaim,  2  Chr.  3  :  6,  Raamah, 
Eze.  27:22,  Sheba,  1  Kgs.  10  ;  2,  10; 
Ps.  72  :  16  ;  Isa.  60  :  6,  and  Uphaz.  Jer. 

10  :  9.  It  was  plentiful.  Abraham  was 
very  rich  in  cattle,  in  silver,  and  in  gold. 
Gen.  13  :  2.  The  army  of  Gideon  took 
1700  shekels  of  gold  in  nose-jewelry  from 
the  slaughtered  Midianites.  Jud.  8  :  26. 
David  gathered  100,000  talents  of  gold 
and  the  shields  of  gold  from  Hadad- 
ezer.  1  Chr.  22  :  14;  2  Sam.  8  :  7.  The 
throne  of  Solomon  was  overlaid  with 
gold,  and  his  drinking-cups  were  of 
pure  and  solid  gold.  1  Kgs.  10 :  18,  21, 
The  Hebrews  used  gold,  not  as  money, 
but  only  for  ornaments — bracelets.  Gen. 
24:22:  chains,  Gen.  41:42:  signets, 
Ex.  35  :  22  ;  necklaces,  Ex.  35  :  22— for 
embroidery,  Ex.  39:3;  2  Sam.  1:24, 
and  for  decoration,  especially  in  the 
temple.  1  Kgs.  6:21,22. 

Silver     was     obtained    from    Lydia, 
Thrace,  and  Tarshish,   1    Kgs.  10:22; 

2  Chr.  9  :  21  ;  Jer,  10  :  9  ;  Eze.  27  :  12, 
and  in  the  days  of  Solomon  it  was  as 
common  in  Jerusalem  "  as  stones."  1 
Kgs.  10  :  21,  27,  It  was  lavishly  used  in 
the  temple  for  the  sockets  of  the  boards. 
Ex,  26:19;  36:24,  the  hooks,  fillets, 
and  capitals  of  the  pillars,  Ex,  38  :  10, 
17,  the  bowls  and  chargers,  Num.  7:  13, 
the  trumpets,  Num.  10  :  2,  the  candle- 
sticks and  tables.  1  Chr,  28  :  16,  10,  etc. 
Its  principal  use,  however,  was  as  money  ; 
though  it  was  not  coined  until  the  mid- 
dle of  the  eighth  century  b.  c.  In  all  the 
commercial  transactions  spoken  of  in 
the  0,  T,  up  to  the  taking  of  Samaria, 
in  B,  c,  721,  silver,  not  gold,  is  used  as 


payment — by  Abram  at  the  purchase 
of  Ephron's  field.  Gen.  23  :  16  ;  by  Abim- 
elech  in  compensation  to  Abram,  Gen. 
20: 16;  by  the  Ishmaelite  merchants  when 
they  bought  Jose])h.  Gen,  37  :  28,  etc. 

Copper  and  iron  were  found  in  Pales- 
tine— "  a  land  whose  stones  are  iron  and 
out  of  whose  hills  thou  mayest  dig 
brass,"  Deut,  8:9;  Job  28  :  2,  The  for- 
mer, however,  was  much  more  used  than 
the  latter ;  arms,  2  Sam,  21 :  16  :  Job  20  : 
24;  Ps,  18:34,  and  armor,  1  Sam.  17: 
6,  6,  38,  were  made  of  it.  Tin  is  first 
mentioned  among  the  spoils  of  the  Midi- 
anites, Num.  31:22;  like  lead,  it  came 
from  Tarshish,  Eze.  27  :  12,  and  it  was 
principally  used  in  the  production  of 
bronze.  Lead  found  manifold  a])plica- 
tions  in  practical  life — for  inscrijjtions, 
being  poured  into  the  hollow  letters 
carved  in  the  stone,  Job  19  :  24,  for 
weights,  etc. 

ME'THEG-AM'MAH  {curb  of 
the  metrojiolls).  This  word,  in  2  Sam, 
8:1,  is  translated  in  the  margin  "the 
bridle  of  Ammah,"  and  it  may  be  ren- 
dered "the  bridle  or  hit  of  the  metropo- 
lis," meaning  that  David  subdued  the 
metropolis  of  the  Philistines,  probably 
Gath.  Thus  expressed,  the  passage  corre- 
sponds closely  with  the  parallel  passage, 
1  Chr.  18  :  1  :  "  Gath  and  her  towns," 

METHU'SAEL(w««  o/G'orf),father 
of  Lamech,  and  the  fourth  in  descent 
from  Cain,   Gen.  4:18. 

METHU'SELAH  {man  of  dart,  or 
he  dies  and  it  is  sent — namely,  the  Flood), 
the  son  of  Enoch,  and,  according  to  He- 
brew chronology,  969  years  old  when  he 
died,  in  the  first  year  of  the  Flood.  The 
longest-lived  man  was  the  son  of  the 
saintliest  of  his  time.  Gen.  5:27;  1 
Chr,  1:3, 

MEU'NIM.  Neh.  7:52.  The  same 
as  Mehunim.   Ex.  2  :  50. 

MEU'ZAL,  in  the  margin  of  Ezr. 
27:19,  means  perhaps  "from  Uzal,"  tic 
later  Sanaa,  the  metropolis  of  Yemen. 

MEZ'AHAB  {ivaters  of  gold),  tl;c 
grandfather  of  Mehetabel,  wife  of  Ha- 
dar,  the  last  king  of  Edom,  Gen,  36: 
39  :   ]  Chr,  1 :  50. 

MI'AIWIN  {from  the  right  hand).  1. 
One  who  had  married  a  foreign  wife.  Ezr. 
10:25. 

2.  A  priest  who  had  returned  with 
Zerubbabel,  Neh.  12  :  6  ;  called  Mija- 
min,  10  :  70,  and  Miniamin,  12  :  17. 

667 


MIB 


MIC 


MIB'HAR  (choice),  one  of  David's 
warriors.   1  Chr.  11 :  38. 

MIB'SAM  (sweet  odor).  1.  A  son  of 

Ishniael.  Gen.  25  :  13  ;  1  Chr.  1 :  29. 

2.  A  son  of  Simeon.  1  Chr.  4:25. 

MIB'ZAR  (a  fortress),  one  of  the 
chiefs  or  dukes  of  Edom.  Gen.  36 :  42  ; 
1  Chr.  1  :  53. 

MI'CAH  (who  is  like  Jehovah  r).  1. 
An  idolater  in  Mount  Ephraim  who  per- 
suaded a  Levite  to  officiate  as  his  priest, 
but  had  his  idols  stolen  from  him  by  a 
troop  of  Danites.  Jud.  17;  18. 

2.  The  sixth  of  the  minor  prophets,  is 
called  the  Morashite,  from  his  birthplace 
Moresheh,  a  village  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Eleutheropolis,  in  the  territory  of 
Gath,  westward  from  Jerusalem.  He 
prophesied  during  the  reigns  of  Jotham, 
Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah, 
B.  c.  750-698,  and  was  a  contemporary 
of  Isaiah,  whom  he  often  resembles  in 
style  and  expressions.  Compare,  for  in- 
stance, Isa.  2  :  2  with  Mic.  4:1,  or  Isa. 
41:15  with  Mic.  4:  13. 

The  Book  of  Micah  contains  prophe- 
cies concerning  Samaria  and  Jerusalem. 
Samaria  is  threatened  with  complete  de- 
vastation, and  Jerusalem  with  destruc- 
tion and  the  captivity  of  its  inhabitants. 
He  admonishes  them  to  repent,  but  he 
predicts  also  the  return  of  the  divine 
mercy  and  blessing,  with  a  pardon  of 
their  sins.  Then  shall  the  mount  of  the 
temple  be  glorious  and  foreign  nations 
will  acknowledge  Jehovah  as  their 
Lord,  and  henceforth  there  shall  be  no 
more  war.  In  his  prophecies  concerning 
Messiah  he  is  very  precise.  The  pre- 
diction that  Christ  should  be  born  in 
Bethlehem  belongs  to  him.  5  : 2.  His 
style  is  poetic  throughout,  pure,  rich  in 
images  and  plays  upon  words,  bold  and 
lofty,  but  sometimes  abrupt  and  obscure. 

3.  A  Reubenite,  the  ancestor  of  Beerah. 
1  Chr.  5  :  5. 

4.  The  son  of  Mephibosheth,  and 
grandson  of  Jonathan,  1  Chr.  8  ;  34,  35  ; 
9 :  40,  41  ;  called  Micha  in  2  Sam.  9:12. 

5.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Asaph, 
1  Chr.  9  :  15  ;  called  Micha  in  Neh.  11 : 
17,  22,  and  Michaiah  in  Neh.  12 :  35. 

6.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  the  son  of 
.Uzziel,  1  Chr.  23  :  20 ;  called  Michah  in 

1  Chr.  24  :  24,  25. 

7.  The  father  of  Abdon,  a  high  offi- 
cial in  the  reign  of  Josiah,  2  Chr.  34  : 
20  ;  called  Michaiah  in  2  Kgs.  22  :  12. 

568 


MICA'IAH,  the  son  of  Imlah  the 

prophet,  who  predicted  the  defeat  and 
death  of  Ahab  if  he  went  to  war  against 
Ramoth-gilead.  1  Kgs.  22  :  8-28  ,•  2  Chr. 
18:7,  27. 

MI'CHA,  a  Levite  who  sealed  the 
covenant.  Neh.  10:11.  See  Micah,  3 
and  5. 

MI'CHAEL  {who  like  G^or/ .?),  aname 
of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  sacred 
writings. 

1.  Father  of  Sethur,  the  spy  selected 
from  the  tribe  of  Asher.  Num.  13  :  13. 

2.  A  Gadite  who  settled  in  the  land  of 
Bashan,  1  Chr.  5  :  13,  and  one  of  his  an- 
cestors. 1   Chr.  5  :  14. 

3.  A  Gershonite  Levite.  1  Chr.  6 :  40. 

4.  A  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  in 
the  time  of  David.  1  Chr.  7  :  3. 

5.  A  Benjamite.   1  Chr.  8:  16. 

6.  A  Manassite  chief  who  joined  Da- 
vid at  Ziklag.   1  Chr.  12  :  20. 

7.  The  father  of  Omri.  1  Chr.  27  :  18. 

8.  A  son  of  Jehoshaphat,  murdered  by 
his  brother  Jehoram.  2  Chr.  21 :  2,  4. 

9.  The  ancestor  of  Zebadiah,  who  re- 
turned with  Ezra.  Ezr.  8  :  8. 

10.  The  prince  among  the  angels,  the 
archangel,  Jude  9,  described  in  Dan.  10  : 
13,  21 ;  12  :  1,  as  standing  in  a  special 
relation  to  the  Jewish  nation,  and  in 
Rev.  12:  7-9  as  leading  the  hosts  of  the 
angels. 

MI'CHAH.     See  Micah,  6. 
MICHA'IAH.     1.  See  Micah,  7. 

2.  See  Maachah,  3. 

3.  An  officer  of  Jehoshaphat.  2  Chr. 
17:7. 

4.  See  Micah,  4. 

5.  A  priest  who  assisted  at  the  dedi- 
cation of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  Neh. 
12:41. 

6.  An  officer  of  Jehoiakim.  Jer.  36 : 
11,  13. 

MI''CHAL,  the  second  daughter  of 
Saul,  1  Sam.  14:49,  and  the  wife  of 
David,  who  paid  in  dowry  one  hundred 
slaughtered  Philistines.  She  was  pas- 
sionately devoted  to  her  young  husband, 
and  once  saved  him  from  the  fury  of  her 
father.  During  David's  exile  she  was 
married  to  another  man,  Phalti,  1  Sam. 
25:44;  2  Sam.  3:15,  with  whom  she 
lived  for  ten  years.  After  the  accession 
of  David  to  the  throne  she  was  restored 
to  him,  2  Sam.  3  :  13,  14,  but  an  estrange- 
ment soon  took  place  between  them,  and 
on  the  occasion  of  the  greatest  triumph 


MIC 


MIG 


of  David's  life — the  bringing  up  of  the 
ark  to  Jerusalem — it  came  to  an  open 
rupture  between  them,  after  which  her 
name  does  not  again  occur.  2  Sam.  6  :  2.">. 

MICH'MAS,  OR  MICH  MASH 
[somethiiuj  hhlde)i),  a  town  of  Benjamin 
noted  in  the  Philistine  war  of  Saul  and 
Jonathan.  1  Sam.  13:  11.  Isaiah  refers 
to  it  in  connection  with  the  invasion  of 
Sennacherib  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah. 
10 :  28.  After  the  Captivity  it  was  re- 
peopled.  Ezr.  2:2T;  Neh.  7  :  31.  Later 
it  became  the  residence  of  Jonathan 
Maccabeeus  and  the  seat  of  his  govern- 
ment. 1  Mace.  9  :  73.  In  the  time  of 
Eusebius  and  Jerome  it  was  **  a  very 
large  village,  retaining  its  ancient  name, 
and  lying  near  Ramah,  in  the  district  of 
^lia  (Jerusalem),  9  miles  therefrom." 
Michmash  is  identified  with  the  modern 
village  of  Mnkmas,  about  5  miles  north 
of  Jerusalem,  where  are  considerable 
ruins  of  columns,  cisterns,  etc.  Imme- 
diately below  the  village  the  great  wady 
spreads  out  to  a  considerable  width — 
perhaps  half  a  mile — and  its  bed  is  bro- 
ken up  into  an  intricate  mass  of  hum- 
mocks and  mounds,  two  of  which,  before 
the  torrents  of  3000  winters  had  reduced 
and  rounded  their  forms,  may  have 
been  the  "teeth  of  cliff" — the  Bozez 
and  Seneh  of  Jonathan's  adventure. 
1  Sam.  14 :  4.  In  plain  view  about  a 
mile  away  is  the  ancient  Geba  or 
Gibeah,  where  Saul  was  encamped.  1 
Sam.  13  :  16. 

MICH'METHAH  {rochj  f),atown 
facing  Shechem,  on  the  borders  of  Eph- 
raim  and  Manasseh.  Josh.  16  :  6  ;  17  :  7. 
The  Pal.  Memoirs  suggest  Mukhnah,  in 
the  plain  of  Mukhnah,  east  of  Shechem, 
as  its  site. 

MICH'RI  (prize  of  Jehovah),  aBen- 
jamite,  the  ancestor  of  Elah.  1  Chr. 
9:8. 

MICH'TAM  occurs  in  the  inscrip- 
tions of  six  Psalms — namely,  16  and  56- 
60 — but  its  true  meaning  is  doubtful. 
Some  derive  it  from  a  root  denoting  gold, 
and  our  translation  gives  it  in  the  mar- 
gin as  '*  the  golden  Psalm."  More  prob- 
ably, however,  it  is  a  musical  expression 
whose  signification  has  been  lost. 

MID'DIN  (/neosH?v«),  one  of  the  six 
cities  mentioned  with  En-gedi,  Josh.  15  : 
61,  and  in  the  desert  west  of  the  Dead 
Sea. 

MID 'IAN  (strife).  The  territory  of 


Midian  extended,  according  to  some 
scholars,  from  the  Elanitic  Gulf  to  Moab 
and  Mount  Sinai,  or,  according  to  others, 
from  the  Sinaitic  peninsula  to  the  desert 
and  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates.  The 
people  traded  with  Palestine,  Lebanon, 
and  Egypt.  Gen.  37 :  28.  Joseph  was 
probably  bought  by  them,  perhaps  in 
companv  with  Ishmaelites.  See  Gen.  37  : 
25,  27,  28,  36,  and  Gen.  25:2,  4,  12,  16. 
Moses  dwelt  in  Midian.  Ex.  2  :  15-21  ; 
Num.  10 :  29.  Midian  joined  Moab 
against  Israel  and  enticed  that  nation 
into  sin,  for  which  it  was  destroyed. 
Num.  22,  24,  25.  Later,  Midian  recov- 
ered, became  a  powerful  nation,  and  op- 
pressed the  Hebrews,  but  were  miracu- 
lously defeated  by  Gideon.  Jud.  6  : 1-40  ; 
7  :  1-25  ,:  8  : 1-28  :  Ps.  83  :  9, 11 ;  Isa.  9  : 
4;  Hab.  3  :  7.  The  Midianites  hence- 
forward became  gradually  incorporated 
with  the  neighboring  Moabites  and  Ara- 
bians. 

In  the  region  east  of  Edom  and  Moab 
are  many  ancient  ruins,  and  portions  of 
the  territory  are  of  great  fertility,  pro- 
ducing bountiful  crops  for  the  modern 
Arabs — the  tribe  of  Beni  Sakk'r,  which 
bears  considerable  resemblance  in  race, 
character,  and  habits  to  what  is  known 
of  the  ancient  Midianites. 

"  Curtains  of  Midian,"  Hab.  3 :  7,  is  a 
figurative  expression  denoting  the  bor- 
ders or  inhabitants  of  Midian. 

MID'WIFE.  The  two  midwives 
mentioned  in  Ex.  1 :  15  are  probably 
representatives  or  superintendents  of  a 
whole  class,  as  such  a  number  seems  to 
stand  in  a  decided  disproportion  to  the 
needs  of  the  Jewish  nation  at  that  time. 
The  expression  "upon  the  stools,"  in 
the  following  verse,  refers  to  a  kind  of 
chair  in  which  the  patient  sat  during  the 
birth,  and  which  is  still  in  use  in  modern 
Egypt. 

MIG'DAL-EL  (tower  of  God),  a 
fortified  city  of  Naphtali.  Josh.  19  :  38. 
Robinson  thinks  it  may  be  the  modern 
Mejdel,  or  Mnjeidil,  ancient  ruins  being 
found  on  the  seashore,  3  miles  north  of 
Tiberias. 

MIG'DAL-GAD  (toxcer  of  God), 
a  town  of  Judah,  near  Lachish,  Josh. 
15  :  37-39  ;  now  Mejdel,  a  prosperous 
village  of  1500  inhabitants,  2  miles  east 
of  Ascalon.  It  is  surrounded  by  olive 
trees  and  cultivated  fields.  Its  houses 
are  well  built,  its  streets  dirty.     Broken 

569 


MTG 


MIL 


columns,  hewn  stones,  and  other  ancient 
ruins  are  found  there. 

MIG'DOli  {tower),  the  name  of  two 
places  in  Egypt. 

1.  A  place  near  the  head  of  the  Red 
Sea,  Ex.  14 :  2  :  Num.  33 :  7,  8 ;  probably 
identical  with  Bir  Makhdal,  10  miles 
west  of  Suez. 

2.  A  city  and  fortified  place  situated 
in  the  northern  limits  of  Egypt  toward 
Palestine.  Jer.  44  :  1  ;  48  :  U.  This 
name  is  rendered  •'  tower  "  in  the  phrase 
"  from  the  tower  of  Syene,"  Eze.  29  :  1 0  ; 
30:6;  but  the  margin  correctly  has 
"from  Migdol  to  Syene" — i.  e.,  Syene 
the  most  southern  border  of  Egypt,  and 
Migdol  the  most  northern.  The  phrase 
is  used  to  signify  the  whole  of  Egypt. 
In  Egyptian  the  name  is  written  Meshtol, 
"  many  hills,"  and  in  the  Septuagint 
Magdolum. 

MltJ'RON  {precipice),  a  town  or 
place  in  the  neighborhood  of  Gibeah. 
1  Sam.  14:  2.  Migron  is  also  mentioned 
in  Sennacherib's  approach  to  Jerusalem. 
Isa.  10  :  28.  It  was  near  Michmash, 
and  Baedeker  places  its  site  on  the  west- 
ern slope  of  the  Wadtj  Sniceinit,iit  ruins 
called  Maknni. 

MIJ'AMIN'  {on  the  rir/ht  hand).  1. 
The  head  of  the  sixth  course  of  priests 
in  the  time  of  David.  1  Chr.  24  :  9. 

2.  See  MiAMiN.  2. 

M  IK 'LOTH  {staves).  1.  A  Benja- 
mite,  the  son  of  Jehiel,  1  Chr.  8  :  32;  9  : 
37,  38. 

2.  One  of  the  leaders  of  David's  army. 
1  Chr.  27  :  4. 

MIKNE'IAH  {possession  of  Jeho- 
vah), a  Levite  porter  in  the  time  of  Da- 
vid.  1  Chr.  15  :  IS,  21. 

MILALA'I  {ehxptent),  a  priest  who 
assisted  at  the  dedication  of  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem.  Neh.  12  :  36. 

MIIi'CAH  {queen,  or  counsel).  1.  A 
daughter  of  Haran,  and  wife  of  Nahor, 
Abraham's  brother.  Gen.  11 :  29  ;  22  :  20, 
23;  24:15,24,47. 

2.  The  fourth  daughter  of  Zelophehad. 
Num.  26  :  33  ;  27  :  1 ;  36  :  11 ;  Josh.  17  : 
3. 

MIL'COM.     See  Moloch. 

MILE.     See  Mkasures. 

MILE'TUM.  2  Tim.  4  :  20.  The 
same  as  Miletus. 

MILE'TUS  {crimson  ?),  a  city  and 
seaport  of  Ionia,  in  Asia  Minor. 

Situation. — Miletus  was  36  miles  south 
570 


of  Ephesus,  and  stood  on  the  south- 
western side  of  the  Latmian  Gulf,  di- 
rectly opposite  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Meander.  The  sediment  from  the  river 
had  gradually  filled  up  the  gulf,  and  the 
city  was  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  sea.  But  in  Paul's  time  it  had  four 
docks  and  a  large  commerce.  The  site 
is  now  some  10  miles  inland. 

Bistori/.  —  Miletus  was  originally  a 
Carian  city;  then  the  capital  of  Ionia; 
the  mother  of  no  less  than  80  cities  on 
various  coasts,  more  particularly  in  the 
Euxine  and  the  strait  leading  to  it.  Its 
period  of  greatest  prosperity  was  500 
years  before  Christ.  The  Persians  cap- 
tured it  B.  c.  494,  and  Alexander  the 
Great  B.  c.  334,  after  which  the  city 
never  regained  its  former  celebrity.  It 
was  the  native  place  of  many  men  re- 
nowned in  history,  among  the  most  dis- 
tinguished of  whom  were  Thales  and 
Democritus.  Luxury  and  wickedness 
were  characteristic  of  the  inhabitants. 

Scripture  References. —  Paul  stopped 
here  on  his  voyage  from  Greece  to  Jeru- 
salem returning  from  his  third  mission- 
ary-tour, and  met  the  elders  from  Ephe- 
sus. Acts  20:15-38.  From  2  Tim.  4: 
20  it  appears  that  Paul  left  Trophimus 
there  sick,  but  it  would  appear  that  this 
must  have  been  on  another  occasion, 
since,  at  the  conclusion  of  this  voyage, 
Trophimus  was  with  the  apostle  at  Jeru- 
salem. Acts  21  :  29.  This  is  supposed 
by  many  to  indicate  a  later  visit,  after 
Paul's  first  imprisonment  at  Rome.  One 
of  the  Epistles  was  sent  to  the  Ephesians. 

Present  Appearance.  —  Near  the  site 
of  the  ancient  city  is  a  small  Turkish 
village  called  Melas.  The  most  note- 
worthy ruins  of  former  grandeur  are  the 
theatre,  with  its  many  tiers  of  seats  in 
good  preservation,  and  the  temple  of 
Apollo,  of  which  a  few  columns  are  yet 
standing.  The  wandering  channels  of 
the  Meander  are  near  by,  although  the 
mouth  of  the  river  is  10  miles  away. 

MILK,  not  only  of  cows,  but  also  of 
camels,  sheep,  and  goats,  was  used  in 
Palestine,  and  is  often  spoken  of  in 
the  0.  T.  Gen.  32:15;  Deut.  32:14; 
Prov.  27:27;  Isa.  7:21,  22.  The  sim- 
plest spiritual  food  or  the  plain  and  easy 
truths  of  the  gospel,  wherewith  the  new- 
born soul  is  nourished  and  sustained,  is 
compared  to  milk.  Heb.  5:12;  1  Pet.  2  : 
2.     '•  A    land    flowing   with    milk    and 


MIL 


MIL 


honey,"  Josh.  5  :  6,  means  a  country  of 
extraordinary  fertility.  The  phrase 
*'  wine  and  milk,"  Isa.  55  :  1,  denotes  all 
spiritual  blessings  and  privileges. 

MILL.  The  simplest  mill  for  bruis- 
ing grains  was  nothing  more  than  two 
stones,  between  which  they  were  broken. 
If  one  of  the  stones  be  hollowed  out,  so 
as  to  contain  the  corn  to  be  pounded  b3' 
another  stone  or  by  a  piece  of  wood  or 
metal,  it  is  not  a  mill,  but  a  mortar. 
When  manna  was  given  in  the  desert, 
"the  people  went  about,  and  gathered 
it,  and  ground  it  in  mills,  or  beat  it  in  a 


■Women  grinding  at  the  Mil!  in  the  East. 

mortar."  Num.  11 :  8.  From  these  mills 
and  mortars  there  must  have  been  ob- 
tained at  first  only  a  kind  of  peeled 
grain  which  may  be  compared  to  our 
hominy.  Yet  we  read  that  Sarah  set 
before  the  three  angels  who  visited 
Mnmre  cakes  of  fine  meal,  Gen.  18  :  6, 
which  presupposes  a  more  elaborate  im- 
plement. This  consisted  of  two  round 
stones,  each  about  2  feet  in  diameter 
and  6  inches  high.  The  under  one,  or 
"nether  milhtrme,"  Job  41:24,  was  im- 
movable and  somewhat  lower  around  the 
edge  than  in  the  centre — that  is,  it  was 
slightly  convex  on  the  top.  The  upper 
one  was  just  the  reverse,  being  concave 
on  the  bottom,  or  thicker  at  the  circum- 
ference, so  as  to  fit  pretty  closely  to  the 
other.  In  the  centre  there  was  a  hole, 
and  above  this  a  funnel  or  hopper,  into 
which  the  grain  was  poured,  and  thus  it 
ran  in  between  the  stones  and  was  broken 
by  them  into  meal,  which  fell  over  the 
edge  upon  a  board.     On  the  top  of  the 


other  stone  there  was  an  upright  peg,  by 
means  of  which  it  was  turned  around. 

Frequent  allusions  are  made  in  Scrip- 
ture to  these  utensils.  Of  leviathan  it 
is  said  that  his  heart  is  "as  hard  as  a 
piece  of  the  nether  jnilhtotic."  Job  41 : 
24.  At  the  siege  of  Thebcz  "a  certain 
woman  cast  a  piece  of  a  millstone  upon 
Abimelech's  head,  and  all  to  brake  his 
skull."  Jud.  9:53. 

In  the  Law  it  was  ordained  :  "  No  man 
shall  take  the  nether  or  the  upper  mill- 
stone to  pledge;  for  he  taketh  a  man's  life 
to  pledge."  Deut.  24  :  6.  Each  family  had 
its  own  mill ;  and  as  fresh  bread  was 
made  every  day,  no  more  corn  was  ground 
at  a  time  than  was  necessary  for  one 
baking.  Hence  the  noise  of  the  grind- 
ing-mills  and  the  voices  of  the  women 
working  them  were  the  first  sounds  heard 
in  the  streets  on  a  morning.  The  sound 
was  pleasing,  because  it  was  naturally 
associated  with  industry  and  the  supports 
and  enjoyments  of  life.  The  noise  of  the 
millstones  in  the  morning,  and  the  light- 
ing up  of  candles  in  the  evening,  are 
circumstances  belonging  to  inhabited 
places  where  men  live  together  in  social 
order;  hence  the  striking  power  of  the 
prediction,  Jer.  25  :  10,  Gloomy  shall 
be  the  silence  of  the  morning,  melan- 
choly the  shadows  of  the  evening — no 
cheerful  noise  to  animate  the  one,  no 
enlivening  ray  to  soften  the  gloom  of 
the  other.  Desolation  shall  everywhere 
reign. 

MIL'LET,  the  grain  of  the  cultivated 
panic-grass  {Panicum  iniliaceum)  or  of 
du-rah  (variously  spelled,  but  thus  pro- 
nounced). Eze.  4  :  9.  Both  these  large 
grasses  are  often  sown  in  the  Levant, 
and  perhaps  both  may  be  included  under 
the  term  millet.  Durah  or  Egyptian 
corn  [Sorghum  vuh/are)  resembles  maize 
in  size  and  general  appearance,  and  is 
largely  cultivated  upon  the  Nile.  Both 
the  above  are  grown  in  Palestine  ami 
used  for  bread.    (See  cut,  p.  572.) 

MIL'LO  (a  mound,  rampart ). 
"  Millo  "  is  used  for  a  ])art  of  the  citadel 
of  Jerusalem,  probably  the  rampart,  or 
entrenchment.  2  Sam.  5  :  9  ;  1  Kgs.  9:15, 
24  ;  11 :  27;  1  Chr.  11  :  8.  The  same,  or 
part  of  it,  was  probably  the  "  house  of 
Millo;"  margin  "Beth  Millo."  2  Kgs. 
12  :  20  ;  2  Chr.  32  :  5.  Some  think  it 
means  the  "  stronghold  of  Zion."  Lewin 
1  suggests  that  it  refers  to  the  whole  of  the 

571 


MIL 


MIN 


temple  enclosure,  while  Conder  curiously 
suggests  that,  from  its  root,  it  may  mean 
a  pool.  The  first  seems  the  more  probable 
view. 


JNliUet      (Sorghum  Vulgare  ) 

MIL'LO,  HOUSE  OF.      1.  The 

place  where  Joash  was  murdered  in  Jeru- 
salem. 2Kgs.  12:20.    See  MiLLO,  above. 

2.  Those  who  dwelt  in  the  fortress  of 
Shechem,  Jud.  9  :  6, 20  ;  probably  the  same 
as  "  the  tower  "  of  Shechem.  Jud".  9  :  46, 49. 

MI'NA.     See  Money. 

MINES,  MIN'ING.  Remains  still 
exist  of  ancient  Egyptian  mines  both  on 
the  border  of  the  Ethiopian  desert  and 
in  the  Sinaitic  peninsula,  and,  as  Moses 
praises  the  Promised  Land  for  its  mineral 
wealth,  Deut.  8  :  9,  it  is  probable  that  at 
the  time  of  the  Exodus  the  Jews  under- 
stood how  to  extract  metals  from  the 
earth.  How  well  acquainted  with  all 
mining  processes  they  were  at  another 
period  appears  from  Job  28  :  1-11.  See 
Metals. 

MINI'AMIIV  (from  the  riyJit  hand), 
a  Levite  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  who 
had  charge  of  the  freewill  -  offerings  of 
the  people  in  the  cities  of  the  priests. 
2  Chr.  31  :  15. 

MIN'ISTER,  as  distinguished  from 
servant,  denotes  one  in  voluntary  attend- 
ance on  another.  Thus  Joshua  is  called 
572 


the  minister  of  Moses,  Ex.  24  :  13 ;  33  : 

11,  and  Elisha  the  minister  of  Elijah.  1 
Kgs.  19  :  21 ;  2  Kgs.  3  :  11.  With  various 
modifications  of  this,  its  general  sense,  it 
is  applied  in  Scripture: 

1.  To  Christ,  as  the  "minister  of  the 
sanctuary,"  Heb.  8  :  2 — that  is,  as  our 
High  Priest ;  2.  To  those  persons  who  are 
appointed  to  preach  the  gospel  and  ad- 
minister its  ordinances,  1  Cor.  4:1:  2 
Cor.  3:6;  Eph.  3:7:  1  Thess.  3:2;  1 
Tim.  4:6;  3.  To  magistrates,  Rom.  13  : 
16,  as  God's  ministers  to  punish  the  evil 
and  protect  the  good;  and  4.  To  the 
angels,  who  stand  ready  to  do  the  will 
of  God.  Ps.  103  :  21 ;  Dan.  7:10;  Heb. 
1  :  14. 

MIN'NI,  a  portion  of  Armenia.  Jer. 
51 :  27.     See  Armenia. 

MIN'NITH  {divisions),  an  Ammonit- 
ish  place  to  which  Jeplithah's  victory 
extended,  and  from  whence  wheat  wa;^ 
brought  to  Tyre.  Jud.  11  :  33  ;  Eze.  27  : 
17;  perhaps  Minieh,  south  of  Heshban. 
MIN'STRELi,  a  musician  or  singer. 
As  seen  from  the  case  of  Jairus,  it  was 
customary  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour  to 
employ  minstrels  at  funerals — that  is, 
players  on  stringed  instruments,  flute- 
players,  and  people  hired  to  perform  the 
official  lamentation.  Thus,  when  Christ 
came  into  the  house  to  raise  the  daughter, 
''he  saw  the  minstrels  and  the  people 
making  a  noise."  Matt.  9  :  23. 

MINT,  well- 
known  herbs  akin 
to  garden  sage, 
several  species  of 
which  are  wild  or 
cultivated  in  Pal- 
estine. Mint  was 
commonly  used  by 
the  ancients  in 
medicine  and  as  a 
condiment.  It  is 
«aid   to    have  been 

-^s^^k-w 'w-vi  jc^N      ^^^    °^    *'^^®    bitter 
^^^^\y^ij^\^  herbs   eaten    with 
the    paschal    lamb. 
Deut.     14  :  22    re- 
quired   that    the 
Jews     should     pay 
tithe  of  all  produce 
of  the  ground,  but 
they    were   more 
{Mentha  Hylves-  careful  about  trifles 
*'■'*•)  than    about    the  , 

weightier  matters.  Matt.  23  :  23. 


I 


MIP 


MIR 


MIPH'KAD  {appointed  place),  the 
name  of  a  gate  of  Jerusalem,  Neh.  8  :  31, 
either  on  the  Zion  side  or  a  little  south 
of  the  Sheep-gate. 

MIR'ACLE,  an  action  or  event 
produced  by  a  supernatural  or  divine 
agency  for  the  purpose  of  authenticat- 
ing the  divine  mission  of  the  person 
who  performs  the  act  or  is  the  subject 
of  the  event.  A  true  miracle  is  above 
nature,  but  not  against  nature;  it  is  a 
temporary  suspension  of  the  operation 
of  the  laws  of  nature,  but  not  a  viola- 
tion of  the  laws  themselves;  it  is  the 
manifestation  of  a  higher  order  which 
the  lower  order  obeys.  We  have  an 
analogy  in  the  power  of  our  will  over 
the  body,  as  by  raising  our  hand  we 
suspend  the  operation  of  the  law  of 
gravity.  God  controls  and  directs,  ex- 
tends and  contracts,  the  forces  of  nature 
which  are  his  agents,  (jod  alone  can 
work  miracles  or  enable  men  to  per- 
form them.  If  we  believe  in  an  al- 
mighty personal  God,  we  shall  have 
no  difficulty  in  believing  the  possibility 
of  miracles.  The  first  miracle  was  the 
creation  of  the  universe  out  of  nothing 
by  his  will.  In  the  case  of  Christ  his 
person  is  the  great  moral  miracle,  and 
his  miracles  are  the  natural  manifesta- 
tions of  his  divine-human  person,  or 
simply  his  ''  works,"  as  John  calls  them. 
If  we  believe  in  Christ  as  the  sinless  Son 
of  man  and  Son  of  God,  we  shall  find  no 
difiiculty  in  believing  his  miracles.  The 
devil  (who  is  called  God's  ape)  can  per- 
form only  pseudo-miracles — "lying  won- 
ders," juggleries,  and  sorceries.  Deut.  13  : 
1 ;  Matt.  24  :  24 ;  2  Thess.  2:9;  Rev.  13  : 
13,  14;  16  :  14;  19  :  20. 

The  N.  T.  (in  Greek)  uses  three  terms 
for  miracles:  (1)  i9*'^»,  by  which  a  divine 
power  is  made  known  and  a  divine  mes- 
senger attested.  Matt.  12  :  38,  39;  16  : 1,  6; 
Mark  8:  11;  Luke  11:  16;  23:8;  John 
2  :  11,  18,  23,  etc. ;  Acts  6:8;  1  Cor.  1  : 
22  ;  (2)  Wonder  or  portent,  with  regard  to 
their  astounding  character.  John  4  :  48  ; 
Acts  2  :  22,  43;  7  :  36 ;  Rom.  15  :  19  ; 
usually  in  connection  with  "signs;"  (3) 
Potcer  or  powers,  miyhty  deeds,  with  ref- 
erence to  their  effect.  Matt.  7  :  22  ;  11  : 
20,  21,  23 ;  Luke  10  :  13  ;   Rom.  15  ;  1 9. 

Miracles  were  necessary  for  the  found- 
ing of  religion  as  divine  seals  of  revela- 
tion. Bishop  Butler  says  :  "  Revelation 
itself  is  miraculous,  and  miracles  are  the 


proof  of  it."  The  miracles  of  Christ  are 
appealed  to  as  evidence  of  his  divinity 
and  Messiahship.  Matt.  9:6;  11  :  4,  5 ; 
John  10  :  47;  20  :  29,  31.  They  were 
wrought  from  the  purest  motives,  for  the 
glory  of  God  and  the  benefit  of  the  souls 
and  bodies  of  men ;  they  were  wrought 
in  open  daylight,  before  great  multitudes, 
in  the  face  of  his  enemies,  who  did  not 
deny  them,  but  traced  them  to  Beelzebub. 
Matt.  12  :  24.  Tested  by  external  evi- 
dence and  intrinsic  propriety  and  con- 
formity to  his  divine  mission,  they  com- 
mend themselves  to  every  honest  and 
reasonable  inquirer.  The  only  alterna- 
tive is  truth  or  wilful  fabrication,  and 
the  latter  is  a  moral  monstrosity  in  the 
case  of  Christ  and  the  apostles. 

The  power  of  miracles  continued  in  the 
apostolic  age,  but  with  the  establishment 
and  triumph  of  Christianity  their  neces- 
sity ceased,  as  the  primitive  creation  gave 
wa}^  to  preservation.  Our  faith  must  now 
chiefly  rely  on  the  moral  miracles  and  in- 
ternal evidences  which  continue  through- 
out Christendom.  But  God  may  at  any 
time  renew  the  miraculous  gifts  of  the 
apostolic  age. 

For  a  discussion  of  this  subject  see 
Mozley's  Bamjiton  Lectures  on  Miracles 
(delivered  at  Oxford,  1865),  and  Arch- 
bishop Trench's  Notes  on  the  Miracles 
of  our  Lord, 

The  chief  miracles  recorded  in  the  0. 
T.  are  the  Creation,  the  Flood,  the  de- 
struction of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  the 
birth  of  Isaac,  the  burning  bush,  the 
miracles  of  Moses  in  Egypt,  the  cross- 
ing of  the  Red  Sea,  the  pillar  of  cloud 
and  fire,  the  quails  and  manna,  the  water 
from  the  rock,  Aaron's  rod  budding,  heal- 
ing by  looking  up  to  the  brazen  serpent 
(symbol  of  faith  in  the  crucified  Ile- 
deemer,  see  John  3  :  14),  Balaam's  ass 
speaking,  the  crossing  of  the  Jordan 
divided,  the  taking  of  Jericho,  the  stand- 
ing still  of  the  sun  (which,  however,  is 
taken  by  many  only  as  a  poetic  hyper- 
bole), Elijah  fed  by  ravens,  restores  a 
dead  child  to  life,  brings  rain  from 
heaven  by  prayer,  is  taken  up  to 
heaven  in  a  chariot  of  fire,  miracles  of 
Elisha,  .Tonah  preserved  by  a  whale  or 
shark  (a  type  of  the  resurrection,  see 
Matt.  12  :  40).  No  miracles  are  re- 
ported of  John  the  Baptist,  which  is 
an  indirect  proof  of  the  miracles  of 
Christ  and  his  apostles. 

573 


MIR 


MIR 


MIRACLES   IN   THE   LIFE   OF   CHRIST. 


Miracles. 


The  conception  by  the  Holy  Ghost 

Water  turned  into  wine.' 

The  Capernaum  nobleman's  son  cured 

Draught  of  fislies 

Demoniac  cured...A 

Peter's  motiier-in-iaw  healed.4. 

Leper  healed. ..."5^: -^ 

Centurion's  servant  healed....:. 

Widow's  son  raised  from  the  dead 

Tempest  calmed .V , 

Demoniacs  of  Gadara  cured 

Man  sick  of  the  palsy  cured 

Jairus's  daughter  raispTl~~tx)  life 

Woman  diseased  with  issue  of  blood  healed. ..\... 

Sight  restored  to  two  blind  men 

Dumb  demoniac  cured 

Diseased  cripple  at  Bethesda  cured 

A  withered  hand  cured 

Demoniac  cured 

Five  thousand  fed.^ 

Canaanite  woman's  daughter  cured V. 

Man  deaf  and  dumb  cured 

Four  thousand  fed..\ 

Christ's  transfiguration 

Blind  man  restored  to  sight 

Boy  possessed  of  a  devil  cured 

Man  born  l)lind  restored  to  sight 

Woman  cured  of  eighteen  years'  infirmity...* 

Dropsical  man  cured 

Ten  lepers  cleansed.  

Two  blind  men  restored  to  sight 

Lazarus  raised  from  the  grave  to  life 

Fig  tree  blasted .\ 

The  ear  of  Malchus  healed 

The  resurrection 

Draught  of  fishes 

The  ascension  to  heaven 


Place. 


Nazareth. 

Can  a. 

Cana. 

Sea  of  Galilee. 

Capernaum. 

Capernaum.. 

Capernaum, 

Capernaum. 

Nain. 

Sea  of  Galilee. 

Gadara. 

Capernaum. 

Capernaum.  ' 

Capernaum. 

Capernaum. 

Capernaum. 

Jerusalem. 

Judsea.. 

Capernaum. 

Decapolis. 

Near  Tyre. 

Decapolis. 

Decapolis. 

]Mt.  Tabor  or  Hermon. 

Bethsaida. 

Mt.  Tabor  or  Hermon. 

Jerusalem. 

Galilee. 

Galilee. 

Samaria. 

Jericho. 

Bethany. 

Mt.  Olivet. 

Gethsemane. 

Jerusalem. 

Sea  of  Galilee. 

Mt.  Olivet. 


Record. 


Luke  1  : 
John  2: 
John  4  : 
Luke  5  : 
Mark  1  : 
Mark  1  : 
Mark  1  : 
Matt.  8  : 
Luke  7  : 
Matt.  8  : 
Matt.  8  : 
Matt.  9  : 
Matt.  9  : 
Luke  8  : 
Matt.  9  : 
Matt.  9  : 
John  5  : 
Matt.  12 
Matt.  12 
Matt.  14 
Matt.  15 
Mark  7  : 
Matt.  15 
Matt.  17 
Mark  8  : 
Matt.  17 
John  9. 
Luke  13 
Luke  14 
Luke  17 
Matt.  20 
John  11. 
Matt.  21 
Luke  22 
John  20 
John  21 
Luke  2  : 


35. 

1-11. 

46-54. 

1-11. 

23-26. 

30,  31. 

40-45. 

5-13. 

11-17. 

23-27. 

28-34. 

1-8. 

18-26. 

43-48. 

27-31. 

32,  33. 

1-9. 

:  10-13. 

:  22,  23. 

:  1.5-21. 

:  22-28. 

31-37. 

:  32-39. 

:  1-8. 

22-26. 

:  14-21. 

:  11-17. 
:  1-4. 
:  11-19. 
:  30-34. 

:  18-21. 
:  50,  51. 
:  1. 

:  1-14. 
42-51. 


MIRACLES    IN    THE   APOSTOLIC   AGE. 


Miracles. 

Place. 

Record. 

The  outpouring  of  the  Spirit  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost 

Jerusalem. 

Jerusalem. 

Jerusalem. 

Jerusalem. 

Jerusalem. 

Jerusalem. 

Samaria. 

Lydda. 

Joppa. 

Jerusalem. 

Paphos. 

Iconium. 

Lystra. 

Lystra. 

Philippi. 

Philippi. 

Ephesus. 

Troas. 

Melita. 

Melita. 

Acts  2  :  1-11. 

Acts  2  :  43 ;  5  :  12,  15,  16. 

Acts  3  :  7. 

Acts  5  :  5,  10. 

Acts  5  :  19. 

Acts  6  :  8. 

Acts  8  :  6,  7,  13. 

Acts  9  :  34. 

Acts  9  :  40. 

Acts  12  :  6-10. 

Acts  13  :  11. 

Acts  14  :  3. 

Acts  14  :  10. 

Acts  14  :  20. 

Acts  16  :  18. 

Acts  16  :  25,  26. 

Acts  19  :  11,  12. 

Acts  20  :  10-12. 

Acts  28  :  5. 

Acts  28  :  8,  9. 

Miracles  by  the  apostles 

Lame  man  cured 

Death  of  Ananias  and  Sappliira 

Apostles  delivered  from  prison 

Miracles  by  Stephen 

Miracles  by  Philip 

.iEneas  made  vvliole 

Dorcas  restored  to  life 

Peter  delivered  frotn  prison 

Elymas  struck  blind 

Miracles  bv  Paul  and  Barnabas 

Lame  man  cured 

Paul  restored 

Unclean  spirits  cast  out 

Paul  and  Silas  delivered  from  prison 

Special  miracles 

Eutj'chus  restored  to  life  

Paul  unhurt  by  a  viper.        

Father  of  Publius  and  many  others  healed 

574 


MIR 


MIX 


MlWl AM  {rebellion).  1.  The  daugh- 
ter of  Aiiinnu,  and  the  sister  of  Moses  and 
Aaron,  1  Chr.  6  :  3,  is  supposed  to  liave 
been  ten  ortwelveyears  older  than  Moses; 
and,  being  appointed  to  watch  the  ark 
of  bulrushes  in  which  her  infant  brother 
was  laid  among  the  flags  of  the  river, 
she  was  there  when  Pharaoh's  daughter 
came  down  and  discovered  it,  and  pro- 
posed to  go  for  a  nurse,  concealing  her 
relation  to  the  child.  She  immediately 
called  her  mother  as  the  nurse,  and  the 
infant  was  placed  under  her  care.  Ex. 
2  :  4-10.  After  the  passage  of  the  Red 
Sea,  she  led  the  choir  of  the  women  of 
Israel  in  the  sublime  song  of  deliverance, 
Ex.  15  :  20,  but  afterward,  having  joined 
Aaron  in  murmuring  against  Moses,  she 
was  smitten  with  leprosy,  and  restored 
only  in  answer  to  the  prayers  of  Moses. 
Num.  12  :  1-15.  She  died  and  was  bur- 
ied at  Kadesh.   Num.  20  :  1. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Judah.  1  Chr.  4 : 
17. 

MIR' MA  i/ravd),  a  Benjamite 
born  in  the  land  ojf  Moab.   1  Chr.  8:10. 

MIR'RORS.     See  LookinCx-glass. 

MIS'GAB  {hi(/h  7j/«ce),  a  place  in 
Moab.  Jer.  48  :  1.  It  appears  to  be 
mentioned  also  in  Isa.  25  :  12,  in  Hebrew, 
rendered  "  high  fort."  It  seems  to  re- 
fer to  some  special  fortress,  probably 
Kir-hareseth. 

MISH'AEL  (who  is  rvhat  God  is?). 
1.  A  son  of  Uzziel,  the  uncle  of  Moses 
and  Aaron.  Ex.  6  :  22  ;  Lev.  10  :  4. 

2.  One  who  stood  at  Ezra's  left  hand 
when  he  read  the  Law  to  the  people. 
Neh.  8  : 4. 

3.  One  of  Daniel's  companions,  who  re- 
ceived the  Babylonian  name  of  Meshach. 
Dan.  1:6,7,11,  19;  2:17.  See  Meshach 
and  Abed-nego. 

MI'SHAL,  AND  MI'SHEAL  (en- 
treaty), a  town  in  the  territory  of  Asher. 
Josh.  19  :  20  ;   21  :  30. 

MI'SHAM  {purification,  or  sioift- 
goinq),  a  Benjamite.  1  Chr.  8  :  12. 

MISH'MA  {a  hearing,  report).  1.  A 
son  of  Ishmael,  Gen.  25:  14;  1  Chr.  1  : 
30,  whose  descendants  may  be  repre- 
sented by  the  present  Arabian  tribe  of 
the  Bene-Misma. 

2.  A  son  of  Simeon.   1  Chr.  4:  25. 

MISHMAN'NAH  (/rf/»e««),  a  Gad- 
ite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag.  1  Chr. 
12:10. 

MISH'RAITES,    THE,   one   of 


the  four  families  which  proceeded  from 
Kijrath-jearim  and  founded  towns,  1  Chr. 
2  :  53  ;  not  further  mentioned. 

MIS'FERETH.     See  Mizpar. 

MIS'REPHOTH-MA  IM  (bnm- 
ingn  of  ivafer),  a  place  in  Northern  Pales- 
tine. Josh.  11 :  8  :  13  :  6.  Thomson  treats 
Misrephoth-maim  as  identical  with  a 
collection  of  springs  called  Ain-Mu- 
xheiri/eh,  on  the  seashore,  close  under 
the  Jias  en-Nakhnra  ;  but  this  is  far 
from  Sidon.  Conder  suggests  that  it  is 
identical  with  the  present  village  *S'«ra- 
fend.  near  Sidon. 

MITE,  the  lowest  denomination  of 
Jewish  money  —  two  mites  making  a 
farthing — and  probably  of  the  value  of 
two  mills  of  our  currency.  Mark  12  :  41- 
44;  Luke  21:1-4. 

MITH'CAH  (su-eetness),  a  station 
of  the  Hebrews  in  the  desert.  Num.  33  : 
28.29. 

MITH'NITE,  THE,  the  designa- 
tion of  Josha])hat,  one  of  David's  war- 
riors, 1  Chr.  11:43,  referring  probably 
to  some  place  of  the  name  of  Methen. 

MITH'REDATH  (given  by  Mithra, 
the  sun-god).  1.  The  treasurer  of  Cyrus, 
to  whom  he  gave  the  vessels  of  the 
temple.  Ezr.  1 :  8. 

2.  A  Persian  officer  stationed  in  Sa- 
maria. Ezr.  4  :  7. 

MI'TRE,  the  head-dress  of  the  Jew- 
ish priest,  was  of  fine  flax  or  linen,  made 
with  many  folds,  making  in  length  eight 
yards,  finished  with  elegance  and  taste, 
and  wreathed  round  the  head  in  the  shape 
of  an  Eastern  turban.  It  bore  upon  its 
front  a  gold  plate,  on  which  was  inscribed 
"  Holiness  to  the  Lord."  Ex.  28  :  4, 
37,  39 ;  29  :  6 ;  39  :  28,  30  ;  Lev.  8:9; 
16:4. 

MITYLE'NE  (hornless),  the  chief 
town  and  capital  of  the  isle  of  Lesbos. 
Situated  on  the  east  coast,  Mitylene  is 
the  intermediate  place  where  Paul  stop- 
ped for  the  night  between  Assosand  Chios. 
Acts  20:  14,  15.  The  town  itself  was 
celebrated  in  Koman  times  for  the  beauty 
of  its  buildings.  In  Paul's  days  it  had 
the  privileges  of  a  free  city.  The  island 
has  been  subject  to  Turkey,  but  the 
people  are  chiefly  Greek. 

MIXED  MULTITUDE,  an  ex- 
pression occurring  Ex.  12  :  38  ;  Num.  11 : 
4,  and  Neh.  13  :  3,  and  denoting  people 
who  congregated  with  the  Israelites 
without  being  of  pure  Israelite   blood. 

575 


MIZ 


MIZ 


By  some  it  is  explained  as  referring  to 
the  offspring  of  mi  xed  marriages  between 
Israelites  and  those  nations  among  which 
they  lived  ;  by  others  as  referring  simply 
to  those  hangers  -  on  who  are  always 
found  hovering  on  the  outskirts  of  a 
great  camp. 

MI'ZAR  (smalliiess),  a  hill  named  in 
Ps.  42  :  6  ;  possibly  a  summit  or  peak  on 
the  eastern  ridge  of  Lebanon. 

MIZ'PAH,  AND  MIZ'PEH 
{ivatch-toiver),  the  name  of  several  places 
in  Palestine. 

1.  On  Mount  Gilead,  also  called  Miz- 
peh  of  Gilead,  Jud.  11 :  29,  and  elsewhere 
probably  Ramoth-mizpeh,  Josh.  13  :  26, 
and  Piamoth-gilead,  1  Kgs.  4  :  13  and 
elsewhere,  the  place  where  Laban  and 
Jacob  set  up  a  heap  of  stones  as  a  wit- 
ness and  landmark  between  them.  Gen. 
31  :  2.3,  25,  48,  52.  Here  also  the  Israelites 
assembled  to  fight  against  the  Ammon- 
ites, Jud.  10  :  17  :  and  here  Jephthah  was 
met  by  his  daughter.  Jud.  11  :  29.  Some 
suppose  that  this  was  the  place  also  where 
the  tribes  assembled  to  avenge  the  great 
sin  committed  in  Benjamin,  Jud.  20  :  1, 
3  ;  21  :  1,  5,  8,  but  this  is  more  usually 
applied  to  the  Mizpah  in  Benjamin.  See 
No.  6.  This  Mizpah  has  been  identified 
with  a  high  jjeak  east  of  the  Jordan,  3 
miles  north-west  of  Ramoth -gilead,  called 
Jebel  Osh'a,  or  "  the  Mount  of  Hosea." 
Conder  suggests  liemjiheh,  25  miles  west 
of  Bozrah,  but  Merrill,  with  greater  prob- 
ability, locates  it  at  Kidat  er  Ruhdd  on 
the  Wady  'Ajliin,  about  10  miles  east  of 
the  Jordan.  This  summit  commands 
a  wide  view,  and  is  in  harmony  with 
the  name  Mizpeh,  or  "watch-tower." 

2.  Mizpeh  of  Moab,  where  the  king  of 
that  nation  was  living  when  David  com- 
mitted his  parents  to  his  care,  1  Sam. 
22  :  3  ;  possibly  now  Kerak. 

3.  The  land  of  Mizpeh,  in  the  North 
of  Palestine,  the  residence  of  the  Hivites, 
Josh.  11 :  3  ;  possibly  identical  with — 

4.  The  valley  of  Mizpeh,  Josh.  11 :  3,  8, 
whither  the  confederate  hosts  were  pur- 
sued by  Joshua ;  perhaps  the  modern 
Buka'a,  the  great  country  of  Coele-Syria, 
between  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon. 

5.  A  city  in  Judah,  Josh.  15  :  38  :  pos- 
sibly identical  with  the  modern  Tell 
es-SdJiyeh,  or,  as  Conder  has  suggested,  at 
Kirhbet  el-Musheiri/eh,  near  Gaza.  The 
position  fits  and  the  name  is  the  Arabic 
equivalent  of  the  Hebrew.     This  is  the 

576 


place  others  have  identified  with    Mis- 
REPHOTHMAiM,  which  See. 

6.  A  city  in  Benjamin,  Josh.  18:26, 
where  Israel  assembled.  1  Sam.  7  :  5-7, 
11,  12,  16.  Here  Saul  was  elected  king. 
1  Sam.  10  :  17-21.  Asa  fortified  Mizpah. 
1  Kgs.  15  :  22  ;  2  Chr.  16  :  6  ;  it  was  where 
Gedaliah  was  assassinated,  2  Kgs.  25  : 
23,  25  ;  Jer.  40 :  6-15  ;  41  :  1-16  ;  the  men 
of  Mizpah  joined  in  rebuilding  a  part  of 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem.  Neh.  3  :  7,  15,  19. 
Messepha  of  1  Mace.  3  :  46,  which  is 
probably  identical  with  this  place,  and 
about  3i  miles  west  of  north  from  Jeru- 
salem, is  the  modern  village  of  JVehi/ 
Samivil,  standing  on  a  peak  which  rises 
about  600  feet  above  the  plain  of  Gibeon. 
This  village  is  claimed  as  the  most  prob- 
able site  for  Mizpah  by  Robinson,  Porter, 
Baedeker,  and  others.  It  is  3006  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  and  the  highest 
mountain  near  Jerusalem.  From  its 
summit  the  most  extensive  view  in 
Southern  Palestine  is  obtained,  embra- 
cing the  Mediterranean,  Jerusalem,  the 
Mount  of  Olives  and  the  mountains  of 
Moab.  Upon  its  summit  is  a  mosque, 
once  a  Christian  church,  built  by  the 
Crusaders  on  the  spot  where  pilgrims 
first  saw  Jerusalem.  Grove,  Stanley, 
Bonar,  Major  Wilson,  and  others  would 
identify  Mizpah  with  Mount  Scopus,  one 
of  the  summits  just  north  of  Jerusalem 
in  the  continuation  of  the  Olivet  range. 
From  this  place  the  traveller  gets  a  very 
complete  view  of  the  Holy  City,  and  from 
there  the  emperor  Titus  looked  down 
upon  it.  Not  far  away  is  the  modern 
village  of  Shnfat.  Conder  notes  that  a 
part  of  the  ridge  is  called  Arkub  cs-SCiJfa, 
or  "  the  ridge  of  the  view."  Ensebius 
and  Jerome  located  Mizpah  near  Kirjath- 
jearim,  and  Conder  notes  a  ShUfa  im- 
mediately south  of  Kuryet  el-Anab 
(Kirjath-jearim),  a  name  having  exactly 
the  same  meaning  with  Mizpah — viz., 
"  place  of  view."  Conder  also  says  that 
there  is  a  place  called  Umni  Siiffa.  equiva- 
lent to  the  Hebrew  Mizpah,  existing  on 
the  road  from  Samaria  to  Jerusalem, 
which  would  be  a  suitable  position  for 
the  Mizpah  of  Jeremiah,  40,  41.  which 
is  not  necessarily  the  Mizpah  of  Samuel. 
{Quarterly,  1876,  p.  171.)  But  his  final 
conclusion  is  that  Mizpah  and  Nob  are 
identical.  Whether  the  Mizpah  of  Hosea, 
5 :  1,  was  in  Benjamin  or  in  Gilead  is 
uncertain. 


MIZ 


MOA 


MIZ'PAR  (number),  one  who  return- 
ed with  Zerubbabel,  Ezr.  2:2,-  called 
Mispereth  in  Neh.  7  :  7. 

M  I  Z  '  R  A  I  M  {limits,  borders),  the 
name  by  which  the  Hebrews  generally 
designated  Egypt,  apparently  from  Miz- 
raim,  the  son  of  Ilam.  Gen.  10  :  6,  13. 
This  name  is  in  the  dual  form,  and  de- 
noted either  lower  and  upper  Egypt  or 
two  divisions  of  that  land.  Gen.  45  :  20  ; 
46  :  34  ;  47  :  6,  13.  Sometimes  it  seems  to 
be  employed  to  designate  Imver  Egypt,  to 
the  exclusion  of  Pathros  or  upper  Egypt. 
Isa.  11  :  11  :  Jer.  44  :  15.     See  Egypt. 

MIZ'ZAH  {/car),  a  grandson  of 
Esau,  and  one  of  the  chiefs  of  Edom. 
Gen.  36:13,  17;  1  Chr.  1:37. 

MNA'SON  {rememheriny),  a  native 
of  Cyprus,  but  a  resident  of  Jerusalem, 
was  an  early  convert  to  Christianity,  and 
is  mentioned.  Acts  21 :  16,  as  the  host  of 
the  apostle  Paul. 

MO'AB  {of  the  father),  a  name  used 
for  the  Moabites,  and  also  for  their  ter- 


ritory. Num.  22  :  3-14 ;  Jud.  3  :  30  ;  2 
Sam.  8  :  2  ;  2  Kgs.  1:1;  Jer.  48  :  4.  The 
territory  of  the  Moabites,  originally  in- 
habited by  the  Emims,  Deut.  2:  10,  lay 
on  the  east  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jor- 
dan, strictly  on  the  south  of  the  torrent 
Arnon,  Num.  21:13;  Ruth  1:1,2;  2: 
6;  but  in  a  wider  sense  it  included  also 
the  region  anciently  occupied  by  the 
Amorites.  Num.  21  :  32,  33  :  22  :  1 ;  26  : 
3  ;  33  :  48  ;  Deut.  34  :  1.  The  territory 
was  50  miles  long  and  20  wide.  It  was 
divided  into  three  jDortions,  each  bearing 
a  distinct  name : 

(1)  Land  of  Moab,  Deut.  1:5,  lying 
between  the  Arnon  and  the  Jabbok ;  (2) 
The  field  of  Moab,  a  tract  south  of  the 
Arnon,  Ruth  1:2;  (3)  The  plains  of 
Moab,  the  tract  in  the  Jordan  valley 
opposite  Jericho,  Num.  22  : 1. 

Physical  Features. — Except  the  narrow 
strip  in  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  Moab 
is  nearly  all  table-land,  consisting  of  an 
uneven  or  rolling  plateau,  elevated  above 


Mountains  of  Moab. 


the  Mediterranean  about  3200  feet.  At 
the  north  this  ])lateau  slopes  gently  into 
a  plain,  and  on  the  east  into  the  Syrian 
desert.     The  principal   streams  are  the 

37 


Arnon  and  the  Jabbok  and  the  Jordan.  It 
is  admirably  suited  for  pasture,  as  shown 
by  Mesha.  who  paid  a  tribute  of  100,000 
lambs  and  100,000  rams.  2  Kgs.  3  :  4. 

577' 


MOA 


MOA 


History. — The  race  of  Moab,  having  j 
its  origin  about  the  time  of  the  destruc-  ! 
tion  of  the  cities  of  the  phiin,  and  cradled  1 
in  the  mountains  above  Zoar,  gradually  I 
extended  over  the  region  east  of  the  , 
Dead  Sea,  expelling  the  ancient  original 
inhabitants,  the  Emim.  Deut.  2  :  11. 
Five  hundred  years  later,  when  the  Is- 
raelites were  approaching  the  Promised 
Land,  the  Moabites  had  become  a  great 
nation.  But  they  had  been  driven  south 
of  the  Arnon  by  the  warlike  Amorites. 
Num.  21:13;  Jud.  11:18.  Balak  and 
Midian  called  Balaam  to  curse  the  chosen 
people.  Num.  22  :  4,  5.  The  Israelites 
mastered  the  region  from  north  of  the 
Arnon,  but  Moab  was  allowed  to  hold  the 
cities  of  the  tract  taken  by  the  Israelites 
from  the  Amorite  king,  while  the  tribe 
of  Reuben,  to  whom  the  district  was  as- 
signed, dwelt  in  tents  and  tended  their 
flocks  on  the  fine  pasture-ground.  The 
district  south  of  the  Arnon  remained  in 
the  possession  of  Moab.  The  idolatries 
of  Moab,  and  especially  the  worship  of 
its  god  Chemosh,  exercised  an  irresistible 
charm  for  the  Israelites,  and  the  Reuben- 
ites  were  greatly  corrupted.  The  rela- 
tions between  the  Moabites  and  Israelites 
were  at  times  amicable,  but  more  fre- 
quently hostile.  During  the  period  of 
the  Judges  the  Moabites  compelled  the 
Israelites  to  pay  tribute  until  King  Eglon 
was  killed  by  Ehud.  Jud.  3.  Ruth,  the 
great-grandmother  of  David,  was  a  Moab- 
itess,  and  David  entrusted  the  care  of  his 
father  and  mother  to  the  king  of  Moab. 
1  Sam.  22  :  4.  Saul  conducted  a  success- 
ful campaign  against  Moab,  and  David 
inflicted  a  terrible  punishment  upon 
them.  2  Sam.  8  :  2.  After  Solomon's 
death  Moab  fell  to  the  northern  king- 
d  )m,  and  after  Ahab's  death  the  Moab- 
ites refused  to  pay  tribute.  The  Moab- 
ites invaded  Judasa  in  the  reign  of 
Jehoshaphat,  and  were  discomfited. 
Later,  their  own  country  was  overrun  by 
Jehoram  and  Jehoshaphat,  the  towns 
destroyed,  the  wells  stopped,  etc.,  and 
Mesha,  shut  up  in  his  capital,  sacrificed 
bis  own  son.  2  Kgs.  3  :  6-27.  At  a  later 
period  Moab  was  sometimes  dependent 
and  sometimes  independent.  It  was 
allied  with  the  Chaldajans  again,st  Judah 
in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim,  2  Kgs.  24: 
2,  and  the  destruction  of  God's  chosen 
people  was  received  with  a  delight  for 
which  God  threatened  punishment.  Eze. 
578 


25  :  8-11  ;  Zeph.  2  :  8-10.  The  fulfil- 
ment of  these  prophecies  is  noted  at 
the  end  of  this  article. 

Modern  Discoveries  and  Present  Con- 
dition.— Among  the  travellers  who  have 
visited  Moab  are  Burckhardt,  Seetzen, 
Buckingham,  Irby  and  Mangles,  De 
Saulcy,  Porter,  Tristram,  Palmer,  Drake, 
Pairfe,  and  Merrill.  A  large  number  of 
ruins  have  been  discovered.  Palmer 
counted  eight  fortified  towns  in  view 
from  a  single  eminence.  The  principal 
ruins  are  those  of  Rabbath-moab,  Kerak, 
Dibon,  Medeba,  Main,  and  Umm  Rasas. 
At  Kerak  (Kir-hareseth)  are  very  in- 
teresting and  remarkable  ruins.  Dibon 
is  noted  as  the  place  at  which  the  famous 
Moabite  Stone  was  discovered.  This 
stone  corroborates  the  Bible  history  of 
King  Mesha.  Hopes  were  entertained 
that  other  tablets  of  that  character  might 
be  found,  but  Palmer,  who  investigated 
every  written  stone  reported  by  the 
Arabs,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  there 
does  not  remain  above  yronnd  a  single 
inscribed  stone  of  any  importance. 
Everything  in  Moab  speaks  of  its  former 
wealth  and  cultivation.  The  soil  is 
badly  tended  by  the  few  Arab  tribes  who 
inhabit  it,  but  there  are  extensive  fields 
of  grain.  The  Arabs  are  an  essentially 
pastoral  people,  having  great  herds  of 
cattle.  Sour  or  fresh  milk  often  takes 
the  place  of  water,  and  the  modern 
traveller  finds  the  customs  the  same  as  in 
the  time  of  Sisera.  Jud.  4  :  18,  19. 

Prophecies  Fulfilled. — Jeremiah  de- 
scribes Moab  as  very  prosperous,  but 
the  prophetic  threats  of  its  doom  are 
most  terrific,  as  set  off  against  the  resto- 
ration of  Israel.  Jer.  48.  Porter  indi- 
cates how  completely  those  various 
prophecies  have  been  fulfilled,  but  some 
of  his  statements  require  confirmation. 
From  Salcah  he  saw  upward  of  thirty 
deserted  towns.  Jer.  48  :  15-24.  The 
neglected  and  wild  vineyards  and  fig 
trees  are  rifled  by  the  Bedouin  every 
year  in  their  periodical  raids,  vs.  32,  33. 
The  inhabitants  hide  themselves  in  the 
mountain-fastnesses,  oppressed  by  the 
robbers  of  the  desert  on  the  one  hand 
and  the  robbers  of  the  government  on  the 
other,  vs.  28,  44.  Cyril  Graham,  who 
explored  this  region,  found  cities  with 
buildings  in  a  good  state  of  preservation, 
yet  everywhere  uninhabited.  "  In  the 
whole  of  these  vast   plains,  north   and 


MOA 


MON 


south,  east  and  west,  Desolation  reigns 
supreme."  The  long-predicted  doom  of 
Moab  is  now  fulfilled,  and  the  forty- 
eighth  chapter  of  Jeremiah  is  verified 
on  the  spot  by  the  traveller.  There  are 
twenty-seven  references  to  Moab  in  this 
chapter,  and  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
one  in  the  Scriptures.  See  Ar,  Dibox,  Kir- 
HARESETH.     MoABiTE  Stone.  See  p.  232. 

MOADI'AH.     See  Maadiah. 

MOL'ADAH  {hh-th),  a  city  in  the 
South  of  Judah,  Josh.  15  :  21-26  ;  given 
to  Simeon,  and  occupied  by  Shimei, 
Josh.  19  :  2  ,•  1  Chr.  4  :  28  ;  settled  after 
the  Captivity,  Neh.  11 :  26.  Probably  el- 
Milh,  10  miles  east  of  Beersheba,  marks 
the  site  of  ancient  Moladah.  There  are 
ruins  of  a  fortified  town,  two  wells,  one 
with  water  at  the  depth  of  40  feet ;  and 
the  wells  are  surrounded  with  mai'ble 
troughs.  Arab  tradition  says  that  Abra- 
ham dug  these  wells  and  watered  his 
Aocks  OGrG 

MOLE.  In  Lev.  11  :  30  the  Hebrew 
word  is  believed  to  denote  the  chameleon, 
already  described.  The  most  recent 
criticism  would  have  this  vexed  verse 
read  thus:  ''And  the  gecko  and  the 
monitor  and  the  true  lizard  and  the  sand 
lizard  and  the  chameleon."  Another 
word  rendered  "  mole,"  in  Isa.  2  :  20, 
means  *'  the  burrower."  As  no  true 
moles  have  been  found  in  Palestine,  this 
term  may  comprehend  the  various  rats 
and  weasels  that  burrow  about  ruins. 
The  interesting  mole-rat  {Spalax  ti/pli- 
lus),  a  quadruped  about  10  inches  long, 
and  whose  habits  are  indicated  by  its 
name,  is  doubtless  one  of  these  burrowers, 
if  not  the  onlv  one  intended. 

MO'LECH  (the  ruler),  Lev.  18: 
?1.  OR  MIL'COM,  1  Kgs.  11:5,  or 
MO'LOCH,  Acts  7  :  43,  the  name  of 
an  idol-god  worshipped  by  the  Ammon- 
ites with  human  sacrifices,  especially 
children.  The  Rabbins  tell  us  that  it 
was  made  of  brass  and  yjlaced  on  a  brazen 
throne,  and  that  the  head  was  that  of  a 
calf  with  a  crown  upon  it.  The  throne 
and  image  were  made  hollow,  and  a  fu- 
rious fire  was  kindled  within  it.  The 
flames  penetrated  into  the  body  and 
limbs  of  the  idol ;  and  when  the  arms 
were  red-hot,  the  victim  was  thrown  into 
them,  and  was  almost  immediately  burn- 
ed to  death,  while  its  cries  were  drowned 
by  drums.  Though  warned  against  this 
idolatry,  common  to  all   the  Caivaanite 


tribes,  though  probably  not  of  Canaanite 
origin,  the  Jews  were  repeatedly  allured 
to  adopt  it.  2  Kgs.  23  :  10  ;  Eze.  20  :  26. 
In  the  Valley  of  Hinnom  they  set  up  a 
tabernacle  to  Molech,  and  there  they 
sacrificed  their  children  to  the  idol. 

MO'LID  [begetter),  a  descendant  of 
Judah.   1  Chr.  2  :  29. 

MON'EY.  Commerce,  in  its  most 
primitive  state,  is  a  mere  bartering,  one 
kind  of  goods  being  e.xchanged  for  an- 
other. The  next  stage  in  commercial 
development  is  the  invention  of  a  com- 
mon means  of  exchange,  the  establish- 
ment of  the  precious  metals — gold  and 
silver — as  standards  of  value,  the  em- 
ployment of  money.  This  money,  how- 
ever, was  not  coined.  It  was  simply  the 
metal  itself,  kept  in  ingots,  rings,  etc., 
and  used  according  to  its  weight,  and 
when,  in  the  period  before  the  Captivity, 
the  0.  T.  speaks  of  money — pieces  of 
gold  and  silver,  shekels,  mina,  talent, 
etc. — a  certain  weight  of  precious  metal 
is  meant  thereby,  and  nothing  more^ 
Coined  money  does  not  occur  among 
the  Jews  until  after  the  Captivity,  but 
then  we  meet  successively  with  Persian, 
Greek,    Syrian,    Roman,    and    national 


Shekel.    Ascribed  to  Simon  Maccabseus. 

Jewish  coins.  The  first  Jewish  coins 
were  struck  by  Simon  Maccabseus,  who, 
about  B.  c.  139,  obtained  permission  to 
coin  money  from  the  Syrian  king  Anti- 
ochus  VII.  Shekels,  half-shekels,  etc., 
of  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  were  struck, 
showing  on  one  side  a  vase,  perhaps 
representing  a  pot  of  manna,  and  on  the 
other  side  an  almond  branch  with  three 
flowers,  perhaps  representing  Aaron's 
staff".  After  this  time  coins  were  struck 
by  the  AsmonEcan  princes,  the  IdumfEan 
kings,  during  the  first  revolt  under  Elea- 
zar,  and  during  the  second  under  Bar- 
cochebas ;  and  besides  these  national 
Jewish  coins,  foreign  coins  of  Persian, 
Greek,  and  Roman  make  circulated  in 

579 


MON 


MON 


great  multitude  in  Palestine.  Of  these 
latter  the  following  are  mentioned  in  the 
Bible. 


Golden  Daric. 

The  daric,  dram,  or  drachm,  Ezr.  2  : 
69,  is  a  Persian  gold  coin  equal  to  about 
five  dollars  and  fifty  cents. 

The  stater  or  jjiece  of  money,  Matt.  17  : 
27,  a  Greek  or  Roman  silver  coin  (a 
shekel  in  weight),  in  value  over  fifty 
cents.  The  stater,  or  coined  shekel,  of 
the  Jews  is  often  found  in  the  cabinets 
of  antiquaries  at  the  present  day. 


Koman  Penny,  or  Denarius. 

The  2}enmj,  Matt.  22  :  19,  or  denarius, 
a  Roman  silver  coin  equal  to  an  Attic 
drachma,  or  about  sixteen  American 
cents.  "  Shilling "  would  be  a  more 
correct  translation. 


Assarion  (farthing).     Actual  size.     {From  speci- 
men in  British  Museum.) 

The  farthing.  Matt.  10  :  29,  a  Roman 
silver  coin  equal  to  one  cent  and  a  quar- 
ter. 

Another  piece  of  money  equal  to  one- 
fourth  of  a  farthing  is  called  by  the 
same  name,  Matt.  5:20:  and  the  mite, 
Mark  12  :  42,  was  half  of  this  last  far- 
thing, or  about  two  mills  of  our  cur- 
rencv. 

MONEY-CHANGERS.    Every 

Israelite  who   had    reached    the  age  of 

twenty  was   required  by  the  Law,  E.x. 

30  :  13-1 5,  to   pay  one   half-shekel,   as 

580 


an  offering  to  Jehovah,  into  the  sacred 
treasury  whenever  the  nation  was  num- 
bered. As  this  offering  should  be  paid 
in  exact  Hebrew  coins,  dealers  in  such 
coins  established  their  booths  in  the 
temple  and  exacted  high  premiums 
from  the  Jews,  who  from  all  parts  of  t lie 
world  came  to  Jerusalem  during  the  great 
festival.  But  thev  were  expelled  by  our 
Lord.   Matt.  21  :  l2:  Mark  11  :  15. 

MONTH.  The  ancient  Hebrews  call- 
ed the  months  by  their  numbers — first 
month,  second  month,  third  month,  etc. — 
though  at  the  same  time  they  also  applied 
a  special  name  to  each  month.  This 
double  nomenclature  had  nothing  to  do, 
however,  with  the  double  course  of  months 
which  the  Jews  employed  after  leaving 
Egypt,  one  making  the  civil  and  the 
other  the  sacred  year.  The  former  com- 
menced from  the  first  new  moon  in  Octo- 
ber— and  this  was  used  in  civil  and  agri- 
cultural concerns  only — and  the  latter 
from  the  first  new  moon  in  April,  because 
they  left  Egypt  on  the  fifteenth  of  that 
month,  and  it  was  used  in  regulating  the 
time  of  their  feasts,  etc.  The  prophets 
use  this  reckoning.  ''From  the  time  of 
the  institution  of  the  Mosaic  Law  down- 
ward, the  month  appears  to  have  been  a 
lunar  one.  The  cycle  of  religious  feasts, 
commencing  with  the  Passover,  depend- 
ed not  simply  on  the  month,  but  on  the 
moon  ;  and  the  new  moons  themselves 
were  the  occasions  of  regular  festivals." 
Num.  10  :  10;  28  :  11-14. 

Tiie  length  of  the  month  was  regulated 
by  the  changes  of  the  moon,  but,  twelve 
lunar  months  making  onl}'  854  days  and 
6  hours,  the  Jewish  j^ear  was  short  of 
the  true  solar  year  by  twelve  days.  To 
compensate  for  this  difference,  the  Jews 
every  three  years  intercalated  a  thir- 
teenth month,  which  they  called  Ve-adar, 
the  second  Adar,  and  thus  their  lunar 
year  became  equal  to  the  solar.  The 
changes  of  the  moon  were  carefully 
watched,  and  a  formal  announcement 
made  of  the  appearance  of  the  new 
moon  by  sound  of  trumpets  and  beacon- 
fires.  Num.  10  :  10  ;  Ps.  81  :  3.  These 
observations  were  continued  throughout 
Jewish  history,  though  it  is  evident  that 
the  Jews  were  in  possession  of  calcula- 
tions by  which  the  course  of  the  moon 
could  be  predicted.  1  Sam.  20  :  5,  24,  27. 

The  names  of  the  Hebrew  months  are 
as  follows : 


MOO 


MOR 


Civil. 

Sacred. 

Beginning  with  the  New  Moon. 

VII 

I.  Nisan,  or  Abib. 
II.  Zif,  or  Ziv. 

III.  Sivan. 

IV.  Tammuz. 
V.  Ab. 

VI.  Elul. 
VII.  Tishri,  or  Ethanim. 
VIII.  Bui. 
IX.  Kisleu,  or  Chisleu. 
X.  Teheth. 
XI.  Shebat. 
XII.  Adar. 

March,  or  April.     Neh.  2  :  1. 
April,  or  May.     1  Kgs.  C  :  1. 
May,  or  June.    Esth.  8  :  9. 
June,  or  July. 
July,  or  August. 

August,  or  September.     Neh.  6  :  15. 
September,  or  October.     1  Kgs.  8  :  2. 
October,  or  November.     1  Kgs.  6  :  38. 
November,  or  December.    Neh.  1  :  1. 
December,  or  January.    Esth.  2  :  16. 
January,  or  February.     Zech.  1  :  7. 
February,  or  March.     Esth.  3  :  7. 

VIII 

IX 

x:::::: .: 

XI 

XII 

I 

II 

Ill 

IV 

V 

VI 

MOON,  Deut.  33  :  14,  or  LES'SER 

LIGHT.  Gen.  1:16.  The  Hebrew  year 
was  a  lunar  year,  and  the  new  moon 
regulated  many  of  the  feasts  and  sacred 
services  of  the  Jews.  It  was  always 
the  beginning  of  the  month,  and  this 
day  they  called  Neometiia,  new-moon 
day  or  new  month,  and  celebrated  it  with 
special  sacrifices.  Num.  28:11-15. 

The  heathens  have  generally  worship- 
ped the  moon,  under  the  names  of 
''  Queen  of  Heaven,"  "  Venus,"  "  Ura- 
nia," "  Succoth-benoth,"  '' Ashtaroth," 
*' Diana,"  ''Hecate,"  or  perhaps  ''Meni," 
etc.  Deut.  4  :  19 ;  17  :  3 ;  Job  31  :  26,  27. 
The  Jews  were  warned  against  this  kind 
of  idolatry,  Deut.  4:19;  17  :  3,  but  they 
nevertheless  burnt  incense  to  tlie  moon, 
2  Kgs.  23  :  5  ;  Jer.  8  :  2,  and  their  women 
worshipped  her  as  the  queen  of  heaven 
and  offered  cakes  of  honey  to  her.  7 : 
18;  44:17-19,  25. 

MO'RASTHITE,  the  designation 
of  the  prophet  Micah,  as  a  native  of  Mo- 
resheth-a;ath.  Jer.  26  :  18  j   Mic.  1  :  1. 

MOR'DECAI  {little  man,  or  loor- 
shipper  of  Mnrs),  a  captive  Jew  of  the 
family  of  Saul,  resident  at  the  court  of 
Ahasuerus.  An  uncle  of  his  died,  leav- 
ing an  orphan  daughter  named  Hadas- 
sah,  whom  Mordecai  adopted,  and  who 
afterward  became  the  queen  of  Persia. 
Mordecai  fell  under  the  displeasure  of 
Haman,  one  of  the  king's  principal  offi- 
cers of  state,  and  to  be  revenged  on  the 
despised  Jew  he  laid  a  ])lan  for  the  ex- 
termination of  the  whole  body  of  Jews 
in  the  empire.  His  purpose  was,  how- 
ever, defeated  by  the  interposition  of  the 
queen,  Haman  lost  his  life  and  Morde- 
cai was  elevated  to  wealth  and  power. 

MO'REH.  1.  The  Plain,  Plains,  or 
Oaks  of  Moreh.  It  is  twice  noticed  in 
Scripture;  first  as  the  halting-place  of 


Abram  after  his  entrance  into  the  land 
of  Canaan.  Gen.  12  :  6.  It  was  near 
Shechem,  12 :  6,  and  the  mountains  Ebal 
and  Gerizim.  Deut.  11:30. 

2.  The  Hill  of  Moreh,  where  the  Mid- 
ianites  and  Amalekites  were  encamped 
before  Gideon's  attack  upon  them.  Jud. 
7:1.  It  lay  in  the  valley  of  Jezreel,  on 
the  north  side.  It  is  identified  with 
Jebel  ed-Dnhy,  the  ''Little  Hermon," 
and  Ain  Jalood,  the  spring  of  Harod, 
and  Gideon's  position  was  on  the  north- 
east slope  of  Jebel  Fnkua  (Mount  Gil- 
boa),  between  the  village  of  Nxiris  and 
the  spring.  Little  Hermon  is  1815  feet 
above  the  Mediterranean.  On  the  soutli 
is  Gilboa.  and  on  the  north  Tabor. 

MOR'ESHETH-GATH  (posses- 
Stan  of  wine-press),  a  town  near  Eleuther- 
ropolis,  the  birthplace  of  Micah,  Mic.  1 : 
14;  hence  he  is  called  the  "  Morasthite." 
Mic.  1:1:  Jer.  26  :  18. 

MORI'AH  {chosen  of  Jehovah?).  1. 
The  land  where  Abraham  was  directed 
to  go  and  offer  Isaac  as  a  sacrifice.  Gen. 
22:2. 

2.  A  mount  on  which  Solomon  built 
the  temple  in  Jerusalem.  2  Chr.  3:1.  It 
was  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  city,  over- 
looking the  valley  of  the  Kedron,  and 
where  was  the  threshing-floor  of  Araunah, 
2  Sam.  24  :  24  :  1  Chr.  21 :  24.  It  lay 
north-east  of  Zion,  from  which  it  was 
separated  by  the  Tyropoeon  valley.  Solo- 
mon erected  the  temple  upon  the  levelled 
summit  of  the  rock,  and  then  immense 
walls  were  erected  from  its  base  on  the 
four  sides,  and  the  interval  between  them 
and  the  sides  filled  in  with  earth  or  built 
up  with  vaults,  so  as  to  form  on  the  top 
a  large  area  on  a  level  with  the  temple. 
Most  autliorities  agree  in  regarding  this 
as  the  place  whither  Abraham  went  to 
offer  Isaac,  and  therefore  identical  with 

581 


MOR 


MOS 


No.  1,  above.  Samaritan  tradition,  how- 
ever, claims  that  the  place  of  Abraham's 
altar  was  on  Mount  Gerizim,  and  Stan- 
ley and  Grove  are  inclined  to  accept  the 
Samaritan  claim:  but  the  arguments  in 
favor  of  this  view  are  far  from  satisfac- 
tory. For  a  description  of  Moriah  of 
Jerusalem,  upon  which  now  stands  the 
Mohammedan  mosque  of  Omar,  see  IV. 
Topography,  under  Jerusalem. 

MORN'ING.     See  Day,  Watch. 

Morning  Watch.     See  Watch. 

Morning  Star.     See  Stars. 

MOR'TAR.     See  Lime. 

MOSE'RA,  AND  MOSE'ROTH 
(bond,  bonds),  a  station  in  the  journey  of 
the  Israelites  through  the  wilderness, 
and  near  Mount  Hor.  Deut.  10 :  6 ;  Num. 
33  :  30,  31. 

MOS'ES  (Heb.  Mosheh,  draion  out— 
I.  e.  of  the  water  ;  Coptic  Mo-use,  water- 
saved),  the  leader  and  creator  of  the 
Jewish  nation.  This  table  shows  the 
pedigree  of  Moses : 

Levi 
I 


Gershon  Kohath  Merari 

Amram  ^  Jochebed 


Hur;=:  Miriam  Aaroa=Elisheba  Moses :=  Zipporah. 
|__  J 

III!  II 

Nadab     Abihu     Eleazar    Ithamar     Gershom    Eliezer 

I  i 

Phineas  Jonathan 


His  life  falls  naturally  into  three  divis- 
ions, of  forty  years  each,  according  to 
the  account  preserved  in  Stephen's 
speech.  Acts  7 :  23,  30,  36. 

1.  Moses  was  born  in  the  dark  hour 
of  Hebrew  story  when  a  son  was  an  ob- 
ject of  the  murderous  search  of  the 
Egyptian  spies.  His  father  was  Amram, 
his  mother  Jochebed,  his  tribe  was  Levi, 
and  this  fact  may  have  determined  the 
choice  of  Levi  for  the  priesthood.'  Moses 
was  the  youngest  child  of  the  family  ; 
Miriam  was  the  oldest,  and  Aaron  came 
between.  For  three  months  his  parents 
hid  the  babe,  but  at  last  it  was  no  longer 
possible,  and  Jochebed,  with  a  trembling 
heart,  but  it  may  be  with  a  dim  con- 
sciousness that  God  had  great  things  in 
store  for  him,  laid  him  in  the  little  bas- 
ket of  papyrus  she  had  deftly  woven, 
pitched  with  bitumen  within  and  with- 
out, and,  carrying  it  down  to  the  brink 
582 


of  one  of  the  canals  of  the  Nile,  she  hid 
it  among  the  flags.  The  child  was  ten- 
derly watched  "afar  oflF"  by  Miriam, 
who,  less  open  to  suspicion  than  the 
mother  would  be,  stood  to  see  what 
would  be  done  to  him.  The  daughter 
of  the  Pharaoh,  the  oppressor,  came  to 
the  sacred  river  to  bathe,  attended  by 
her  maidens,  who,  surprised  to  find  the 
basket,  which  had  providentially  floated 
down  to  the  princess'  bathing-place — or 
had  Jochebed  purposely  put  it  there? — 
call  the  attention  of  their  mistress  to  the 
discovery.  The  basket  is  fetched  by  one 
of  them,  and  when  opened  a  little  babe, 
evidently  one  of  the  Hebrews'  children, 
but  exceedingly  fair,  is  revealed  to  view. 
The  woman-heart  of  the  princess,  who 
was  a  childless  wife  according  to  tradi- 
tion, yearned  over  the  little  one.  Her 
yearning  was  of  God.  Then  Miriam 
drew  near,  gathered  fi'om  the  conversa- 
tion that  the  child's  life  was  to  be  spared, 
proposed  to  get  a  nurse  for  him  among 
the  Hebrew  women,  and  thus  it  came  to 
pass  that  Jochebed  again  had  her  child 
at  her  breast,  but  this  time  as  his  hired 
nurse.  The  biblical  history  of  this  pe- 
riod closes  with  the  child  Moses  in  the 
palace  under  tutors  and  governors,  and 
increasing  in  wisdom  and  in  stature,  and 
in  the  favor  of  God  and  of  man.  There  is 
a  break  in  this  history,  as  in  that  of  the 
greater  than  Moses,  between  the  infancy 
and  the  manhood. 

2.  The  second  division  of  Moses'  life 
was  totally  different  in  its  character  from 
the  first.  Moses,  at  the  age  of  forty,  is 
learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyp- 
tians. The  adopted  grandson  of  the 
Pharaoh,  initiated  in  the  secrets  of  the 
priests,  to  whose  order  he  belonged,  he 
had  a  brilliant  and  useful  worldly  career 
before  him.  Had  he  remained  in  his  ad- 
vantageous surroundings,  he  would  have 
been  one  of  the  great  Egyptian  sages — 
probably  the  greatest  of  them  all.  But 
God  intended  him  to  occupy  a  much 
more  exalted  position.  There  was  needed 
by  him  a  period  of  meditation.  He  must 
be  cut  ofl"  from  books,  and  by  direct  con- 
tact with  Nature  in  all  her  moods  learn 
what  books  cannot  give.  The  providen- 
tial occasion  of  this  violent  change  was 
Moses'  slaying  of  an  Egyptian  taskmas- 
ter who  had  ill-treated  a  Hebrew.  This 
was  no  secret,  as  he  hoped  it  would  be. 
The  news,  indeed,  had  been  carried  to 


MOS 


MOS 


Pharaoh,  and  so  Moses  was  compelled  to 
flee.  It  is  probable  that  the  murder  was 
intended  to  impress  upon  the  Hebrews 
his  desire  to  help  them — that  he,  the 
king's  son,  would  be  their  deliverer;  for 
it  seems  impossible  to  resist  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  pious  teachings  of  his 
mother  had  not  been  forgotten,  and  that 
many  prayers  had  been  put  up  by  him 
as  he  determined  to  be  his  brethren's 
saviour.  But  we  see  now  that  it  was  no 
wonder  that  this  attempt  at  an  insurrec- 
tion proved  abortive,  and  likewise  that 
Moses  had  much  to  learn  before  he  could 
properly  lead  the  great  Exodus.  Moses 
fled  from  the  prominence,  the  refinement, 
and  the  luxury  of  the  court  to  the  ob- 
scurity, the  roughness,  and  the  poverty 
of  the  wilderness.  He  became  the  shep- 
herd of  Jethro  and  the  husband  of  his 
daughter  Zipporah.  Ex.  2.  This  second 
period  lasted  forty  years,  .and  again  a 
wondrous  transformation  took  place. 
The  transition  was  made  at  Horeb  when 
one  day  he  saw  a  "  bush  " — probably  an 
acacia  tree — which  was  said  to  be  on 
fire  and  yet  was  unconsumed.  He  drew 
near  to  examine  the  wondrous  sight, 
and  the  Angel  of  the  Lord  appeared  to 
him  and  gave  him  his  prophetic  call. 
But  now  the  would-be  leader  of  forty 
years  agone  was  full  of  excuses,  depre- 
cated his  abilities,  and  disparaged  his 
appearance.  Accordingly,  God  appointed 
Aaron  as  his  spokesman  and  brought 
about  their  meeting.  Ex.  3  ;  4.  Thus  in- 
formed of  the  divine  name,  Ex.  3  :  14, 
promised  divine  aid,  and  strengthened 
by  miracles,  Ex.  4  :  1-7,  Moses,  at  the 
age  of  eighty,  now  both  a  scholar  and  a 
practical  man  of  aflfairs,  starts  out  upon 
the  deliverance  of  his  people.  On  his 
way  to  Egypt  his  son  Gershom  was 
smitten  by  a  mysterious  illness,  Zipporah 
thought  because  circumcision  had  not 
been  performed.  Accordingly,  although 
loath  to  do  it,  she  herself  circumcised 
Gershom.  Ex.  4  :  24-26.  The  child  recov- 
ered. 

3.  Arrived  at  Goshen,  Moses  and  Aaron 
at  once  began  the  discharge  of  their 
commission.  But  their  primary  efforts 
only  increased  the  subject  people's  bur- 
dens, and  the  two  brothers  were  wellnigh 
in  despair.  Then  began  the  series  of 
miraculous  visitations  recounted  in  Ex. 
7-12.  The  last  of  the  plagues  so  stunned 
the   Egyptians  that  they   precipitately 


drove  the  Israelites  out.  See  Plagues, 
Exodus.  The  Israelites  were  prepared 
and  went  ready  for  the  journey,  which, 
instead  of  being  one  of  three  days  into  the 
desert,  Ex.  5: 'A,  was  one  of  forty  years. 
Through  all  this  time  the  Israelites  were 
miraculously  protected,  fed,  and  led. 
Moses  went  in  and  out  before  them  to 
the  divine  satisfaction,  although  his  con- 
duct by  no  means  pleased  every  one. 
Nor  had  Moses  always  the  proper  con- 
trol over  himself.  He  flung  down  the 
God-engraven  tables  of  the  Law,  enraged 
at  the  idolatry  of  the  frivolous  people 
while  he  was  for  forty  days  in  the  Mount 
with  God.  Ex.  32  :  19.  But  Ihe  most 
damaging  act  of  this  nature  was  at  Ka- 
desh-meribah.  The  people  murmured 
for  water.  Moses  was  commanded  to 
speak  to  the  rock ;  instead,  he  struck 
the  rock  twice  with  his  rod.  It  was  be- 
cause on  this  occasion  God  was  not 
honored  that  Moses  and  Aaron  were  for- 
bidden to  enter  the  Promised  Land. 
Num.  20:11,12. 

But  to  counterbalance  this  evil  trait 
there  were  many  good  ones.  He  makes 
mention  of  one  of  these  —  viz.,  hia 
meekness.  Num.  12  :  3.  Besides,  he 
was  characterized  by  disinterestedness, 
impartiality,  faithfulness,  and  courage. 
When  he  had  risen  superior  to  the 
fears  which  daunted  him  when  he  re- 
ceived the  divine  call,  he  was  unwa- 
vering. The  people  might  murmur 
or  break  out  into  rebellion,  he  was 
ready  to  plead  with  God  for  them ;  yea, 
when  they  had  so  grievously  sinned  that 
God  declared  he  would  destroy  them, 
Moses  asked  that  his  name  might  be 
blotted  out  of  the  book  of  God  rather 
than  behold  their  destruction.  Ex.  32 : 
32. 

In  addition  must  be  mentioned  his 
eminent  services  as  lawgiver.  It  is  in- 
deed a  vexed  question  how  much  credit 
should  be  given  to  him  as  the  publisher 
of  a  code  marked  throughout  by  "  Thus 
saith  the  Lord."  We  are  safe  in  saying 
that  the  Law,  as  we  have  it  recorded  in 
the  Scriptures,  was  divinely  inspired, 
and  that  Moses  made  the  record  as  di- 
rected of  the  Lord.  The  Decalogue  is  a 
moral  miracle  in  ancient  legislation,  and 
retains  its  power  to  this  day  in  all  Chris- 
tian lands.  See  Law.  As  an  historian 
Moses  also  is  to  be  honored.  The  five 
books  commonly  called  the  Pentateuch, 

583 


MOS 


MOS 


which  he  wrote,  contain  the  only  reliable 
history  of  the  creation  of  man  and  the 
beginning  of  the  human  as  well  as  of  the 
Jewish  race.  See  Pentateuch.  But  there 
are  also  other  compositions  attributed  to 
him — namely,  Ps.  90  and  the  book  of  Job. 
In  regard  to  these  there  is  no  certaintj^, 
but  the  ninetieth  Psalm  seems  to  fit  in 
well  with  the  circumstances  of  the  "Wan- 
dering, and  the  book  of  Job  is  perhaps 
his  in  its  first  draft;  the  Talmud  makes 
him  the  author,  and  several  commenta- 
tors have  adopted  this  view.  See  Job. 
AVe  know  Moses  to  have  had  the  poetic 
gift,  for  in  the  Pentateuch  there  are 
several  exhibitions  of  it: 

1.  *'The  song  which  Moses  and  the 
children  of  Israel  sung"  (after  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Red  Sea,  Ex.  15  :  1-19). 

2.  A  fragment  of  a  war-song  against 
Amalek,  Ex.  17  :  16  : 

"As  the  hand  is  on  the  throne  of  Jehovah, 
So  will  Jehovah  war  with  Araalek 
From  generation  to  generation." 

3.  A  fragment  of  a  lyrical  burst  of  in- 
dignation, Ex.  32: 18: 

"  Not  the  voice  of  them  that  shout  for  mas- 
tery, 
Nor  the  voice  of  them  that  cry  for  being 

overcome, 
But  the  noise  of  them  that  sing  do  I  hear." 

4.  The  song  of  Moses,  composed  on 
the  east  side  of  Jordan.  Deut.  32  :  1-43. 

5.  The  prophetic  blessing  of  Moses 
upon  the  tribes.  Deut.  33  :  1-29. 

As  a  leader  and  as  a  prophet  Moses 
comes  before  us.  As  the  former  "his 
life,"  says  Dean  Stanley  in  Smith's  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Bible,  "  divides  itself  into 
the  three  epochs  of  the  march  to  Sinai,  the 
march  from  Sinai  to  Kadesh,  and  the  con- 
quest of  the  Transjordanic  kingdoms. 
Of  his  natural  gifts  in  this  capacity  we 
have  but  few  means  of  judging.  The 
two  main  difficulties  which  he  encoun- 
tered were  the  reluctance  of  the  people 
to  submit  to  his  guidance  and  the  im- 
practicable nature  of  the  country  which 
they  had  to  traverse.  The  incidents  with 
which  his  name  was  specially  connected, 
both  in  the  sacred  narrative  and  in  the 
Jewish,  Arabian,  and  heathen  traditions, 
were  those  of  supplying  water  when  most 
wanted.  In  the  Pentateuch  these  sup- 
plies of  water  take  place  at  Marah,  at 
Horeb,  at  Kadesh,  and  in  the  land  of 
Moab.  Of  the  first  three  of  these  inci- 
584 


dents,  traditional  sites  bearing  his  name 
are  shown  in  the  desert  at  the  present 
day,  though  most  of  them  are  rejected 
by  modern  travellers.  The  route  through 
the  wilderness  is  described  as  having 
been  made  under  his  guidance.  The 
particular  spot  of  the  encampment  is 
fixed  by  the  cloudy  pillar.  But  the  di- 
rection of  the  people,  first  to  the  Red 
Sea  and  then  to  Mount  Sinai,  is  commu- 
nicated through  Moses  or  given  by  him. 
On  approaching  Palestine  the  office  of 
the  leader  becomes  blended  with  that  of 
the  general  or  the  conqueror.  By  Moses 
the  spies  were  sent  to  explore  the  country. 
Against  his  advice  took  place  the  first 
disastrous  battle  at  Hormah.  To  his 
guidance  is  ascribed  the  circuitous  route 
by  which  the  nation  approached  Pales- 
tine from  the  east,  and  to  his  generalship 
the  two  successful  campaigns  in  which 
Sihon  and  Og  were  defeated.  The  nar- 
rative is  told  so  shortly  that  we  are  in 
danger  of  forgetting  that  at  this  last 
stage  of  his  life  Moses  must  have  been 
as  much  a  conqueror  and  victorious  sol- 
dier as  Joshua." 

But  as  a  prophet  Moses  is  evidently 
the  revealer  of  the  will  of  God,  and  pre- 
eminent because  with  him  the  divine 
revelations  were  made  ''mouth  to  mouth, 
even  apparently,  and  not  in  dark 
speeches,"  and  he  beheld  "  the  similitude 
of  Jehovah."  Num.  12  :  8.  He  saw  the 
flame  in  the  bush  ;  for  two  periods  of  forty 
days  each  he  was  in  the  thick  darkness 
with  God,  Ex.  24  :  18  :  34  :  28  ;  and  above 
all  was  he  favored  with  the  vision  of  the 
trailing  garments  of  the  Almighty,  and  he 
heard  a  voice  which  "  proclaimed  the  two 
immutable  attributes  of  God,  justice  and 
love,"  in  words  which  became  part  of 
the  religious  creed  of  Israel  and  of  the 
world.  Ex.  34  :  6,  7.  But  perhaps  the 
most  remarkable  fact  is  yet  to  be  men- 
tioned. Moses  frequently  met  God  in 
the  tent  of  the  congregation,  which  he 
removed  outside  the  camp.  Ex.  33  :  9. 
No  wonder  that  the  subject  of  so  many 
and  so  familiar  interviews  with  God 
should  be  regarded  with  peculiar  venera- 
tion by  the  Hebrews,  the  Mohammedans, 
and  the  Christians. 

When  Moses  was  one  hundred  and 
twenty  years  old  his  eye  was  not  dim 
nor  his  natural  force  abated.  Deut.  34 : 
7.  He  was  able,  on  the  day  of  his  death, 
to  stand  on  Nebo,  a  height  of  the  Pisgah 


MOS 


MOS 


range,  and  thence  look  across  the  Jor- 
dan and  up  and  down  the  Promised  Land. 
Bitter  was  his  disappointment  at  not 
being  allowed  to  enter,  but  meekly  he 
submitted  to  the  will  of  God.  He  had 
been  so  much  with  God  that  to  die  was 
simply  to  be  always  with  Him  whose  voice 
he  had  heard  and  whose  glory  he  had 
seen.  But  since  his  death  would  make 
a  great  change  to  his  people,  he  prepared 
the  way  for  it.  He  addressed  the  people 
and  warned  them  against  apostasy.  He 
then  gave  a  public  charge  to  Joshua,  his 
successor.  He  then  uttered  the  song, 
Deut.  32,  and  blessed  the  people.  Deut. 
33.  Quietly,  it  would  appear,  unattended, 
perhaps  secretly,  the  aged  yet  strong 
man  climbed  the  Pisgah  range,  stood  on 
the  height  of  Nebo,  and  viewed  the  ex- 
tensive prospect.  "As  he  gazed  upon 
it  the  words  fell  upon  his  ears,  *  This  is 
the  land  which  I  sware  unto  Abraham, 
unto  Isaac,  and  unto  Jacob,  saying,  I 
will  give  it  unto  thy  seed  :  I  have  caused 
thee  to  see  it  with  thine  eyes;'  and  then, 
not  in  sternness  or  in  anger,  but  in  ut- 
most love,  like  a  mother  lifting  her  boy 
into  her  arms,  the  Lord  added,  '  But 
thou  shalt  not  go  over  thither,'  and  in  a 
moment,  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye,  the 
soul  of  Moses  had  passed  within  the  veil 
and  was  at  home  with  God." — Rev.  W. 
M.  Taylor,  D.  D.,  Moses  the  Laioyiver, 
N.  Y.,  1879,  p.  439.  ''And  he  buried 
him  in  a  valley  in  the  land  of  Moab,  over 
against  Beth-peor  ;  but  no  man  knoweth 
of  his  sepulchre  unto  this  day."  Deut.  34 : 
6.  In  the  words  of  the  Rabbins,  "  Jeho- 
vah kissed  him  to  death  "  (or  rather  into 
life  eternal).  His  remains  were  removed 
from  all  reach  of  idolatry — the  sin  of 
sins,  forbidden  in  the  first  command- 
ment. As  Thomas  Fuller  quaintly  says, 
"  God  buried  also  his  grave."  Vainly 
have  men  sought  to  find  it.  The  familiar 
lines  of  Mrs.  C.  F.  Alexander's  ode,  "  The 
Death  of  Moses,"  may  be  appropriately 
quoted  here : 

"And  had  he  not  high  honor? 

The  hillside  for  his  pall, 
To  lie  in  state  while  angels  wait, 

With  stars  for  tapers  tall : 
And  the  dark  rock-pi nes,like  tossing  plumes, 

Over  his  bier  to  wave; 
And  God's  own  hand,  in  that  lonely  land, 

To  lay  him  in  his  grave." 

Centuries  passed  on.     The   land  had 
witnessed  many  changes ;  the  promised 


One  stood  upon  the  Promised  Land 
when  once  more  Moses  is  seen  by  mortal 
sight.  Upon  the  slopes  of  Hermon  he 
appeared  in  company  with  Elijah  to  talk 
with  Jesus  of  the  decease  Jesus  should 
accomplish  at  Jerusalem.  Luke  9:31. 
Thus  was  the  type  brought  face  to  face 
with  the  Pattern.  And  this  resurrection 
leads  to  the  conclusion  which  some  hold 
— that  Moses,  like  Christ,  was  raised 
from  the  dead  after  a  brief  sleep  in  the 
grave. 

Moses  was  of  God's  special  preparation, 
the  resultant  of  many  forces.  Wrought 
upon  by  inspiration,  he  was  able  to  be 
legislator,  statesman,  leader,  poet,  saint, 
because  he  was  so  variedly  trained.  An 
exceptional  man  in  original  gifts,  he  was 
equally  exceptional  in  his  opportunities. 
To  be  of  Hebrew  extraction,  and  there- 
fore by  descent  to  share  in  the  glorious 
hopes  of  his  race,  was  to  have  a  grand 
start  Godward.  To  be  the  adopted  child 
of  Pharaoh's  daughter,  to  breathe  ''the 
atmosphere  of  courts,"  to  be  acquainted 
as  an  equal  with  the  nobility  of  the  land, 
was  to  gain  an  intimate  knowledge  of 
statecraft  from  the  best  exponents  of  it. 
To  be  trained  for  the  priesthood,  initiated 
into  the  holy  mysteries,  learned  in  all 
the  learning  of  the  Egyptians,  was  to  be 
thoroughly  furnished  unto  religious 
service.  To  be  exiled  and  compelled 
through  many  years  to  eat  "  the  bread 
of  carefulness,"  to  be  a  keeper  of  sheep 
and  a  dweller  in  tents  amid  the  sublimity 
of  Sinaitic  scenery,  was  to  have  time  for 
reflection  and  for  communion  with  God. 
Thus,  when  at  eighty  he  returned  to 
Egypt,  he  was  able  to  debate  with  schol- 
ars and  to  sj'mpathize  with  slaves.  He 
towered  above  all  his  brethren.  He  was 
alone  in  the  loneliness  of  genius.  He 
was  accessible  in  his  feeling  for  the  op- 
pressed. But  Moses  was  unique  in  other 
ways.  He  alone  has  held  friendly  con- 
verse with  Jehovah.  What  though  he 
was  slow  of  speech  ?  He  was  lofty  of 
thought.  What  though  he  was  timid? 
He  had  the  promise  of  divine  strength. 
And  the  good  qualities  he  showed  during 
the  Wandering  are  such  as  come  from 
fellowship  with  the  Highest,  while  his 
bad  qualities — his  occasional  infirmity 
of  temper,  for  example — are  mere  spots 
upon  the  sun  or  temporary  obscurations 
of  the  light,  the  times  he  forgot  God. 
But  when  he  fell  all  observed  it,  just  as 

585 


MOS 


MOS 


all  notice  the  fallen  monarch  of  the  for- 
est ;  when  he  stood  firm  few  marked  it, 
as  few  remark  the  upright  tree. 

The  above  article  is  a  mere  sketch. 
To  write  fully  the  life  of  Moses  would 
be  to  write  the  history  of  Israel  during 
the  Exodus.  The  reader  will  refer  to 
the  separate  articles  incidentally  men- 
tioned. We  close  by  a  brief  study  of 
the  character  of  Moses,  following  the 
Rev.  Dr.  \V.  M.  Taylor  in  his  book 
above  quoted. 

Three  qualities  give  him  immortal  in- 
terest and  prominence.  1st.  Faith.  By 
faith  he  esteemed  "  the  reproach  of 
Christ  greater  riches  than  the  treasures 
in  Egypt."  Heb.  11 :  26.  "  Never  more 
alluring  prospects  opened  up  before  any 
man 'than  those  which  the  world  held 
out  to  him.  The  throne  of  the  greatest 
monarchy  of  his  age  was  within  his  reach. 
All  that  wealth  could  procure,  or  pleasure 
bestow,  or  the  greatest  earthly  power 
command,  was  easily  at  his  call.  But 
the  glory  of  these  things  paled  in  his 
view  before  the  more  excellent  character 
of  those  invisible  honors  which  God  set 
before  him.  This  faith  sustained  him  in 
the  solitudes  of  Midian  and  animated 
him  amidst  all  the  conflicts  attendant  on 
the  Exodus  and  all  the  difficulties  that 
confronted  him  in  the  wilderness.  This 
faith  gave  him  courage  in  the  hour  of 
danger  and  calmness  in  the  time  of 
trial."  (pp.  459,  460.) 

2d.  Prayerfnlness.  "  In  every  time 
of  emergency  his  immediate  resort  was 
to  Jehovah.  He  was  not  speaking  to  a 
stranger,  but  was  like  a  son  making  ap- 
plication to  his  father;  and  so  he  never 
pleaded  in  vain."  (p.  461.)  His  was  the 
prayer  of  faith. 

3d.  HnmilUy.  "He  coveted  no  dis- 
tinction and  sought  no  prominence;  his 
greatness  came  to  him,  he  did  not  go 
after  it.  And  his  humility  was  allied 
with  or  flowed  naturally  out  into  two 
other  qualities,  disinterestedness  and 
meekness.  (See  Num.  11:29  and  12:3 
for  striking  illustrations.)  He  gave  up 
his  own  ease  and  comfort  to  secure  the 
emancipation  of  his  people ;  and  while 
laboring  night  and  day  for  them,  he  had 
no  thought  whatever  of  his  own  interests. 
His  office  brought  him  no  emolument." 
In  this  he  was  like  Nehemiah.  He  was 
free  from  all  charge  of  nepotism.  His 
meekness  was  shown  in  silently  listening 
586 


to  complaints  against  himself.  He  ap- 
pealed unto  God.  (pp.  462-3.) 

The  only  blot  upon  this  beautiful  cha- 
racter is  a  lack  of  patience  or  self-control, 
but  this  was  more  evident  in  the  earlier 
portion  of  his  life,  nor  was  it  prominent 
enough  to  belie  his  eulogy. 

Moses  was  a  type  of  Christ.  The 
parallel  is  readily  traced.  "  As  Moses, 
in  the  early  part  of  his  career,  refused 
the  Egyptian  monarchy  because  it  could 
be  gained  to  him  onl}'  by  disloyalty  t  > 
God,  so  Jesus  turned  away  from  the 
kingdoms  of  the  world  because  they 
were  oS"ered  on  condition  that  he  would 
worship  Satan  ;  as  Moses  became  the 
emancipator  of  his  people,  so  was  Jesus; 
as  Moses,  penetrating  to  the  soul  of  the 
symbolism  of  idolatry,  introduced  a  new 
dispensation  wherein  symbolism  was 
allied  to  spirituality  of  worship,  so  Jesus, 
seizing  the  spirituality  of  the  Mosaic 
system,  freed  it  from  its  national  restric- 
tions, and  ushered  in  the  day  when  the 
true  worshipper  would  worship  the  Fa- 
ther anywhere ;  as  Moses  was  pre-emi- 
nently a  lawgiver,  so  Jesus,  in  his  Ser- 
mon on  the  Mount,  laid  down  a  code 
which  not  only  expounds  but  fulfils  the 
Decalogue;  as  Moses  was  a  prophet,  so 
Jesus  is  the  great  Prophet  of  his  Church; 
as  Moses  was  a  mediator,  so  Jesus  is  the 
Mediator  of  the  new  covenant,  standing 
between  God  and  man.  and  bridging,  by 
his  atonement  and  intercession,  the  gulf 
between  the  two.  We  cannot  wonder, 
therefore,  that  in  the  vision  of  the 
Apocalypse  they  who  have  gotten  the 
victory  over  the  beast  and  his  image  are 
represented  as  singing  the  song  of  Moses 
the  servant  of  God,  and  the  song  of  the 
Lamb.  Rev.  15  :  3."  (p.  466.) 

God  buried  Moses.  It  was  fitting, 
therefore,  that  he  too  should  write  his 
epitaph.  Here  it  is  given  by  his  in- 
spiration, and,  though  written  only  in  a 
book,  having  a  permanence  as  great  a.' 
if  it  had  been  graven  with  an  iron  pen 
in  the  rock  for  ever :  "  And  there  arose 
not  a  prophet  since  in  Israel  like  unto 
Moses,  whom  the  Lord  knew  face  to  face, 
in  all  the  signs  and  the  wonders  which 
the  Lord  sent  him  to  do  in  the  land  of 
Egypt,  to  Pharaoh,  and  to  all  his  ser- 
vants, and  to  all  his  land,  and  in  all  that 
mighty  land,  and  in  all  the  great  terror 
which  Moses  showed  in  the  sight  of  all 
Israel."  Deut.  34  :  10-12.  (p.  468.) 


MOT 


MOU 


Moses,  Song  of.  This  wonderful  ode 
celebrates  more  fitly  the  miraculous  de- 
liverance of  the  children  of  Israel  from 
Egyptian  bondage.  It  is  the  national  | 
anthem,  the  Te  l)eum  of  the  Hebrews. 
It  sounds  through  the  psalms  of  Israel, 
through  the  thanksgiving  hymns  of  the 
Christian  Church,  through  the  touching 
songs  of  liberated  slaves,  and  it  will 
swell  the  harmony  of  the  saints  in 
heaven.  Allusion  to  it  is  made  in  Rev. 
15  :  2,  3  :  "  Thej'  stand  on  the  sea  of  glass 
mingled  with  fire  .  .  .  and  sing  the  song 
of  Moses  the  servant  of  God." 

MOTH.  By  this  word  is  meant  the 
clothes-moth,  which,  in  its  caterpillar 
state,  is  very  destructive  to  woven  fab- 
rics. The  eggs  of  this  miller,  being  de- 
posited on  fur  or  cloth,  produce  a  small, 
soft  worm  which  immediately  forms  a 
house  for  itself  by  cutting  from  the 
cloth,  which  it  thus  weakens  and  de- 
stroys. In  Job  4:19  man  is  said  to  be 
"  crushed  before  the  moth " — that  is, 
more  easily  than  the  moth.  There  are 
also  references  to  the  destructiveness  of 
this  insect  in  Job  13  :  28  ;  Ps.  39  :  11 ; 
Isa.  50  :  9  ;  51  :  6,  8  ;  Hos.  5  :  12  ;  Matt. 
6:19,  20 ;  Jas,  5:2.  In  Ps.  6  :  7  the 
word  "consumed"  properly  means 
"  moth-eaten."  As  much  of  the  treasure 
of  the  ancients  consisted  in  costly  gar- 
ments, we  may  readily  understand  why 
the  moth  was  considered  so  noxious  an 
insect,  and  this  will  teach  us  the  true 
import  of  our  Saviour's  words.  Matt.  6  : 
19,  20,  It  was  common  in  Asia  to  lay 
up  stores  of  precious  garments,  which 
descended  as  an  inheritance  to  children, 
for  their  modes  of  dress  never  changed ; 
but  the  moth  was  a  formidable  enemy  to 
such  treasures,  so  as  to  render  it  useless 
to  take  much  pains  to  lay  them  up. 

MOTH'ER.  Besides  in  the  literal 
sense,  the  word  is  used  in  the  0.  T,  in 
reference  to  a  grandmother,  1  Kgs.  15  : 
10,  and  a  stepmother.  Gen,  37:10.  It 
has  also  a  poetical  use,  as  applied  to  a 
political  leadef,  Jud,  5  :  7,  a  nation,  as 
we  say  "mother-country."  Jer.  50:  12; 
Eze.  19:2.  As  the  position  of  woman  is 
always  the  test  of  the  true  civilization 
of  a  people,  it  is  pleasing  to  notice  in 
what  respect  and  affection  the  mothers 
stood.  See  Prov.  10  : 1  ;  15  :  20  ;  17  :  25  ; 
29  :  15  ;  31 : 1,  30,  and  compare  the  com- 
mands given  by  Moses.  Ex.  20:12; 
Deut,  5:16;  21 :  18,  21 ;   Lev.  19  :  3.  The  j 


queen-mother  was  in  royal  times  a  very 
much  honored  person.  1  Kgs.  2  :  19.  See 
Queen. 

MOULD' Y,  in  Josh,  9  :  5, 12,  prop- 
erly means  "  crumbs," 

MOUNT,  MOUNTAIN,  the 
translation  of  three  words,  of  which  the 
commonest,  like  our  word,  applies  to 
both  a  single  mountain  and  a  range. 
The  mountains  mentioned  in  the  Bible 
are  Sinai,  Ebal,  Gerizim,  Zion,  and  Oli- 
vet, and  the  range  of  Lebanon.  Eze.  18  : 
6.  Worship  upon  mountains  was  for- 
bidden. Dean  Stanley  gives  (Siuai  nn<l 
Palestine)  the  following  list,  quoted  in 
Ayre's  Treasury  of  Bible  Knowledge,  of 
Hebrew  words  used  in  reference  to 
mountains  or  hills.  It  will  be  noticed 
the  majority  are  in  common  use  with  us  : 

"Head,  rosh,  Gen.  8:5;  Ex.  19:20; 
Deut.  34  : 1 ;  1  Kgs.  18  :  42  (A,  V. '  top'). 
Of  a  hill  igibeah),  Ex.  17 :  9,  10. 

"Ears,  aznoth,  Aznoth-tabor,  Josh. 
19:34;  possibly  in  allusion  to  some 
projection  on  the  top  of  the  mountain. 

"Shoulder,  chdteph,  Deut.  33:12; 
Josh.  15:8;  18  :  16  ('side'),  all  referring 
to  the  hills  on  which  Jerusalem  is  placed. 
Josh.  15  :  10,  'the  s/c/e  of  Mount  Jearim.' 

"Side,  tzad  (see  the  word  for  the 
*  side'  of  a  man  in  2  Sam.  2:16;  Eze. 
4  :  4,  etc.).  Used  in  reference  to  a  moun- 
tain in  1  Sam.  23  :  26;  2  Sam,  13  :  34. 

"  Loins  or  flanks,  chisloth,  Chisloth- 
tabor.  Josh.  19  :  12,  and  occurs  also  in 
the  name  of  a  village,  probably  situated 
on  this  part  of  the  mountain,  Ha-chesul- 
loth — /.  c,  the  '  loins,'  Josh,  19  :  18. 

"  Rib,  tzelah.  Only  used  once,  in 
speaking  of  the  Mount  of  Olives,  2 
Sara.  16  :  13,  and  there  translated  ''  side.' 

"  Back,  shechem.  Probably  the  root 
of  the  name  of  the  town  Shechem,  which 
may  be  derived  from  its  situation,  as  it 
were,  on  the  back  of  Gerizim. 

"Elbow,  ammah.  The  same  word  as 
that  for  *  cubit,'  It  occurs  in  2  Sam,  2: 
24  as  the  name  of  a  hill  near  Gibeon. 

"  Thigh,  yarchdh  (see  the  word  for  the 
'thigh'  of  a  man  in  Jud,  3:16,21), 
Applied  to  Mount  Ephraim,  Jud.  19  : 1, 
18,  and  to  Lebanon.  2  Kgs.  19  :  23  ;  Isa. 
37  :  24.  Used  also  for  the  '  sides  '  of  a 
cave.  1  Sam.  24  :  3. 

"The  word  translated  'covert 'in  1 
Sam.  25  :  20  is  ftither,  from  sdthar,  to  hide, 
.  .  .  and  probably  refers  to  the  shrubbery 
or  thicket  through  which  Abigail's  path 

587 


MOU 


MOU 


lay.  In  this  passage  *hill'  should  be 
*  mountain.'" 

MOURN,  MOURNERS.  The  He- 
brews, at  the  death  of  their  friends  and 
relations,  gave  all  possible  demonstra- 
tions of  grief  and  mourning.  Gen.  50  : 
10.  They  wept,  tore  their  clothes,  smote 
their  breasts,  fasted  and  lay  upon  the 
ground,  went  barefooted,  pulled  their 
hair  and  beards  or  cut  them,  and  made 
incisions  on  their  breasts  or  tore  them 
with  their  nails.  Lev.  19:28;  21:5; 
Deut.  14  : 1 ;  Jer.  16  :  6.  The  time  of 
mourning  was  commonly  seven  days,  but 
it  was  lengthened  or  shortened  according 
to  circumstances.  That  for  Moses  and 
Aaron  was  prolonged  to  thirty  days. 
Num.  20  :  29  ;  Deut.  34  :  8.  They  mourned 
excessively  for  an  only  son,  as  his  death 
cut  off  the  name  of  the  family.  Zech. 
12:10. 

The  priest  mourned  only  for  near  rela- 
tives, but  the  high  priest  for  none.  Lev. 
21 : 1-12. 

During  the  time  of  their  mourning 
they  continued  sitting  in  their  houses 
and  ate  on  the  ground.  The  food  they 
took  was  thought  unclean,  and  even 
themselves  were  judged  impure.  Hos.  9  : 
4.  Their  faces  were  covered,  and  in  all 
that  time  they  could  not  apply  them- 
selves to  any  occupation,  or  read  the 
book  of  the  Law,  or  say  their  usual  pray- 
ers. They  did  not  dress  themselves,  or 
make  their  beds,  or  uncover  their  heads, 
or  shave,  or  cut  their  nails,  or  go  into 
the  bath,  or  salute  anybody.  Nobody 
spoke  to  them  unless  they  spoke  first. 
Job  2:11-13.  Their  friends  commonly 
went  to  visit  and  comfort  them,  bringing 
them  food.  They  also  went  up  to  the 
roof  or  upon  the  platform  of  their  houses 
to  bewail  their  loss.  Isa.  15  :  3.  They 
sometimes  went  to  the  graves  to  lament 
their  dead,  and  so  the  Oriental  women 
do  at  this  day.  The  Jews  had  a  kind 
of  prayer,  or  rather  benediction  of  God, 
as  of  Him  who  raises  the  dead,  which 
they  repeated  as  they  mourned,  or  even 
passed  the  graves  of  their  dead. 

The  mourning-habit  among  the  He- 
brews was  not  fixed  either  by  law  or 
custom.  Anciently,  in  times  of  mourn- 
ing, they  clothed  themselves  in  sack- 
cloth or  haircloth — that  is,  in  coarse  or 
ill-made  clothes,  or  brown  or  black  stuff. 
2  Sam.  3  :  31. 

They  hired  women  to  weep  and  mourn, 
588 


and  also  persons  to  play  on  instruments, 
at  the  funerals  of  the  Hebrews.  Jer.  9  : 
17  ;  Matt.  9  :  23.  All  that  met  a  funeral 
procession    or  a   company  of  mourners 


Eastern  ^loiuiieir^  ni  tin;  Grave. 

were  to  join  them  as  a  matter  of  civility, 
and  to  mingle  their  tears  with  those  who 
wept.  Something  like  this  is  still  cus- 
tomary in  Turkey  and  Persia,  where  he 
who  meets  the  funeral  takes  the  place 
of  one  of  the  bearers,  and  assists  in 
carrying  the  bier  until  they  meet  some 
one  by  whom  he  is  relieved. 

The  custom  of  hiring  women  to  weep 
and  mourn  is  common  at  this  day  in 
many  of  the  Eastern  nations.  See  Burial. 

The  wailing  of  the  Jews  at  the  exposed 
part  of  the  foundation-wall  of  the  tem- 
ple evei-y  Friday  is  a  curiosity,  particu- 
larly because  it  shows  how  customs  of 
lamentation  can  be  handed  down,  for 
they  mourned  in  the  same  spot  in  Je- 
rome's day. 

MOUSE  {the  corn-eater).  Tristram 
found  twenty-three  species  of  mice  in 
Palestine.  In  Lev.  11  :  29,  and  Isa. 
66  :  17  this  word  is  doubtless  used  gen- 
erically,  including  as  unclean  even  the 
larger  rat,  jerboa,  dormouse,  and  sand- 
rat.  Mice  are  often  in  the  East  nearly 
as  destructive  to  the  crops  as  locusts. 
They  made  great  havoc  in  the  fields  of 
the  Philistines  after  that  people  had  ta- 
ken the  ark  of  the  Lord.  1  Sam.  6:4,  5. 

In  the  twelfth  century  they  destroyed 
the  young  sprouts  of  grain  in  some  parts 
of  Syria  for  four  successive  years  and 


MOW 


MUS 


came  near  to  producing  a  general  fam- 
ine, and  they  abound  in  those  regions  at 
the  present  day.  A  modern  traveller,  in 
speaking  of  llamath,  says  :  "  The  west- 
ern part  of  its  territory  is  the  granary 
of  Northern  Syria,  though  the  harvest 
never  yields  more  than  ten  for  one,  chiefly 
in  consequence  of  the  immense  numbers 
of  mice,  which  sometimes  wholly  de- 
stroy the  crops." 

MOWING  means  reaping  with  a 
sickle,  for  the  heat  dries  up'  the  grass 
before  it  is  high  enough  for  the  scythe. 
Ps  129  ■  7 

MOW'INGS,  KING'S.  Grass  cut 
with  a  sickle  (never  with  a  scythe)  was 
used  in  Palestine  for  "  soiling  "  cattle, 
but  not  made  into  hay,  as  in  colder  coun- 
tries. The  "  mower "  was  always  a 
reaper.  Amos,  7  :  1,  seems  to  allude  to 
some  right  of  the  king  to  the  first  grass 
in  certain  districts  for  his  cavalry  horses. 

MO'ZA  (a  going  forth).  1.  The  sec- 
ond son  of  Caleb,  the  son  of  Hezron,  by 
his  concubine  Ephah.  1  Chr.  2  :  46. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Saul.  1  Chr.  8  : 
36,  37;  9:42,  43. 

MO'ZAH  {going  forth),  a  town  of 
Benjamin,  Josh.  18:26;  possibly  mod- 
ern Beit  Mizza,  5  miles  north-west  of 
Jerusalem,  on  the  Jaffa  road. 

MUF'FLERS  are  supposed  to  have 
been  a  covering  for  the  face  such  as  is 
now  worn  by  women  of  the  East.  Isa. 
3:19. 

MUL'BERRY  TREES.  All 
agree  that  this  is  a  mistranslation,  but 
many  different  renderings  are  suggested. 
Some  of  the  best  recent  authorities  advo- 
cate the  aspen  or  poplar,  a  few  species  of 
which  grow  in  Palestine.  The  "  going  " 
in  the  tree-tops,  which  was  to  be  the 
sign  that  God  went  out  before  the  host, 
2  Sam.  5  :  23,  24,  may  have  been  the 
rustle  of  these  leaves,  which  are  prover- 
bial for  their  readiness  to  tremble  before 
the  slightest  breeze. 

MULE,  the  name  of  the  offspring 
of  the  horse  and  the  ass.  2  Sam.  13  :  29. 
It  is  smaller  than  the  former,  and  is  a 
remarkably  hardy,  patient,  obstinate, 
sure-footed  animal,  living  ordinarily 
twice  as  long  as  a  horse.  Mules  are 
much  used  in  Spain  and  South  America 
for  transporting  goods  across  the  moun- 
tains. So  also  in  the  Alps  they  are 
used  by  travellers  among  the  mountains 
where  a  horse  would  hardly  be  able  to 


pass  with  safety.  In  the  United  States 
mules  are  much  used  for  draught. 

Even  the  kings  and  most  distinguished 
nobles  of  the  Jews  were  accustomed  to 
ride  upon  mules.  See  passage  above 
cited,  and  also  2  Sam.  18  :  9  ;  1  Kgs.  1  : 
33  ;  10  :  25  ;  18  :  5  ;  2  Chr.  9  :  24  ;  Esth. 
8:10,  14.  It  is  probable  that  the  Jews 
purchased,  but  did  not  raise,  mules.  Lev. 
19:19. 

MUP'PIM  {ser2-)ent  ?),  a  descendant 
of  Benjamin,  Gen.  46  :2i;  called  Shu- 
pham  in  Num.  26  :  39. 

MUR'DER.  The  Jewish  law  calls  a 
murderer  one  who  slays  another  from  en- 
mity, hatred,  or  by  lying  in  wait.  Other- 
wise it  is  manslaughter,  but  the  avenger 
of  blood  might  kill  the  unintentional 
murderer  if  he  overtook  him  before  he 
reached  the  city  of  refuge.  For  inten- 
tional murder  there  was  no  pardon  ;  the 
city  of  refuge,  and  even  the  altar,  fur- 
nished no  asylum,  nor  might  money  be 
taken  in  satisfaction.  Ex.  21 :  14,  28,  29; 
Num.  36  :  30-32 ;  1  Kgs.  2 :  5,  6,  28-34. 
It  was  one  of  the  most  odious  and  abom- 
inable crimes,  Deut.  19  :  13  ;  21 :  9  ;  Num. 
35  :  33,  34,  and  was  a  subject  of  early 
and  severe  legislation.  Gen.  9  :  6.  See 
Cities  of  Refuge. 

A  remarkable  regulation  made  it  legal 
to  kill  a  housebreaker  taken  at  night  in 
the  act,  but  murder  if  killed  during  the 
day.  Ex.  22  :  2,  3.  For  the  punishment 
of  murder  see  Punishments. 

MUR'RAIN.  Ex.  9  :  3.  See 
Plagues  of  Egypt. 

MU'SHI  {forsaking),  i\iQ  son  of 
Merari,  the  son  of  Kohath.  Ex.  6  :  19; 
Num.  3  :  20;  1  Chr.  6  :  19,  47;  23  :  21, 
23:  24:26,  30. 

MU'SHITES,  THE,  descendants 
of  Mushi.  Num.  3  :  33  ;   26  :  58. 

MUS'IC.  1  Sam.  18  :  6.  This  was 
an  important  part  of  the  festivities  and 
religious  services  of  the  Jews.  In  their 
annual  pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem  their 
march  was  thus  enlivened.  Isa.  30  :  29. 
This  is  stiil  the  custom  in  Oriental  pil- 
grimages. The  practice  of  music  was 
not  restricted  to  anv  one  class  of  per- 
sons. 1  Chr.  13  :  8  ;  15  :  1 6.  The  sons  of 
Asaph,  Ileman,  and  Jeduthun  were  set 
apart  by  David  for  the  musical  service, 
and  ''the  number  of  them,  with  their 
brethren,  that  were  instructed  in  the 
songs  of  the  Lord"  was  two  hundred  and 
eighty-eight.     They  were  divided,  like 

689 


MUS 


MUS 


the  priests,  into  twenty-four  courses, 
which  are  enumerated.  1  Chr.  25.  Of 
the  38,000  Levites,  "four  thousand 
praised  the  Lord  with  the  instruments," 
1  Chr.  23  :  5,  being  more  than  one  in  ten 
of  the  whole  avaihxble  members  of  the 
tribe  of  Levi.  Each  of  the  courses  or 
classes  had  one  hundred  and  fifty-four 


Stringed  Instruments,  Cymbals,  etc. 

musicians  and  three  leaders,  and  all  were 
under  the  general  direction  of  Asaph 
and  his  brethren.  Each  course  served 
for  a  week,  but  upon  the  festivals  all 
were  required  to  be  present,  or  four 
thousand  musicians.  Heman,  with  one 
of  his  leaders,  directed  the  central  choir, 


Wind  Instruments  and  Sistrum. 

Asaph  the  right,  and  Jeduthun  the  left 
wing.  These  several  choirs  answered 
one  another,  as  is  generally  supposed,  in 
that  kind  of  alternate  singing  which  is 
called  "  aniiphonal,"  or  responsive.  The 
590 


priests,  in  the  mean  time,  performed  upon 
the  silver  trumpets.  2  Chr.  5  :11-14;  Num. 
10  :  2.  It  is  necessary  to  suppose  that,  to 
ensure  harmony  from  such  a  number  of 
voices  as  this,  some  musical  notes  were 
used.  This  truly  regal  direction  of  sa- 
cred music  continued  after  the  death  of 
David  until  the  Captivity  ;  for  though 
under  the  impious  reign  of 
some  kings  the  whole  of  these 
solemnities  fell  into  disuse, 
they  were  revived  by  Heze- 
kiah  and  Josiah.  And  al- 
though during  the  Exile  the 
sweet  singers  of  Israel  hanged 
their  harps  upon  the  willows 
by  the  waters  of  Babylon,  yet 
two  hundred  musicians  re- 
turned with  Ezra  to  the  Holy 
Land.    Ezr.  2  :  65. 

Musical  Instruments. 
Eccl.  2  :  8.  They  were  in- 
vented by  Jubal,  the  son  of 
Lamech,  Gen.  4  :  21,  and  had 
appropriate  names.  Gen.  31  : 
27.  They  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes — stringed  instruments,  wind  in- 
struments, and  such  as  gave  their  sounds 
on  being  struck.  Of  stringed  instru- 
ments were  the  harp,  the  instrument  of 
ten  strings,  the  sackbut,  and  the  psaltery. 
They  are  described  under  their  proper 
names. 

The  instruments  of  music  mentioned 
in  1  Sam.  18  :  6  as  used  by  women  are 
supposed  to  have  been  metallic  triangles, 
as  the  name  indicates. 

The  instrument  of  ten  strings  re- 
sembled a  modern  guitar,  having  its 
strings  stretched  over  something  not  un- 
like a  drum;  and  it  was  played  with  the 
fingers.     See  separate  titles. 

MUS'TARD.  Matt.  13:31,  32; 
17  :  20  ;  Luke  17  :  fi.  There  can  no  longer 
be  any  question  that  this  plant  is  the 
black  mustard  {Siuapis  nigra),  which 
often  grows  wild  in  our  own  country. 
In  the  fertile  and  warm  soil  of  Palestine, 
especially  when  cultivated,  this  herb 
must  have  reached  considerable  size. 
Dr.  Thomson  has  seen  it  there  as  tall  as 
the  horse  and  his  rider,  and  the  ground 
near  the  Sea  of  Galilee  is  often  "  <f)/ded 
over  with  its  yellow  flowers."  The  Bible 
does  not  say,  as  is  often  supposed,  that 
the  birds  hinld  vesffi  in  the  mustard,  but 
only  that  they  lodge  there,  as  they  often 
do  in  much  smaller  plants.     Flocks  of 


MUT 


MYR 


goldfinches  and  linnets  are  accustomed 
to  settle  in  these  plants  and  eat  the  seed, 
of  which  they  are  very  fond.  "  Small  as 
a  grain  of  mustard-seed  "  was  a  prover- 
bial expression  of  which  Christ  made 
use.  Divested  of  the  Orientalisms  of  the 
language,  which   our    Saviour   used   in 


Mustard.     (Sinapis  nigra.     After  Dr.  Carruthers.) 

popular  teaching,  the  following  is  an 
accurate  paraphrase  of  his  well-known 
parable,  as  suggested  in  Smith's  Bible 
Dictionary  :  "  The  gospel  dispensation 
is  like  a  grain  of  mustard-seed  which 
a  man  sowed  in  his  garden  ;  which  in- 
deed is  one  of  the  least  of  all  seeds,  but 
which,  when  it  springs  up,  becomes  a 
tall  branched  plant,  on  the  branches  of 
which  the  birds  come  and  settle,  seeking 
their  food." 

MUTH-LAB'BEN",  in  the  title  to 
Ps.  9,  is  thus  fxjilained  by  the  Rev.  A. 
R.  Fausset :  "  Lnbben  is  an  anagram  for 
Nabal,  'the  fool'  or  'wicked,'  concern- 
ing the  dying  (ninth)  of  the  fool."  This 
interpretation  harmonizes  well  with  the 
contents  of  the  l*salm.  But  the  titles  to 
the  Psalms  are  often  enigmas. 


M Y'RA  {Jiuwintj,  tceepiny),  an  ancient 
port  in  Lycia,  on  the  south-west  coast 
of  Asia  Minor.  Acts  27  :  5.  It  was  on  the 
river  Andriacus,  about  2^  miles  from  its 
mouth.  The  magnificent  ruins  of  the 
city  stand  upon  a  hill  not  far  from  the 
sea. 

MYRRH,  a  gum,  the  thickened  sap 
of  a  low  thorny  tree  {lialsantodendron 
opsobalsamnm)  which  grows  chiefly  in 
Arabia.  Myrrh  is  sold  for  medical  pur- 
poses in  small  globules  of  a  white  or 
yellow  color,  of  a  strong  and  agreeable 
smell,  but  a  bitter  taste.  It  was  an  in- 
gredient of  the  holy  ointment,  Ex.  30  : 
23,    and    of   the    embalming    substance. 


Myrrh.     {Balsamodendron.    After  Dr.  Birdwood.) 

John  19  :  89.  It  was  also  used  as  an 
agreeable  perfume,  Esth.  2:12;  Ps.  45  : 
8  :  Prov.  7:17,  and  a  valuable  gift.  Matt. 
2:1,11.  In  Matt.  27  :  34  it  is  said  that 
they  gave  Jesus  to  drink  vinegar  mixed 

591 


MYR 


MYS 


with  gall,  which,  in  Mark  15  :  23,  is  called 
wine  mingled  with  myrrh.  It  was  prob- 
ably the  sour  wine  which  the.  Roman 
soldiers  used  to  drink  mingled  with 
myrrh  and  other  bitter  substances,  very 
much  like  the  hiftevH  of  modern  times. 

The  myrrh  of  Gen.  37:25;  43:11 
represents  a  different  Hebrew  word,  and, 
being  brought  from  Palestine  or  Gilead, 
was  doubtless  another  substance — prob- 
ably Gum  ladanum,  obtained  from  the 
cistus.  a  shrubby  plant  growing  in  those 
districts.  This  gum  is  sold  in  dark- 
colored,  soft  masses,  of  a  more  agreeable 
odor  than  opium,  and  possessing  similar, 
though  weaker,  medical  properties,  for 
which  it  was  valued. 

MYR'TLE,  a  beautiful,  fragrant, 
and  ornamental  shrub  (Mi/rtus   cominu- 


Myrlle.     {Myrtus  communis.) 

nis),  which  abounds  in  Northern  Pales- 
tine and  once  grew  about  Jerusalem. 
"  In  the  bazaars  of  Jerusalem  and  Da- 
mascus the  dried  flowei'S,  leaves,  and 
berries  of  the  myrtle  are  to  be  seen  in 
separate  heaps,  offered  for  sale  as  a  per- 
fume, and  a  fragrant  water  is  distilled 


from  the  blossom.  Both  leaves,  bark, 
and  root  are  used  in  Damascus  for  tan- 
ning the  finest  leather,  and  give  it  a  deli- 
cate scent." — Tristram.  The  seeds  of  a 
tropical  species  of  the  myrtle,  collected 
and  dried  before  they  are  ripe,  are  called 
pimento,  or  allspice.  For  the  rich  hue 
of  its  green  polished  leaves,  its  agreeable 
fragrance  and  beautiful  flowers,  this 
shrub  is  used  by  the  Bible  writers,  in 
contrast  with  the  noxious,  useless  brier, 
to  illustrate  the  prosperity  and  glory  of 
the  Church.  Isa.  41:19;  55:13;  Zech. 
1  :  8-11.  The  myrtle  furnished  the 
wreaths  of  ancient  heroes  and  victors. 
Branches  of  the  myrtle  were  gathered, 
among  others,  to  cover  the  booths  and 
tents  of  the  Jews  at  the  celebration  of 
the  feast  of  tabernacles.  Lev.  23  :  40  j 
Neh.  8:15. 

MY^SIA  {beech  region  ?),  a  province 
in  the  north-western  angle  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor, and  separated  from  Europe  by  the 
Propontis  and  the  Hellespont,  having 
Lydia  on  the  south,  Bithynia  on  the 
east,  and  including  the  Troad.  Mj'sia 
was  anciently  celebrated  for  its  fertility, 
and  it  is  at  this  day  a  beautiful  and  fer- 
tile country,  but  poorly  tilled.  Acts  16  : 
7,  8;  20:5.     . 

MYS'TERY,  in  the  N.  T.  usage,  is 
a  spiritual  truth  hitherto  hidden,  inca- 
pable of  discovery  by  mere  reason,  but 
now  revealed,  though  yet  beyond  the 
full  understanding  of  our  finite  intelli- 
gence. The  Greek  word  means  "  secret 
doctrine,"  and  is  mostly  used  in  the  plu- 
ral ('"the  mysteries"),  denoting  certain 
religious  ceremonies  and  celebrations. 
The  gospel  is  termed  a  "  mystery,"  be- 
cause it  was  long  hidden.  Eph.  3:9;  Col. 
1  :  26 ;  1  Tim.  3:9.  In  the  same  sense 
various  doctrines  are  called  mysteries, 
Rom.  11  :  25  ;  1  Cor.  15  :  51  ;  Eph.  1 :  9  ; 
1  Tim.  3  :  16,  and  truths  as  well  which 
required  elucidation  and  received  it. 
Matt.  13  :  11  ;  1  Cor.  13  :  2.  Again,  the 
import  of  the  seven  stars  and  seven  can- 
dlesticks. Rev.  1  :  20,  of  the  woman  ar- 
rayed in  scarlet,  17  :  7,  the  deeper  sig- 
nificance of  marriage,  as  symbolizing  the 
union  of  Christ  and  his  Church,  Eph.  5: 
32,  are  mysteries. 


592 


NAA 


NAA 


N. 


NA'AM  (pleasantness),  a  son  of  Ca- 
leb. 1  Chr.  4:15. 

NA'AMAH  [pleasing).  1.  Daugh- 
ter of  Tubal-cain  and  Zillah,  Gen.  4:  22, 
and  one  of  the  few  women  mentioned  by 
name  before  the  Flood. 

2.  An  Ammonitess,  the  mother  of  Re- 
hoboam,  and  one  of  Solomon's  wives.  1 
Kgs.  14:21. 

NA'AMAH  [pleasing),  a  city  in  the 
plain  of  Judah,  Josh.  15  :  41,  which 
Conder  locates  at  Na'aneh,  5  miles  south- 
east of  el-Mughar  (Makkedah). 

NA'AMAN"  [jileasantness).  1.  A  dis- 
tinguished Syrian  general,  but  a  leper. 
2  Kgs.  5.  Hearing,  through  a  captive 
Jewish  girl  who  waited  on  his  wife,  of 
the  fame  of  the  prophet  Elisha,  he  set 
out  on  a  journey  to  Israel  with  letters  of 
recommendation  from  his  sovereign  to 
the  king  of  Israel.  When  the  king  of 
Israel  read  the  letter  he  was  filled  with 
apprehension,  fearing,  probably,  lest  the 
king  of  Syria  intended  to  find  a  pretext 
for  a  quarrel  in  his  inability  to  cure  the 
leprosy  of  his  general.  In  this  predica- 
ment, Elisha,  on  receiving  the  news  of 
Naaman's  arrival,  despatched  word  to 
the  king  to  give  up  his  fears  and  to 
send  the  distinguished  stranger  to  him. 
Naaman  went,  and  received  from  Elisha's 
messenger  the  prescription  to  bathe  sev- 
en times  in  the  Jordan.  The  leper  at 
first  disdained  the  remedy.  It  was  too 
simple,  and  attributed  to  the  Jordan  a 
virtue  which  he  knew  Abana  and  Phar- 
par,  rivers  of  his  own  land,  did  not  pos- 
sess. His  retinue  wisely  advised  him 
not  to  spurn  the  remedy  on  account  of 
its  simplicity.  Following  their  counsel. he 
washed  himself  seven  times  in  the  Jor- 
dan, and  his  "  flesh  came  again  like  unto 
the  flesh  of  a  little  child."  Out  of  grati- 
tude Naaman  offered  the  prophet  a  pres- 
ent, but  failed  to  induce  him  to  take  it. 
Subsequently,  Gehazi,  by  uttering  a 
falsehood,  secured  it,  but  in  turn  received 
Naaman's  leprosy.  As  a  result  of  the 
bodily  cure,  Naaman's  mind  became 
convinced  that  the  God  of  Israel  was 
alone  worthy  of  worship  and  service. 
He  took  home  with  him  "  two  mules' 
38 


burden  of  earth,"  probably  in  order  to 
make  an  altar,  Ex.  20 :  24,  with  the 
promise  never  to  offer  sacrifice  to  other 
than  the  God  of  Israel,  and  he  begged 
the  prophet  to  absolve  him  for  continu- 
ing, out  of  allegiance  to  his  sovereign, 
as  his  companion  to  go  into  the  temple 
of  Rimmon  and  bow  before  the  false 
god.  In  this  Naaman  implies  that  his 
heart  would  refuse  the  worship  of  the 
idol  which  his  outward  act  seemed  to 
indicate.  Elisha's  parting  words  to  him 
were,  "  Go  in  peace."  Our  Lord  referred 
to  Naaman's  cure  in  his  sermon  to  the 
Nazarenes.  Luke  4  :  27.  The  memory  of 
Naaman  is  perpetuated  in  a  leper-hospi- 
tal which  occupies  the  traditional  site  of 
his  house  in  Damascus,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Abana.  "  I  have  often  visited  it  " 
(says  Dr.  Porter,  The  Giant  Cities  of 
Bashan,  p.  366),  "and  when  looking  on 
its  miserable  inmates,  all  disfigured  and 
mutilated  by  their  loathsome  disease,  I 
could  not  wonder  that  the  heart  of  the 
little  Jewish  captive  was  moved  by  her 
master's  suffering." 

2.  A  Benjamite.  Gen.  46:21. 

NA'AMATHITE,  the  designation 
of  Zophar,  one  of  Job's  friends.  Job 
2:11. 

NA'AMITES,  the  descendants  of 
Naaman,  grandson  of  Benjamin.  Num. 
26  :  40  ;   1  Chr.  8  :  4. 

NA'ARAH  [g!rl),  one  of  the  wives 
of  Ashur.   1  Chr.  4:  6. 

NA'ARAI.  [God  reveals),  one  of  Da- 
vid's warriors,  1  Chr.  11:37;  also  called 
Paarai.  2  Sam.  23:35. 

NA'ARAN  [juvenile),  a  town  in 
Ephraim.  1  Chr.  7:28.  See  Naauath. 

NA'ARATH  [girl,  handmaid),  a 
town  of  Ephraim,  Josh.  16  :  7  ;  proba- 
bly in  the  Jordan  valley,  above  Jericho. 
Eusebius  speaks  of  it  as  Oorath,  a  village 
5  miles  from  Jericho,  and  Josephus 
mentions  that  Ilerod  drew  off"  part  of 
the  waters  from  the  village  of  Neara  to 
water  the  palm  trees  he  had  planted. 
Conder,  therefore,  suggests  that  the  site 
of  Naarath  is  to  be  found  in  cl  'Aiijeh, 
near  Jericho,  where  are  a  ruin  and  re- 
mains of  an  ancient  aqueduct. 

593 


NAA 


NAH 


NAASH'ON.  Ex.  6  :  23.  See  Nah- 

SHOX. 

NAAS'SON,  the  Greek  form  of 
Nahshon  ;  used  Matt.  1:4;  Luke  3  :  32. 
See  Nahshox. 

NA'BAL  [fool),  a  ver^^  wealthy  citi- 
zen of  Maon,  whose  property,  consisting 
of  3000  sheep  and  lOtiO  goats,  was  in 
Carmel.  1  Sam.  25  :  2,  3.  When  he  was 
shearing  his  sheep,  David  sent  ten  of 
his  young  men  to  ask  him  in  the  most 
courteous  manner  for  supplies ;  but 
Nabal,  who  was  proverbially  churlish, 
refused,  in  the  most  offensive  terms,  to 
grant  his  request.  David  immediately 
ordered  400  of  his  men  to  arm  them- 
selves, and  set  out  with  the  resolution  to 
destroy  Nabal  and  his  property.  Abi- 
gail, the  discreet  and  beautiful  wife  of 
this  son  of  Belial,  admonished  of  their 
purpose,  promptly  made  up  a  sumptuous 
present,  and  set  forth  to  meet  David  and 
to  appease  him  with  the  gifts.  Her 
mission  was  entirely  successful.  On  re- 
turning to  her  home  she  found  her  hus- 
band at  a  feast  and  drunk,  and  waited 
till  the  following  morning  to  apprise  him 
of  what  had  occurred.  Nabal  had  no 
sooner  received  her  statement  than  he 
was  seized  with  a  severe  illness,  which 
proved  fatal  at  the  end  of  ten  days,  and 
was  regarded  by  David  as  the  immediate 
judgment  of  God  upon  his  sins.  1  Sam. 
25 :  39.  Nabal  is  the  type  of  a  selfish, 
cruel,  and  churlish  propertj'-holder. 

NA'BOTH  {fn(it.s),  an  Israelite  of 
the  town  of  Jezreel  who  owned  a  vine- 
yard adjoining  the  palace  of  King  Ahab. 
1  Kgs.  21  :  1.  Anxious  to  secure  this 
particular  spot  that  he  might  use  it  for 
a  garden,  the  king  proposed  to  buy  it  or 
give  him  some  other  property  of  equal 
value;  but  Naboth  declined,  to  the  great 
disappointment  of  the  wicked  monarch. 
In  this  difficulty  Jezebel  devised  a  base 
plan  to  secure  the  coveted  possession.  At 
a  large  feast  Naboth  was  accused  b}'  two 
sons  of  Belial  of  blasphemy  and  disloy- 
alty, and  was  forthwith  stoned  to  death. 
The  murder  was  avenged  by  the  doom 
immediately  passed  upon  Ahab  and  Jeze- 
bel, the  royal  murderers.  1  Kgs.  21  :  19. 

NA'CHON,  the  threshing-floor  by 
•which  Uzzah  died,  2  Sam.  6:6;  called 
Perez-uzzah  and  Ohidon  in  1  Chr.  13  : 
9,  11.  It  was  between  Kirjath-jearim 
and  Jerusalem. 

NA'DAB  {liberal).  1.  Son  of  Aaron. 
694 


For  offering  strange  fire  to  the  Lord,  he 
and  his  brother  Abihu  were  devoured 
with  fire  from  God.  Lev.  10  :  1-3. 

2.  Son  and  successor  of  Jeroboam. 
His  wicked  reign  of  two  years  was 
brought  to  an  end  at  Gibbethon  by  the 
successful  conspiracy  of  Baasha.  1  Kgs. 
15  : 25-28. 

3.  Son  of  Shammai.  1  Chr.  2  :  28. 

4.  Son  of  Gibeon,  and  uncle  of  Saul. 

1  Chr.  8  :  30. 

NAG'GE  {shiniiifj),  an  ancestor  of 
our  Lord.   Luke  3  :  25. 

NA'HALAL,  NAHAL'LAL, 
AND  NA'HALOL  {j)a>itHre),  a  town  in 
Zebulun  belonging  to  the  Levites.  Josh. 
19  :  15  ;  21  :  35  :  Jud.  1 :  30  ;  one  Hebrew 
manuscript  in  Josh.  21  :  35  reads  Ma- 
halal.  It  has  been  identified  with 
Mdhlul  and  'Ain  Muhil,  4  miles  north- 
east of  Nazareth. 

NAHAXIEL  {valley  of  God),  a 
station  of  the  Israelites,  Num.  21 :  19, 
between  Mattanah  and  Bamoth,  and 
probably  in  a  valley  of  one  of  the  chief 
northern  tributaries  of  the  Arnon. 

NA'HALOL.  Jud.  1  :  30.  See 
Nahalal. 

NA'HAM  {consolation),  brother  of 
Hodiah.   1  Chr.  4:  19. 

NAH  AM' AN  I  {compassionate),  one 
who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  from 
Babylon.  Neh.  7:  7. 

NAHAR'AI,  OR  NA'HARI 
(snorer),  Joab's  armor-bearer.  1  Chr. 
11  :  39;  2  Sam.  23  :  37. 

NA'HASH  {serpent).  1.  An  Am- 
monite king.  He  offered  to  Jabesh-gilead 
a  treaty  on  condition  that  the  citizens 
should  submit  to  the  loss  of  their  right 
eyes.  This  cruel  stipulation  aroused  the 
indignation  of  Saul,  who  went  to  the 
assistance  of  the  city  and  defeated  its 
enemies.  At  a  subsequent  period  he  was 
on  friendly  relations  with  David.  2  Sam. 
10  :  2. 

2.  Mentioned  2  Sam.  17  :  25  as  father 
of  Abigail.  Some  identify  him  with 
Jesse,  and  others  with  Nahash,  king  of 
the  Ammonites. 

NA'HATH  {rest).  1.  Grandson  of 
Esau,  and  duke  in  Edom.  Gen.  36  :  13. 

2.  A  Levite.  1  Chr.  6  :  26. 

3.  A  Levite  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah. 

2  Chr.  31  :  13. 

NAH'BI  {hidden),  one  of  the  twelve 
spies.    Num.  13  :  14. 

NA'HOR  {snorting).  Gen.  11 :  23,  OB 


NAH 


NAM 


NA'CHOR,  Josh.  24:2.  1.  The  name 
of  Abraham's  grandfather.  Gen.  11  :  23. 

2.  One  of  Abraham's  brothers,  Gen. 
11  :  26,  who  married  Milcah,  tlie  daugh- 
ter of  Haran.  Gen.  11 :  29.  ]Ie  lived  at 
Haran,  which  is  thence  called  "  the  city 
of  Nahor."  Gen.  24:  10. 

NAH'SHON  (enchauter),  a  leader 
of  the  children  of  Judah  in  the  wilder- 
ness. Ex.  6  :  23;  Num.  2  :  3;  10  :  14. 
His  name  occurs  in  the  genealogy  of  our 
Lord,  Matt.  1:4;  Luke  3  :  32,  in  the 
Greek  form,  Naasson. 

NA'HUM  {consolatlou),  one  of  the 
twelve  minor  prophets,  of  whose  private 
life  we  know  only  what  is  contained  in 
Nah.  1 :  1,  where  he  is  called  an  Elkosh- 
ite.  Some  refer  this  name  to  a  place  in 
Galilee,  others  to  a  village  on  the  Tigris. 
The  intimate  acquaintance  the  book 
shows  with  Assyrian  affairs  makes  it 
probable  that  Nahum  lived  an  exile  in 
Assyria,  and  perhaps  at  the  village  on 
the  Tigris. 

Nahum  prophesied  before  the  destruc- 
tion of  Nineveh,  which  he  predicts,  and 
probably  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah. 

Prophecy  of.  It  is  a  poem  of  great 
sublimity,  and  admirable  for  the  ele- 
gance of  its  imagery.  In  ch.  1  the 
prophet  depicts  the  majesty  and  suprem- 
acy^ of  God,  who  will  surely  visit  wick- 
edness with  retribution,  but  at  the  same 
time  is  good  to  such  as  trust  in  him.  ch. 
1  :  7.  Chs.  2  and  3  describe  Avith  much 
beauty  and  poetic  force  the  siege  and 
destruction  of  Nineveh  as  a  punishment 
for  her  wickedness,  ch.  3  :  19.  The 
battle,  the  confusion  of  the  chariots  in 
the  streets,  the  opening  of  the  gates,  the 
destruction  of  the  palace,  the  flight  and 
captivity  of  the  citizens,  and  the  subse- 
quent desolation  of  the  magnificent  city, 
are  brought  before  us  as  in  a  vivid  pano- 
ramic vision. 

NAIL.  1.  C>/^;ieyf»^er.— The  direc- 
tion, Deut.  21 :  12,  in  regard  to  the  treat- 
ment of  the  captive  woman's  nails  is 
translated  in  the  text  of  the  A.  Y.  "  pare 
her  nails ;"  in  the  margin,  "  suffer  to 
grow."  The  text  is  probably  correct,  as 
the  general  intention  of  the  treatment 
was  to  make  her  lay  aside  all  belonging 
to  her  condition  as  an  alien. 

2.  Of  a  tent  or  houae. — Two  Hebrew 
words  are  thus  translated:  (1.)  The 
tent-peg  or  pin,  likewise  a  stake.  Isa. 
22  :  25  ;  33  :  20 ;  Ex.  27  :  19.    That  which 


fastened  the  cloth  in  the  loom  was  called 
a  pin.  Jud.  16  :  14.  The  word,  meta- 
phorically, is  that  which  gives  support 
or  kee])s  together  —  e.  g.,  the  prince. 
Zech.  10  :  4.  (2.)  A  nail  of  iron,  1  Chr. 
22  :  3,  or  of  gold.  2  Chr.  3  :  9. 

NA'IN  {hcaufij),  a  town  in  Galilee 
where  Christ  raised  the  widow's  dead 
son  to  life.  Luke  7:11.  It  is  now 
called  Nein,  and  is  on  the  north-west- 
ern edge  of  Little  Hermon,  6  miles 
south-east  of  Nazareth,  and  25  miles 
south-west  of  Tell  Hum  (Capernaum?). 
Jesus  must  have  met  the  funeral  pro- 
cession on  the  steep  downward  slope, 
down  which  a  road  now  leads  toward 
the  ancient  sepulchral  caves  on  the 
west  side  of  the  village.  The  ruins 
indicate  that  Nain  was  a  considerable 
town,  once  protected  by  walls  and  gates. 
It  is  now  a  miserable  Mohammedan  ham- 
let of  about  twenty  mud  and  stone  houses. 
It  is  in  full  view  of  Mount  Tabor,  and  of- 
ten used  by  travellers  as  a  stopping-place 
for  luncheon. 

NA'IOTH  {habitations),  a  place 
near  Ramah  where  Samuel  dwelt.  1 
Sam.  19  :  18-23;  20  :  1.  Some  inter- 
pret the  word  to  mean  a  school  of 
prophets    over  which   Samuel  presided. 

NA'KED.  The  word  in  the  A.  V. 
is  used  absoluteli/,  as  in  the  case  of 
Adam  and  Eve,  Gen.  2  :  25 ;  compara- 
tively, to  indicate  that  the  usual  outer 
garments  were  missing,  1  Sam.  19  :  24; 
John  21  :  7,  the  loin-cloth  and  the  shirt 
being  kept  on  ;  and  figuratively,  to  de- 
scribe spiritual  destitution.  Rev.  3  :  17. 

NAME.  Gen.  2:19.  A  nam^e  is  a 
word  by  which  a  thing,  or  more  espe- 
cially a  person,  is  made  known.  The 
names  of  places  and  of  persons  in  the 
Bible  have  for  the  most  part,  if  not  all 
of  them,  a  special  significance.  As  now, 
so  then,  children  received  their  names 
either  directly  at  birth  (as  Benjamin, 
Gen.  35  :  18)  or  later,  as  at  circum- 
cision, Luke  1  :  59,  and  at  the  selection 
of  the  mother  (as  Joseph,  Gen.  30  :  24, 
and  Samuel,  1  Sam.  1  :  20),  or  that  of 
the  father  (Gershom,  Ex.  2  :  22).  The 
names  were  given  in  allusion  to  some 
circumstance  at  the  birth  (Benoni,  Gen. 
35  :  18;  Pharez,  Gen.  38  :  29),  or  to 
some  event  prior  to  it  (Samuel,  1  Sam.  1 : 
20),  or  to  some  condition  or  appearance 
of  the  body  (Esau,  Gen.  25  :  25),  or  to 
some  hope  (Joseph,  Gen.  30  :  24),  etc. 

695 


NAO 


NAP 


The  same  is  true  for  localities.  Bethel, 
Peniel,  Gen.  32  :  30,  Mahanaim,  Gen. 
32  :  2,  etc.,  recalled  historical  events. 

The  names  of  persons  were  not  infre- 
quently changed — Benoni  to  Benjamin, 
Gen.  35  :  18,  Abram  to  Abraham,  Gen. 
17  :  5,  Jacob  to  Israel,  Gen.  32  :  28,  Solo- 
mon to  Jedidiah.  2  Sam.  12  :  25,  etc.  The 
name  is  also  sometimes  emphasized  as 
the  true  indication  of  character  or  of 
the  person's  circumstances.  Abigail 
thus  emphasizes  her  husband's  name, 
Nabal  ("fool"),  1  Sam.  25:25;  Esau, 
Jacob's  ('' supplanter "),  Gen.  27:36; 
Naomi,  her  own  ("  my  delight ").  Ruth 
1  :  20. 

There  are  some  words  which  appear 
more  frequently  in  compounds  of  proper 
names  than  others,  and  to  which  we  will 
refer  in  passing.  Beer  means  **  well " 
(Beersheba,  "well  of  the  oath,"  Gen. 
21  :  31);  Beth  means  "house"  (Bethle- 
hem, "house  of  bread");  En  means 
"fountain"  (En-gedi,  "fountain  of  the 
kid");  El  means  "God"  (Samuel, 
"asked  of  God,"  1  Sam.  1:20;  Eli- 
sha,  "God  is  salvation").  On  the 
other  hand,  Bath  means  "  daughter " 
(Bathsheba),  while  Ben  and  liar  mean 
"  son  "  (Benjamin,  Barjonas). 

The  Name  of  God  was  held  in  a  pecu- 
liar reverence.  To  such  an  extent  of  su- 
perstition is  this  carried  that  the  mod- 
ern Jews  never  pronounce  the  word 
"Jehovah,"  it  being  considered  too  sa- 
cred. In  reading  the  0.  T.  they  substi- 
tute "  Adonai  "  for  it.  They  misunder- 
stand the  passage  in  Lev.  24  :  16,  which 
forbids  the  cursing  use  of  "  Jehovah," 
as  forbidding  the  mere  naming.  An 
abuse  of  the  name  of  God  is  expressly 
forbidden  in  the  Decalogue.  Ex.  20  :  7  ; 
Lev.  18  :  21.  In  the  N.  T.  miracles  are 
performed  in  the  name  of  Jesus,  Acts  3  : 
6  ;  4:10,  and  they  who  are  baptized  are 
baptized  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity. 
Matt.  28:  19. 

The  two  special  terms  used  for  God  by 
the  Hebrews  were  "  Elohim  "  and  "  Je- 
hovah" (or  "  Javeh  ").  The  firstcontains 
an  allusion  to  majesty  and  power  ;  the 
second  refers  to  God's  absolute  existence, 
his  eternity  and  unchangeableness,  and 
means  "  I  am."  Ex.  3  :  14.  God  had  not 
been  known  by  this  name  to  Abraham, 
Isaac,  or  Jacob.   Ex.  6  :  3. 

The  many  names  used  of  our  Lord 
are   all   highly  significant.     Emmanuel 


("  God  with  us  ")  points  to  his  incarna- 
tion ;  Jesus  ("  Saviour  ")  to  his  mission 
of  salvation;  Christ  ("Anointed")  to 
his  appointment  as  the  promised  Mes- 
siah ;  Son  of  Man  to  his  humility ;  Son 
of  God  to  his  divine  origin  and 
character.  Amongst  the  many  other 
names  and  titles  of  Christ  are  Shiloh. 
Gen.  49  :  10,  the  Wonderful,  etc.,  Isa.  9  : 
6,  Prophet,  High  Priest,  King,  the  Word, 
John  1:1,  etc. 

NAO'MI  [mij  deliyht),  the  wife  of 
Elimelech,  and  the  mother-in-law  of 
Ruth,  who  moved  with  their  two  sons 
from  Judaea  to  Moab  in  the  time  of  a 
famine.  Ruth  1:2.  Elimelech  died,  and 
also  his  two  sons,  each  leaving  a  widow  ; 
Naomi,  thus  bereaved,  started  back  to 
her  native  country.  Orphah  remained 
behind,  but  Ruth  accompanied  her.  Once 
back  in  Bethlehem,  she  wished  to  be 
known  by  the  name  Mara  ("bitterness"). 
She  thenceforth  acted  thepart  of  a  faith- 
ful mother  to  Ruth.  Naomi  is  one  of  the 
most  pathetic  characters  in  all  history, 
and  engages  our  admiration  by  her  calm 
and  unselfish  conduct  in  the  hour  of  af- 
fliction. 

NA'PHISH  (recreation),  a  son  of 
Ishmael.  Gen.  25  :  15  ;   1  Chr.  1 :  31. 

NAPH'TALI  (mi,  wresfliug),  Gen. 
30  :  8,  OR  NEPH'THALIM,  Matt.  4 : 
15,  a  son  of  Jacob  by  Bilhah,  Rachel's 
handmaid. 

Tkibe  of.  At  Mount  Sinai  the  tribe 
numbered  53,400  fighting-men.  Num.  1: 
43  ;  on  the  entrance  into  Canaan,  45,400. 
26  :  50.  Jacob,  from  his  death-bed,  rep- 
resented Naphtali  as  a  "  hind  let  loose; 
he  giveth  goodly  words."  Gen.  49  :  21. 
Barak,  Jud.  4  :  10,  was  the  chief  hero 
which  the  tribe  produced.  At  the  divis- 
ion of  the  kingdom  Naphtali  became  a 
part  of  the  northern  monarchy.  Later, 
its  territory  was  overrun  and  its  people 
taken  captive  by  Tiglath-pileser  of  As- 
syria. 2  Kgs.  15  :  29.  Isaiah  prophesied 
of  the  Messianic  light  to  break  over  her, 
9  :  1,  2,  which  was  fulfilled.  Matt.  4  :  15, 
16. 

NAPH'TALI  (my  wrestlinf/),  the 
territory  given  to  the  tribe  descended 
from  the  fifth  son  of  Jacob.  Gen.  30  :  8  ; 
35  :  25  ;  Ex.  1 :  4 ;  1  Chr.  2:2.  On  leav- 
ing Egypt  the  tribe  numbered  53,400 
fighting-men.  Num.  1 :  42,  43  ;  on  reach- 
ing the  plains  of  Moab  it  had  decreased 
to  45,400.  Num.  26  :  48-50.  Jacob  bless- 

597 


NAP 


NAZ 


ed  this  tribe  and  compared  it  to  a  hind 
or  gazelle.  Gen.  49:  21.  Moses  describes 
its  territory.  Dent.  33  :  23.  The  land  of 
Naphtali  was  the  most  northerly  of  the 
portion  allotted  to  Israel,  and  its  bound- 
aries are  found  in  Josh.  19 :  32-39; 
The  territory  reached  to  the  Leontes, 
and  east  to  the  Jordan,  the  waters  of 
Merom,  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  by 
which  it  was  separated  from  Manasseh 
east  of  the  Jordan.  It  afforded  a  great 
variety  of  soil  and  climate.  Josephus 
describes  the  fertility  and  productive- 
ness of  this  region  along  the  Jordan  and 
Sea  of  Galilee  in  glowing  language. 
The  table-lands  west  of  the  Jordan  val- 
ley were  2000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  in 
the  mountains  of  Naphtali  were  found 
ridges  and  peaks,  not  barren  and  bleak, 
but  covered  with  oak,  terebinth,  aromatic 
shrubs,  and  flowers  of  variegated  hues. 
It  still  teems  with  animal  life,  beasts  and 
birds  being  abundant.     See  Palestine. 

History. — Stanley  says  Naphtali  was 
one  of  the  four  northern  tribes  which 
kept  aloof  from  the  great  historical 
movements  of  Israel.  It  gained  renown 
in  the  war  against  Jabin  and  Sisera, 
Jud.  4,  6,  but  later  the  people  appear  to 
have  become  allied  with  their  Gentile 
neighbors,  and  some  of  their  cities  were 
transferred  to  Hiram  of  Tyre.  1  Kgs. 
9 :  11-13.  Their  land  lay  in  the  track  of 
the  invaders  from  the  north,  and  their 
cities  were  captured,  as  Ijon,  Abel,  Ka- 
desh,  and  Hazor.  1  Kgs.  15:20;  2  Chr. 
16  :  4.  Tiglath-pileser,  b.  c.  720,  overran 
Northern  Palestine,  and  Naj^htali  was 
the  first  territory  depopulated  and  its 
people  carried  into  captivity.  It  was 
afterward  repeopled  by  a  mixed  popula- 
tion. Within  its  territory  Jesus  taught 
and  wrought  many  miracles,  though  the 
land  is  alluded  to  by  its  ancient  title 
only  once  in  the  N.  T.,  where  it  occurs 
as  Nephthalim.  Matt.  4  :  15.  See  also 
Capernaum,  Galilee,  and  Tiberias. 

NAPH'TUHIM,  an  Egyptian 
tribe  descended  from  Mizraim.  Gen.  10  : 
13. 

NAP'KIN  is  used  in  the  A.  V.  in  a 
wider  sense  than  at  present — as  a  little 
cloth,  which  is  the  literal  meaning  of  the 
word.  Luke  19  :  20. 

NARCIS'SUS  (daffodil),  a  Christian 
at  Rome  to  whom   Paul  sends  greeting. 
Rom.  16  :  11.    He  is  otherwise  unknown. 
The  name  was  a  common  one. 
598 


NA'THAN  (given).  1.  A  distin- 
guished prophet  of  Judaea,  who  lived  in 
the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon  and 
enjoyed  a  large  share  of  their  confidence. 
2  Sam.  7  :  2.  To  him  David  first  in- 
timated his  design  to  build  the  temple, 
and  he  was  divinely  instructed  to  inform 
the  king  that  this  honor  was  not  for  him, 
but  for  his  posterity.  Nathan  was  also 
charged  with  the  divine  message  to  David 
upon  the  occasion  of  his  sin  against 
Uriah,  which  he  conveyed  under  the 
significant  allegory  of  the  rich  man  and 
the  ewe-lamb.  Nathan  was  one  of  David's 
biographers.  1  Chr.  29  :  29,  and  also 
Solomon's.   2  Chr.  9  :  29. 

2.  One  of  the  sons  of  David  by  Bath- 
sheba.  1  Chr.  3  :  5. 

3.  Father  of  one  of  David's  warriors. 
2  Sam.  23  :  36. 

4.  One  of  the  chief  men  who  returned 
to  Jerusalem  with  Ezra.   Ezr.  8  :  16. 

5.  A  descendant  of  Caleb.  1  Chr.  2  :  36. 
NATHAN'AEL    (gift  of    God),  a 

native  of  Cana  of  Galilee,  John  21  :  2, 
and  an  Israelite  without  guile,  as  stated 
by  our  Lord.  John  1  :  47.  He  was  con- 
ducted by  Philip  (immediately  after  his 
call)  into  tlie  presence  of  Christ.  He 
went  an  incredulous  Hebrew,  with  the 
words  on  his  lips,  "  Can  there  any  good 
thing  come  out  of  Nazareth  ?"  Jesus, 
however,  at  once  convinces  him  that  he 
is  the  Messiah  by  the  exhibition  of  his 
omniscience,  declaring  that  he  had  seen 
Nathanael  under  the  fig  tree  before  ever 
Philip  had  called  him.  Nathanael  con- 
fesses him  to  be  the  Son  of  God  and  the 
King  of  Israel. 

The  name  Nathanael  occurs  only  in 
John.  For  this  reason,  combined  with 
the  fact  that  John  never  mentions  the 
name  of  Bartholomew,  it  is  generally 
supposed  that  the  two  are  identical. 

NA'THAN-ME'LECH,  an  officer 
in  Jerusalem.  2  Kgs.  23  :  11. 

NAUGHT'Y,NAUGHT'INESS, 
originally  "  nothing,  nothingness,  " 
mean,  in  the  A.  V.,  "  wicked,  wicked- 
ness." Prov.  6  :  12. 

NA'UM,  an  ancestor  of  our  Lord. 
Luke  3  :25. 

NAVES,  the  centres  of  wheels,  from 
which  the  spokes  radiate.   1  Kgs.  7  :  33. 

NAZ'ARENE'.  Matt.  2  :  23.  This 
term  is  used  of  Jesus  in  this  passage  as 
a  fulfilment  of  prophecy.  It  is  also  used 
of  him  (though  translated  "  of  Nazareth  ") 


NAZ 


NAZ 


by  Bartimeus,  Mark  10  :  47,  in  the  in- 
scription on  the  cross,  John  19  :  19,  by 
Peter,  Acts  2  :  22,  by  Paul,  Acts  26  :  9, 
by  our  Lord  himself.  Acts  22  :  8,  etc. 
The  followers  of  Christ  are  also  denom- 
inated "  Nazarenes,"  Acts  24  :  5,  by 
enemies. 

The  expression  has  been  derived  from 
the  Hebrew  word  Netzar,  translated 
"Branch."  Isa.  11 :  1.  It  has  also  been 
taken  in  a  general  sense  to  refer  to  the 
humiliation  of  our  Lord,  Nazareth  being 
at  this  time  under  a  stigma.  John  1 :  46. 
In  this  case  no  specific  prophecy  can  be 
found  answering  literally  to  the  descrip- 
tion, but  many  in  a  general  way  which 
refer  to  the  humiliation  of  the  Messiah. 

NAZ'ARETH  {separated.''),  a  city 
of  Galilee,  famous  as  the  home  of  Jesus 
during  his  childhood  and  youth  until  he 
began  his  public  ministry.  It  was  about 
14  miles  from  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  6  miles 
west  of  Tabor,  and  66  miles  north  of 
Jerusalem  in  a  straight  line.  On  the 
north  side  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  is  a 
crescent-shaped  valley  about  a  mile  long 
and  averaging  a  quarter  of  a  mile  wide, 
but  swelling  out  into  a  broader  basin, 
completely  shut  in  by  a  wall  of  gently- 
rounded  hills,  some  fifteen  in  number, 
and  from  400  to  500  feet  in  height.  With- 
in this  basin,  and  on  the  lower  slope  of 
these  hills,  is  Nazareth.  Although  the 
village  itself  was  shut  in  by  these  hills, 
the  view  from  the  summit  behind  the 
town  is  quite  extensive,  taking  in  Her- 
mon,  Carmel,  Gilead,  Tabor,  Gilboa,  and 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  views  in  the  Holy  Land. 

History. — Nazareth  is  not  mentioned 
in  the  0.  T.  nor  by  any  classical  author, 
nor  by  any  writer  before  the  time  of 
Christ.  It  was  for  some  unknown  reason 
held  in  disrepute  among  the  Jews  of 
Judaea.  John  1 :  46.  It  was  situated  in 
a  mountain,  Luke  4  :  29,  within  the  pro- 
vince of  Galilee,  Mark  1  :  9,  and  near 
Cana,  as  John  2  : 1,  2,  II  seems  to  imply. 
There  was  a  precipice  near  the  town, 
down  which  the  people  proposed  to  cast 
Jesus.  Luke  4  :  29.  It  is  mentioned 
twenty-nine  times  in  the  N.  T.  At  Naz- 
areth the  angel  appeared  to  Mary ;  the 
home  of  Joseph,  Luke  1 :  26 ;  2  :  39,  and 
to  that  place  Joseph  and  Mary  returned 
after  their  flight  into  Egypt.  Matt.  2  :  23. 
The  hills  and  places  about  the  town 
possess  a  deep  and  hallowed  interest  to 


the  Christian  as  the  home  of  Jesus  during 
his  childhood  and  youth,  until  he  entered 
upon  his  ministry,  and  had  preached  in 
the  synagogue,  and  was  rejected  by  his 
own  townspeople.  Even  after  Capernaum 
became  "  his  own  city"  he  was  known  as 
"Jesus  of  Nazareth,"  Matt.  13:54-58; 
Mark  6:1-6;  Acts  2 :  22 ;  3:6;  4:10; 
6  :  14,  and  his  disciples  were  called 
"Nazarenes."  In  the  days  of  Constan- 
tine,  Nazareth  was  peopled  by  Samaritan 
Jews,  but  in  the  sixth  century  Cliristian 
pilgrimages  began  to  be  made  to  the 
town.  In  1109,  Tancred  held  (ialilee,  and 
Nazareth  became  the  seat  of  a  Christian 
bishopric.  In  1160  a  council  was  held 
at  Nazareth  which  made  Alexander  III. 
pope  of  Rome.  During  the  Middle  Ages 
Christian  pilgrims  frequently  visited 
Nazareth.  When  the  Turks  conquered 
Palestine,  in  1517,  the  Christians  were 
driven  from  the  town.  In  1620  the 
Franciscan  monks  gained  a  foothold 
there,  and  began  to  rebuild  the  village. 
At  the  battle  of  Mount  Tabor,  in  1799, 
Napoleon  with  his  army  encamped  near 
Nazareth. 

The  town  is  now  called  En-Ndsirah, 
or  Nasrah,  and  has  from  5000  to  6000 
population,  though  the  Turkish  ofl&cials 
estimate  it  at  10,000.  There  are  about 
2000  Mohammedans,  2500  Greeks,  800 
Latins,  and  100  Protestants.  The  in- 
habitants pursue  farming,  gardening, 
and  various  handicrafts,  and  the  village 
is  quite  a  centre  of  trade  for  the  adjoin- 
ing districts.  The  houses  are  well  built. 
There  are  a  large  Latin  church  and  mon- 
astery, a  synagogue,  a  Greek  church,  a 
fine  Protestant  church  under  the  care  of 
the  English  Church  Missionary  Society, 
a  Protestant  hospital,  and  a  large  female 
orphanage  (completed  1874).  The  S3'na- 
gogue  is  claimed  by  tradition  to  be  the 
one  in  which  Christ  taught,  but  cannot 
be  traced  to  a  date  earlier  than  a.d.  57n. 
Near  the  Greek  church  of  the  Annunci- 
ation is  a  spring  called  "  Marj^'s  Well," 
to  which  the  women  resort  every  even- 
ing with  their  water-jars  for  their  daily 
supply,  and  to  which  Mary  with  her  holy 
Child  may  have  gone.  The  women  of 
Nazareth,  like  those  of  Bethlehem,  are 
distinguished  for  beauty  above  their  sis- 
ters in  the  East.  The  brow  of  the  hill 
over  which  the  enraged  Nazarenes  threat- 
ened to  cast  Jesus  is  probably  near  the 
Maronite  church,  though  tradition  places 

599 


NAZ 


NEB 


it  at  the  "Mount  of  Precipitation,"  2  or 
3  miles  south  of  the  town. 

NAZ'ARITES.  Num.  6  :  2,  etc. 
The  term  is  derived  from  a  Hebrew  word 
signifying  "to  separate."  A  Nazarite, 
under  the  ancient  law,  was  one,  either 
male  or  female,  engaged  by  a  peculiar 
vow.  It  required  total  abstinence  from 
wine  and  all  intoxicating  liquors  and  the 
fruit  of  the  vine,  that  the  hair  should  be 
allowed  to  grow  without  being  shorn, 
and  that  all  contamination  with  dead 
bodies  should  be  avoided.  The  Nazarite 
was  not  even  to  approach  the  corpse  of 
father  or  mother.  Num.  6:  7,  and  if  by 
accident  this  should  occur,  he  was  re- 
quired to  shave  his  head,  make  offerings, 
and  renew  the  vow.  When  the  time  of 
Nazariteship  had  expired,  the  person 
brought  an  offering  to  the  temple ;  the 
priest  then  cut  off  his  hair  and  burnt  it; 
after  which  the  Nazarite  was  free  from 
his  vow  and  might  again  drink  wine. 
The  term  of  the  vow  is  left  indefinite. 
"  The  days  of  the  vow"  is  the  expression 
in  Num.  6.  We  know,  however,  that 
there  were  perpetual  Nazarites.  Samson 
belonged  to  this  class.  It  is  also  prob- 
able that  Samuel  and  John  the  Bap- 
tist were  perpetual  Nazarites.  Hannah 
promised  the  Lord  that  no  razor  should 
touch  the  head  of  her  child  if  the  Lord 
would  give  her  one,  1  Sam.  1  :  11,  and 
the  angel  predicted  to  Zacharias  that 
John  would  abstain  entirely  from  wine 
and  strong  drink.  Luke  1 :  15. 

It  has  sometimes  been  asserted,  on  the 
basis  of  his  having  his  head  shorn  at 
Cenchrsea,  that  Paul  was  a  Nazarite. 
Acts  18  :  18.  This  is  nothing  more  than 
a  conjecture. 

The  exact  significance  of  this  vow  is 
difficult  to  ascertain.  The  most  plausible 
and  satisfactory  explanation  is  that  it 
indicates  an  entire  consecration  of  the 
body  to  the  Lord,  and  is  in  the  spirit 
of  St.  Paul's  exhortation  to  present  the 
body  a  living  sacrifice,  holy  and  accept- 
able, unto  God.  Rom.  12 :  6.  It  is  ex- 
pressly said  that  during  the  days  of  his 
separation  the  Nazarite  "  is  holy  unto 
the  Lord."  Num.  6  :  8.  The  significance 
of  the  different  exercises  is  as  follows : 
The  touch  of  the  dead  was  considered 
defiling  at  all  times,  and  the  indulgence 
in  strong  drink  and  wine  was  expressly 
forbidden  to  the  officiating  priests.  The 
meaning  of  the  long  hair,  it  has  been 


suggested,  is  this :  Long  hair  is  a  sign 
of  effeminacy  and  weakness  in  a  man.  1 
Cor.  11  :  14.  In  letting  his  hair  grow 
the  Nazarite  manifested  his  entire  sub- 
jection to  God  and  his  relinquishment 
of  all  trust  in  human  strength. 

NE'AII  {shaking ),  Si  town  on  the  east 
side  of  Zebulun.  Josh.  19  :  13.  Porter 
suggests  'A  in,  about  3  miles  north-west 
of  Nazareth,  as  its  site. 

NEAP'OLiIS  (iieio  city),  a  place  in 
Northern  Greece  where  Paul  first  landed 
in  Europe,  and  where  he  probably  landed 
on  his  second  visit.  Acts  16  :  11 ;  20  :  1, 
and  whence  he  embarked  on  his  last 
journey  to  Jerusalem.  Acts  20  :  6.  It 
was  on  a  rocky  eminence,  the  most  con- 
spicuous object  being  a  temple  of  Diana, 
which  crowned  the  top  of  the  hill.  The 
great  Roman  road  Via  Eynatia,  from 
Macedonia  to  Thrace,  passed  through 
Neapolis,  which  was  8  or  10  miles  from 
Philippi.  It  is  now  a  Turko-  Grecian  town 
of  5000  or  6000  population,  and  called 
Kavalla ;  it  has  numerous  ruins.  An- 
other site  has  been  proposed  (Eski)  for 
Neapolis,  but  the  arguments  for  it  are 
unsatisfactory.  The  Roman  name  of 
Shechem  was  also  Neapolis,  but  it  is  not 
so  named  in  Scripture. 

NEARI'AH  (servant  of  Jehovah). 
1.  One  of  the  six  sons  of  Shemaiah.  1  Chr. 
3:22. 

2.  A  leader  in  the  tribe  of  Simeon.  1 
Chr.  4  :  42. 

NEB'AI  {fruitful),  one  of  those  who 
sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah. 
Neh.  10:19. 

NEBA'IOTH,  Isa.  60  :  7,  or  NE- 
BA'JOTH  {heights).  Gen.  25  :  13, 
the  first-born,  1  Chr.  1  :  29,  son  of 
Ishmael,  whose  descendants  are  sup- 
posed to  have  settled  in  Arabia,  and  to 
have  been  the  Nabatheans  of  Greek  and 
Roman  history.  They  were  a  pastoral 
people,  Isa.  60  :  7.  whence  the  beautiful 
figure  of  the  prophet  above  cited  respect- 
ing the  gathering  of  the  Gentile  nations 
to  the  sceptre  of  the  Messiah.  Petra  was 
their  chief  city. 

NEBAL'LAT  (hidden  folh/),  sitown 
peopled  by  the  Benjamites.  Neh,  11 : 
34.  The  Pal.  Memoirs  locate  it  at  Beit 
Nebdla,  a  village  on  the  plain,  about 
4  miles  north-east  of  Ludd,  where  are 
ruins  of  cisterns  and  large  cut  stones. 

NE'BAT  (aspect),  the  father  of  King 
Jeroboam.   1  Kgs.  11  :  26  ;  12  :  2,  etc. 

601 


NEB 


NEB 


NE'BO  (proclaimer),  one  of  the  As- 
syrian deities,  who  is  represented,  with 


Nebo.     (From  a  Statue  in  the  British  Museum.') 

Bel,  as  being  unable  to  resist  the  destruc- 
tion to  which  Cyrus  subjected  their  idols. 
Isa.  46  :  1.  This  god  was  called  "  he 
who  possesses  intelligence,"  and  statues 
of  him  are  still  preserved.  One  is  in  the 
British  Museum  which  was  erected  by 
the  Assyrian  monarch  Pul.  The  word 
"  Nebo "  occurs  in  the  compounds  Na- 
bopolassar,  Nebuchadnezzar,  etc.,  which 
points  to  the  esteem  in  which  the  god 
was  held.  Nebo  was  regarded  as  the 
protector  against  misfortune. 

NE'BO  (prophet),  a  mountain  of 
Moab  '•  over  against  Jericho,"  from  which 
Moses  beheld  the  land  of  Canaan.  Deut. 
32  :  49.  "  And  Moses  went  up  from  the 
plains  of  Moab  unto  the  mountain  of 
Nebo,  to  the  top  of  Pisgah,  .  .  .  and  the 
Lord  showed  him  all  the  land  of  Gilead 
unto  Dan."  Deut.  34 :  1.  Nebo  was  a 
mountain  in  the  range  of  mountains 
called  Abarim.  Eusebius  says  it  was 
shown  in  his  day  on  the  other  side  of 
Jordan,  six  miles  to  the  west  of  Hesh- 
bon.  If  then  definitely  known,  its  loca- 
tion was  afterward  lost.  Of  the  peaks 
in  the  Abarim  range  which  have  been 
suggested  as  Nebo  are — Jebel  Atturus,  but 
this  is  not  "  over  against  Jericho,"  and 
602 


is  too  far  south  :  Jehel  JiVdd,  1 5  miles  far- 
ther north  than  Jericho,  and  therefore  not 
answering  to  the  scriptural  narrative. 

The  explorations  of  De  Sauley,  Due 
de  Luynes,  Tristram,  Warren,  Paine,  and 
Merrill  have  led  to  the  conclusion  that 
Nebo  was  at  the  northern  end  of  the 
Abarim  range  of  mountains,  i.  e.  Jebel 
Nebd.  This  mountain  was  5  or  6  miles 
south-west  of  Heshbon,  is  about  2700 
feet  high,  and  commands  a  fine  view  of 
the  country.  Paine  appears  to  apply 
Jebel  Nebd  to  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
northern  group  of  peaks,  and  Jebel 
Si'ii/Iinh  to  the  western  portion ;  Dr. 
Merrill  claims  that  the  Arabs  use  Jebel 
Nebd,  Jebel  Miisa,  and  Jebel  Si(t(/fi((h 
indiscriminately  for  this  group.  While 
the  discussions  respecting  Pisgah  have 
been  sharp,  the  majority  of  explorers 
and  scholars  agree  in  identifying  Nebo 
with  the  northern  end  of  the  Abarim 
range,  Jebel  Nebd.     See  Pisgah. 

NE'BO,  a  city  east  of  the  Jordan; 
rebuilt  by  the  Gadites,  Num.  32  :  3,  38; 
33  :  47 ;  captured  by  the  Moabites.  Isa. 
15  :  2;  Jer.  48  ;  1,  22.  It  was  8  miles 
south  of  Heshbon ;  perhaps  el  Hdbia. 
2.  A  town  in  Benjamin,  Neh.  7:33; 
possibly  Nuba,  7  miles  north-west  of 
Hebron. 

NEBUCHADNEZ'ZAR  {may 
Nebo  2^>'oteft  the  crnini  /).  or,  more  cor- 
rectly, NEBUCHADREZ'ZAR, 
the  son  and  successor  of  Nabopolassar, 
the  founder  of  the  Babylonish  mon- 
archy, was  the  most  illustrious  of  these 
kings,  and  one  of  the  greatest  rulers  of 
history.  2  Kgs.  24  :  1 ;  Dan.  1-4.  We 
know  most  of  him  through  the  book  of 
Daniel;   but  we  read  of  him  also  in  Be- 


Cameo  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 

rosus  and  upon  numerous  monuments. 
In  the  Berlin  Museum  there  is  a  black 


NEB 


NEB 


cameo  with  his  head  upon  it,  cut  by  his 
order,  with  the  inscription,  "  In  honor 
of  Merodach,  his  lord,  Nebuchadnezzar, 
king  of  Babylon,  in  his  life-tiuie  had 
this  made."  From  these  various  sources 
the  following  details  have  been  derived. 
Nebuchadnezzar  was  entrusted  by  his 
father  with  the  important  task  of  re- 
pelling Pharaoh-necho,  and  succeeded 
in  defeating  him  at  Carchemish,  on 
the  Euphrates  (b.  c.  605),  Jer.  46  :  2, 
and  brought  under  subjection  all  the 
territory  Necho  had  occupied,  including 
Syria  and  Palestine,  overrunning  these 
countries,  taking  Jcusalem,  and  carry- 
ing off  a  portion  of  the  inhabitants  as 
prisoners,  i-ncluding  Daniel  and  his  com- 
panions. Dan.  1  :  1-4.  Having  learned 
that  his  father  had  died,  Nebuchadnezzar 
hastened  back  to  Babylon  and  planted 
himself  firmly  on  the  throne,  giving  to 
his  generals  instructions  to  bring  the 
Jewish,  Phoenician,  Syrian,  and  Egyp- 
tian captives  to  Babylon.  Thus  the  re- 
mark, "In  his  days  Nebuchadnezzar, 
king  of  Babylon,  came  up,  and  Jehoi- 
akim  became  his  servant  three  years," 
2  Kgs.  24  :  1,  is  easily  explained.  The 
title  is  given  by  anticipation,  and  the 
"  three  years  "  are  to  be  reckoned  from 
605  to  603  inclusive.  The  rebellion  of 
Jehoiakim,  entered  upon,  probably,  be- 
cause Nebuchadnezzar  was  carrying  on 
wars  in  other  parts  of  Asia,  took  place 
B.C.  602,  and  Was  punished  by 
the  irruption  of  Chaldaeans, 
Syrians,  Moabites,  and  Am- 
monites, incited,  perhaps,  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  who,  as  soon 
as  possible,  sent  his  troops 
against  Jerusalem,  and  had 
him  taken  prisoner,  but  ulti- 
mately released  him.  See  Je- 
hoiakim. 2  Kgs.  24  :  2.  After 
his  death  his  son  Jehoiachin 
reigned,  and  against  him  Ne- 
buchadnezzar, for  the  third 
time,  invaded  Palestine  and 
besieged  Jerusalem.  Jehoia- 
chin and  his  family  and  house- 
hold voluntarily  submitted 
themselves,  the  city  was  t;iken. 
and  all  the  treasures  of  the 
house  of  the  Lord  and  of  the 
palace,  and  all  the  principal  inhabit- 
ants of  the  city,  were  carried  to  Baby- 
lon. 2  Kgs.  24:12-16.  Mattaniah,  the 
uncle  of  Jehoiachin,  whose  name  was 


changed  to  Zedekiah,  was  put  upon  the 
throne,  but  after  a  reign  of  nearly  ten 
years  he  rebelled,  and  was  punished  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  who  went  up  against 
Jerusalem  and  reduced  the  city  to  the 
horrors  of  famine  before  taking  it. 
Zedekiah's  two  sons  were  killed  before 
his  eyes  and  then  his  eyes  put  out,  and 
he,  as  a  captive,  was  carried  to  Babylon. 
B.  c.  588.  2  Kgs.  25  :  7.  On  Nebuchad- 
nezzar's order,  Jeremiah  was  kindly 
treated.  Jer.  39  :  11-14. 

The  scenes  related  in  the  first  four 
chapters  of  Daniel  occurred  during 
Nebuchadnezzar's  reign.  See  Danikl. 
Two  incidents  there  recorded  have  re- 
ceived remarkable  confirmation  from 
recently-deciphered  inscriptions,  which 
are  quoted  by  Dr.  Buddensieg  in  his 
pamphlet  Die  Assyrischen  Aiisgrnhuvgen 
nnd  das  Alte  Tentnment,  1880  ("The 
Assyrian  Excavations  and  the  Old 
Testament"),  pp.  64,  65.  The  words, 
"  The  king  spake  and  said,  Is  not  this 
great  Babylon,  that  I  have  built  for 
the  house  of  my  kingdom,  by  the  might 
of  my  power,  and  for  the  honor  of  my 
majesty  ?"  Dan.  4  :  30,  are  proved  to 
be  characteristic  by  those  on  an  in- 
scription :  "  I  say  it,  I  have  built  the 
great  house  which  is  the  centre  of 
Babylon  for  the  seat  of  my  rule  in 
Babylon."  Of  the  king's  madness  there 
is   of  course   no    direct   mention.      But 


-^5^  ^  A\<} 


^TT— I 


^^:^^^Ei^^  ^ 


^^ai^liH^Hi^JiH 


<T-H 


^^^  «^  >\^^t^  ^ 


^J>  :^^>S?<|>>  ]2if 


Inscribed  Brick  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 

there  is  an  inscription  which  is  read  by 
Sir  H.  Rawlinson  in  a  manner  which 
finds  its  readiest  explnnation  in  the 
fact   stated   in    Dan.  4  :  33  :    "  For   four 

603 


NEB 


NEG 


years  the  residence  of  my  kingdom  did 
not  delight  my  heart;  in  no  one  of  my 
possessions  did  I  erect  any  important 
building  by  my  might.  I  did  not  put  up 
buildings  in  Babylon  for  myself  and  for 
the  honor  of  my  name.  In  the  worship 
of  Merodach,  my  god,  I  did  not  sing  his 
praise,  nor  did  I  provide  his  altar  with 
sacrifices,  nor  clean  the  canals." 

Nebuchadnezzar  was  a  mighty  mon- 
arch, and  is  denominated  *'  king  of 
kings  "  by  Daniel,  2 :  37,  and  ruler  of  a 
*'  kingdom  with  power  and  strength  and 
glory."  He  gave  much  attention  to  the 
architectural  adornment  of  Babylon,  and 
amongst  other  great  structures  built  the 
hanging-gardens,  on  a  large  and  artificial 
mound,  terraced  up  to  look  like  a  hill. 
This  great  work,  called  by  the  ancients 
one  of  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  world, 
was  executed  in  order  to  please  his  wife, 
whose  maiden  home  had  been  in  a  hilly 
country.  Secular  history  also  tells  us 
of  vast  projects  of  irrigation  and  a  canal- 
system  which  he  carried  out.  An  idea 
of  the  extent  of  this  monarch's  building 
enterprises  may  be  drawn  from  the  fact 
that  nine-tenths  of  the  bricks  found 
amongst  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  capital 
are  inscribed  with  his  name. 

Nebuchadnezzar  was  a  cruel  despot  and 
the  perfect  type  of  an  Oriental  autocrat, 
as  is  proven  by  the  murder  of  the  two 
boys  in  the  presence  of  their  father, 
Zedekiah,  the  resolution  to  punish  a 
failure  to  discover  his  dream,  Dan.  2, 
with  the  death  of  the  astrologers,  etc., 
and  the  requisition  of  worship  for  the 
golden  image  on  the  plain  of  Dura.  He 
is  said  to  have  worshipped  the  ''  King  of 
heaven,"  Dan.  4  :  37,  but  it  may  be 
questioned  whether  he  did  not  conceive 
of  the  Jehovah  of  the  Hebrews  to  be  only 
one  of  many  gods.  He  died  about  B.  c. 
J61.  after  a  reign  of  44  years. 

NEBUCHADREZ^ZAR,  Jer.  21 : 
2.  7,  and  elsewhere  in  Jeremiah.  Eze. 
26  :  7,  the  more  correct  translitera- 
tion of  the  name  Nebuchadnezzar, 
which   see. 

NEBUSHAS'BAN  {Neho  naves 
me),  the  chief  of  the  eunuchs  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. Jer.  39  :  13. 

NEBUZAR-A^DAN  {Nebo  seuds 
posterity),  captain  of  the  body-guard 
of  Nebuchadnezzar.  2  Kgs.  25  :  8.  He 
conducted  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  to  a 
successful  issue,  the  particulars  of  which 
604 


are  given  in  2  Kgs.  25  : 8-21.  He  treated 
Jeremiah  with  generous  consideration,  as 
Nebuchadnezzar  commanded.  Jer.  39  : 
11;  40  :  1.  His  speech  to  Jeremiah  is 
preserved  in  Jer.  40  :  2,  sqq.  When 
Nebuchadnezzar,  five  years  later,  be- 
sieged Tyre,  Nebuzar-adan  came  again 
to  Jerusalem,  and  carried  off  seven  hun- 
dred and  forty-five  Jews  more  into  cap- 
tivity. Jer.  32  :  30. 

NE'CHO,  a  king  of  Egypt,  son  of 
Psammetichus,  founder  of  the  twenty- 
sixth  dynasty,  A.  d.  612-596.  He  greatly 
enlarged  Egj'ptian  trade.  For  peaceful 
and  warlike  operations  he  had  ships 
built  after  the  pattern  of  the  Syrian 
triremes.  He  endeavored  to  unite  the 
Red  and  Mediterranean  Seas.  Herod- 
otus states  (II.  ^  158)  that  120,000 
Egyptians  lost  their  lives  in  making 
the  excavation.  But  he  discontinued 
his  project  in  consequence  of  an  oracle 
which  warned  him  "that  he  was  labor- 
ing for  the  barbarians,"  as  the  Egyptians 
called  all  such  as  spoke  a  language  dif- 
ferent from  their  own.  It  was  after  this 
that  he  built  the  ships  mentioned  above. 
He  sent  out  a  fleet  manned  by  Phoeni- 
cians, which  circumnavigated  Afiica  in 
three  years.  He  also  directed  military 
operations  against  enfeebled  Assyria, 
but  was  defeated  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
at  Carchemish,  on  the  Euphrates,  b.  c. 
605.  History  relates  no  further  wars 
of  Necho's.  He  is  brought  before  us  in 
the  sacred  narrative  first  in  this  expe- 
dition against  Assyria.  2  Chr.  35  :  20. 
King  Josiah  marched  against  him,  and 
closed  with  him  in  battle  in  spite  of  the 
message  he  sent  that  he  was  under  a 
divine  commission  in  making  war.  The 
battle  occurred  at  Megiddo,  and  Josiah 
was  killed  by  an  arrow.  On  his  return 
Necho  deposed  the  son  of  Josiah,  Jeho- 
ahaz,  whom  the  people  had  proclaimed 
king,  and  put  on  the  throne  Eliakim, 
whose  name  he  changed  to  Jehoiakim. 
2  Chr.  36  :  4. 

NECROMANCER.  Deut.  18  :  11. 
Sec  Divination. 

NEDABI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  im- 
pelled), a  descendant  of  David.  1  Chr. 
9  :  18. 

NEG'INAH  {a  stn'nf/ed  infttrrment), 
used  in  Ps.  61,  title ;  the  singular  of 
"  Neginoth." 

NEG'INOTH,  a  word  occurring 
in  the  titles  of  Ps.  4,  6,  54,  65,  67,  76, 


KEH 


NEH 


and  in  the  margin  of  Hab.  3:19.  It 
seems  to  be  a  general  designation  for 
musical  instruments,  and  is  translated 
"stringed  instruments"  in  Hab.  3:19. 
It  thus  includes  the  harp,  sackbut,  etc. 

NEHEL'AMITE,  an  appellative 
of  Shemaiah,  Jer.  29  :  24,  31,  32,  and 
translated  in  the  margin  "  dreamer."  i 
As  no  town  of  Nehelam  is  known,  it  is 
possible  the  appellation  is  meant  as  a 
play  on  the  "  dreamers  "  whom  Jeremiah 
denounces. 

NEHEMI'AH  (whorn  Jehovah  con- 
soles). 1.  Son  of  Hachaliah,  the  dis- 
tinguished and  pious  restorer  and  gov- 
ernor of  Jerusalem  after  the  Babylonian 
exile.  The  forlorn  condition  of  the 
remnant  of  returned  Hebrews  in  Jerusa- 
lem awakened  his  deepest  sympathy  and 
enkindled  his  patriotism,  ch.  1  :  4.  The 
condition  of  his  feelings  soon  became 
known  to  King  Artaxerxes,  at  whose 
court  he  held  the  high  position  of  cup- 
bearer. 2:1.  At  his  eager  request,  2  : 
5,  the  king  granted  Nehemiah  permis- 
sion to  return  to  the  land  of  his  fathers, 
2  :  7,  and  gave  him  letters  of  safe  escort 
to  the  governors  beyond  the  Euphrates, 
and  orders  for  timber  on  the  keeper  of 
the  royal  forest. 

At  Jerusalem  desolation  and  ruin  met 
him  on  every  hand,  but  he  makes  the 
proposition  and  oversees  the  execution 
of  restoring  the  city.  2  :  18.  The  people 
co-operate  heartily  with  their  enthusias- 
tic leader  in  the  reconstruction  of  the 
walls  and  gates,  but  the  work  is  not  com- 
pleted without  insidious  and  determined 
opposition.  Sanballat  was  at  the  head 
of  it.  These  enemies  endeavored  to 
overthrow  Nehemiah  by  false  charges 
of  intended  rebellion  against  the  Persian 
supremacy,  6  :  7-19,  and  to  intimidate 
him,  but  all  in  vain. 

The  work  of  reconstruction  accom- 
plished, he  re-established  the  religious 
customs  of  his  fathers  by  bringing  the 
Law  into  new  esteem,  8  :  3,  and  the  re- 
institution  of  the  Sabbath,  offerings,  etc., 
10  :  29,  sqq.  He  also  made  special  legis- 
lation for  the  government  of  the  city. 

Nehemiah  administered  the  govern- 
ment of  Jerusalem  twelve  years,  5  :  14, 
and  at  the  end  of  this  period  returned  to 
Persia,  where  he  remained  for  some  time. 
Neh.  13  :  6.  During  his  absence  most 
flagrant  abuses  crept  in,  which  on  his 
return  he  made  it   his  first  business  to 


correct,  especially  the  violation  of  the 
Sabbath  and  heathen  marriages,  ch.  13. 
By  these  means  he  restored  his  people, 
in  some  degree,  to  their  former  happy 
condition,  and  probably  remained  in 
power  till  his  death,  which  it  is  supposed 
took  place  in  Jerusalem.  Few  men  in 
any  age  of  the  world  have  combined  in 
themselves  a  more  rigid  .adherence  to 
duty,  a  sterner  opposition  to  wrong,  pri- 
vate or  public,  a  more  unswerving  faith 
in  God,  or  a  purer  patriotism,  than  Nehe- 
miah. 

Book  of,  is  the  sixteenth  in  the  order 
of  the  books  of  the  0.  T.  It  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  continuation  of  or  supple- 
ment to  the  book  of  Ezra,  which  imme- 
diately precedes  it.  It  is  concerned 
with  Nehemiah's  great  work  of  rebuild- 
ing Jerusalem  and  the  reclamation  of 
the  customs  and  laws  of  Moses,  which 
had  fallen  into  desuetude.  It  gives  the 
whole  history  of  this  movement  in  the 
circumstances  which  led  to  it,  the  ele- 
ments of  opposition  which  threatened  to 
defeat  it,  and  the  complete  success  which 
crowned  it.  Incidentally  we  are  admitted 
to  a  glance  at  the  then  condition,  moral 
and  political,  of  the  Jews,  at  the  growing 
bitterness  between  them  and  the  Samari- 
tans, and  at  some  scenes  in  Assyrian  life. 
The  account  of  the  walls  and  gates  in 
ch.  3  is  among  the  most  valuable  docu- 
ments for  the  settlement  of  the  topography 
of  ancient  Jerusalem.  The  registers  and 
lists  of  names  are  also  of  value.  Nehe- 
miah is  the  author  of  the  first  seven 
chapters,  and  part  of  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth.  The  change  from  the  use  of 
the  first  person  to  that  of  the  third  in 
the  remaining  chapters,  and  the  fact 
that  some  names  in  the  lists  were  not 
extant  till  after  Nehemiah's  death,  point 
to  some  other  hand  as  their  author. 

2.  One  who  returned  in  the  first  ex- 
pedition from  Babylon  under  Zerubba- 
bel.  Ezr.  2:2;  Neh.  7:7. 

3.  The  son  of  Azbuk,  who  helped  to 
repair  the  gates  of  Jerusalem.  Neh.  3  : 
16. 

NE'HILOTH,  a  word  found  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fifth  Psalm.  Its  signi- 
fication, "  perforated,"  points  to  wind  in- 
struments, such  as  the  flute.  The  title 
of  the  fifth  Psalm  may  be  thus  trans- 
lated :  "  A  Psalm  of  David,  addressed 
to  the  master  of  music,  presiding  over 
the  flutes." 

605 


NEH 


NEK 


NE'HUM  {comfort),  one  who  re- 
turned with  Zerubbabel,  Neh.  7:7;  he 
is  called  Rehum  in  Ezr.  2  :  2. 

^EHUSH'TA  {brass),  mother  of 
Jehoiachin.  2  K<;s.  24:  8. 

NEHUSH'TAN  {bmzen  thing),  a 
name  given  by  Hezekiah,  king  of  Ju- 
dah,  2  Kgs.  18  :  4.  to  the  brazen  serpent 
that  Moses  had  set  up  in  the  wilderness, 
iN"  um.  21  :  8,  and  which  had  been  pre- 
served by  the  Israelites  to  that  time. 
Hezekiah  caused  it  to  be  burned,  because 
the  people  had  come  to  regard  it  as  an 
idol,  "  burning  incense  to  it,"  and  in  de- 
rision gave  it  the  name  of  '•  Nehushtan." 

NE'IEJj  {treasured  of  God),  a  place 
which  formed  one  of  the  landmarks  of 
the  boundary  of  Asher  and  Zebulun. 
Josh.  19  :  27.  It  occurs  between  Jij^h- 
thah-el  and  Cabul.  Neiel  may  pos- 
sibly be  represented  by  Ml'ar,  a  village 
conspicuously  placed  on  a  lofty  moun- 
tain-brow just  halfway  between  the  two. 
Conder  suggests  V'ain'n,  16  miles  east 
of  Ca^sarea,  as  the  site  of  Neiel. 

NEIGH'BOR.  Luke  10:  29.  The 
Pharisees  restricted  the  meaning  of  the 
word  "neighbor"  to  those  of  their  own 
nation  or  to  their  friends.  But  our  Sa- 
viour informed  them  that  all  men  were 
their  neighbors,  and  illustrated  the 
proposition  in  the  parable  of  the  Good 
Samaritan  who  helped  the  wounded  Jew 
in  spite  of  the  bitter  feeling  existing  be- 
tween the  Samaritans  and  the  Jews. 

NE'KEB  {cavern),  one  of  the  towns 
on  the  boundary  of  Naphtali.  Josh.  19  : 
33.  It  lay  between  Adami  and  Jabneel. 
The  Palestine  Fund  "  Memoirs  "  identify 
it  with  the  ruin,  Seiyddeh,  4  miles  south- 
west of  Tiberias. 

N  E  K  O  '  D  A  {distingvisTied),  one 
whose  descendants  returned  from  the 
Captivity  with  Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  2  :  48. 
They  were  not  able  to  prove  their  He- 
brew extraction.   Ezr.  2  :  59.  60. 

NEMU'EL  {day  of  God).  1.  A 
Reubenite.  Num.  26  :  9. 

2.  A  son  of  Simeon.  Num.  26  :  12;  1 
Chr.  4  :  24  ;  he  is  also  called  Jemuel  in 
Gen.  46:10  and  Ex.  6  :  15. 

NEMU'ELITES,  descendants  of 
Nemuel,  the  son  of  Simeon.  Num.  26 : 
12. 

NE'PHEG  {sprout).  1.  A  brother 
of  Korah.  Ex.  6  :  21. 

2.  A  son  of  David,  born  at  Jerusalem. 
2  Sam.  5:15;  1  Chr.  3:7:  14:6. 
606 


NEPH'EW,  in  the  A.  V.,  should 
always  be  understood  "grandchild"  or 
"descendant"  generally,  as  was  the  old 
English  usage.  Job  18  :  19  ;  Isa.  14  :  22. 

NE'PHISH,  incorrect  form  of  Na- 
phish.   1  Chr.  1  :  31  ;  5  :  19. 

NEPHISH'ESIM,  a  corruption 
of  Nkphcsim,  which  see.  Neh.  7  :  62. 

NEPH'TALI,  NEPH'THA- 
LIM,  forms  of  "Naphtali."  Matt.  4: 
13,  15;   Rev.  7:  6. 

NEPH'TOAH  {opening),  THE 
WATER.  OF.  The  spring  or  source 
of  the  water  of  Nephtoah,  was  one  of  the 
landmarks  between  Judah  and  Benjamin. 
Josh.  15  :  9  ;  18  :  15.  It  has  been  located 
north-west  of  Jerusalem  and  identified 
with  Ain  Lifta,  a  spring  situated  a  little 
distance  above  the  village  of  the  same 
name.  But  Conder  makes  it  identical 
with  Ain  'At an,  south-west  of  Bethle- 
hem, and  from  whence  an  old  aqueduct 
once  led  to  the  temple,  and  now  at  inter- 
vals supplies  the  Haram  area  at  Jerusa- 
lem through  Pilate's  aqueduct. 

NEPHU'SIM,  NEPHISH'E- 
SIM {expansions),  some  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon.  Ezr.  2  : 
50  :  Neh.  7  :  52. 

NER  {fight,  lamjj),  father  of  Kish, 
and  grandfather  of  Saul.  1  Chr.  8  :  33. 
He  is  named,  1  Chr.  9  :  36,  as  brother  of 
Kish.  This  Kish  was  an  uncle  of  the 
other.  1  Cbr.  9  :  39. 

NE'REUS,  a  Christian  at  Rome. 
Rom.  16:15. 

NER'GAL  {great  hero),  a  deity  of 
the  Assyrians,  and  corresponding  to 
Mars.  2  Kgs.  17  :  30.  Monuments  have 
been  found  with  his  name  and  titles. 
(See  cut   p.   612.) 

NER'GAL-SHARE'ZER  {fre- 
prince),  the  name  of  two  Babylonian 
noblemen,  Jer.  39:3,  13,  who  accom- 
panied Nebuchadnezzar  in  his  expedi- 
tion against  Zedekiah.  One  of  these 
individuals  is  entitled  Rab-mag.  This 
designation  probably  means  "chief  of 
the  magicians."  He  is  generally  iden- 
tified with  Neriglissar  of  profane  his- 
tory, who  married  Nebuchadnezzar's 
daughter,  and  ascended  the  throne  two 
years  after  that  monarch's  death.  A 
palace  built  by  him  has  been  discovered 
among  the  ruins  of  Babylon,  and  his 
name  found  on  bricks. 

NE'RI  {lamp  of  Jehovah),  one  of  the 
ancestors  of  our  Lord.  Luke  3  :  27. 


NEE 


NEZ 


NERI'AH  {lawp  of  Jehovah),  the 
father  of  Bariich.  Jer.  32:  12,  etc. 

NET.     See  Fish,  Fishing. 

NETHAN'EEL  {[liccu  of  God).  1. 
A  captain  in  the  tribe  of  Issachar  in  the 
wilderness.  Num.  I:8;2:5;7:]8jl0: 
15. 

2.  Fourth  son  of  Jesse.  1  Chr.  2: 14. 

3.  A  priest  in  David's  time.  1  Chr. 
i5:24. 

4.  A  Levite.  1  Chr.  24 :  fi. 

5.  A  son  of  Obed-edom.  1  Chr.  26:4. 

6.  A  prince  in  the  reign  of  Jehosh- 
aphat.  2  Chr.  17  :  7. 

7.  A  Levite  in  the  time  of  Josiah.  2 
Chr.  35  :  9, 

8.  One  of  those  who  married  strange 
wives  in  the  time  of  Ezra.   Ezr.  10:22. 

9.  A  priest  in  the  days  of  Joiakim. 
Neh.  12:21. 

10.  One  who  played  on  musical  in- 
struments at  the  dedication  of  the  wall 
of  Jerusalem.  Neh.  12  :  36. 

NETHANI'AH  {ijiven  of  Jehovah). 
1.  The  son  of  Elishama,  and  of  royal 
blood.  2  Kgs.  25:23,  25;  Jer.  40:8; 
41:  9. 

2.  A  son  of  Asaph.  1  Chr.  25  : 2,  12. 

3.  A  Levite  in  the  reign  of  Jehosh- 
aphat.  2  Chr.  17  :  8. 

4.  The  father  of  Jehudi.  Jer.  36  :  14. 
NETH'INIM.  Ezr.  2  :43,  58.    The 

word  signifies  "given"  or  "dedicated 
persons."  This  class  are  mentioned 
prominently  in  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  as 
returning  from  the  Captivity  and  con- 
stituting an  official  order.  "  They  are 
mentioned  in  association  with  the  Le- 
vites  and  priests,  as  well  as  with  the 
porters  and  singers.  1   Chr.  9:2;  Ezr. 

7  :  24.  They  had  been  appointed  for 
the  first  time  by  David,  as  far  as  we 
know,  to  do  service  for  the  Levites.  Ezr. 

8  :  20.  Some  were  therefore  associated 
with  the  temple-service  and  dwelt  at 
Jerusalem.  Neh.  11:21.  As  in  the 
case  of  the  priests  and  Levites,  "no  toll, 
tribute,  or  custom "  was  exacted  from 
them,  Ezr.  7  :  24.  The  service  they  per- 
formed was,  no  doubt,  of  a  menial  sort; 
still,  their  names  were  all  carefully  pre- 
served. Ezr.  8  :  20. 

It  has  been  thought  by  many  that 
the  Gibeonites,  Josh.  9  :  27.  who  were 
made  to  do  menial  service  for  the  con- 
gregation, and  also  the  fifty  captive 
Midianites,  Num.  31  :  47,  Avho  were  por- 
tioned  off    to   the   Levites,  occupied   a 


similar  position  to  the  Nethinim.     The 
name,  however,  is  of  a  later  date. 

NETO'PHAH  [droppiufj),  a  town, 
ap))arently  in  Judah,  the  name  of  which 
occurs  only  in  the  catalogue  of  those 
who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  from  the 
Captivity.  Ezr.  2:22;  Neh.  7:26;  1 
Esd.  5  :  18.  Netophah  was  really  an  old 
place.  Two  of  David's  guard,  1  Chr. 
27  :  13,  15,  were  Netophathites.  The 
"  villages  of  the  Netophathites  "  were  the 
residence  of  the  Levites.  1  Chr.  9  :  16. 
Levites  who  inhabited  these  villages 
were  singers.  Neh.  12  :  28.  From  Neh. 
7  :  26,  the  town  seems  to  have  been  in 
the  neighborhood  of,  or  closely  connected 
with,  Bethlehem.  Van  de  Velde  suggests 
Antubeh,  2  miles  north-east  of  Bethle- 
hem, as  the  site  of  Netophah,  The 
Palestine  Memoirs  note  ruins  north-east 
of  Bethlehem  that  were  called  Metobn  or 
Umni  Toba,  probably  the  same  as  Antti- 
beh  of  Van  de  Velde,  and  Conder  iden- 
tifies them  as  ancient  Netophah. 

NETOPH'ATHITE,  an  inhabit- 
ant of  Netophah.  2  Sam.  23:  28;  2  Kgs. 
25  •  2.3 

NE  TITLES,  well-known  wild 
plants,  the  leaves  of  which  are  armed 
with  stings  connected  with  a  small  bag 
of  poison ;  and  when  the  leaves  are 
pressed  by  the  hand,  the  stings  pene- 
trate the  flesh  and  produce  a  swelling 
with  a  sharp,  burning  pain.  Those  who 
grope  among  the  ruins  of  Palestine  are 
often  made  to  know  that  these  weeds 
still  abound  there.  The  presence  of 
nettles  betokens  a  waste  and  neglected 
soil;  hence  the  figure  in  Isa.  34:  13; 
Hos.  9  :  6.  The  word  rendered  "  net- 
tles "  in  Job  30  :  7  ;  Prov.  24  :  31  ;  Zeph. 
2  :  9  is  supposed  to  refer  to  a  difi'erent 
species  of  nettles,  or  to  some  shrub  of 
similar  properties,  else  it  could  not  af- 
ford shelter.  Tristram  believes  this 
plant  to  have  been  the  formidable 
pricklv    acanthus. 

NEW  MOON.  1  Sam.  20  :  5.  See 
Moox,  Fkasts,  Month. 

NEWTES'TAMENT.  See  Bible. 

NEW  YEAR.  See  Trumpets, 
Feast  of. 

N  E  Z  I '  A  H    (famous),    one   whose 
children    were    Nethinim    and    returned 
j  from  the  Captivity  to  Jerusalem.    Ezr. 
!  2:54:  Neh.  7:56. 

!       NE^ZIB    (statue),  a  city   of  Judah, 
!  Josh.  15  :  43^  in    the   lowland,    one   of 

607 


NIB 


NIG 


the  same  group  "with  Keilah  and  Mare- 
shah.  Eusebius  and  Jerome  place  it  on 
the  road  between  Eleutheropolis  and 
Hebron,  7  or  9  miles  from  the  former, 
and  there  it  still  stands  under  the  al- 
most identical  name  of  Beit  Nusib,  a 
small  hamlet.  The  ruins  are  of  con- 
siderable extent,  consisting  of  massive 
foundations,  broken  columns,  large 
building-stones,  and  a  grand  tower  60 
feet  square. 

]NIB'HAZ(6ar/rer),  an  idol-god  of  the 
Avites.  2  Kgs.  17:  HI.  The  name  being 
derived  from  a  word  meaning  "  to  bark," 
it  is  supposed  that  the  god  was  repre- 
sented by  the  figure  of  a  dog.  It  would 
therefore  be  allied  to  Anubis  of  the 
Egyptians.  A  large  figure  of  a  dog  was 
found  on  the  road  from  Beirout  to 
Tripolis. 

NIB'SHAN  {light,  soft  soil),  one  of 
the  six  cities  in  the  "  Midbar,"  or  wilder- 
ness of  Judah.  Josh.  15  :  62.  It  was 
apparently  near  En-gedi,  on  the  western 
shore  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Its  site  is  unknown. 

NICA'NOR  {conqueror),  one  of  the 
first  seven  deacons  appointed  by  the  early 
Church.  Acts  6  :  5. 

NICODE'MUS  {victor  of  the 
people),  a  ruler  of  the  Jews,  and  a  dis- 
tinguished member  of  the  sect  of  the 
Pharisees,  whose  conversation  with  the 
Messiah,  as  recorded  in  John  3,  reveals 
one  of  the  grand  doctrines  of  the 
Christian  system — viz.,  regeneration  by 
the  Spirit  of  God.  On  this  occasion  he 
betrayed  himself  as  a  timid  disciple,  or 
as  one  just  seeking  after  the  truth,  for 
he  came  to  Christ  under  the  cover  of 
darkness.  Later  he  defends  Christ 
against  the  bitter  injustice  of  the  Phari- 
sees, John  7  :  50,  and  finally  he  appears 
as  a  professed  follower,  helping  in  the 
sepulture  of  the  crucified  Lord.  John 
19  :  89. 

NICOLA'ITANS,  an  ancient  sect 
whose  deeds  are  expressly  and  strongly 
reprobated.  Rev.  2:6,15.  Some  have 
supposed  that  they  were  the  followers  of 
Nicolas,  Acts  6  :  5,  one  of  the  first 
deacons  of  the  church,  whom  they  regard 
as  having  degenerated  from  the  true 
faith.  For  this  view  there  is  no 
authority.  Others  regard  the  term 
"  Nicolaitans"  as  a  symbolical  expres- 
sion. Since  "Nicolas"  means  "victor 
of  the  people,"  and  "  Balaam  "  "  devourer 
of  the  people,"  the  two.  in  symbolical 
608 


unity,  signify  religious  seducers  of  the 
people.  It  is  more  probable  that  the 
Nicolaitans  were  identical  with  those 
who  held  the  doctrine  of  Balaam,  men- 
tioned in  v.  14.  Cf.  2  Pet.  2  :  15.  So, 
likely,  the  Nicolaitans  associated  forni- 
cation and  the  eating  of  things  sacrificed 
to  idols  with  an  outward  profession  of 
Christianity. 

NICOLAS  {victor  of  the  people),  one 
of  the  deacons  of  the  church  at  Jeru- 
salem in  the  days  of  the  apostles.  Acts 
6  :  5.  He  was  a  native  of  Antioch, 
converted  to  Judaism,  and  thence  to 
Christianity. 

NICOP'OLIS  {city  of  victory),  the 
city  where  Paul  determined  to  winter. 
Tit.  3  :  12.  There  has  been  some  uncer- 
tainty in  respect  to  the  city  intended,  as 
there  were  four  of  this  name  in  Asia,  five 
in  Europe,  and  one  in  Africa.  It  must 
have  been  one  of  three  cities:  (1 )  Nicop- 
olis  in  Thrace;  (2)  in  Cilicia  ;  or  (8)  in 
Epirus.  The  subscription  to  the  Epistle 
to  Titus  calls  it  "  Nicopolis  of  Mace- 
donia"— ?.  e.,  Thrace.  This  subscrip- 
tion, however,  is  no  part  of  the  inspired 
text,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  the 
view  of  Jerome  is  correct,  which  identifies 
the  Pauline  Nicopolis  with  the  noted 
city  of  that  name  in  Epirus.  It  was 
built  by  Augustus  Caesar  to  commemorate 
his  victory  over  Antony  and  Cleopatra 
at  the  battle  of  Aetium,  b.  c.  31.  Its 
modern  name  is  Paleoprevesa,  or  "old 
Prevesa."  The  place  has  extensive  ruins 
of  temples,  theatres,  aqueducts,  and  a 
small  building  in  the  form  of  a  pagan 
temple,  which  tradition  says  was  used 
b}'  Paul  as  a  house  of  prayer.  Some 
suppose  that  Paul  was  arrested  here, 
and  taken  to  Rome  for  his  final  trial. 

NI'GER  (black),  a  surname  of  Sim- 
eon. Acts  13  :  1. 

NIGHT,  one  division  of  the  twenty- 
four  hours  composing  a  day.  It  includes 
the  period  of  darkness,  Gen.  1 :  5,  and 
was  divided  from  the  day  by  "lights  in 
the  firmament."  Gen.  1  :  14.  Figura- 
tively, it  has  been  taken  to  designate 
death,  John  9  :  4,  and  sin,  1  Thess.  6  :  5. 
In  the  beautiful  passage,  "  There  shall  be 
no  night  there,"  Rev.  21  :  25 ;  22  :  5,  the 
meaning  is  that  heaven  is  a  place  where 
no  sorrow  or  sin  or  death  finds  entrance. 

NIGHT-HAWK,  a  species  of  bird 
unclean  by  the  Levitical  law,  Lev.  11 : 
16,  but  not  the  bird  known  to  us  by  this 


NIL 


NIL 


name.  The  translators  supposed  that 
the  common  night-jar  {('(tprimitlc/Hs) 
was  the  bird  alluded  to  by  the  Hebrew 
tachmas,  but  probably  the    screech-owl 


{Strix  Jlammea),  which  lodges  in  the 
large  buildings  or  ruins  of  Egypt  and 
Syria,  and  sometimes  even  in  the  dwell- 
ing-houses, is  intended.     See  Owl. 


The  Night-jar  (.Caprimulgus). 


NILE  {blue,  dark),  the  great  river 
of  Egypt  and  of  Africa,  and  probably 
the  second  longest  river  in  the  world, 
its  entire  length  being  estimated  at 
4000  miles.  The  word  "  Nile"  does  not 
occur  in  Scripture,  but  the  river  is 
frequently  referred  to  as  Sihor  or  Shihor, 
which  means  "black"  or  "turbid" 
stream.  Josh.  13  :  3  ;  Isa.  23  :  3  :  Jer.  2  : 
18;  1  Chr.  13  :  5.  It  is  also  designated 
simply  "the  river,"  Gen.  41  :  1  ;  Ex.  1  : 
22;  2:3,  5,  and  the  "flood  of  Egypt." 
Am.  8  :  8 ;  9  :  5.  In  the  plural  form  this 
word  year,  rendered  "  river,"  frequently 
refers  to  the  branches  and  canals  of  the 
Nile.  This  famous  river  is  connected 
with  the  earliest  history  of  the  Egyptian 
and  the  Israelitish  nations.  Ex.  2:3; 
7  :  20,  21  ;  Num.  11  :  5  ;  Ps.  105  :  29  :  Jer. 
46  :  7,  8  ;  Zech.  14  :  17,  18.  The  Nile  is 
not  named  in  the  N.  T. 

Physiccd  Feattires. — The  discovery  of 
the  true  source  of  the  Nile,  and  the 
reason  for  its  annual  overflow,  are  two 
scientific  problems  which  have  been  dis- 
cussed for  upward  of  2000  years.  The 
course  of  the  stream  is  now  known  for 
about  3300  miles,  and  with  two  interrup- 
39 


tions — the  cataract  of  Syene  (Assouan) 
and  the  Upper  Cataract — it  is  claimed 
by  Baedeker's  Handbook  on  Lower 
Eijypt  to  be  navigable  throughout  nearly 
the  whole  of  that  distance.  But  as  there 
are  many  other  cataracts,  this  statement 
cannot  be  correct.  The  principal  stream 
is  now  known  to  be  the  White  Nile, 
while  the  Blue  or  Black  Nile  is  of  greater 
importance  in  contributing  to  the  annual 
inundation  of  the  lower  river.  The  two 
streams  unite  at  the  town  of  Khartoom, 
the  capital  of  Nubia,  and  from  this  point 
to  the  mouths  of  the  stream  at  Damietta 
and  Rosetta,  upward  of  1800  miles,  it 
falls  1240  feet,  and  attains  its  greatest 
width  a  little  below  Khartoom  and  a 
little  above  Cairo,  at  each  of  which 
places  it  is  about  1100  yards  wide.  The 
source  of  the  White  Nile  is  doubtless  Lake 
Victoria  Nyanza,  the  largest  part  of 
which  lies  south  of  the  equator,  and  from 
3000  to  4000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  The  White  Nile  is  so  named  from 
the  color  of  the  clay  with  which  its  waters 
are  stained.  The  Blue  Nile  resembles 
a  mountain-torrent,  being  liable  to  rise 
suddenly  with  the  Abyssinian  rains  and 

609 


NIL 


NIL 


sweep  away  whatever  it  encounters  in  its 
rapidly-descending  course.  The  source 
of  the  Blue  Nile  is  high  up  in  the  Abys- 
sinian mountains,  from  6000  to  10,000 
feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  in  springs 
which  are  regarded  with  superstitious 
veneration  by  the  neighboring  people. 
The  river  causes  what  would  be  other- 
wise a  barren  valley  to  be  one  of  the 
most  fertile  regions  in  the  world.  Hence, 
Herodotus  justly  calls  Egypt  "an  ac- 
quired country  and  the  gift  of  the  Nile." 
The  waters  of  the  Nile  now  empty  into 
the  sea  through  two  streams,  known  as 
the  Damietta  and  the  Rosetta  mouths; 
ancient  writers,  however,  mention  at 
least  seven  branches  or  mouths  through 
which  the  Nile  found  its  way  to  the  sea. 
There  is  the  strongest  proof  that  the  Nile 
has  filled  up  the  sea  for  many  miles  to 
the  north,  and  that  its  ancient  mouths 
were  several  miles  farther  south.  It  has 
been  ascertained  that  within  the  last 
half  century  the  mouth  of  the  Nile  has 
advanced  northward  4  miles,  and  the 
maps  of  Ptolemy,  of  the 
second  and  third  centuries 
of  the  Christian  era,  show 
that  the  mouth  was  then 
about  40  miles  farther 
south  than  at  present. 
Hence,  at  this  rate  of  de- 
posit, the  sea-coast,  in  the 
earlier  history  of  ancient 
Egypt,  must  have  been 
nearly  as  far  south  as  its 
ancient  capital,  Memphis. 
As  rain  seldom  falls  in 
Egypt  proper,  the  fertility 
of  "the  country  is  entirely 
dependent  upon  the  annual 
rise  of  the  Nile.  This  usu- 
ally begins  in  June  and  con- 
tinues until  near  the  end  of 
September,  the  river  re- 
maining stationary  for  two 
or  more  weeks,  and  then 
attaining  its  highest  level  "=% 
in  October,  when  it  begins 
to  subside.  "The  height 
of  the  inundation  most  favorable  for  ag- 
riculture at  the  present  day  has  been  as- 
certained by  long  observation  to  be  23 
cubits  2  inches — i.e.,  about  41  feet  2 
inches,  the  cubit  being  21  inches — while 
in  the  time  of  Herodotus  16  cubits  suf- 
ficed ;  and  the  god  of  the  Nile  in  the 
Vatican  is  therefore  represented  as  sur- 
610 


rounded  by  sixteen  children.  A  single 
cubit  more  is  apt  to  cause  terrible  de- 
vastation in  the  Delta,  and  elsewhere 
cover  the  fields  destined  for  the  autumn 
crop,  while  a  deficiency  of  2  cubits  causes 
drought  and  famine  in  Upper  Egypt," 
(See  Baedeker's  Lower  Ef/ypt.) 

The  successive  years  of  famine  in  the 
days  of  Joseph  were  doubtless  due  to  a 
deficient  overflow  of  the  Nile  for  those 
years.  Formerly  this  annual  inundation 
turned  Egypt  into  a  vast  lake,  but  in 
later  times  the  water  has  been  distributed 
by  a  great  network  of  canals,  from  which 
the  huge  basins  of  cultivated  land  into 
which  the  canals  divide  the  country,  are 
sup])lied  with  water  of  the  depth  required 
to  leave  a  deposit  of  mud  to  fertilize  the 
land.  The  native  uses  his  feet  to  regu- 
late the  flow  of  water  into  each  of  the 
squares  or  basins  of  land,  and  by  a 
dexterous  movement  of  his  toes  forms  or 
removes  a  tiny  embankment,  as  may  be 
required  to  admit  the  proper  flow  of 
water.     Another  common  mode  is  to  use 


The  Shadoof. 

the  "shadoof,"  a  bucket  attached  to  a 
long  pole  hung  on  a  pivot,  balanced  by 
a  stone  or  a  lump  of  clay  at  one  end,  and 
having  the  bucket  on  the  other  end.  To 
this  day  the  Nile  is  lined  for  hundreds 
of  miles  with  these  shadoofs,  worked  by 
men,  women,  and  children,  who  lift  the 
water  out  of  the  river  to  irrigate  their 


NIL 


NIM 


fields.  Both  these  methods  are  believed 
to  be  very  ancient,  and  may  be  alluded 
to  by  Moses  in  contrasting  the  fountains 
and  rainfalls  in  Palestine  with  the  ab- 
sence of  this  supply  in  Egypt :  "  For  the 
land,  whither  thou  goest  in  to  possess  it, 
-in  not  as  the  land  of  Egypt,  from  whence 
ye  came  out.  where  thou  sowedst  thy  seed, 
iind  wateredst  it  with  thy  fout  as  a  garden 
of  herbs."  Deut.  11  :  U),  11.  A  number 
of  festivals  were  celebrated  in  connection 
with  the  annual  rise  of  the  Nile,  which 
appear  from  the  monuments  to  have 
been  common  as  early  as  the  fourteenth 

Hiiy-iJiLi. 


The  Kilometer. 

century  b.  c.  The  height  of  the  Nile  was 
measured  by  the  Nilometer,  a  square 
well  having  in  its  centre  an  octagonal 
column,  on  which  were  inscribed  the 
ancient  Arabic  measures  and  Cufic  in- 
scriptions. This  was  erected  in  A.  n. 
716,  and  was  used  to  determine  the 
height  of  the  overflow,  upon  which  was 
based  the  rate  of  taxation.  The  govern- 
ment, however,  cheated  the  poor  people 
by  false  statements  of  the  overflow,  indi- 
cated by  this  measurement. 

The  ancient  Egyptians  worshipped  the 
river  Nile  as  a  god.  Two  of  the  ten 
plagues  sent  upon  Pharaoh  and  Egypt 
before  the  de])arture  of  the  Israelites 
were  turning  the  water  of  the  Nile  into 


blood  and  bringing  forth  frogs  from  the 
river.  Ex.  7  :  15-25  ;  8  :  3-7.  The  papy- 
rus reeds — whence  paper  is  designated — 
the  flags,  the  lotus,  and  the  various  colored 
flowers  formerly  beautifying  the  banks 
of  the  river  have  nearly  all  disappeared, 
thus  fulfilling  propliec.y.  Isa.  19  :  0,  7. 
This  river,  so  intimately  associated  with 
the  early  history  of  the  human  race,  is 
a  favorite  resort  for  tourists,  who  can  go 
in  steamers  as  far  as  the  First  Cataract, 
near  Assouan  (Syene),  where  were  the 
great  quarries  which  supplied  stone  for 
ancient  Egyptian  monuments,  and  from 
Phihc  up  to  Aboo  -  Simliel  and  the 
Second  Cataract.  The  Nile  voyage, 
broken  by  donkey  rides  and  visits  to  the 
pyramids,  tombs,  and  ruins  of  temples 
and  palaces  of  the  Pharaohs,  is  one  of 
the  greatest  enjoyments  and  best  recrea- 
tions of  body  and  mind. 

NIM'RAH  {limpid,  jno-e),  a  city  of 
Gad  east  of  the  Jordan  ;  noticed  only  in 
Num.  32  :  y>,  and  probably  identical  with 
Beth-nimrah.  Num.  32  :  36.  Its  site  may 
be  on  the  hill  of  Nimrin,  about  3  miles 
east  of  the  Jordan  and  10  miles  north  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  where  are  some  ruins. 

NIM'RIM  (limpid,  pure).  The  word 
"Nimrim,"  plural  of  '' Nimrah,"  is  prob- 
ably from  the  obsolete  root,  nnmar,  "  to 
be  limpid  or  pure."  "  The  waters  of 
Nimrim  "  was  a  stream  or  brook  in  the 
territory  of  Moab,  referred  to  by  Isaiah 
and  Jeremiah.  Isa.  15  :  6  ;  Jer.  48  :  34; 
cornp.  Num.  32  :  3,  36.  There  are  copi- 
ous springs  near  Nimrah,  and  Porter, 
Conder,  and  Baedeker  would  locate  the 
waters  of  Nimrim  in  its  vicinity.  Dr. 
Merrill  regards  it  as  the  largest  stream 
east  of  the  Jordan  and  south  of  the 
Zerka,  Wady  Nemeivah,  at  the  south- 
east corner  of  the  Dead  Sea,  has  been 
claimed  as  the  "  waters  of  Nimrim,'"  but 
the  stream  is  small  and  the  name  has 
a  diff"erent  signification.  Perhaps  the 
"brook  of  the  willows,"  Isa.  15  :  7,  may 
be  in  that  region. 

NIM'ROD  {firm,  stroii;/),  the  son  of 
Cush  and  grandson  of  Ham.  Gen.  10  :  8. 
He  is  described  as  having  been  a 
"  mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord,"  and 
was  thus  pre-eminent  in  the  chase,  a 
pursuit  practised  very  early  in  the 
history  of  the  race.  He,  however,  was 
also  a  great  conqueror,  *'a  mighty  one 
in  the  earth,"  and  founded  the  classical 
and  most  ancient  kingdom  of  Babylon, 

611 


NIM 


NIN 


and   built   the   city   of  that   name   and 
others.  Gen.  10  :  10. 

The  territory  and  kingdom  of  Babylon 
was  long  known,  after  the  name  of  its 
first  hero,  as  the  land  of  NimrocL  Mic. 
6:6. 

NIM'SHI  {drawn  out,  saved),  the 
father  of  Jehu,  the  king.  1  Kgs.  19  ;  16; 
2  Kgs.  9:2,  U:  2  Chr.  22:7. 

NIN'EVEH  (perhaps  dwelling  of 
Nin),  the  capital  and  greatest  city  of 
Assyria. 

S'ituafion. — The  city  was  founded  by 
Asshur,  Gen.  10  :  11,  and  was  situated  on 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  river  Tigris, 
opposite  the  modern  town  of  Mosul.  It 
was  about  250  miles  in  a  direct  line 
north  of  the  rival  city  of  Babylon,  and 
not  far  from  550  miles  north-west  of  the 
Persian  Gulf. 

Extent. — Assyrian  scholars  are  not 
agreed  in  respect  to  the  size  of  this 
ancient  city.  Some,  as  Layard,  regard 
it  as  covering  a  large  parallelogram, 
whose  sides  were  each  from  18  to  20 
miles  long,  and  the  ends  12  to  14  miles 
wide.  This  view  would  include  the  ruins 
now  known  as  Kouyunjik,  Nimrud, 
Khorsabad,  and  Keremles.  Diodorus 
Siculus  makes  the  circumference  of  the 
city  55  miles,  including  pastures  and 
pleasure-grounds.  See  article  Assyria, 
p.  82.  This  view  of  the  great 
extent  of  the  city  is,  on  the 
other  hand,  sharply  disputed 
by  Rawlinson,  who  thinks  it 
highly  improbable  that  this 
ancient  city  should  have  had 
an  area  about  ten  times  that 
of  London.  He  would  reject 
it  on  two  grounds,  the  one 
historical  and  the  other  topo- 
graphical. He  maintains 
that  the  ruins  of  Khorsabad, 
Keremles,  Nimrud,  and 
Kouyunjik  bear  on  their 
bricks  distinct  local  titles, 
and  that  these  titles  are 
found  attaching  to  distant 
cities  in  the  historical  in- 
scriptions. According  to 
his  view,  Nimrud  would  be 
identified  with  Calah,  and 
Khorsabad  with  Dur-sargina, 
or  "  the  city  of  Sargon."  He 
further  claims  that  Assyrian 
writers  do  not  consider  these  places  to  be 
parts  of  Nineveh,  but  distinct  and  sepa- 
612 


rate  cities ;  that  Calah  was  for  a  long  time 
the  capital,  while  Nineveh  was  a  provin- 
cial town ;  that  Dur-sargina  was  built 
by  Sargon — not  at  Nineveh,  but  near 
Nineveh  ;  and  that  Scripture  similarly 
distinguishes  Calah  as  a  place  separate 
from  Nineveh,  and  so  far  from  it  that 
there  was  room  for  a  great  city  between 
them.  See  Gen.  10:  12.  He  also  sug- 
gests that  a  smaller  city  in  extent  would 
answer  the  requirements  of  the  descrip- 
tion in  the  book  of  Jonah,  which  makes 
it  a  city  of  "three  days' journey."  Jon. 
3  :  3.  He  would  limit  its  extent,  there- 
fore, to  the  ruins  immediately  opposite 
Mosul,  including  two  principal  mounds, 
known  as  Nebi-Yunus  and  Kouyunjik. 
The  latter  mound,  which  lies  about  half 
a  mile  north-west  of  the  former,  is  the 
larger  of  the  two.  In  shape  it  is  an 
irregular  oval,  the  sides,  sloping  at  a 
steep  angle,  furrowed  with  numerous 
ravines,  worn  out  by  the  rains  of  thirty 
centuries.  The  greatest  height  of  the 
mound  is  about  95  feet,  and  it  is  esti- 
mated to  cover  an  area  of  100  acres. 
The  other  mound,  Nebi-Yunus,  is  tri- 
angular in  sha|)e,  loftier  in  height,  with 
more  precipitous  sides  than  the  other 
mound,  and  covers  an  area  of  about  40 
acres.  The  reputed  tomb  of  Jonah  is  on 
the  western  side  of  the  mound,  while  the 


Nergal's  Emblem,  the  Man-Lion. 

eastern  portion  forms   a    burial-ground 
for  Mohammedans. 


From  Fairbaim. 


NIN 


NOA 


History. — As  already  stated,  Nineveh 
was  founded  by  Asshur,  or,  as  the  mar- 
ginal reading  of  Gen.  10  :  11  states, 
Nimrod.  When  Nineveh  became  the 
capital  of  Assyria  is  not  definitely  known, 
but  it  is  generall}^  believed  it  was  during 
the  reign  of  Sennacherib.  The  proph- 
ecies of  the  books  of  Jonah  and  Na- 
hum  are  chiefly  directed  against  this 
city.  The  latter  prophet  indicates  the 
mode  of  its  capture.  Nah.  1  :  8  j  2  :  6, 
8  ;  3  :  18.  Nineveh  was  the  capital  of 
Assyria  during  the  height  of  the  grandeur 
of  that  empire,  and  in  the  time  of  Sen- 
nacherib, Esarhaddon,  and  Assurbanijial. 
It  was  besieged  for  two  years  by  the  com- 
bined forces  of  the  Medes  and  Babylo- 
nians,was  captured,  and  finally  destroyed 
B.  c.  606. 

Ruins. — -According  to  George  Smith, 
Nineveh  is  now  represented  by  the 
mounds  of  Kouyunjik  or  Telarmush, 
Nebi-Yunus,  and  some  surrounding  re- 
mains. The  circuit  of  the  walls,  includ- 
ing these  ruins,  measures  about  8  miles. 
The  palace-mounds  are  on  the  side  next 
to  the  river  Tigris.  Excavations  have 
been  made  by  M.  Botta,  Layard,  Hor- 
muzd  Rassam,  Loftus,  and  George  Smith. 
They  have  brought  to  light,  among  others, 
the  following  noted  buildings  :  (1)  Three 
ruined  temples,  built  and  restored  by 
many  kings  in  different  ages;  (2)  the 
palace  of  Shalmaneser,  as  improved  by 
subsequent  rulers;  (3)  a  palace  of  an- 
other ruler,  restored  by  Sennacherib  and 
Esarhaddon  :  (4)  a  palace  of  Tiglath- 
pileser  II.;  (5)  a  temple  of  Nebo :  (6j 
the  south-west  palace  of  Sennacherib; 
(7)  the  north-west  palace  of  the  same 
ruler;  (8)  the  city  walls  built  by  the 
latter  king  and  restored  by  Assurbani- 
pal.  For  fui'ther  accounts  see  Assyria 
and  George  Smith's  Assyrian  Discoveries 
(N.  Y.,  1875). 

NIN'EVITES,  the  inhabitants  of 
Nineveh.  Luke  11 :  30. 

NI'SAIV.  Neh.  2  :  1.     See  Month. 

NIS'ROCH  {great  eagle?),  an  As- 
syrian deity  in  whose  temple  at  Nineveh 
Sennacherib  was  murdered  by  his  sons 
Adrammelech  and  Sharezer.  2  Kgs.  19  : 
37;  Isa.  37  :  38.  The  etymology  of  the 
name,  even  the  Shemitic  origin  of  the 
word,  is  doubtful,  and  nothing  definite 
is  known  of  this  deity.  Some  suppose 
him  to  be  represented  in  the  Assyrian 
tablets  by  a  human  form  with  the  wings 
614 


and  head  of  an  eagle.  Others  suggest 
that  the  word  refers  to  Noah's  dove,  which 
had  been  made  an  object  of  worship. 


Nisroch.     (After  Layard.) 

NI'TRE,  an  earthy  alkaline  salt, 
resembling  and  used  like  soap,  which, 
j  separating  from  the  bottom  of  the  lake 
Natron,  in  Egypt,  and  rising  to  the 
top,  is  condensed  by  the  heat  of  the  sun 
into  a  dry  and  hard  substance  similar 
to  the  Smyrna  soap,  and  is  the  soda 
of  common  earth.  It  is  found  in  many 
other  parts  of  the  East.  Vinegar  has 
no  eS'ect  upon  common  nitre,  and  of 
course  this  could  not  be  meant  by  the 
wise  man,  who  in  Prov.  25  :  20  says,  "As 
he  that  taketh  away  a  garment  in  cold 
weather,  and  as  vinegar  upon  nitre,  so  is 
he  that  singeth  songs  to  a  heavy  heart." 
Now,  as  vinegar  has  no  effect  upon  nitre, 
but  upon  natron  or  soda  its  action  is  very 
obvious,  it  seems  the  English  translation 
should  have  been  "natron."  In  Jer. 
2  :  22  the  same  word  again  is  improperly 
used  :  "  For  though  thou  wash  thee  with 
nitre,  and  take  thee  much  soap,  yet  thine 
iniquity  is  marked  before  me,  saith  the 
Lord  God."  The  alkaline  earth  natron 
is  obviously  designed  in  this  passage.  It 
is  found  as  an  impure  carbonate  of  soda 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  Egypt  and 
Syria,  and  is  also  native  in  some  parts 
of  Africa  in  hard  strata  or  masses,  and 
is  called  trona,  being  used  for  the  same 
purposes  as  the  barilla  of  commerce. 

NO.     See  No-amon. 

NOADI'AH  {ichom  Jehovah  meets). 
1.  A  Levite.  Ezr.  8  :  33. 

2.  A  prophetess  upon  whom  Nehemiah 
invoked  the  vengeance  of  God  for  her 


NOA 


NOA 


attempt  to  hinder  him  in   his  work  of 
reconstruction.   Neh.  6  :  14 

,  NO'AH  {rest),  an  eminent  patriarch, 
and  the  ninth  in  descent  from  Adam. 
Gen.  6  : 8.  He  is  described  as  a  ''just  and 
perfect"  man  who ''walked  with  God," 
Gen.  6  :  9,  as  a  "  preacher  of  righteous- 
ness," 2  Pet.  2  :  5,  and  has  aphxce  in  the 
catalogues  of  those  who  were  eminent 
for  their  faith.  Heb.  11  :  7.  Noah  is  the 
second  father  of  the  human  race,  all  the 
families  of  the  earth  being  in  a  direct 
line  of  descent  from  him. 

The  life  of  this  patriarch  was  cast  in 
times  of  such  unusual  violence  and 
wickedness  that  the  Almighty  deter- 
mined to  destroy  the  agents  in  order 
thereby  to  purify  the  world.  Gen.  6  :  13. 
This  he  accomplished  by  visiting  the 
earth  with  a  deluge,  which  submerged 
in  its  waters  all  the  human  family,  Gen. 
9  :  11,  except  eight  persons.  God  re- 
vealed his  design  to  Noah  a  full  century 
before  its  execution,  and  commanded 
him  to  construct  an  ark.  See  Ark. 
This  preacher  of  righteousness  during 
this  period  warned  his  contemporaries 
and  exhorted  them  to  repent.  At  the 
end  of  this  time  Noah  went  into  the 
ark  with  his  wife  and  his  three  sons 
and  their  wives.  By  commandment  of 
God  he  also  took  with  him  of  the  clean 
and  unclean  animals  of  the  earth.  These 
alone  were  saved.  All  the  rest  in  "  whose 
nostrils  was  the  breath  of  life,  of  all  that 
ivas  in  the  dry  land  died."  The  waters 
prevailed  upon  the  earth  one  hundred  and 
fifty  days,  Gen.  7  :  24,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  a  wind  from  God  dried  them  up,  and 
the  ark  rested  upon  the  "  mountains  "  of 
Ararat.     See  Ararat. 

The  first  thing  Noah  did  upon  leaving 
the  ark  was  to  offer  up  on  an  altar  which 
he  built  a  sacrifice  that  proved  to  be 
well-pleasing  to  God.  Gen.  8 :  20.  He 
thereupon  received  the  promise  that  no 
more  should  such  a  widespread  destruc- 
tion of  the  human  race  occur,  and  as  a 
pledge  of  this  covenant  God  appointed 
the  rainbow.  Its  appearance  was  there- 
after to  remind  men  of  the  divine  prom- 
ise. Two  commandments  were  also 
given  to  Noah.  The  one  referred  to  the 
meat  of  strangled  animals  or  animals 
dying  a  natural  death  :  this  he  was  for- 
bidden to  eat.  The  other  referred  to 
murder,  which  was  to  be  punished  by 
the  death  of  the  murderer.  Gen.  9  : 1-7. 


The  last  incident  narrated  of  this 
eminent  man  betrays  his  weakness.  He 
had  planted  a  vineyard,  and,  drinking 
to  excess,  he  on  one  occasion  exposed 
his  shame.  Ham,  seeing  his  father's 
nakedness,  informed  his  brothers,  who, 
however,  with  becoming  modesty,  re- 
fused to  look  upon  their  father  in  this 
condition.  On  arousing  from  his  de- 
bauch the  father  uttered  a  curse  upon 
the  head  of  Canaan,  Ham's  son,  and 
uttered  a  special  blessing  upon  Japheth. 
Gen.  9:20-27. 

Noah  was  950  years  old  at  the  time  of 
his  death.  Our  Lord  illustrates  the  sud- 
denness of  his  second  coming  and  the 
wickedness  of  the  world  by  the  circum- 
stances prior  to  the  Flood.  Matt.  24  : 
32,  38. 

NQ'AH  (motion),  one  of  the  five 
daughters  of  Zelophehad.  Num.  26  :  33  ; 
27:1;  36:11  ;  Josh.  17:3. 

NO-A'MON  (plare  of  Anion  f),  a 
populous  and  celebrated  city  of  Egypt, 
and  the  capital  of  Upper  Egypt,  named 
after  the  god  Amon,  and  called  by  the 
Greeks  Diospolis,  or  "  city  of  Zeus,"  but 
better  known  by  the  name  of  "  Thebes." 
It  was  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Nile, 
from  400  to  500  miles  from  its  mouth. 
The  only  mention  of  the  city  in  the  Bi- 
ble occurs  in  the  prophecies.  It  is  called 
No,  Eze.  30  :  14-16  ;  Jer.  46  :  25,  and,  mar- 
gin, No-amon,  rendered  "populous  No." 
Nah.  3 :  8. 

The  Nile  valley  at  Thebes,  resembles 
a  vast  amphitheatre,  enclosed  by  the 
grand  forms  of  the  Arabian  and  Libyan 
mountains,  the  river  running  through 
nearly  the  centre  of  this  space.  The 
area  surrounded  by  these  mountain- 
bulwarks  is  filled  with  ruins — avenues 
of  sphinxes  and  statues,  miles  in  length, 
at  the  end  of  which  were  massive  col- 
umnal  structures,  the  entrances  to  im- 
mense temples  and  palaces,  and  colossal 
images  of  the  ancient  Pharaohs,  relics 
of  regal  magnificence  so  extensive  and 
stupendous  that  the  beholder  might  well 
imagine  all  the  grandest  ruins  of  the 
Old  World  had  been  brought  together  on 
this  Theban  plain.  The  extent  of  the 
city  has  been  variously  given  by  histo- 
rians. According  to  Strabo,  it  covered  an 
area  5  miles  in  length  and  3  miles  in 
breadth,  and  Diodorus  makes  its  circuit 
about  the  same.  Wilkinson  also  infers 
from  its  ruins  that  its  length  must  have 

CI  5 


NOA 


NOB 


been  about  6^  miles  and  its  breadth  3 
miles.  Others  suppose  that  the  ancient 
city  of  Thebes,  or  No-amon,  included 
the  three  sites  of  Luxor,  Karnak,  and 
Thebes,  and  that  in  the  days  of  its  glory, 
from  B.  c.  160U  to  B.  c.  800,  it  stretched 


Colossi :  the  Vocal  Memiion  of  Thebea. 

about  33  miles  on  both  banks  of  the  Nile. 
Certainly  the  ruins  testify  to  a  city  of 
great  splendor,  whose  buildings,  palaces, 
and  monuments  were  among  the  most 
imposing  in  the  world.  The  temples, 
tombs,  and  palaces  have  been  described 
under  the  article  Egypt.  The  two  co- 
lossi, or  immense  statues,  before  the 
destroyed  temple  of  Amenophis  III., 
are  still  standing,  partially  buried  in  the 
sand  and  considerably  mutilated.  They 
are,  however,  yet  some  GO  feet  high,  and 
one  of  them  is  the  "  vocal  Memnon,"  so 
celebrated  for  the  musical  sound  which 
it  is  reputed  to  have  given  forth,  when 
touched  by  the  morning  beams  of  the 
rising  sun,  as  a  greeting  of  Amenophis 
to  his  mother,  Aurora.  One  of  the  obe- 
lisks of  Luxor,  or  Thebes,  was  trans- 
ported to  France  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
Philippe,  and  now  stands  in  the  Place 
de  la  Concorde  in  Paris.  The  grandeur 
of  Thebes  during  the  period  when  it  was 
the  capital  of  Upper  Egypt  was  well 
known  to  Homer,  who  speaks  of  its 
hundred  gates  and  twenty  thousand  war- 
chariots,  and  Diodorus  was  informed 
that  Sesostris  took  the  field  with  600,000 
616 


infantry,  24,000  horsemen,  and  27,000 
chariots.  Thebes  was  captured  and 
sacked  by  Sargon,  probably  in  the  reign 
of  Hezekiah,  Nab.  8  :  8,  10  ;  was  twice 
destroyed — by  Nebuchadnezzar  and  by 
Assurbanipal,  as  predicted  by  Jeremiah, 
46  :  25,  26  ;  and  was  again  burned  by 
the  Persian  Cambyses,  b.  c.  525,  and 
finally  destroyed  by  Ptolemy  X.  Lath- 
urus,  B.  c.  81. 

NOB  {height),  a  city  of  the  priests 
in  Benjamin,  near  Jerusalem.  1  Sam. 
22  :  19  ;  Isa.  10  :  32  ;  Neh.  11  :  31,  32. 
In  the  time  of  Saul  the  tabernacle 
and  the  ark  were  probably  at  this 
place.  1  Sam.  21 :  1,  4.  The  city  was 
destroyed  by  Saul.  1  Sam.  22  :  9-19. 
Van  de  Velde  proposed  to  identify 
Nob  with  el-Isawiyeh,  \h  miles  north- 
east of  Jerusalem,  on  the  road  to  Ana- 
thoth,  and  this  view  is  favored  by  Tris- 
tram, Baedeker,  and  Grove ;  but  Jeru- 
salem cannot  be  seen  from  that  point, 
which  is  against  this  identification. 
Porter  suggests  a  site  about  half  a 
mile  south  of  Tuleil  el-Ful  (Gibeah), 
where  are  ruins  of  cisterns,  a  tower, 
and  large  hewn  stones — a  site  which 
commands  a  distant  view  of  Zion. 
Conder,  however,  considers  Nob  and 
the  Mizpeh  of  Jud.  20  :  1  ;  Josh.  18  :  26  ; 
1  Sam.  7 :  15  as  the  same  place,  locating 
both  at  Nebi  Samwil,  about  4  miles  from 
Jerusalem,  where  he  finds  traces  of  a 
court  of  the  tabernacle.  The  site  of 
Nob  may  be  there,  but  that  there  should 
be  any  trace  of  the  ancient  tabernacle 
is  exceedingly  improbable.  Moreover, 
Wilson  questions  the  proposed  identifi- 
cation of  Conder,  and  would  place  its 
site  on  the  hill  Scopus ;  while  another 
writer  suggests  that  Nob  is  Almon  under 
another  name,  and  proposes  to  place  it  1 
mile  north-east  of  Anathoth. 

NO'BAH  {harki)ig),  the  conqueror 
of  the  city  of  Kenath.  Num.  32  :  42. 

NO'BAH  {barking),  a,  name  of  Ke- 
nath and  the  villages  dependent  on  it, 
given  by  Nobah  when  he  conquered  the 
place.  Num.  32:42;  Jud.  8:11.  It 
would  appear  to  have  retained  the  name 
for  200  years.  It  was  about  48  miles  east 
of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.     See  Kenath. 

NO'BLEMAN,  perhaps  an  officer 
in  the  court  of  Ilerod.  He  came  to 
Christ  to  entreat  him  to  heal  his  child, 
who  was  at  the  point  of  death.  John 
4  :  46-54.     He  believed  Christ's  words. 


NOD 


NUM 


"Thy    son   liveth,"   and    on   returning 
home  found  his  child  restored. 

NOD  {_fii(/ht),  the  region  eastward  of 
Eden,  to  which  Cain  fled  from  the  pres- 
ence of  Jehovah.  Gen.  4  :  14,  16.  The 
Chaldee  interpreters  apply  the  term  to 
Cain,  and  not  to  a  land :  "  He  dwelt  a 
fugitive  in  the  land." 

NO'DAB  {nobility),  an  Arab  tribe 
against  which  the  trans-Jordanic  tribes 
waged  war.  1  Chr.  6  :  19.  The  other 
names  associated  with  Nodab — Hagar 
Jetur,  and  Nephish — were  sons  of  Ish- 
mael,  1  Chr.  1 :  31,  which  seems  to  point 
to  Nodab's  descent  from  Ishmael  also. 

NO'E,  the  same  as  Noah.  Matt.  24  : 
37,  etc. 

NO'GAH  {hriyhtness),  a  son  of 
David,  born  at  Jerusalem.  1  Chr.  3  : 
7;  14:  6. 

NO'HAH  {rest),  the  fourth  son  of 
Benjamin.  1   Chr.  8  :  2. 

NOI'SOME  (Old  French  noiser,''to 
hurt")  is  used  in  the  A.  V.  in  the  sense 
of  "  baneful."  Ps.  91  :  3  ;  Eze.  14  :  21. 

NON  (  fish).  1  Chr.  7  :  27.     See  Nun. 

NOPH,  a  city  of  Egypt.  Isa.  19  : 
13;  Jer.  2  :  16;  Eze.  30  :  13,  16;  Hos. 
9  :  6.     See  Memphis. 

NO'PHAH  {hlast),  a  town  of  Moab. 
Num.  21 :  30.  Ewald  locates  Nobah  near 
Heshbon,  and  identifies  it  with  Nophah. 
Canon  Cook  suggests  that  Nophah  may 
be  identical  viiih.  Arneiha]i,\^  miles  south- 
east of  Medeba. 

NOSE-JEWELS,  mentioned  in 
Isa.  3  :  21,  consisted  of  a  ring  of  gold 


Nose-Jewels  worn  in  the  East. 

or  other  metal  upon  which  jewels  were 
strung.     The   nose-rings   now  worn   by 


the  lower  classes  in  Egypt  are  from  1 
to  1^  inches  in  diameter,  and  are 
passed  through   the  right  nostril. 

NOVICE.  1  Tim.  3  :  6.  The  word  in 
the  Greek  means  ''  newly  planted."  Paul 
counsels  that  such  persons  should  not  bo 
raised  to  the  position  of  overseers  or  pas- 
tors, urging  that  they  were  liable  to  be- 
come proud  and  commit  faults.  There 
were  necessarily  many  novices  in  tho 
early  church  organizations. 

NUM'BER.  The  following  num- 
bers were  understood  by  the  Hebrews 
to  have  a  symbolical  or  representative 
significance : 

1.  Three  was  deemed  to  have  a  pecu- 
liar mystic  meaning.  It  is  the  number 
of  the  Deity  (the  Trinity),  of  the  thrice- 
repeated  ''  Holy,"  Isa.  6:3;  of  the  three- 
fold priestly  blessing.  Num.  6  :  23-26 ; 
Daniel's  three  hours  of  prayer.  Dan. 
6  :  10,  etc. 

2.  Four  symbolizes  the  world  or  hu- 
manity. There  are  four  winds,  Eze.  37  : 
9,  four  beasts,  Rev.  4  :  6,  and  four  living 
creatures  with  four  faces,  four  wings, 
and  four  sides.  Eze.  1  :  5-10,  etc. 

3.  Five,  the  half  of  ten,  as  in  Ex.  22  : 
1 ;  Lev.  22  :  14  ;  Matt.  25  :  2,  etc.  The 
Decalogue  is  divided  into  two  tables, 
each  containing  five  commandments. 

4.  Seven,  the  union  of  three  and  four, 
is  the  number  of  the  covenants  between 
God  and  man.  It  implies  perfection. 
The  number  occurs  very  frequently  in 
connection  with  both  holy  things  and 
things  unholy ;  for  example,  the  seven 
priests  that  carried  seven  trumpets  seven 
times  in  front  of  the  ark  and  around  the 
walls  of  Jericho,  Josh.  6  :  4,  the  seven 
days  in  the  week,  the  seven  churches, 
Rev.  1  :  4,  the  seven  years  of  plenty  in 
Egypt,  Gen.  41  :  26,  the  seven  angels 
with  seven  golden  vials.  Rev.  15  :  1 ;  but 
also  the  seven  heads  and  seven  crowns 
of  the  dragon.  Rev.  12  :  3. 

5.  Ten,  the  number  of  fingers  (two 
hands),  symbolizes  harmony  and  com- 
pleteness. It  is  the  number  of  the  fun- 
damental commandments. 

6.  Twelve,  the  multiple  of  three  and 
four,  is  also  a  covenant  number,  like 
seven.  Hence  we  have  the  twelve 
tribes,  the  twelve  stones  in  the  high 
priest's  breastplate,  Ex.  28  :  21,  twelve 
apostles,  twelve  gates  in  the  New  Jeru- 
salem, etc. 

7.  Forty,  four  multiplied  bv  ten ;    as 

617 


NUM 


NYM 


the  forty  days  of  our  Lord's  temptation, 
Matt.  4,  the  forty  years  in  the  wilder- 
ness, etc. 

8.  Seveutij,  seven  multiplied  by  ten  ; 
as  the  seventy  elders  of  Israel,  Num.  11: 
16,  the  seventy  disciples  of  our  Lord. 
Luke  10  :  1. 

It  is  very  diflScult,  if  indeed  at  all 
possible,  to  get  the  exact  and  definite 
meaning  of  these  numbers,  and  we  must 
not  carry  the  search  too  far.  But  that 
they  had  a  special  meaning  for  the  He- 
brews there  can  be  little  doubt.  (Com- 
pare the  extended  and  ingenious  treat- 
ment of  Lange,  Com.  on  Revelation,  pp. 
14  Hqq.) 

NUMBERS,    BOOK    OF,    the 

fourth  book  of  Moses,  and  so  called  on 
account  of  the  two  censuses  to  which 
it  refers.    It  gives  some  detached  legal 
enactments  and  many  valuable  histor- 
ical facts. 

1.  In  the  first  division,  chs.  1-10  : 
10,  an  account  is  given  of  the  prepa- 
rations for  the  departure  from  Sinai. 
In  ch.  6  we  have  the^,description  of 
the  Nazarite's  vow. 

2.  The  second  division,  ch.  10  :  11- 
14,  contains  an  account  of  the  jour- 
ney from  Sinai  to  the  borders  of  Ca- 
naan. In  chs.  13  and  14  the  spies  are 
mentioned  by  name,  and  a  most  in- 
teresting description  is  given  of  their 
discoveries  in  Canaan,  their  return  to 
the  camp,  and  the  treatment  they  re- 
ceived. 

3.  The  third  division,  chs.  15-19, 
gives  various  legal  enactments  and  a 
few  historical  facts. 

4.  The  last  division,  chs.  20-36, 
contains  an  account  of  the  events  of 
the  last  year  before  crossing  the  Jor- 
dan. In  ch.  20  we  have  the  descrip- 
tion of  Moses  smiting  the  rock  and 
the  notices  of  Miriam's  and  Aaron's 
deaths.  In  ch.  21  we  have  a  picture 
of  the  discontentment  and  rebellion 
of  the  Israelites,  their  punishment 
through  fiery  serpents,  and  the  sim- 
ple remedy  of  a  brazen  serpent  erected 
on  a  pole.  Comp.  John  3  :  14,  15.  Chs. 
22-24  are  concerned  with  Balaam,  In 
ch.  32  the  land  east  of  the  Jordan  is  as- 
signed to  Reuben  and  Gad,  and  in  ch.  33 
a  list  is  given  of  the  various  stations  in 
the  wilderness. 

NUN  [fish),  the  father  of  Joshua,  Ex. 
33  :  11 ;  also  called  Non.  1  Chr.  7  :  27. 
618 


NURSE.  The  position  was  one  of 
much  importance  and  honor.  Rebek- 
ah's  nurse  accompanied  her  mistress 
to  Canaan,  and  was  buried  with  much 
mourning  at  Allon-bachuth.  Gen.  24  : 
59  ;  35  :  8.  The  tenderness  of  a  nurse 
is  not  infrequently  referred  to.  Isa.  49  : 
23 :  1  Thess.  2  :  7. 

NUTS.  Those  mentioned  in  Gen. 
43  :  11  are  doubtless  pistachio-nuts, 
which  were  produced  in  Syria,  but  not 
in  Egypt.  The  pistachio  tree  {Plstacia 
vera)  resembles  the  sumac,  to  whose  fam- 
ily it  belongs.  It  is  still  cultivated  in 
the  Levant,  and  produces  thin-shelled 
nuts  resembling  almonds,  but  smaller 
and  with  a  green  meat  tasting  like  that 
of  the  walnut. 


Pistachio -Nuts. 


Another  word  translated  "nuts"  in 
Cant.  6:11  denotes  what  are  known  in 
our  markets  as  "  English  walnuts,"  pro- 
duced by  a  noble  tree  (Jiiglans  regin) 
which  is  everywhere  cultivated  in  the 
East. 

NYM'PHAS  [bridegroom),  a  mem- 
ber of  the  church  of  Laodicgea.  Col. 
4:  15. 


OAK 


OAT 


O. 


OAKS  (strong  is  the  meaning  of  most 
of  the  six  Hebrew  words  thus  rendered). 
In  the  following  passages,  at  least,  the 
word  probably  denotes  the  terebinth,  or 
the  elm  of  Hos.  4  :  13,  see  Teil  Thee: 
Gen.  35  :  4,  8 ;  Jud.  6  :  11,  19;  2  Sam. 
18  :  9,  10,  U ;  1  Kgs.  13  :  14  ;  1  Chr.  10  : 
12;  Isa.  1  :  30;  Eze.  6  :  13.  In  other 
instances  "oak"  may  denote  ant/  strong 
flourishing  tree,  Am.  2  :  9,  or  a  grove  of 
such  trees. 

Botanists  find  three  species  of  this 
tree  in  Palestine.  One  of  the  most  uni- 
versal and  characteristic  bushes  of  the 
country  is  the  prickly  evergreen-oak 
(Quercus  jiseudo-cvcci/era),  which  has  a 
leaf  like  the  holly,  but  smaller.  This 
oak  now  rarely  exceeds  12  feet  in  height, 
but  when  the  destruction  of  trees  was 
less  universal  it  doubtless  attained  great 
size  and  age.  "Abraham's  Oak,"  in  the 
field  of  Mamre,  near  Hebron,  the  noblest 
tree  of  Southern  Palestine,  is  of  this 
species,  and  is  23  feet  in  girth  ;  and  there 
are  said  to  be  still  finer  specimens  in  the 
north  and  east. 

The  Yalonia  oak  (Q.  ppgilops)  sheds  its 
leaves  and  more  resembles  some  of  our 
own  species.  The  trunk  is  unusually 
massive,  and  the  tree  often  grows  to  a 
magnificent  size.  It  is  not  seen  in  the 
south,  but  abounds  in  the  north,  especi- 
ally about  Mount  Tabor  and  also  east 
of  the  Jordan,  and  is  doubtless  the  "  oak 
of  Bashan."  Isa.  2  :  12,  13  ;  Zech.  11  :  2. 
It  produces  very  large  acorns,  which  are 
eaten  by  the  poor,  while  their  cups  are 
employed  by  tanners  under  the  name  of 
Valeria,  and  exported  from  many  parts 
of  the  Turkish  empire. 

Another  kind  ( Q.  ivfeetoria)  some- 
times occurs  in  Samaria  and  Galilee  as 
a  small  tree  with  deciduous  leaves,  white 
beneath.  Travellers  through  the  unin- 
habited districts  of  Gilead  and  Bashan 
have  found  there  magnificent  forests  of 
all  three  species. 

In  the  Bible  we  find  these  noble  trees 
often  mentioned  for  the  purpose  of  desig- 
nating the  locality  of  important  events, 
as  in  Gen.  35  :  8 :  Josh.  24  :  20.  Oak- 
wood  was  used  for  idols.  Isa.  44  :  14. 


The  word  translated  "plains"  in 
several  passages — Gen.  12  :  6;  13  :  18; 
14  :  13  ;  18  :  1  ;  Deut.  11  :  30  ;  Jud.  4:11; 
9  :  (),  37;  1  Sam.  10  :  3 — means  placex 
noted  for  one  or  more  oaks.  See  cut 
under  Abraham's  Oak. 

OATH,  a  solemn  affirmation,  made 
with  an  appeal  to  the  Deity  in  attesta- 
tion of  its  truth.  Hcb.  6:16.  The  cus- 
tom of  taking  oaths  was  in  vogue  in  the 
earliest  patriarchal  times.  Gen.  21  :  23, 
but  their  use  is  not  confined  to  men. 
God  also  has  bound  himself  by  oaths. 
Acts  2:30;  Gen.  26:3;  Deut.  29:12, 
etc.  Their  use  was  the  subject  of  legis- 
lation, Ex.  20  :  7  ;  Lev.  19':  12,  and  our 
Lord  prohibits  careless  and  profane  oaths. 
Matt.  5  :  34-36.  Various  formularies 
were  employed  for  oaths,  such  as  :  'M« 
the  Lord  liveth,"  1  Sam.  14  :  39  ;  "  Would 
God,"  Num.  14  :  2:  ''As  the  Lord  liveth, 
and  a-9  thy  soul  liveth."  2  Kgs.  2 : 2,  etc. 
From  our  Lord's  prohibition  of  profane 
and  careless  oaths,  we  learn  that  oaths 
were  taken  by  the  more  common  things, 
such  as  the  throne  of  God,  Jerusalem, 
the  earth,  etc.,  Matt.  5  :  34,  nqq.,  and  the 
temple,  the  gold  of  the  temple,  and  the 
altar.  Matt.  23  :  16-22. 

As  to-day  the  elevation  of  the  right 
hand  is  associated  with  taking  an  oath 
in  our  courts,  so  amongst  the  Hebrews 
oaths  were  frequently  accompanied  with 
peculiar  ceremonies.  As  far  back  as 
Abraham's  time  lifting  the  hand  was 
practised  in  this  connection,  Gen.  14: 
22  ;  Deut.  32  :  40,  etc.,  as  also  placing 
the  hand  under  the  thigh  of  another. 
Gen.  24:2:  47:29. 

In  the  0.  T.  the  oath  is  taken  as  a 
ratification  of  agreements  between  the 
most  diverse  parties.  The  king  or  ruler 
takes  an  oath,  solemnly  pledging  him- 
self to  perform  a  promisee.  2  Kgs.  25  : 
24;  Matt.  14:7;  the  subject  to  his 
sovereign,  Eccl.  8:2;  the  governor  ex- 
acts the  oath  from  the  priests,  Neh.  5  : 
12;  the  master  from  his  servant.  Gen. 
24  :  2 ;  the  patriarch  from  his  people. 
Gen.  50  :  25,  etc. 

Our  Lord's  prohibition  of  profane  and 
careless  swearing,  Matt.  5  :  34.  has  been 

619 


OBA 


ODE 


understood  by  some — as  the  Friends — 
to  exclude  all  oaths  whatever.  No  doubt, 
should  the  spirit  of  Christ  completely 
pervade  the  world,  the  simple  assevera- 
tions "Yea"  and  "Nay"  would  be  all- 
suflBcient. 

The  most  solemn  oath  that  a  Moham- 
medan can  make  is,  "  By  the  beard  of 
Mohammed." 

OBADI'AH  (servant  of  Jehovah). 
1.  A  descendant  of  the  house  of  David. 
1  Chr.  3:21. 

2.  A  chief  of  Issachar.  1  Chr.  7  :  3. 

3.  One  of  the  six  sons  of  Azel.  1  Chr, 
8  :  38  ;  9  :  44. 

4.  A  son  of  Shemaiah.  1  Chr.  9  :  16. 

5.  A  Gadite  who  joined  David  in  the 
wilderness.  1  Chr.  12  :  9. 

6.  A  godly  officer  in  the  court  of  Ahab 
who  concealed  one  hundred  and  fifty 
prophets  in  the  persecution  of  Jezebel. 
1  Kgs.  18  :  3-16. 

7.  A  prince  who  taught  the  Law  in 
Jehoshaphat's  reign.  2  Chr.  17  :  7. 

8.  Father  of  Ishmaiah.  1  Chr.  27  :  19. 

9.  One  of  the  overseers  of  the  temple- 
repairs  in  Josiah's  reign.  2  Chr.  34  :  12. 

10.  A  son  of  Jehiel.  Ezr.  8  :  9. 

11.  One  of  those  who  sealed  the  cove- 
nant with  Nehemiah.  Neh.  10  :  5. 

12.  A  porter  in  Jerusalem.  Neh.  12  : 
25. 

13.  The  prophet  whose  prophecy  is 
placed  fourth  among  the  minor  proph- 
ecies. Absolutely  nothing  is  known  of 
his  life.  His  prophecy  was  uttered  sub- 
sequently to  B.  c.  588,  as  we  draw  from 
Ob.  11,  where  the  capture  of  Jerusa- 
lem and  the  captivity  of  Jacob  are  re- 
ferred to  as  past  events.  The  captivity 
of  this  verse  is  in  all  probability  that  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  in  b.  c.  588. 

Prophecy  of,  contains  (1)  a  general 
arraignment  of  Edom  for  its  pride  and 
presumption,  vs.  1-9.  (2)  A  more  par- 
ticular statement  of  its  offence  as  violence 
against  Jacob,  his  brother,  and  neglect 
to  help  Jerusalem  against  the  enemies 
that  took  her  inhabitants  captive,  vs. 
10-16.  (3)  An  account  of  the  prosperity 
of  Zion  when  Jacob  should  return  from 
his  captivity  and  Esau  be  discomfited. 
vs.  17-21.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the 
final  verses  have  yet  been  fulfilled. 
There  is  a  striking  resemblance  between 
the  first  nine  verses  of  this  prophecy 
and  Jer.  49  :  7-16.  One  prophet  must 
have  read  the  other's  prophecy. 
620 


O'BALi  (bare),  a  son  of  Joktan  who 
gave  his  name  to  an  Arab  tribe.  Gen. 
10  :  28.  The  name  is  written  "  Ebal" 
in  1  Chr.  1  :  22. 

O'BED  {serving).  1.  The  son  of 
Euth  and  Boaz,  and  father  of  Jesse. 
Ruth  4  :  17;  1  Chr.  2  :  12.  His  name 
occurs  in  the  genealogical  tables  of  our 
Lord.  Matt.  1:5;  Luke  3  :  32. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Sheshan  by  his 
Egyptian  slave  Jarha.  1  Chr.  2  :  37. 

3.  One  of  David's  warriors.  1  Chr.  11 : 
47. 

4.  One  of  the  porters  of  the  temple. 
1  Chr.  26  :  7. 

5.  The  father  of  Azariah.  2  Chr.  23  : 1. 
0'li'ED''E'DOm.  {servant  of  Edom). 

1.  A  Gittite  who  lived  in  David's  time, 
1  Chr.  13  :  13,  and  at  whose  house  the 
ark  was  deposited,  after  the  dreadful 
death  of  Uzzah.  2  Sam.  6  :  6-10.  The 
blessing  which  came  on  the  house  of 
Obed-edom  for  the  ark's  sake  encouraged 
David  to  remove  it  to  Jerusalem.  2  Sam. 
6 : 10-12. 

2.  The  temple-treasurer  in  the  reign 
of  Amaziah.  2  Chr.  25  :  24. 

O'BILi  (camel-driver),  the  overseer 
of  the  camels  in  the  reign  of  David.  1 
Chr.  27 :  30. 

OBLA'TION.  Lev.  2  :  4.  See  Of- 
fering. 

O'BOTH  (bottles,  water-skins),  one 
of  the  stations  of  the  Israelites  east  of 
Moab.  Num.  21 :  10  ;  33  :  43.  It  was  the 
first  encampment  after  the  brazen  ser- 
pent was  set  up,  and  before  they  reached 
Ije-abarim.  It  is  perhaps  near  the 
Wady  el-Ahsa,  on  the  pilgrim-route  be- 
tween Damascus  and  Mecca.  This  was 
probably  on  the  boundary  between  Edom 
and  Moab,  and  extends  north-westward 
to  the  Dead  Sea. 

OCCUPY  (from  the  Latin  occ«^9a?-e), 
literally  "  to  lay  hold  of,"  then  "to  use," 
"  employ,"  "trade  with  ;"  and,  in  a  neu- 
ter sense,  "  to  trade  "  is  used  in  all  these 
senses  in  the  Bible. 

OC^RAN  (troubled,  or  troubler),  the 
father  of  Pagiel,  a  prince  of  the  tribe 
of  Asher  after  the  Exodus.  Num.  1  :  13 ; 
2:27:  7:72:  10  :  26. 

O'DED  (ereetbuj).  1.  The  father  of 
the  prophet  Azariah,  who  flourished  in 
Asa's  reign.  2  Chr.  15  :  1-8.  In  v.  8,  Oded 
is  called  "  prophet,"  where  probably 
"  the  son  "  is  meant. 

2,  A  prophet  at  the  time  of  Pekah's 


OFF 


OFF 


invasion  of  Jud.ah  who  prevailed  upon 
the  victorious  army  to  let  the  captives 
free.  2  Chr.  28  :  U-ll. 

OFFEND',  OFFENSE'.  These 
words  are  often  wronsr'y  translated  in 
the  A.  V.  (as  Matt.  5  r2[} ;  18  :  (i).  The 
Greek  verb  strictly  means  "  to  make  to 
stumble."  And  so  the  noun  means  "  tliat 
which  causeth  to  stumble,"  or  leads  to 
sin.  It  is  in  these  senses  that  the  eye  is 
said  "to  oflPend"  (better  "causeth  thee 
to  stumble"),  Matt.  5  :  29— that  is,  it 
may  allure  to  sin.  So,  in  Matt.  18  :  7, 
"  offenses  "  are  causes  of  sin.  Our  Saviour 
is  said  to  be  a  "  rock  of  offense,"  Rom. 
9  :  33,  because  the  humility  of  his  life 
and  death  was  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of 
the  Jews'  accepting  him,  as  they  associ- 
ated with  their  idea  of  the  Messiah  the 
external  grandeur  and  pomp  of  the  world. 
The  "  offense  of  the  cross,"  Gal.  5  :  11,  is 
that  in  the  doctrines  of  Christ  or  in  the 
cross  which  is  offensiveto  the  natural  man. 

OFFERING,  Gen.  4:  3,  OBLA'- 
TION.  Lev.  2  :  7.  Offerings  or  sacri- 
fice among  the  Jews  formed  the  most 
essential  part  of  religious  worship. 
They  indicated  confession,  self-dedica- 
tion, expiation,  and  thanksgiving.  The 
books  of  Leviticus  and  Numbers  are  our 
principal  soui'ces  of  information  on  the 
subject. 

The  offerings  were  either  bloody  or 
bloodless,  and  taken  from  the  animal 
and  vegetable  creation.  Of  animals 
only  tame  ones  were  used,  as  oxen,  goats, 
and  sheep.  To  these  must  be  added  the 
dove.  Lev.  5:11.  etc.  From  the  vegeta- 
ble kingdom,  wine,  flour,  etc.,  were  set 
apart.  Human  sacrifices  or  offerings  were 
especially  forbidden.  Lev.  18  :  21  :'^  20  :  2. 

In  the  act  of  offering,  the  offerer,  after 
bringing  the  victim  to  the  altar,  laid  his 
hand  on  its  head.  Lev.  1  :4;  4:4,  etc. 
He  then  slew  it.  Lev.  1 : 4,  himself,  or 
the  priest  for  him.  2  Chr.  29 :  24.  The 
blood  was  received  by  the  priest,  who 
either  sprinkled  or  poured  it  upon  ob- 
jects. The  victim  was  then  flayed  and 
cut  in  pieces.  Lev.  1 :  fi,  S.  some  or  all  of 
which,  according  to  the  kind  of  offering, 
were  burnt  on  the  altar.  In  the  case  of 
some  of  the  offerings  the  victim  was  lifted 
up  or  waved,  in  token  of  its  presentation 
to  Jehovah. 

The  first  offerings  of  which  record  is 
made  are  those  of  Cain  and  Abel.  Gen. 
4  :  3-8.  Both  the  animal  and  the  vegeta- 


ble kingdoms  contributed  on  this  occa- 
sion. The  second  ottering  is  that  of 
Noah,  Gen.  8:20,  after  the  Flood. 

The  various  offerings  were  the  burnt- 
offerings,  meat-offerings,  peace-offerings, 
and  the  sin-  and  tresj)ass-offerings. 

The  Ijiiriit-ojf'eriiKj  was  to  be  a  male 
without  blemish,  of  the  herd  and  of  the 
flock,  offered  voluntarily  at  the  door  of 
the  tabernacle,  the  hand  of  the  offerer 
being  upon  the  head  of  the  victim.  Lev. 
1  : 2-4. 

The  design  of  the  burnt-offering  was 
an  atonement  for  sin.  Lev.  1:4;  comp. 
Heb.  10  :  1-3,  11 .  It  was  presented  every 
day,  Ex.  29:38-42.  on  the  Sabbath, 
Num.  28  :  y,  10,  and  on  the  great  day  of 
atonement.  Lev.  16 :  3,  and  the  three 
great  festivals.  Num.  28  :  11-31  ;  29. 

The  me«f-offeriii(/  consisted  of  flour, 
or  cakes,  prepared  with  oil  and  frank- 
incense. Lev.  2:1;  6:14-23.  It  was  to 
be  free  from  leaven  and  honey,  but  was 
to  have  salt.  Lev.  2:11,  13.  AVith  this 
was  connected  the  drink-offering,  which 
was  never  used  separately,  but  was  an 
appendage  of  wine  to  some  sacrifices. 
Ex.  29:41.  A  meat-offering  was  pre- 
sented every  day  with  the  burnt-offer- 
ing. Ex.  29:40,  41. 

The  first-fruits,  offered  at  Pentecost, 
Lev.  23:17-20,  and  at  the  Passover, 
Lev.  23:10-14,  were  called  tcave-offer- 
ings ;  those  offered  in  harvest-time, 
Num.  15  :  20,  21,  heave-offerings. 

Peace-offerings  were  eucharistic  in 
their  nature,  and  were  offered  in 
thanksgiving  or  at  a  special  dedica- 
tion of  something  to  the  Lord.  Lev. 
3;  7:11-21.  The  animal  as  well  as 
the  vegetable  kingdom  contributed  to 
this  class  of  offerings. 

The  sin-  and  trespass-offerings  were 
expiatory.  It  is  difficult  to  determine 
exactly  how  they  were  distinguished. 
The  first  seem  to  have  more  especial 
reference  to  universal  sinfulness,  the 
second  to  specific  acts  of  sin.  Both 
alike  testify  to  the  consciousness  of 
sin  and  the  felt  need  of  atonement. 
Sin-offerings  were  presented  by  the 
high  priest  for  personal  offences,  for 
national  sins,  and  on  the  great  day  of 
atonement,  when  he  confessed  the  sins 
of  the  whole  nation  with  his  hand  on 
the  scapegoat's  hend,  and  the  goat 
was  driven  off  into  the  wilderness. 
Lev.  16  :  1-34,  etc. 

621 


OFF 


OIL 


These  offerings  all  had  a  typical 
significance,  especially  the  expiatory 
offerings.  While  they  ever  reminded 
the  people  of  God's  holiness  and  of 
their  own  sinfulness,  which  demands 
expiation,  they  also  prefigured  the 
atonement  of  Jesus  Christ,  on  whom 
was  laid  the  iniquity  of  us  all,  and 
"■  his  own  self  bare  our  sins  on  the 
tree." 

OF'FICER,  the  translation  of 
several  Hebrew  and  Greek  words.  The 
commonest  in  the  0.  T.  is  the  term  mean- 
ing ''  scribe  who  keeps  registers  and  ta- 
bles." Ex.  5  :  14.  The  N.  T.  words  re- 
late to  legal  functionaries:  (1)  Bailiffs, 
Matt.  5  :  25 :  John  7  :  32,  45  ;  Acts  6  : 
22;  (2)  Those  who  register  and  collect 
the  fines  imposed  by  courts  of  justice. 
Luke  12  :  58. 

OG  {lonf/-necked ^),  aking  of  Bashan, 
of  gigantic  stature,  Deut.  3  :  11,  who 
opposed  the  passage  of  the  Israelites 
through  his  territories.  Deut.  3  :  1. 
He  was  defeated  in  a  pitched  battle 
in  Edrei,  and,  together  with  his  sons, 
was  slain.  Deut.  1:4;  Num.  21  :  34. 
His  sixty  fenced  and  walled  cities  were 
distributed  amongst  the  Reubenites,  the 
Gadites,  and  the  half-tribe  of  Manas- 
seh.  Deut.  3  :  3,  4;  Num.  32  :  23.  He 
was  a  giant.  Josh.  13  :  12,  and  his  long 
iron  bedstead  was  regarded  as  a  curios- 
ity, and  was  preserved  as  a  memorial  of 
his  huge  stature.  Deut.  3  :  11. 

O'HAD  {j)owef),  one  of  the  sons  of 
Simeon.   Gen.  46  :  10;  Ex.  6  :  15. 

O'HEL  {tent),  a  son  of  Zerubbabel. 
1  Chr.  3  :  20. 

OILi9  amongst  the  Hebrews,  was 
made  from  olive  -  berries  and  from 
spices.    Ex.  25  :  6.     It  was  used — 

1.  In  the  preparation  of  food,  much  as 
butter  and  lard  are  used  to-day.   1  Kgs. 

17  :  12-15;  Ex.  29  :  2 ;   Lev.  2  :  4,  etc. 

2.  As  a  cosmetic  for  anointing  the 
body,  the  beard,  and  the  head.  2  Sam. 
14  :  2 ;   Ps.  23  :  5  ;   Luke  7  :  46,  etc. 

3.  For  illuminating  purposes  in  lamps. 
Ex.  25  :  6 ;  27  :  20  ;  Matt.  25  :  3,  etc. 

4.  In  worship.     The  first-fruits,  Num. 

18  :  12,  and  the  tithes  were  dedicated  to 
the  Lord.  Neh.  13  :  5.  The  meat-offer- 
ings were  also  dipped  in  oil.  Lev.  2:10; 
7  :  16,  etc. 

5.  In  the  ritual  of  consecration  of 
kings  and  high  priests.  1  Sam.  10  :  1  ; 
Lev.  8  :  12,  etc. 

622 


6.  For  medicinal  purposes.  Mark  6  : 
13  ;   Luke  10  :  34  ;   Isa.  1:6;  Jas.  5  :  14. 

7.  For  anointing  the  dead.  Matt.  26  : 
12:  Luke  23  :  56. 

The  practice  in  the  early  Church  of 
anointing  the  bodies  of  persons  whose 
lives  were  despaired  of  was  derived 
from  Jas.  5  :  14.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  has  placed  the  practice  among 
the  sacraments,  denominating  it  "  ex- 
treme  unction." 

As  an  ordinary  cosmetic,  the  use  of 
oil  is  significant  of  joy  and  gladness, 
Ps.  92  :  10,  and  the  omission  of  it  be- 
tokens sorrow.  2  Sam.  14  :  2 ;  Matt.  6  : 
17.     See  Olive. 

OIL-PRESS.  "  The  oil  of  Pales- 
tine is  expressed  in  a  rude  way.  The 
olive  is  subjected  to  pressure  in  a  mill 
consisting  of  a  great  millstone  with  a 
hole  iff  its  centre;  this  stone  is  laid  on 
one  of  its  flat  surfaces,  and  a  beam  of 
wood  fastened  upright  in  the  axis.  The 
ujjper  surface  of  the  stone  is  slightly 
depressed,  except  at  its  margin  and 
around  the  central  hole.  Another  mill- 
stone is  set  up  on  its  edge  in  the  depres- 
sion of  the  upper  surface  of  the  lower 
stone.  Through  the  axis  of  this  stone 
passes  a  long  beam,  which  is  fastened 
at  one  end  by  a  j^in  to  the  axis  of  the 
horizontal  stone,  and  at  the  other  to  a 
whiflfletree,  to  which  a  horse  or  ox  is 
geared  when  the  mill  is  in  operation. 
The  upright  stone  is  moved  around  the 
axis  of  the  lower,  and  crushes  the  olives 
by  its  great  weight.  The  oil  which  is 
expressed  by  this  crushing  mill  is  in- 
corporated with  the  crushed  mass,  which 
is  then  transferred  to  baskets  of  flexible 
structure,  IS  inches  wide  and  6  inches 
deep.  A  pile  of  these  baskets,  8  feet  or 
more  in  height,  is  raised  within  a  hollow 
erect  cylinder  of  stone,  which  is  open  in 
front  by  a  slit,  4  inches  in  width,  from 
top  to  bottom  of  the  cylinder.  Into  the 
top  of  this  cylinder  passes  a  piston,  which 
is  connected  with  a  lever,  to  which  are 
attached  heavy  stones,  and  by  means  of 
the  piston  the  baskets  of  olives  are  sub- 
jected to  as  much  pressure  as  is  necessary 
to  extract  the  oil.  The  quality  of  oil  thus 
made  is  quite  inferior  to  that  imported 
from  Italy  and  France.  It  is  largely  used 
in  making  soap,  and  was  formerly  much 
more  used  for  burning  than  now." — Dr. 
Post, of  Beirut.  (Contributed.)  See  Olive. 

OIL    TREE   {tree  of  oil).  Isa.  41  : 


OIN 


OLI 


19.  In  1  Kgs.  6  :  23,  31,  32,  33  these 
words  are  rendered  "  olive  tree,"  and 
represent  the  material  of  the  cherubim, 
doors,  and  posts  of  Solomon's  temple. 
They  are  translated  ''pine"  in  Neh.  8  : 
15.  But  the  olive  tree  is  also  unmistak- 
ably mentioned  in  this  verse.  If  the  oil 
tree  was  not  the  olive  tree,  what  was  it? 
Tristram  and  others  believe  it  to  be  the 
oleaster  {Elcitf/iius  a)i(/itsti/ulius).  This 
shrub  has  no  affinity  to  the 
olive,  though  resembling  it 
in  leaf  and  general  ajijiear- 
ance  and  yielding  from  its 
berries  an  inferior  oil.  It 
is  found  plentifully  on  the 
highlands  of  Palestine  and 
about  Jerusalem,  thus  meet- 
ing the  direction  of  Neh.  8  : 
15,  as  the  Balanites  yE</i/p- 
tiaca,  a  shrub  of  the  Jordan 
valley,  does  not.  Dr  Tris- 
tram therefore  suggests  in 
one  place  (under  "Oil 
Tree")  that  its  "fine  hard 
wood  "  was  the  wood  of  the 
cherubim,  but  in  another 
place  (under  "  Olive")  states 
that  material  to  have  been 
olive  wood  (as  the  A.  V. 
reads).  The  latter  opinion 
has  a  strong  probability  in 
its  favor,  and  it  does  not 
appear  that  the  oleaster  is 
more  than  a  large  shrub, 
though  the  author  cited 
calls  it,  as  compared  with 
the  olive,  "  a  smaller  tree." 
For  the  passage  in  Nehe- 
miah  there  would  then  be 
no  present  explanation  un- 
less we  believe,  as  is  very 
possible,  that  the  term  "oil 
tree,"  in  later  times  at  least, 
was  extended  or  restricted 
to  the  oleaster. 

OINT'MENT.  Isa.  1:6;  Matt.  26  : 
12.     See  Anoint  and  Oil. 

OLD  TESTAMENT.  See 
Bible. 

OL'IVE.  From  ancient  times  this 
has  been  one  of  the  most  common  fruit 
trees  of  Palestine.  Deut.  6  :  11.  As  the 
olive  stands  in  the  orchard  it  resembles 
the  apple  tree  in  shape,  size,  and  mode 
of  cultivation.  Its  leaves  are  narrow,  dull 
above  and  silvery  beneath,  so  that  the  re- 
sulting gray-green  of  these  trees  becomes 


beautiful  by  association.  Hos.l4:6.  The 
white  tlowers,  produced  in  the  greatest 
profusion,  are  like  those  of  the  lilac,  to 
which  the  tree  is  botanieally  allied;  and, 
though  millions  are  ])rematurely  scatter- 
ed by  the  breezes.  Job  15  :  33,  enough  re- 
main to  load  down  the  trees  with  fruit. 
This  latter  is  like  a  plum  in  shape  and 
color,  being  first  green,  then  pale,  and, 
when  ripe,  nearly  black.   Olives  are  some- 


Olive  Branches  and  Olives. 

times  plucked  in  an  unripe  state  and  put 
into  some  pickle  or  other  preserving  liquid 
and  exported.  For  the  most  part,  how- 
ever, they  are  valuable  for  the  oil  they 
produce,  which  is  expressed  from  the 
fruit  in  various  ways,  and  constitutes 
an  important  article  of  commerce  and 
luxury.  Job  24  :  11  ;  Eze.  27  :  17.  The 
fruit  is  gathered  by  beating.  Deut.  24  : 
20,  or  shaking  the  tree,  Isa.  17  :  6;  and 
by  Jewish  law  gleanings  were  to  be  left 
for  the  poor.   A  full-sized  tree  in  its  vigor 

623 


OLI 


OLl 


annually  produces  from  ten  to  fifteen  gal- 
lons of  oil. 

The  olive  seems  to  flourish  best  where 
it  can  get  its  roots  into  the  crevices  of 
the  rock.  Deut.  32  :  13.  It  grows  slowly, 
lives  to  an  immense  age,  and  still  bears 
fruit  when  the  trunk  is  but  a  hollow  shell 
or  strip  of  such  a  shell,  illustrating  Ps. 
92  :  14.  The  olive-branch  is  regarded 
universally  as  the  symbol  of  peace,  Gen. 
8:11,  and  plenty. 

The  olives  from  which  oil  is  to  be  ex- 
pressed must  be  gathered  by  the  hands 
or  softly  shaken  from  the  trees  before 
they  are  fully  ripe,  in  September  or  Oc- 
tober. The  best  oil  is  that  which  comes 
from  the  fruit  with  very  light  pressure. 
This  is  sometimes  called  in  Scripture 
"green  oil,"  not  because  of  its  color — 
for  it  is  pellucid — but  because  it  is  from 
unripe  fruit.  It  is  translated,  in  Ex.  27 : 
20,  "pure  oil-olive  beaten,"  and  was  used 


for  the  golden  candlestick.  For  the  ex- 
traction of  the  first  oil  panniers  or  bas- 
kets are  used,  which  are  gently  shaken. 
The  second  and  third  pressing  produces 
inferior  oil.  The  best  is  obtained  from 
unripe  fruit;  the  worst  from  that  which 
is  more  than  ripe,  and  which  often  is  not 
gathered  till  winter.  The  oil  of  Egj'pt 
is  worth  little,  because  the  olives  are  too 
fat.  Hence  the  Hebrews  sent  gifts  of  oil 
to  the  Egyptian  kings.  Hos.  12  :  1. 

The  olives  are  themselves  eaten,  and 
the  oil  is  employed  not  only  as  salad,  but 
as  butter  and  fat  are  in  our  domestic 
economy,  and  the  inferior  qualities  are 
used  for  making  soap.  It  is.  observed 
by  travellers  that  the  natives  of  oil- 
countries  manifest  more  attachment  to 
this  than  to  any  other  article  of  food, 
and  find  nothing  adequate  to  supply  its 
place.     For  other  uses  see  Oil. 

A  press  was  often  used  for  the  extrac- 


Oil-Press  and  Olive  Tree. 


lion  of  the  oil,  consisting  of  two  reser- 
voirs, usually  8  feet  square  and  4  feet 
deep,  situated  one  above  the  other  and 
hewn  out  of  the  rock.  Job  29  :  6.  The 
berries,  being  thrown  into  the  upper  one, 
were  trodden  out  with  the  feet.  Mic.  6:15. 
Olive-wood,  which  is  close-grained, 
of  a  dark  amber  color,  and  beautifully 
veined,  was  probably  used  in  the  temple. 
624 


1  Kgs.  6  :  23,  31,  33.  See  Oil  Tree. 
Ordinarily,  at  present,  there  are  no 
fences  about  olives,  but  each  tree  has  its 
one  or  more  owners,  and  is  inherited, 
bought,  or  sold  separately,  while  the 
ground  belongs  to  the  village.  This 
tree,  like  the  apple,  requires  grafting, 
for  seedlings  produce  but  scanty,  small, 
and  poor  fruit. 


OLI 


OLT 


Olive,  Wild.  Rom.  11  :  17-24  does 
not  teach  that  a  wild  twig  grafted  upon 
a  good  stock  will  produce  good  fruit,  for 
this  is  not  the  fact.  Paul  refers  rather 
to  the  adoption  of  the  Gentiles  among 
God's  people  as  a  process  "  contrary  to 
nature,"  but  accomplished  by  grace, 

OLIVES,  AND  OLI  VET, 
MOUNT  OF,  a  noted  mountain  or 
range  of  hills  east  of  Jerusalem. 

^Y(n?(es  aufl  /Scripture  Hintorji. — The 
mountain  derives  its  name  from  the 
olive  trees  which  formerlj'  abounded  on 
its  sides,  some  of  which  are  still  found 
thereon.  It  is  called  "Olivet'"  and 
"Mount  of  Olives"  in  the  0.  T.,  2  Sam. 

15  :.■>():  Zech.  14  : 4,  and  is  also  alluded 
to  as  the  "mount,"  Neh,  8  :  15,  the 
mount  facing  Jerusalem,  1  Kgs.  11  :  7, 
the  "  mountain  which  is  on  the  east  side 
of  the  city,"  Eze.  11 :  23  ;  and  the  "  mount 
of  corruption  "  probably  refers  to  a  por- 
tion of  Olivet.  2  Kgs.  23  :  13.  It  is  also 
called,  in  the  N.  T.,  "  Mount  of  Olives" 
and  "  Olivet,"  and  was  a  scene  of  several 
of  the  most  interesting  events  in  the  life 
of  our  Lord.  Matt.  21  :  1  ;  24  :  3  :  26  :  30  : 
Mark  11 :  1 ;  13  :  3  :  14  :  26  ;  Luke  19  :  29, 
37;  21  :  37;    22  :  39;    John  8:1;    Acts 

1  :  12.  The  modern  Arabic  name  is 
sometimes  Jehel  ez-Zeiiun,  or  "  mount 
of  olives,"  but  more  usually  it  is  Jehel 
et-Tur,  or  "mount  of  the  summit."  The 
mountain  is  first  mentioned  in  connection 
with  David's  flight  from  Jerusalem  to 
escape  from  Absalom.  2  Sam.  15  :  30,  32  ; 

16  :  1.  Upon  it  Solomon  built  high 
places  for  the  gods  of  his  numerous 
wives,  but  these  idolatrous  places  were 
destroyed  by  King  Josiah.  1  Kgs.  11 :  7  ; 

2  Kgs.  23  :  13,  14.  When  the  captive 
Jews  celebrated  the  feast  of  tabernacles, 
the  olive,  pine,  myrtle,  and  palm  branches 
used  in  building  their  booths  were 
brought  from  this  mountain.  Neh.  8:15. 

The  greatest  interest,  however,  in  this 
mountain  is  in  connection  with  the  clos- 
ing scenes  of  our  Saviour's  ministry. 
At  Bethany,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
mountain,  lived  Mary,  Martha,  and 
Lazarus,  and  here  he  performed  his  last 
and  greatest  miracle ;  from  Olivet  he 
made  his  triumphal  entry  into  Jeru- 
salem ;  upon  it  he  spent  the  nights 
during  the  week  of  his  passion  ;  from 
its  slopes  he  looked  down  upon  .Jeru- 
salem and  wept  over  the  ungrateful  city 
as  he  foretold  its  fearful  doom ;  on  the 
40 


night  of  his  betrayal  he  retired  to  a 
garden  at  its  foot,  and  spent  those  hours 
of  prayer  and  agony ;  and  after  his 
resurrection,  in  the  presence  of  his  dis- 
ciples, he  ascended  from  Olivet  to  heaven 
to  sit  on  the  right  hand  of  the  P'ather  in 
his  glory.  John  11  :  1  ;  12  :  1  ;  Matt.  21: 
1  :  Mark  11  :  1  ;  Luke  19  :  29-38  :  21 :  37  ; 
Matt.  26  :  36;  Mark  14  :  32 ;  Luke  22  : 
39;  24:  50;   Acts  1:  12. 

Physical  Features.  —  Olivet,  or  the 
Mount  of  Olives,  is  not  a  single  peak, 
but  a  ridge  having  not  less  than  four" 
separate  summits.  Osborne  describes 
six  prominent  heights  in  the  Olivet 
range,  but  he  includes  Scopus,  on  the 
north,  and  the  hill  of  "  Evil  Counsel,'* 
on  the  extreme  south,  of  the  ridge.  Thd 
Olivet  range  extends  north  without  any 
marked  depression  to  the  portion  called 
Scopus,  and  the  general  elevation  of  the 
ridge  is  a  little  less  than  3000  feet  above 
the  sea-level.  It  lies  directly  east  of 
Jerusalem,  and  is  separated  from  the 
city  by  the  valley  of  the  Kedron.  The 
four  chief  peaks  south  of  Scopus  are : 
(1)  The  northern  summit,  called  Viri 
(inlilsei,  from  a  tradition  that  the  angels 
stood  upon  it  when  they  spoke  to  the 
disciples.  Acts  1:11.  It  is  about  half  a 
mile  north-east  from  the  city,  and  is 
2682  feet  above  the  sea.  (2)  The  central 
summit,  or  the  "  Mount  of  Ascension," 
2665  feet  in  height,  is  situated  directly 
east  of  the  temple-area,  and  is  the  Mount 
of  Olives  proper.  Three  paths  lead  to 
this  summit — one  by  a  near!}'  direct 
ascent,  another  winding  around  the 
southern  shoulder,  and  a  third  path  lead- 
ing around  the  northern  shoulder.  On 
the  top  of  this  peak  is  a  chapel  built 
upon  the  site  of  a  church  erected  by 
Helena,  the  mother  of  Constantine,  since 
tradition  points  out  this  spot  as  the  place 
of  the  ascension  of  Christ.  The  monks 
point  out  even  the  footprint  made  bj' 
the  ascending  Lord,  and  the  spot,  a  little 
south  of  this,  where  Christ  is  said  to 
have  taught  the  disciples  the  model,  or 
Lord's,  prayer.  The  true  place  of  the 
ascension,  however,  was  beyond  the 
summit  of  Olivet, 'and  near  Bethany. 
Luke  24  :  50.  (3)  The  third  summit, 
about  600  yards  south-west  of  the  former, 
and  three-fourths  of  a  mile  from  Bethany, 
is  called  "  the  Prophets,"  from  a  curious 
catacomb  called  the  "  Prophets'  Tombs" 
on    its  side.      (4)    The   fourth   summit, 

625 


OLI 


OLI 


about  1000  yards  from  No.  3,  is  the 
"  Mount  of  Offence,"  so  called  from  the 
idol-worship  which  Solomon  established 
there.  None  of  the  depressions  which 
separate  these  summits  are  very  deep ; 
some  are  to  be  regarded  as  quite  slight. 
It  is  evident  that  in  ancient  times  this 
mountain-ridge  was  covered  with  olives, 
myrtles,  figs,  cypresses,  and  some  species 
of  the  terebinth  or  oak,  and  also  abounded 
in  flowers.  '*  The  olives  and  olive-yards," 
says  Stanley,  "  from  which  it  derived  its 
name  must  in  earlier  times  have  clothed 
it  far  more  completely  than  at  present, 
where  it  is  only  in  the  deeper  and  more 
secluded  slopes  leading  up  to  the  north- 
ernmost summit  that  these  venerable 
trees  spread  into  anything  like  a  forest. 
And  in  those  times,  as  we  see  from  the 
name  of  Bethany  ('house  of  dates'),  and 
from  the  allusions  after  the  Captivity 
and  in  the  gospel  history,  myrtle-groves, 
pines,  and  palm  trees — all  of  which  have 
now  disappeared — must  have  made  it  a 
constant  resort  for  pleasure  and  seclu- 
sion. Two  gigantic  cedars,  probably 
amongst  the  very  few  in  Palestine,  stood 
near  its  summit,  under  which  were  four 
shops  where  pigeons  were  sold  for  puri- 
fication. The  olive  and  fig  alone  now 
remain — the  olive  still  in  more  or  less 
abundance,  the  fig  here  and  there  on  the 
roadside,  but  both  enough  to  justify  the 
Mussulmans'  belief  that  in  the  oath  in 
the  Koran,  'By  the  olive  and  the  fig,' 
the  Almighty  swears  by  his  favorite 
city  of  Jerusalem,  with  this  adjacent 
mountain." — Sinai  and  Palestine,  p.  184. 
As  our  Lord  must  frequently  have 
looked  over  the  city  and  the  surrounding 
country  from  the  top  of  this  mount,  it 
will  be  interesting  to  describe  the  scene 
now  presented  to  the  eye  of  the  traveller 
from  this  spot.  The  view  from  the  top 
of  the  minaret  upon  the  central  summit, 
or  Mount  of  Ascension,  is  extensive  and 
magnificent.  "  Beyond  the  valley  of  the 
Kedron  extends  the  spacious  plateau  of 
the  Haram  esh-Sherif,  where  the  Dome 
of  the  Rock  and  the  Aksa  mosque  pre- 
sent a  particularly  imposing  appearance. 
The  spectator  should  observe  the  direc- 
tion taken  by  the  temple-hill,  the  higher 
site  of  the  ancient  Bezetha,  to  the  north 
of  the  temple,  and  the  hollow  of  the 
Tyropoeon,  which  is  plainly  distinguish- 
able, though  now  filled  with  rubbish, 
between  the  temple-hill  and  the  upper 


part  of  the  town.  The  dome-covered 
roofs  of  the  houses  form  a  very  peculiar 
characteristic  of  the  town.  Toward  the 
north,  beyond  the  olive-grove  outside 
the  Damascus  Gate,  is  seen  the  upper 
(western)  course  of  the  valley  of  the 
Kedron,  decked  with  rich  verdure  in 
spring,  beyond  which  rises  the  Scopus. 
The  view  toward  the  east  is  striking. 
Here,  for  the  first  time,  we  perceive  that 
extraordinary  and  unique  depression  of 
the  earth's  surface  which  few  travellers 
thoroughly  realize.  The  blue  waters  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  lying  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountains  which  bound  the  eastern 
horizon,  and  apparently  not  many  hun- 
dred feet  below  us,  are  really  no  less 
than  3900  feet  below  our  present  stand- 
point. The  clearness  of  the  atmosphere, 
too,  is  so  deceptive  that  the  mysterious 
lake  seems  quite  near,  though  it  can  only 
be  reached  after  a  seven  hours'  ride  over 
barren,  uninhabited  ranges  of  hills.  The 
blue  mountains  which  rise  beyond  the 
deep  chasm,  reaching  the  same  height 
as  the  Mount  of  Olives,  once  belonged 
to  the  tribe  of  lleuben,  and  it  is  among 
these  that  Mount  Nebo  must  be  sought. 
To  the  extreme  south  of  that  range  a 
small  eminence,  crowned  by  the  village 
of  Ket-ak,  is  visible  in  clear  weather. 
On  the  eastern  margin  of  the  Dead  Sea 
are  seen  two  wide  openings :  that  to  the 
south  is  the  valley  of  the  river  Arnon, 
and  that  to  the  north  the  valley  of  the 
Zerka.  Farther  north  rises  the  Jehel 
Jilad,  once  the  possession  of  the  tribe 
of  Gad.  Nearer  to  us  lies  the  valley  of 
Jordan,  the  course  of  the  river  being 
indicated  by  a  green  line  on  a  whitish 
ground.  Toward  the  south-east  we  see 
the  course  of  the  valley  of  the  Kedron, 
or  '  Valley  of  Fire,'  and  on  a  hill-pla- 
teau, to  the  left,  the  village  of  Ahn  Din. 
Bethany  is  not  visible.  Quite  near  us 
rises  the  '  Mountain  of  Offence:'  beyond 
the  Kedron  that  of  '  Evil  Counsel,'  and 
farther  distant,  to  the  south,  is  the  sum- 
mit of  the  '  Frank  Mountain,'  or  '  Hill 
of  Paradise,'  with  the  heights  of  Beth- 
lehem and  Tekoah ;  to  the  south-west, 
on  the  fringe  of  hills  which  bounds  the 
plain  of  Kephaim  on  the  south,  lies  the 
monastery  of  Mar  Elijafi,  past  which 
winds  the  road  to  Bethlehem.  That  town 
itself  is  concealed  from  view,  but  the 
large  village  of  Bet  Jala  and  several 
villages  to  the  south  of  Jerusalem,  such 

627 


OLI 


ON 


as  Beit  Sufafa  and  Esh-Shera/at,  are 
distinctly  visible." — Baedeker's  Pales- 
tine (1)1(1  Syria,  p.  219. 

The  slopes  of  Olivet  are  terraced  and 
cultivated,  but  the  vegetation  is  not 
luxuriant.  The  principal  trees  now  are 
the  olive,  fig,  and  carob,  with  here  and 
there  a  few  apricot,  almond,  terebinth, 
and  hawthorn.  At  the  western  base  of 
the  mountain  is  Silwan,  a  miserable 
little  village.  Jewish  tradition  declares 
that  the  shekinah,  or  divine  presence, 
after  retiring  from  Jerusalem,  dwelt 
three  years  and  a  half  on  Olivet,  to  see 
whether  the  Jews  would  repent,  but 
when  they  would  not,  retired  to  his  own 
place.     See   Jerusalem  and   Gethsem- 

ANE. 

OL'IVE-YARD,  a  grove  of  olives, 
tended  for  the  sake  of  the  fruit.  Ex.  23  : 
11,  etc. 

OLYM'PAS,  a  Christian  at  Rome. 
Rom.  16:  15. 

O'MAR  {eloquent  ?),  a  grandson  of 
Esau.  Gen.  36  :  11,  15;   1  Chr.  1  :  36. 

0'i>IEGA.  Rev.  1 :  8.     See  Alpha. 

O'MER.  Ex.  16:36.    See  Measures. 

OWlll  {servant  of  Jehovah).  1.  An 
officer  in  the  army  of  Israel.  1  Kgs.  16  : 
16.  He  was  engaged  in  the  siege  of 
GiBBETHOX  (which  see)  when  he  re- 
ceived intelligence  that  Zimri,  another 
officer  of  the  army,  had  assassinated  the 
king  and  usurped  the  throne.  The  army, 
by  general  acclamation,  made  Omri  king, 
and,  raising  the  siege  of  Gibbethon, 
they  forthwith  marched  to  Tirzah,  where 
Zimri  resided,  and  captured  it.  Zimri 
set  fire  to  the  house  he  occupied,  and  was 
consumed.  The  Israelites  were  then 
divided  into  two  parties ;  but  after  a 
short  struggle  Omri  prevailed  and 
took  the  throne,  which  he  disgraced 
through  a  reign  of  twelve  years.  Omri, 
in  the  sixth  year  of  his  reign,  built  Sa- 
maria, which  thereafter  became  the 
capital  of  the  ten  tribes.  The  prophet 
Mieah,  ch.  6:16,  speaks  of  the  "  statutes 
of  Omri,"  and  denounces  them.  They 
were  probably  of  an  idolatrous  charac- 
ter. 

A  descendant  of  Benjamin 


1  Chr. 
A    descendant    of    Judah.    1    Chr. 


2. 

7:8, 

3. 
9:4. 

4.  Chief  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  in  the 
reign  of  David.  1  Chr.  27  :  18. 

ON  {strength),  a  grandson  of  Reuben 
628 


who  took  part  with  Korah,  Dathan,  and 
Abiram  in  their  rebellion.  Num.  16:  1. 
As  his  name  is  not  subsequently  men- 
tioned, it  has  been  conjectured  that  he 
repented  and  withdrew. 

ON  {sun,  li(jht),  a  celebrated  city  of 
Lower  Egypt,  Gen.  41  :  45,  50  ;  called 
Bethshemesh,  or  '*  house  of  the  sun," 
Jer.  43  :  13,  and  known  to  the  Greeks  as 
Heliopolis,  or  "city  of  the  sun."  Eze. 
30:  17,  margin.  Some  suppose  it  to  be 
referred  to  as  the  "  city  of  destruction  " 
in  Isa.  19  :  18,  19.  The  Arabs  call  it, 
A  in  Shems,  or  the  "  fountain  of  the  sun." 
On  was  situated  upon  the  Pelusiac 
branch  of  the  Nile,  about  20  miles  north- 
east of  ancient  Memphis,  and  6  miles 
north  from  Cairo. 

History. — On  was  one  of  the  oldest 
cities  in  the  world.  Its  origin  and  founder 
are  unknown,  but  it  has  an  obelisk  which 
has  been  standing  about  40U0  years.  It 
has  been  considered  the  Rome  and  the 
Athens  of  ancient  Egypt,  the  centre  of  its 
religion  and  learning.  In  it  stood  the 
great  temple  of  Ra,  with  one  exception 
the  most  famous  ancient  shrine  in  Egypt. 
Ra,  next  to  Ptah,  was  the  greatest 
Egyptian  deity,  bearing  seventy-five 
ditterent  forms,  and  regarded  as  a  king 
of  gods  and  men,  and  as  the  sun  who 
illumines  the  world  with  the  light  of  his 
eyes,  and  is  the  awakener  of  life.  Every 
Pharaoh  was  also  regarded  as  a  human 
embodiment  of  Ra,  and  hence  one  of  his 
titles  was  "  Lord  of  Heliopolis."  To  the 
chief  shrine  of  the  god  Ra  each  king  pre- 
sented special  off"erings,  making  it  one 
of  the  richest  temples  of  ancient  times. 
The  immense  wealth  of  this  shrine  is 
mentioned  in  various  papyri,  particu- 
larly the  "Harris  Papyrus,"  in  London, 
which  gives  a  list  of  the  gifts  of  Rameses 
III.  Its  companies  of  priests  and  at- 
tendants are  reputed  to  have  numbered 
over  12,000.  The  legend  of  the  wonder- 
bird  Phoenix,  early  used  to  illustrate  the 
doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  arose  here; 
to  this  city  Joseph,  delivered  from  prison, 
came  with  royal  honors  to  marry  the 
daughter  of  Potipherah,  (''dedicated  to 
Ra  ").  Josephus  reports  that  On  was  the 
home  of  Jacob  on  his  arrival  in  Egypt. 
In  its  grandeur  it  was  the  resort  of  men 
of  learning  from  all  countries.  In  its 
schools  and  universities  Moses,  accord- 
ing to  Manetho,  was  instructed  in  all  the 
learning  of  the   Egyptians,  and  hither 


ON 


ONA 


came  Plato,  Eudoxus,  and  the  wisest  of 
the  Greeks  to  be  initiated  into  the  mj'S- 
tic  lore  of  its  priests.  From  the  teachers 
of  its  ancient  schools  Herodotus  gained 
his  knowledge  of  the  country  and  its 
history.  In  the  time  of  8trabo,  B.  c.  60, 
this  famous  seat  of  learning  had  ceased 
to  exist,  though  he  was  shown  the  liouses 
of  the  ])riests  and  the  dwelling  occupied 
by  Plato.  He  states  that  its  teachers 
were  admirably  imbued  with  the  know- 
ledge of  heavenly  things,  and  that  they 
could  be  persuaded  only  by  patience  and 
politeness  to  communicate  some  of  their 
doctrines,  which  they  concealed  from 
barbarians.  Josejihus  speaks  of  a  tem- 
ple built  at  Heliopolis  by  order  of  Ptol- 
emy Philometor  for  the  Jews  when  Onias 
was  high  priest,  and  which   lasted  for 


Obelisk  at  Ou,  or  Heliopolis. 

220  years,  when  it  was  destroyed  by 
Vespasian.  The  city,  however,  is  said 
to  have  been  devastated  by  Cambyses  at 
an  earlier  date. 


Present  Condition. — The  site  of  this 
once  famous  city  is  now  marked  with  a 
few  ruins  of  massive  walls,  fragments 
of  s])hinxes,  a  noted  obelisk  of  red  gran- 
ite of  Sycne  (one  of  the  two  which  stood 
before  the  temple  of  the  Sun),  and  some 
low  mounds  enclosing  a  space  about 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  long  by  half  a 
mile  wide.  The  obelisk,  rising  amid  the 
desolation,  is  66  feet  high,  and,  except  a 
small  one  found  by  Lepsius  in  Memphis, 
is  the  oldest  one  yet  discovered,  having 
been  erected  by  Usertesen,  the  second 
king  of  the  twelfth  dynasty.  Each  of 
the  four  sides  is  covered  with  hier()gly])h- 
ics,  rendei'ed  illegible  on  two  sides  by 
the  mud-cells  of  bees.  The  inscriptions 
are,  however,  the  same  on  each  of  its 
faces,  and  simply  record  when,  why,  and 
by  whom  it  was  erected.  It  is  partly 
buried  in  the  sand.  "  There,"  says 
Schaff,  "it  has  been  standing  for  near- 
ly 4000  years,  and  there  it  still  stands  in 
solitary  grandeur  and  unbroken  silence. 
Had  it  a  mouth  to  speak,  it  could  tell  of 
the  visit  of  Abraliam  and  Sarah,  of  the 
wisdom  and  purity  of  Joseph,  the  in- 
quisitiveness  of  Herodotus,  the  sublime 
speculations  of  Plato,  the  mysteries  of 
Egyptian  learning  and  idolatry,  the  rise 
and  fall  of  ancient  empires."  It  appears 
to  the  traveller  as  the  only  important 
survivor  of  the  avenues  of  spinxes,  the 
temples,  palaces,  colleges,  and  obelisks 
beheld  or  described  by  the  Grecian  his- 
torians. Formerly  the  two  obelisks  of 
Alexandria  called  the  ''  Needles  of 
Cleopatra"  or  the  "Obelisks  of  Pha- 
raoh "  stood  at  On,  but  they  were  re- 
moved in  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  and  one 
of  them  now  stands  on  the  bank  of  the 
Thames,  in  London  (since  1879);  the 
other  has  been  presented  to  the  city  of 
New  York,  whither  it  was  transported  in 
1880,  and  now  stands  in  the  Central  Park. 

Tradition  indicates  On  as  the  ])lace  to 
which  Joseph  and  Mary  and  the  child 
I  Jesus  came  to  escape  from  the  cruelty 
of  Herod,  and  a  sycamore  tree  is  shown, 
under  which  they  are  reputed  to  have 
rested  in  their  flight. 

O'NAM  {8tron<i).  1.  One  of  the  sons 
of  Shobal.   Gen.  36  :  23;   1  Chr.  1 :  40. 

2.  A  son  of  Jerahmeel.  1  Chr.  2  :  26,  28. 

O'NAN  [xtniiK]),  the  second  son  of 
Judah,  Gen.  38  :'  4:  1  Chr.  2  :  3,  who 
refused  to  raise  up  seed  to  his  elder 
brother  after  his  death.   Gen.  38  :  8,  9. 

629 


ONE 


OPH 


He  died  before  the  migration  of  Jacob's 
family  to  Egypt.  Gen.  46  :  12  ;  Num. 
26  :  19. 

ONES'IMUS  {useful),  a  slave  of 
Philemon  in  whose  behalf  Paul  wrote 
the  Epistle  to  Philemon.  Col.  4:9.  He 
seems  to  have  fled  from  his  master, 
Phile.  15,  but  returned  to  him  a  Chris- 
tian. His  conversion  was  brought  about 
through  Paul  at  Rome.  Phile.  10.  Tra- 
dition says  he  was  afterward  made 
bisho])  of  Bera?a,  in  Macedonia. 

OiNESIPH'ORUS  ( proft-hnn^/- 
ing),  a  primitive  Christian  who  minis- 
tered to  the  wants  of  Paul  at  Ephesus, 
and  afterward  sought  him  out  at  Rome 
and  openly  sympathized  with  him.  2 
Tim.  1: 16-18,-  4:  19. 

ON'ION,  a  well-known  garden  vege- 
table which  grew  in  great  perfection  in 
Egypt,  and  was  longed  for  by  the  Israel- 
ites. Num.  11  :  5.  The  onions  of  Egypt 
are  of  large  size  and  exquisite  flavor, 
"  difl'ering  from  the  onions  of  our  coun- 
try as  much  as  a  bad  turnip  differs  in 
palatableness  from  a  good  apple." 

O'NO  {strong),  a  town  in  Benjamin, 
and  reoccupied  after  the  Captivity.  1 
Chr.  8:12,;  Ezr.  2  :  33  ;  Neh.  7  :  37.  A 
plain  and  a  valley — the  two  perhaps 
identical — were  connected  with  it.  Neh. 
6  :  2  :  11  :  35  ;  1  Chr.  4  :  14.  As  it  is 
named  with  Lod,  Van  de  Velde,  Por- 
ter, Baedeker,  and  others  locate  it  at 
Kefr  'Ana,  5  miles  north  of  Lydda 
(Lod). 

OX'YCHA,  an  ingredient  of  the 
sacred  incense  which  was  prepared  un- 
der divine  direction.  Ex.  30  :  34.  It 
was  probably  the  horny  lid  or  door  of  a 
univalve  shell  {Strombus)  found  in  the 
Red  Sea.  When  burnt  this  "  operculum  " 
emits  a  strong  pungent  odor. 

O'NYX,  one  kind  of  chalcedony ;  a 
precious  stone,  Ex.  25:7;  Eze.  28:13, 
exhibiting  two  or  more  colors  disposed 
in  parallel  bands  or  layers.  The  Hebrew 
word  shoham  is  uniformly  so  translated 
in  the  Bible.  Opinion  is  divided  as  to  the 
exact  meaning  of  the  term.  Josephus 
says  the  oni/x  is  meant.  It  was  found 
in  the  land  of  Havilah,  Gen.  2  :  12,  and 
was  evidently  of  high  value,  as  it  is 
mentioned  among  precious  stones  and 
metals.  Job  28  :  16;  Eze.  28  :  13.  It 
adorned  the  breastplate  of  the  high 
priest  and  the  two  shoulders  of  his 
ephod.  Ex.  28:9-12,  20.  David  also 
630 


collected  onyx-stones  for  the  adornment 
of  the  temple.  1  Chr.  29  :  2. 

O'PHEL  {hill,  sicelling),  a  hill  of 
ancient  Jerusalem.  More  accurately,  it 
was  the  southern  extremity  of  the  hill 
on  which  the  temple  stood,  and  from 
whence  the  hill  sunk  gradually  toward 
the  surrounding  valleys.  It  was  enclosed 
and  fortified  by  a  wall,  2  Chr.  27  : 3  ; 
33:14;  Neh.  3:26,  27;  11:21,  but  it  is 
now  outside  the  walls  of  the  city.  The 
term  has  usually  been  understood  to  ap- 
ply to  the  entire  hill.  Warren,  however, 
suggests  that  Ophel  was  originally  the 
designation  of  the  palace  which  Solomon 
built,  a  building  which  in  later  reigns 
would  command  the  Kedron  valley  by  a 
wall  at  least  150  feet  in  height,  increased 
to  200  feet  by  the  building  of  the  royal 
cloisters.  The  excavations  of  Warren 
exposed  a  wall  70  feet  in  height,  which 
he  supposes  to  have  been  Manasseh's, 
and  in  conjunction  with  it  is  a  great 
tower  built  of  drafted  stones — perhaps 
that  "  which  lieth  without."  Upward 
of  50  shafts  were  sunk  about  Ophel  in 
search  of  the  wall,  and  a  line  of  wall 
was  found  to  extend  as  far  as  700  feet 
from  the  first  tower  in  a  south-easterly 
direction  along  the  ridge  of  Ophel. 
There  it  ends  abruptly.  About  200  feet 
southward  in  the  same  line  some  mas- 
sive walls  were  uncovered.  On  the  east- 
ern side  of  Ophel  is  the  Fount  of  the 
Virgin,  and  below  is  the  pool  of  Siloam. 
See  .JERTTSALEjr. 

O'PHIR  (fruitful  ?),  one  of  the  sons 
of  Joktan.  Gen.  10  :  29  ;  1  Chr.  1 :  23. 

O'PHIR,  the  celebrated  gold-region 
to  which  the  ships  of  Solomon  and  Hi- 
ram sailed  from  a  port  on  the  Red  Sea, 
and  from  whence  they  returned  bearing 
gold,  silver,  precious  stones,  and  algum- 
tree  wood  ;  and  they  also  brought  ivory, 
apes,  and  peacocks,  though  it  is  not  said 
that  these  latter  came  originally  from 
Ophir.  1  Kgs.  9:28;  10:11,22.  The 
ships  of  Jehoshaphat,  built  to  make  a 
similar  voyage,  were  wrecked  at  Ezion- 
geber.  1  Kgs.  22  :  48.  The  abundance  and 
fineness  of  the  gold  of  Ophir  were  pro- 
verbial. Job  22  :  24  :  28  :  1 6  ;  Pp.  45  :  9  ; 
Isa.  13  :  12  ;  1  Chr.  29  :  4 ;  Tobit  13  :  17  ; 
Ecclus.  7 :  18. 

The  precise  situation  of  Ophir  is  an 
unsettled  question  in  scriptural  geogra- 
phy. Three  chief  locations  have  been 
suggested:  (1)   Arabia;  (2)   India;  (3) 


OPH 


ORA 


Eastern  Africa.  The  arguments  in  favor 
of  each  location  may  be  briefly  stated  as 
follows : 

1.  Arabia. — The  reason  for  placing 
Ophir  in  Arabia  is  that  this  land  of  gold 
was  probably  named  after  Ophir,  a  son 
of  Joktan,  and  a  descendant  of  Shem, 
whose  dwelling  was  between  Mesha  and 
Sephar,  a  mount  of  the  east.  Gen.  10  : 
29,  30.  Now,  we  find  that  Ptolemy,  in 
his  description  of  Arabia  Felix,  speaks 
of  a  town  called  Sapphara  or  Saphar, 
Avhich  resembles  the  Hebrew  Sephar. 
This  would  place  Ophir  in  Southern 
Arabia,  upon  the  border  of  the  Indian 
Ocean.  Ritter  objects  to  this  location 
because  Arabia  does  not  now  produce 
gold.  There  is  abundant  evidence,  how- 
ever, to  show  that  in  ancient  times  gold 
was  obtained  in  Arabia.  Solomon  re- 
ceived gold  brought  by  the  queen  of 
Sheba,  and  Tyrian  merchants  traded  in 
Arabian  gold.  1  Kgs.  10  :  15  ;  2  Chr.9  : 
14;  Eze.  27:22.  Diodorus  and  Pliny 
also  testify  that  Arabia  formerly  abound- 
ed in  gold,  as  well  as  in  precious  stones 
and  sweet-smelling  wood  like  the  algum 
trees. 

2.  India. — The  argument  of  Ritter, 
Ewald,  and  Max  Mliller  in  favor  of  lo- 
cating Ophir  in  India  is  that  some  of 
the  articles  brought  in  the  ships  of  Solo- 
mon are  productions  peculiar  to  India. 
Max  MUller  has  also  made  an  ingenious 
linguistic  argument  in  favor  of  this 
theory,  based  upon  the  fact  that  the 
names  of  some  of  these  articles  are  for- 
eign words  in  Hebrew,  and  that  they  be- 
long especially  to  the  Sanscrit,  the  pa- 
rent language  of  Eastern  India.  Neither 
of  these  considerations  is  of  sufficient 
weight  to  decide  the  question. 

.3.  Eastern  Africa.  —  The  idea  that 
Ophir  was  identical  with  Sofala,  on  the 
Mozambique  coast  of  Africa,  appears  to 
have  been  first  suggested  by  Portuguese 
travellers  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Some 
French  scholars  have  approved  of  the 
theory,  but  it  has  not  met  with  general 
favor. 

It  is  safe  to  conclude  from  the  above 
statements  that  when  the  Hebrew  wri- 
ters spoke  of  going  to  0))hir  they  re- 
ferred to  the  Joktanite  Ophir  of  the 
Arabian  coast,  though  it  is  not  improb- 
able that  the  voyage  of  Solomon's  ships 
extended  to  India. 

OPH'NI  (mouldy),  a  town  in  Benja- 


min. Josh.  18  :  24.  It  was  probably  iden- 
tical with  (Jophna  of  Josephus  and  with 
the  modern  village  of  Ju/na,  or  Ji/ua, 
about  2  or  3  miles  north-west  of  Bethel. 
It  was  an  important  town  in  the  time  of 
Vespasian. 

OPH'RAH  (female  fawn),  the  son 
of  Meonothai.   1  Chr.  4  :  14. 

OPH'RAH  (female  fawn), the  name 
of  at  least  two  places  in  Scripture. 

1.  A  town  in  Benjamin  toward  which 
an  invading  company  of  Philistines 
went.  Josh.  18  :  23  ;  1  Sam.  13  :  17.  Some 
suppose  it  is  identical  with  Ephrain  or 
Ephron,  2  Chr.  13:19.  and  with  the 
city  of  Ephraim,  to  which  our  Lord  re- 
tired after  raising  Lazarus.  John  11 :  54, 
Eusebius  and  Jerome  located  it  about  5 
Roman  miles  east  of  Bethel.  This  would 
identify  it  with  the  modern  village  et- 
Taiyiheh. 

2.  Ophrah  of  the  Abi-ezerite.  Jud.  6  : 
11,  24.  This  was  the  place  where  Gideon 
saw  the  angel,  erected  an  altar,  and 
where  he  was  buried.  Jud.  8  :  27,  32. 
Here  Abimelech  slew  seventy  of  his 
kindred,  and  the  town  appears  to  have 
been  near  Shechem,  in  the  territory  of 
Manasseh.  Jud.  9  :  1,  5,  6,  15,  Conder 
proposes  to  identify  it  with  the  modern 
village  of  Ferata,  near  Shechem. 

OR'ACLE.  This  term  is  in  the  0. 
T.  in  every  case  but  one  applied  to  the 
most  holy  place  in  the  temple,  whence 
God  declared  his  will  to  ancient  Israel. 
1  Kgs.  6  :  5,  19-23  ;  8  :  6.  But  in  2  Sam. 
16  :  23  it  is  used  in  the  ordinary  sense. 
In  the  N.  T.  it  is  in  the  plural,  and  is 
applied  to  the  Scriptures,  which  contain 
the  will  of  God.  Rom.  3:2:  Heb.  5:12; 
1  Pet.  4:11.  Once  they  are  called  "  liv- 
ing "  because  of  their  quickening  effects. 
Acts  7  :  38. 

By  the  oracles,  in  the  heathen  world, 
were  understood  the  shrines  where  ut- 
terances concerning  the  future  were  given 
and  the  utterance  itself.  The  Greeks 
had  many  such  oracles,  of  which  the 
most  famous  was  the  oracle  of  Delphi. 
The  priestess,  sitting  on  a  tripod  over  a 
chasm  from  which  an  intoxicating  vapor 
was  said  to  ascend,  uttered  incoherent 
words,  which  Avere  then  interpreted  by  a 
prophet.  These  oracles  at  one  time  stood 
in  high  repute  and  were  consulted  by 
kings.  They  did  not,  however,  with- 
stand very  long  the  corruptive  power 
of  money  and  bribery. 

631 


OKA 


OSS 


OR'ATOR,    OR   ADVOCATE, 

because    acquainted    with    Roman    law. 
See  Tertullfs. 

OR'DINANCES.  The  term,  as 
used  by  the  sacred  writers,  designates 
laws  and  commandments  of  God,  Ex. 
18  :  20,'  or  of  civil  rulers,  1  Pet.  2:  13, 
and  sometimes  religious  ceremonies. 
Heb.  9  :  1,  10.  In  one  passage,  1  Cor. 
11  :  2,  the  word  is  a  translation  for  the 
Greek  word  parndosis,  which  in  tvVelve 
other  passages  of  the  N.  T.  is  more  cor- 
rectly translated  "  tradition." 

O'REB  (raven),  a  prince  of  Midian 
defeated  and  driven  back  by  Gideon. 
Jud.  7  :  25.  His  fate  is  alluded  to  in  Ps. 
83:  11  and  Isa.  10:26. 

O'REB  (mi-e»).  The"rockofOreb" 
was  named  after  Oreb,  one  of  the  princes 
of  Midian,  whom  the  men  of  Ephraim 
slew.  Jud.  7  :  25  ;  Isa.  10  :  26.  Reland 
and  others  would  locate  Oreb  east  of  the 
Jordan  and  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Bethshean,  at  a  place  called  Orbo.  It 
appears  from  Jud.  8  :  4  that  Gideon 
crossed  the  river  in  pursuit  of  the  kings 
of  Midian.  Hence,  Condor  formerly 
suggested  that  the  Midianite  leaders 
were  executed  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Jordan  and  their  heads  carried  to  Gid- 
eon, on  the  other  side,  and  that  the  rock 
Oreb  was  at  Ash  el-Ghorah.  He  adds: 
*'  The  sharp  peak  overlooking  the  broad 
plain  north  of  Jericho  would  indeed 
form  a  natural  place  for  a  public  execu- 
tion, which  would  be  visible  to  the  whole 
multitude  beneath." — Palestine  Quar- 
terhj,  July,  1874,  p.  184.  In  the  Hand- 
hook  of  the  Bible,  however,  he  appears 
to  have  abandoned  this  identification, 
which  leaves  that  of  Reland  as  the  only 
probable  location  of  Oreb  suggested. 

O'REN  {pine  tree),  a  son  of  Jerah- 
meel.   1  Chr.  2  :  25. 

OR'GAN.  Gen.  4: 21.  The  "organ," 
as  it  is  called,  is  thought  to  have  been 
what  the  ancient  Greeks  called  the  "  pipe 
of  Pan."  It  consisted  of  seven  or  more 
reeds  of  unequal  length.  These  are  still 
used  by  the  shepherds  of  the  East,  and 
in  skilful  hands  jiroduce  quite  tolerable 
music. 

ORI'ON,  a  constellation  of  about 
eighty  stars,  south  of  Taurus,  and,  part- 
ly, of  the  equator.  Job  9  :  9.  The  Arabs 
called  it  the  ''  Giant,"  meaning  thereby 
Nimrod.  The  constellation  is  also  men- 
tioned in  Job  38  :  31  and  Am.  5  :  8. 
632 


OR'NAMENTS.  The  fondness 
which  the  human  race  in  general,  and 
Oriental  nations  in  particular,  have  for 
personal  ornaments  was  shared  in  by 
the  ancient  Hebrews.  The  first  mention 
of  jewelry  is  in  Gen.  24  :  22,  where 
Abraham's  servant  presented  Rebekah 
with  earrings  and  bracelets.  The  weak- 
ness of  Hebrew  women  for  jewelry  is 
well  brought  out,  Jer.  2  :  32 :  "  Can  a 
maid  forget  her  ornaments  ?"  The  orna- 
ments worn  by  the  Hebrews  consisted 
of  bracelets,  necklaces,  earrings,  nose- 
rings, Eze.  16  :  11,  12,  etc.  Isaiah,  ch. 
3  :  16-25,  gives  a  graphic  picture  of  the 
fashionable  woman  of  his  day  and  her 
ornaments.  The  apostles  exhort  the 
women  of  their  day  to  adorn  themselves 
with  good  works,  1  Tim.  2  :  10,  and  with 
a  meek  and  quiet  spirit  rather  than  with 
the  wearing  of  gold.  1  Pet.  3  :  4. 
OR'NAN.  1  Chr.  21: 15.  SeeARAuxAH. 
OR' PAH  i/awn,  or  mane),  the 
daughter-in-law  of  Naomi, who  with  Ruth 
accompanied  her  part  of  the  way  on  the 
road  to  Bethlehem.  Her  aifection,  how- 
ever was  not  so  strong  as  Ruth's,  and, 
kissing  Naomi,  she  returned  to  her 
people  and  her  gods.   Ruth  1  :  4,  14. 

OR'PHANS.  Special  privileges 
were  accorded  to  them  by  the  Mosaic 
Law,  as  well  as  to  the  widow  and 
stranger,  Deut.  14 :  21,  and  special  kind- 
ness and  leniency  enjoined  toward  them. 
Deut.  24  :  17.  Job  adduced  it  as  one  of 
his  merits  that  he  had  helped  the  father- 
less. Ch.  29  :  12,  etc.  James,  ch.  1 :  27, 
classes  the  visitation  of  orphans  amongst 
the  acts  of  pure  and  undefiled  religion. 
The  word,  John  14  :  18.  translated  "  com- 
fortless "  is  "  orphans  ''  in  the  Greek. 

O'SEE,  the  Greek  form  of  writing 
"  Hosea."  Rom.  9  :  25. 

OSHE'A  (deliverance),  the  original 
name  of  Joshua.  Num.  13  :  16. 

OS'PRAY,  mentioned  with  the  ossi- 
frage  as  an  unclean  bird.  Lev.  11  :  13; 
Deut.  14  :  12.  If  not  a  generic  term  for 
eagles,  perhaps  the  short -toed  eagle 
(Circaetns  ffallicns),  by  far  the  most 
abundant  of  the  Palestine  species. 

OS'SIFRAGE  (Heb.  the  breaker). 
The  original  word  well  suits  the  remark- 
able habits  of  the  lammergeier,  or 
bearded  vulture,  known  also  among  the 
Alps,  and  one  of  the  most  formidable 
birds  of  its  tribe.  It  is  mentioned  with 
the  ospray,  as  above.     The  propriety  of 


OST 


OST 


the  name  "ossi-frage"  —  i.e.,  "bone- 
breaker" —  is  seen  from  the  following 
description:  "  Marrow- bones  are  the 
dainties  he  (the  lammergeyer)  loves  the 
best ;  and  when  the  other  vultures  have 
picked  the  flesh  ofi'  any  animal,  he  comes 
in  at  the  end  of  the  feast  and  swallows 
the  bones,  or  breaks  them  and  swallows 


Ossifrage  or  Lammergeier  (Gypaetus  barbatus). 

the  pieces  if  he  cannot  get  the  marrow 
out  otherwise.  The  bones  he  cracks  by 
taking  them  to  a  great  height  and  letting 
them  fall  upon  a  stone.  This  is  probably 
the  bird  that  dropped  a  tortoise  on  the 
bald  head  of  poor  old  iEschylus.  Not, 
however,  that  he  restricts  himself,  or  the 
huge  black  infant  that  he  and  his  mate 
are  bringing  up  in  one  of  the  many 
holes  with  which  the  limestone  precipice 
abounds,  to  marrow,  turtle,  bones,  and 
similar  delicacies ;  neither  lamb,  hare, 
nor  kid  comes  amiss  to  him,  though,  his 
power  of  claw  and  beak  being  feeble  for 
so  large  a  bird,  he  cannot  tear  his  meat 
like  other  eagles.  To  make  amends  for 
this,  his  powers  of  deglutition  are  enor- 
mous."— N.  H.  Simpson. 

OS'TRICH,  a  remarkable  bird  of 


the  hot  regions  of  Africa  and  Arabia, 
often  attaining  the  height  of  7  feet,  of 
which  the  head  and  neck  make  i.  It  is 
also  7  feet  from  the  head  to  the  end  of 
the  tail  when  the  neck  is  stretched  hori- 
zontally on  a  line  with  the  body.  The 
ostrich  loves  solitary  and  desolate  places, 
and  is  the  bird  intended  in  .Job  30  :  29 ; 
Isa.  13  :  21  ;  34  :  13  ;  Jer.  50  :  39  ;  Mic. 
1 :8  (though  called  the  owl),  and  its  cry 
is  piercing  and  mournful. 

The  plumage  of  the  ostrich  is  white 
and  black.  Its  weight  (which  is  often 
75  or  80  pounds)  and  the  construction  of 
its  body  prevent  its  flying. 

The  habits  of  this  bird  are  described 
with  scientific  accuracy  in  Job  39  :  13-18. 
Its  timidity  is  such  that  the  least  noise 
frightens  it  from  the  nest,  which  is  often 
made  on  the  ground  and  in  the  most 
exposed  places;  and  from  the  same 
cause  the  young  of  the  ostrich  are  often 
suddenly  abandoned.  Hence  she  seems 
to  be  regarded  as  lacking  the  usual 
share  of  instinct  or  natural  aflFection. 
Lam.  4:3.  A  modern  traveller  tells  us 
that  the  Arabs  meet  sometimes  with 
whole  nests  of  these  eggs  (containing 
from  thirty  to  fifty  in  number),  5  inches 
in  diameter,  and  weighing  several 
pounds;  some  of  them  are  sweet  and 
good,  others  are  addled  and  corrupted ; 
others,  again,  have  their  young  ones  of 
different  growth,  according  to  the  time, 
it  may  be  presumed,  since  they  have 
been  forsaken  of  the  dam.  They  often 
meet  with  a  few  of  the  little  ones  no 
bigger  than  well-grown  pullets,  half 
starved,  straggling  and  moaning  about 
like  so  many  distressed  orphans  for  their 
mother.  In  this  manner  the  ostrich  may 
be  said  to  be  "  hardened  against  her 
young  ones,  as  thongh  they  were  not 
hers ;  her  labor,"  in  hatching  and  at- 
tending them,  being  ''  vain,  without 
fear"  or  the  least  concern  of  what  be- 
comes of  them  afterward. 

The  most  remarkable  characteristic 
of  the  ostrich  is  the  rapidity  with  which 
it  runs,  and  which  the  fleetest  horse 
cannot  equal.  The  surprising  swiftness 
of  this  bird  is  expressly  mentioned  by 
Xenophon.  Speaking  of  the  desert  of 
Arabia,  he  states  that  ostriches  are 
frequently  seen  there;  that  none  could 
take  them,  the  horsemen  who  pursue 
them  soon  giving  it  over,  for  they  es- 
caped   far    away,  making    use   both   of 

633 


OTif 


OVE 


Ostrich. 


their  feet  to  run  and  of  their  wings, 
when  expanded,  as  a  sail  to  waft  them 
along.  This  representation  is  confirmed 
by  the  writer  of  A  Voymje  to  Seneynl, 
who  says,  "  She  sets  off  at  a  hard  gallop, 
but,  after  being  excited  a  little,  she  ex- 
pands her  wings  as  if  to  catch  the  wind 
and  abandons  herself  to  a  speed  so  great 
that  she  seems  not  to  touch  the  ground. 
I  am  persuaded,"  continues  the  writer, 
"  she  would  leave  far  behind  the  swiftest 
English  courser."     See  Owl,  Peacock. 

OTH'NI  [lion  of  Jehovah),  son  of 
Shemaiah,  and  a  "  mighty  man  of  valor," 
1  Chr.  26:7. 

OTH'NIEL,  the  son  of  Kenaz,  Jud. 
1:  13,  who  displayed  his  valor  in  seizing 
the  city  of  Debir,  or  Kirjath-sepher,  for 
which  exploit  he  was  rewarded  by  the 
gift  of  the  daughter  of  his  uncle  Caleb 
in  marriage.  Josh.  15:17.  Afterward  he 
634 


was  made  the  instrument  of  delivering 
the  Israelites  from  the  oppression  of  the 
king  of  Mesopotamia.  Jud.  3  :  8,  9. 

OU'CHES  were  sockets  in  which 
precious  stones  were  set.  Ex.  39:  6. 

OUTLAND'ISH.  The  women  who 
"  caused  Solomon  to  sin  "  are  so  called. 
Neh.  13  :  26.  The  term  means  "  foreign." 

OVENS.  Ex.  8:3.  In  the  Eastern 
cities  the  ovens  at  the  present  day  are 
not  materially  different  from  our  own. 
The  more  common  way  of  constructing 
them  in  the  country,  however,  is  to  take 
a  jar  or  pot  of  a  cylindrical  shape,  and, 
after  having  partly  filled  it  with  pebbles, 
to  apply  heat  and  use  it  for  baking.  The 
dough  is  plastered  upon  the  outside,  and, 
when  baked  (as  it  is  almost  instantly) 
comes  off  in  thin  cakes.  All  Eastern 
bread  is  of  this  thin  sort.  The  bread 
made  in  this   way  is  clean  and  white. 


OVE 


OWL 


The  Bedouin  Arabs  use  three  or  four  dif- 
ferent ovens,  the  description  of  which 
may  throw  some  light  upon  the  oven  of 
the  Bible. 

1.  The  sand  orcn. — This  is  nothing 
more  than  the  sand  of  the  earth,  upon 
which  a  fire  is  nuido  until  it  is  supposed 
to  be  sufficiently  heated.  The  fuel  and 
fire  ai-e  then  cleared  away,  and  the  dough 
is  laid  on  the  hot  sand  in  flat  pieces 
about  the  thickness  of  a  plate.  Isa. 
44  :  15,  19.  These  are  the  "ash-cakes." 
Gen.  18  :  6  ;  1  Kgs.  17  :  13  ,•  19  ;  6.  See 
Cakk. 

2.  T/ie  earth  oven  is  a 
round  hole  in  the  earth. 
Stones  are  first  jjut  into 
this,  and  a  fire  is  kindled 
upon  them.  When  the 
stones  have  become 
thoroughly  hot,  the  fire 
is  removed  and  the 
dough  spread  in  thin 
flakes  upon  the  heated 
stones,  and  turned  as  of- 
ten as  may  be  necessary. 
The  ovens  used  in  Per- 
sia are  about  2\  feet  wide 
and  not  less  than  5  or  6 
feet  deep.  They  resem- 
ble pits  or  wells,  and 
sheep  are  hung  length- 
wise in  them  and  conked 
whole.  These  may  lie 
what  are  rendered  in 
our  version  "  ranges  for 
pots."  Lev.  11 :  35. 

3.  Portable  oven. — 
This  is  an  earthen  ves- 
sel without  a  bottom, 
about  3  feet  high, 
smeared  outside  and 
inside  with  clay  and 
placed  upon  a  frame  or 
support.  Fire  is  made 
within  it  or  below  it. 
AVhen  the  sides  are  suf- 
ficiently heated  thin 
patches  of  dough  are 
spread  on  the  inside, 
and  the  top  is  covered 
without  removing  the 
fire,  as  in  the  other 
cases,  and  the  bread  is 
quickly  baked.  To  this 
we  may  refer  the  phrase 
oven."  Lev.  2  :  4. 

Convex  plates  of  iron,  pans  or  plates, 


flat  stones,  etc.,  are  often  used  for  bak- 
ing.    See  Bakk,  Bread. 

OVERSEERS'.  Acts 20:  28.  This 
term  denotes  the  pastor  of  a  congrega- 
tion of  Christians,  and  is  identical  with 
presbyter  or  elder.  Comp.  v.  17.  The 
same  Greek  word  is  elsewhere  translated 
"bishop."     See  Bishop. 

OWL.  In  Deut.l4:  16,17;  Isa.  34: 
11,  15;  Ps.  102:6  this  word  doubtless 
denotes  some  one  or  other  of  the  five 
species  of  owl  common  in  Egypt  and 
Syria.     The    Hebrew    word   translated 


Eagle  Owl 
"  baken  in  the 


(Bubo  Maximus.    After  IToughton.) 


"  owl  "  in  eight  other  cases  means  the 
ostrich,  as  is  often  indicated  in  the 
margin.     Some  of  these  birds  we  know 

635 


ox 


OZN 


are  very  abundant  in  Palestine,  espe- 
cially among  ruins,  and  their  doleful 
hooting  as  they  seek  their  prey  by  night 
intensities  the  present  desolation  of  these 
former  habitations  of  pride  and  glory. 
The  prophecies  of  Isa.  34  find  a  fulfil- 
ment in  modern  Petra — ancient  Idumasa 
— as  described  by  Irby  and  Mangles  : 
"  The  screaming  of  eagles,  hawks,  and 
owls,  which  were  soaring  above  our 
heads  in  considerable  numbers,  seem- 
ingly annoyed  at  any  one  approaching 
their  lonely  habitation,  added  much  to 
the  singularity  of  the  scene."  See 
Night-hawk,  Ostrich. 

OX,  a  well-known  domestic  animal, 
clean  by  the  Levitical  Law,  strong  and 
patient  of  labor,  of  great  use  in  agricul- 
tural pursuits,  and  one  of  the  most  val- 
uable possessions  of  the  Jewish  husband- 
man. Gen.  24  :  35 ;  30  :  43  ;  1  Sam.  11  :  7  ; 
Job  1 :  3.  Oxen  were  used  for  ploughing, 
Deut.  22  :  10  ;  1  Kgs.  19  :  19  ;  Job  1 :  14  ; 
Prov.  14  :  4 ;  Isa.  30  :  24 ;  for  drawing. 
Num.  7  :  3,  7,  8  ;  for  threshing  or  treading 
out  grain,  Deut.  25  :  4 ;  1  Cor.  9:9;  for 
beasts  of  burden,  1  Chr.  12  :  40  ;  for  sac- 
rifice, Gen.  15  :  9  ;  1  Kgs.  8  :  63 ;  2  Chr. 
29  :  33 ;  to  produce  milk  and  butter,  Deut. 
32  :  14;  Isa.  7  :  22  ;  2  Sam.  17  :  29 ;  and 
their  flesh  as  food.  1  Kgs.  19 :  21 ;  1  Chr. 
12  :  39,  40  ;  Matt.  22  :  4.  The  full-grown 
ox  was,however,  rarely  slaughtered  either 
for  food  or  sacrifice,  being  esteemed  too 
valuable  for  any  ordinary  use  of  this  kind. 
The  young  animal  was  taken  instead.  Of 
the  herds  of  Moab  in  our  day  Tristram 
says :  "  Unlike  the  sheep,  the  cattle  do  not 
find  their  way  across  Jordan  to  the  mar- 
kets of  Jerusalem  or  Nablous.  Beef  is 
a  costly  luxurj',  for  the  bullocks  are  as 
valuable  for  the  plough  as  the  heifers 
are  for  milch-kine."  The  cattle  of  the 
Jews  were  probably  broken  to  service 
when  three  years  old.  Isa.  15  :  5 :  Jer. 
48  :  34. 

The  oxen  of  ancient  Egypt  are  shown 
by  the  monuments  to  have  been  large 
and  handsome  creatures,  and  it  is  likely 
that  those  of  Palestine  were  then  similar, 
though  they  have  now  much  deteriorated, 
636 


in  size  at  least.  As  is  shown  by  the  above 
synopsis,  oxen  were  used  in  general  as 
horses  are  now. 

East  of  the  Jordan  vast  herds  of  cattle 
grazed  through  the  entire  year,  being 
driven  to  new  pastures  as  old  ones  were 
exhausted.  This  was  sometimes  possible 
in  AVestern  Palestine,  owing  to  the  vari- 
ety of  elevation  and  climate.  When  these 
resources  failed,  a  mixture  of  grains  (as 
the  Hebrew  indicates)  called  "'fodder" 
or  "provender,"  Job  6:5;  Isa.  30  :  24, 
was  given,  or  the  torn  "  straw  "  left  by 
the  threshing-machine.  See  Thresh. 
In  the  more  populous  districts  cattle 
were  stall-fed,  as  to  some  extent  in  all 
parts.  1  Kgs.  4  :  23  ;  Prov.  15  :  17  ;  Hab. 
3  :  17.  At  present  the  herds  and  flocks 
of  a  whole  village  are  commonly  pastured 
together,  and  at  night  driven  into  some 
large  cave,  natural  or  artificial.  It  is 
possible  that  the  cave  shown  at  Bethle- 
hem as  our  Saviour's  birthplace  was  thus 
used — in  part  at  least — and  was  really 
the  manger  in  which  the  new-born  Christ 
was  laid. 

Various  provisions  of  the  Mosaic  Law 
concerning  cattle  are  recorded  in  the  fol- 
lowing additional  references :  Ex.  20  : 
10  ;  21  :  28  ;  34  :  19  ;  Lev.  19  :  19  ;  25  :  7 ; 
Deut.  22  :  1,  4,  10. 

Herds  were  often  left  to  care  for  them- 
selves in  the  vast  feeding-grounds  east  of 
the  Jordan.  These  half-wild  cattle  will 
gather  in  a  circle  around  any  strange 
object,  and,  if  irritated,  charge  upon  it 
with  their  horns.   Ps.  22  :  13. 

The  v)ild  ox  of  Deut.  14  :  5,  or  wild 
hull  of  Isa.  51 :  20,  is  probably  the  oryx, 
a  powerful  creature  of  the  antelope  kind, 
See  Agrk'Ulture,  Herd. 

OX'-GOAD.     See  Goad. 

O'ZEM  (.stre)»fth).  1.  The  sixth  son 
of  Jesse.    1  Chr.  2  :  15. 

2.  A  son  of  Jerahmeel.    1  Chr.  2  :  25. 

OZI'AS,  the  same  as  Uzziah.  Matt. 
1  :  8.  9. 

OZ'NI  (haring  ears  ;  attentive),  a,  son 
of  Gad  :  called  Ezbon  in  Gen.  46  :  16. 

OZ'NITES,  descendants  of  Ozni. 
Num.  26  :  16. 


PA  A 


PAL 


P. 


PA'ARAI,  one  of  David's  mighty 
men,  2  Sam.  23  :  35;  called  Naarai  in  1 
Chr.  11  :  ;57. 

PA'DAN  {field),  Padan-aram.  Gen. 
48  :  7. 

PA'DAN-A'RAM  {the  low  high- 
land), the  country  from  which  Abraham 
obtained  a  wife  for  his  son  Isaac.  Gen. 
24  :  10  ,-  25  :  20  ;  28  :  2,  5,  7,  from  whence 
Jacob  secured  his  wives,  and  where  Laban 
lived.  Gen.  31  :  18;  33  :  18  ;  35  :  9,  26; 
46  :  15.  Padan-aram  has  usually  been 
ideutitied  with  Mesopotamia,  the  region 
between  the  two  great  rivers  Euphrates 
and  Tigris,  and  is  believed  more  par- 
ticularly to  designate  the  plain,  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  mountainous  district, 
in  the  North  of  Mesopotamia.  Another 
theory  in  respect  to  the  location  of  Padan- 
aram  has  been  advocated  at  various  pe- 
riods, to  which  attention  has  been  directed 
of  late  by  Dr.  Merrill  and  Prof.  Paine. 
They  suggest  that  Milton  places  Haran 
(and  of  course  Padan-aram)  south  or  west 
of  the  Euphrates,  and  Dr.  Beke  (1845) 
wrote  a  learned  work  to  prove  that  Pa- 
dan-aram was  in  the  vicinity  of  Damas- 
cus. This  view,  however,  is  opposed  by 
the  great  majority  of  the  most  eminent 
scholars,  and  has  too  few  facts  in  its  favor 
to  give  it  much  importance.  See  Meso- 
potamia and  Syria. 

PAD'DLE,  a  small  spade.  Deut. 
23  :  Vi. 

PA'DON"  {deliverance),  ancestor  of 
a  family  of  Nethinim  which  returned 
with  Zerubbabel.  Ezr,  2  :  44  ;  Neh.  7  :  47. 

PA'GIEL  ( God  allots)  was  the  chief 
of  the  tribe  of  Asher  in  the  wilderness. 
Num.  1:18:  2  :  27  ;  7  :  72,  77  ;  10  :  26. 

PA'HATH-MO'AB  {./ovenwr  of 
Moah),  the  head  of  one  of  the  princi- 
pal families  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  whose 
descendants  returned  with  Zerubbabel, 
Ezr.  2:6;  8:4;  10:30;  Neh.  3:11: 
7:11;  10  :  14.  With  respect  to  the  name, 
it  may  be  noticed  that,  according  to  I 
Chr,  4  :  22,  a  family  of  Shilonites,  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  had  in  early  times  *'  do- 
minion in  Moab." 

PA'I  {bleating),  a  place  in  Idumaca. 
1  Chr,  1  :  50.     See  Patt. 

PAINT,  PAINTING,  and  PIC- 


TURE. Paint  was  well  known  as  a 
cosmetic  in  Egypt  and  Assyria,  and  uni- 
versally applied  by  the  women  of  those 
countries  to  the  eyes.  Also  among  the 
Hebrews  the  custom  obtained,  though  it 
must  be  noticed  that  it  is  always  spoken 
of  in  terms  of  contempt.  2  Kgs.  9:  30; 
Jer.  4:30:  Eze,  23:40,  SeeEvK.  Paint- 
ing as  a  decoration  was  much  practised. 
In  the  houses  the  walls  and  beams  were 
colored,  Jer,  22  :  14  ;  also  idols,  either  in 
the  form  of  sculptures  or  in  the  form  of 
drawings  on  the  walls  of  temples,  were 
colored.  Wisd.  13  :  14  :  Eze.  23  :  14.  But 
pictures,  in  the  modern  sense  of  the 
word,  as  products  of  free  art,  were  un- 
known to  the  ancient  Jews,  and  would 
perhaps  have  been  regarded  as  viola- 
tions of  the  second  commandment.  The 
drawings  upon  mummy  cases  were,  how- 
ever, doubtless  familiar  to  them. 

PAL'ACE.  In  the  0.  T.  the  word 
is  used  both  in  a  wider  sense,  denoting 
the  whole  mass  of  buildings,  courts,  and 
gardens  belonging  to  a  roj^al  residence 
and  enclosed  by  the  exterior  wall,  Dan. 
1:4;  4:4,  and  in  a  narrower  sense,  de- 
noting some  special  part  of  the  whole 
construction  ;  for  instance,  the  fortress 
or  citadel.  1  Kgs.  16  :  18  ;  2  Kgs.  15  :  25. 
In  the  N.  T.  the  word  generally  signifies 
the  residence  of  any  man  of  wealth  or 
prominent  social  position.  Matt.  26  :  3  ; 
Luke  11:  21;  John  18: 15.  The  '-palace" 
of  Phil.  1  :  13  is  the  barrack  of  the 
Praetorian  camp  attached  to  the  emperor's 
palace  in  Rome,  on  the  Palatine.  The 
emperor  was  ''praetor"  or  commander- 
in-chief;  so  the  barrack  of  his  body- 
guard was  the  praetorium.  The  Roman 
governors  occupied  Herod's  j^alace  in 
Jerusalem. 

The  most  interesting  building  of  this 
kind  mentioned  in  the  0,  T.  is  the  pal- 
ace erected  by  Solomon.  1  Kgs.  7  :  1-12. 
It  occupied  an  area  of  about  150,000 
square  feet,  consisted  of  several  inde- 
pendent structures — the  house  of  the 
forest  of  Lebanon,  the  hall  of  judgment, 
the  porch,  etc. — and  took  thirteen  years 
to  build.  Besides  the  description  given 
of  this  building  in  First  Kings,  there  is 
another  by  Josephus,  but  they  remained 

637 


PAL 


PAL 


almost  unintelligible  as  long  as  the 
principles  of  Greek  or  Egyptian  archi- 
tecture were  applied  to  theui,  while  the 
investigations   of  the  ruins  of  the  pal- 


Ground-plan  oi  boiomou'.s  Palace. 

aces  in  Nineveh  and  Persepolis  have 
thrown  much  light  on  the  subject. 

PA'LAL  ijiKhje),  the  son  of  Uzai, 
who  assisted  Nehemiah  in  restoring  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem.  Neh.  3  :  25. 

PAL'ESTINE  {Innd  of  sojourners), 
a  country  east  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
and  sacred  alike  to  Jew,  Mohammedan, 
and  Christian.  See  Maps  at  the  end  of 
the  volume. 

Name. — "  Palestine" — or  "  Palestina," 
which  has  become  the  most  common  name 
for  the  Holy  Land — is  found  only  three 
times  in  our  version  of  the  Bible,  Ex. 
15  :  14 :  Isa.  14  :  29,  31,  and  in  the  0.  T. 
represents  the  Hebrew  name  elsewhere 
rendered  "  Philistia."  Ps.  60  :  S ;  87  : 
4;  108  :  9;  Zeph.  2  :  5.  etc.  The  term, 
therefore,  originally  referred  only  to  the 
country  of  the  Philistines,  and  in  its 
Greek  form  is  so  used  by  Josephus. 
The  name  is  also  applied  to  the  whole 
land  of  the  Hebrews  by  Jose])hus,  Philo, 
and  by  Greek  and  Roman  writers.  Its 
638 


first  and  native  name  was  "  Canaan." 
Gen.  12  :  5  ;  16  :  3  ;  Ex.  15  :  15  ;  Jud.  3  : 
1.  It  was  also  known  as  the  Promised 
Land,  land  of  Israel,  land  of  Judah  or 
"Judaja,"  and  the  Holy  Land.  Gen.  12: 
7  ',   Ps.  105  :  9  ;   Zech.  2  :  12,  etc. 

Situation  and  Extent. — Palestine  is 
situated  at  the  south-eastern  end  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  being  the  southern 
portion  of  the  high  table-  and  lowlands 
lying  between  the  great  plains  of  Assyria 
and  the  shores  of  that  sea.  This  central 
location  in  the  midst  of  the  great  nations 
of  the  East  has  been  frequently  noticed. 
It  was  about  midway  between  Assyi-ia 
and  Egypt  on  the  south-west,  and  be- 
tween Persia  and  Greece  on  the  north- 
west, being  on  the  high-road  from  one 
to  the  other  of  these  mighty  powers,  and 
often  the  battle-field  on  which  they  fought 
to  decide  which  should  become  the  mis- 
tress of  the  world.  This  central  position 
gave  it  the  opportunity  to  become  ac- 
quainted with  the  progress  which  these 
great  nations  had  gained  in  the  arts,  the 
sciences,  and  in  civilization.  This  also 
exposed  it  to  the  powerful  religious  in- 
fluences which  these  great  but  idolatrous 
nations  constantly  exerted.  The  weak- 
ness of  the  Hebrew  nation  in  following 
these  forms  of  false  religion  and  wor- 
ship caused  it  to  be  frequently  visited 
with  the  judgments  of  the  Almighty. 

The  bovindaries  of  Palestine  cannot 
now  be  accurately  determined.  While 
the  boundaries  between  the  tribes  were 
defined  with  much  care  and  precision, 
the  portions  bordering  on  other  nations 
to  the  north,  east,  and  south  on  their 
outlying  sides  were  described  in  general 
terms  only,  and  these  border-lines  seem 
to  have  varied  at  different  periods  of  their 
history.  The  land  promised  to  Abraham 
and  described  by  Moses  extended  from 
Mount  Hor  to  the  entrance  of  Hamath, 
and  from  the  ''  river  of  Egypt"  to  "the 
great  river,  the  river  Euphrates."  Gen. 
15  :  18  ;  17  :  8  ;  Num.  34 :  2-12  ;  Deut.  1 :  7. 
Some  understand  by  the  "  river  of  Egypt" 
the  Nile,  but,  as  Eastern  Egypt  was  never 
held  by  the  Hebrews,  such  a  promise  was, 
of  course,  never  fulfilled.  To  account  for 
this  it  is  said  that  the  promise  was  made 
upon  conditions  which  the  nation  failed 
to  meet,  and  hence  the  failure  of  the  He- 
brews to  possess  all  the  land  which,  ac- 
cording to  this  view,  had  been  ])romised 
to  them.    Others  suppose  that  the  "  river 


PAL 


PAL 


of  Egypt"  means  the  Wad)/  el-Arish,  and 
all  this  territory  was  actually  possessed 
during  the  period  of  the  monarchy  un- 
der David  and  Solomon.  Palestine  in 
its  greatest  extent,  therefore,  was  bound- 
ed on  the  north  by  Syria,  on  the  east  by 
the  Euphrates  and  the  great  desert,  on 
the  south  by  Negeb  or  "  the  south  coun- 
try," and  on  the  west  by  the  Mediterra- 
nean Sea.  Scarcely  more  than  one-half 
of  this  region  lay  west  of  the  Jordan  be- 
tween that  river  and  the  great  sea,  the 
other  portion  lyingto  the  eastward  and  in- 
cluding all  the  fertile  table-land  between 
the  Jordan  and  the  great  Arabian  desert, 
which  reached  to  the  borders  of  Assyria. 
The  greatest  length  of  Palestine  is  about 
160  miles,  its  breadth  not  far  from  90 
miles ;  the  average  length  of  the  terri- 
tory, according  to  the  latest  authorities, 
is  about  150  miles,  its  average  breadth 
west  of  the  Jordan  a  little  more  than  40 
miles,  and  its  breadth  east  of  the  Jordan 
rather  less  than  40  miles.  The  total  area 
of  that  portion  which  lies  between  the 
Jordan  and  "the  great  sea"  is  about 
6600  square  miles ;  that  portion  east  of 
the  Jordan  has  an  area  of  about  5000, 
and  perhaps  of  6000,  square  miles,  mak- 
ing the  whole  area  of  Palestine,  on  both 
sides  of  Jordan,  12,000  or  13,000  square 
miles,  or  about  equal  to  that  of  the  two 
States  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut. 

Pln/siral  Features. — This  land  natu- 
rally divides  itself  into  four  long  parallel 
tracts,  extending  north  and  south,  two 
of  them  low  and  two  of  them  elevated : 
(1)  The  plain  along  the  sea-coast,  broken 
at  the  north  by  Carmel ;  (2)  The  hill- 
country  and  table -land  between  the 
Jordan  valley  and  the  coast-plain,  reach- 
ing from  the  north  to  the  south  end  of 
the  land,  and  broken  only  by  the  great 
plain  of  Jezreel,  or  Esdraelon  ;  (o)  The 
valley  of  the  Jordan,  with  its  remarkable 
depression  below  the  level  of  the  sea; 
(4)  The  high  table-land  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, reaching  from  Mount  Hermon  on 
the  north,  through  Bashan,  Gilead,  and 
Moab,  and  extending  eastward  to  the 
Arabian  desert.  Each  of  these  four 
natural  divisions  will  be  descril)ed,  be- 
ginning with  the  plain  along  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea. 

1.  The  coast-plain. — This  district  is 
supposed  to  have  been  formed  by  the 
denudation  of  the  mountains,  the  sand- 
dunes  along  the  shores,  and  partly  by 


the  deposit  of  the  Nile  mud,  which  has 
been  noticed  as  far  north  as  Gaza.  This 
plain  extends  without  a  break  from  the 
desert  below  Gaza  to  the  ridge  of  Car- 
mel ;  north  of  Carmel  is  the  plain  of 
Acre,  which  reaches  to  a  headland  known 
as  the  "  Ladder  of  Tyre  ;"  north  of  this 
headland  lies  the  narrow  plain  of  Phoe- 
nicia. That  portion  of  the  plain  which 
lies  between  Carmel  and  Jaffa  (Joppa) 
was  known  as  the  plain  of  Sharon.  A 
great  portion  of  this  plain  is  flat,  but 
north  of  Jaffa  are  low  hillocks,  through 
which,  in  ancient  times,  tunnels  were  cut 
to  drain  the  marshy  land  lying  back  of 
them.  The  soil  is  of  marvellous  fertility, 
producing  good  crops  without  irrigation, 
though  it  is  tilled  in  the  rudest  manner. 
"  Deep  gulleys  intersect  the  plain,"  says 
Conder,  "running  westward  to  the  sea, 
and  carrying  down  the  drainage  of  the 
mountain-system.  They  have  generally 
high  earthen  banks,  and  in  some  cases 
contain  perennial  streams.  The  neigh- 
borhood of  these  streams  is  marshy, 
especially  toward  the  north  of  Sharon, 
and  the  dunes  and  marshes  together 
reduce  the  arable  land  by  about  one- 
fourth.  The  maritime  plain  is  some  80 
miles  long,  and  from  100  to  200  feet 
above  the  sea,  with  low  cliffs  near  the 
coast.  Toward  the  north  it  is  8  miles, 
and  near  Gaza  20  miles,  broad." — Hand- 
book, p.  211.  Wilson  speaks  of  the  broad 
expanse  of  the  Philistine  plain  as  cover- 
ed in  harvest-time  with  a  waving  mass 
of  golden  grain  unbroken  by  a  single 
hedge,  and  presenting  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  sights  in  Palestine.  The  stub- 
ble becomes  so  dry  under  a  scorching 
Syrian  sun  that  a  spark  would  set  it  on 
fire,  and  the  flames  would  sweep  over  it 
like  the  fires  upon  an  American  prairie. 
Such  a  fire  was  no  doubt  kindled  by 
Samson  when  he  turned  his  three  hun- 
dred foxes  or  jackals  with  their  fire- 
brands into  the  standing  grain  of  the 
Philistines  in  the  time  of  wheat-harvest. 
Jud.  15  :  4,  5.  The  Shephelah,  or  "  low 
country,"  in  which  were  the  towns  of 
Beth  -  shemesh,  Aijalon,  Tininah,  and 
Gimzo,  2  Chr.  28  :  18,  consisted  of  a 
series  of  low  undulating  hills  lying  be- 
tween the  great  southern  plain  on  the 
coast  and  the  hill-country  toward  Jeru- 
salem. There  is  not  to  be  found  a  single 
good  harbor  along  this  entire  coast. 
2.    The  highlands  west  of  the  Jordan. — 

639 


PAL 


PAL 


Next  to  the  coast-plain  eastward  comes 
the  high-table  land,  including  the  hill- 
country  of  Judsea — a  tract  about  25  miles 
wide,  and  which  begins  at  the  foot  of 
Lebanon  in  the  north  and  extends  south- 
ward through  the  hills  of  Galilee,  is 
broken  by  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  rises 
again  with  the  hills  of  Samaria,  and 
extends  southward  beyond  Jerusalem  for 
about  50  miles.  It  has  been  designated 
geologically  as  the  *'  back-bone  of  Pales- 
tine." As  seen  from  the  sea,  it  has  a 
general  resemblance  to  a  long  continuous 
wall.  The  following  are  the  heights 
above  the  sea  of  some  of  its  chief  points  : 
Hebron,  2840  feet;  Olivet,  2665  feet; 
Nebi  Samwil,  2900  feet;  Mount  Ebal, 
3029  feet:  Nebi  Ismail,  1790  feet;  and 
Jebel  Jermuk,  4000  feet.  ''  The  hills  are 
broad-backed,"  says  Wilson,  "  and  pre- 
sent none  of  the  grander  features  of 
mountain-scenery,  but  every  here  and 
there  a  rounded  summit  rises  above  the 
general  level  of  the  range  and  affords 
striking  panoramas  of  the  surrounding 
country  :  such  are  the  views  from  Mount 
Ebal,  Little  Hermon,  Nebi  Ismail,  near 
Nazareth,  and  the  hill  on  which  Safed 
stands,  each  embracing  no  inconsiderable 
portion  of  the  Holy  Land.  The  effect  of 
the  view  is  increased  by  the  transparency 
of  the  atmosphere,  which  diminishes 
apparent  distances  in  a  manner  unknown 
in  moister  climes,  and  by  the  rich  and 
varying  tints  that  light  up  the  steep 
slopes  of  the  Jordan  valley.  Through 
the  centre  of  the  hill-country  runs  the 
main  road  from  Jerusalem  through  Sa- 
maria to  Galilee,  following  nearly  the 
line  of  the  watershed,  and  passing  close 
to  many  of  the  chief  cities  of  Judah  and 
Israel.  It  is  the  route  now  usually 
followed  b^^  travellers,  and  was  probably 
always  one  of  the  most  important 
thoroughfares  in  the  country.  East  of 
this  road  the  hills  descend  abruptly  to 
the  Jordan  valley ;  west  of  it  they  fall 
more  gradually  to  the  coast-plain.  The 
wonderful  ramifications  of  the  valleys 
which  cut  up  the  hill-country  on  either 
side  of  the  watershed  form  one  of  the 
peculiar  features  of  Palestine  topog- 
raphy ;  rising  frequently  in  small  up- 
land plains  of  great  richness,  such  as 
el-Mukhna,  near  NabKis,  the  valleys  at 
first  fall  very  rapidly,  and  then,  after  a 
tortuous  course,  reach  the  plain  on  the 
one  side  and  the  Jordan  valley  on  the 
640 


other.  The  effect  of  this  is  to  split  up 
the  country  into  a  series  of  knife-like 
ridges,  generally  preserving  an  east-and- 
west  direction,  and  effectually  preventing 
any  movement  over  the  country  from 
south  to  north,  except  along  the  central 
highway ;  the  valley  of  the  Kishon, 
which  spreads  out  into  the  broad  plain 
of  Esdraelon,  and  the  valley  of  Jezreel, 
are  the  only  two  which  are  more  than 
mere  torrent-beds." — Bib.  Ediicdtor,  vol. 
ii.  p.  214.  Near  Jerusalem  the  tract 
becomes  lower,  about  2600  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  the  hills  are  capped  with  chalk, 
but  south  of  Jerusalem  the  ridge  becomes 
higher  and  more  rugged,  the  slopes  to 
the  west  very  steep,  deep  ravines  run- 
ning north  and  south,  while  south  of 
Hebron  is  a  plain  upon  the  table-land, 
])artially  broken  by  a  valley  extending 
from  Hebron  to  Beersheba.  and  thence 
north-westward  nearly  to  Gaza.  Pres. 
Bartlett,  speaking  of  the  hill-country  of 
Judah,  says :  ''  Perhaps  no  one  aspect 
of  Palestine  along  its  central  line  of  hills, 
both  here  and  north  of  Jerusalem,  strikes 
the  stranger  more  with  surprise  than  the 
amount  and  roughness  of  its  rock- sur- 
face. It  is  not  unlike  the  stony  parts  of 
New  Hampshire  in  this  respect.  At  the 
first  glance,  especially  in  its  present 
wretched  desolation  and  neglect  under  a 
government  that  crushes  all  the  hopes 
of  industry,  and  in  possession  of  a  people 
that  destroy  and  never  replace,  the 
thought  of  the  superficial  observer  is 
that  of  disappointment.  He  sees  it 
almost  treeless,  rocky,  and  rough  and 
neglected,  and  thinks  that  it  is,  after  all, 
a  much  overrated  and  overpraised  coun- 
try. But  when  he  looks  more  closely  he 
perceives  that  all  this  rock,  being  lime- 
stone, and  not  sandstone  or  granite,  when 
it  pulverizes,  carries  with  it,  not  barren- 
ness, but  fertility.  He  observes  how  the 
noble  olive  grows  in  successive  tiers  up 
the  sides  of  seemingly  hopeless  hills, 
what  sunny  exposures  are  everywhere 
offered  to  the  vine,  and  how  green  are 
the  wheat-fields  even  when  wedged  in 
among  the  cliffs,  and  how  all  these  hills 
appear  once  to  have  been  diligently  and 
laboriously  laid  out  in  terraces  almost  to 
their  tops ;  and  he  changes  his  mind. 
He  travels  through  a  multitude  of  fertile 
valleys,  and  crosses  plains,  like  that  of 
Esdraelon,  as  rich  of  soil  as  a  Western 
prairie,    almost   abandoned    now.       He 


PAL 


PAL 


passes  from  the  deep  tropical  valley  of 
the  Jordan  by  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  high 
mountains  of  Galilee  and  the  still  higher 
range  of  Lebanon,  and  sees  how  this 
little  country,  not  larger  than  Wales,  is 
fitted  to  produce  almost  every  species  of 
fruit  or  grain,  of  whatever  climate,  upon 
the  globe.  And  as  he  watches  the  brooks 
and  springs  of  water,  and  the  singular 
variety  of  surface,  orchards,  glens,  bold 
mountains,  fertile  flowery  plains,  pictu- 
resque sites — such  as  those  of  Jerusalem, 
Hebron,  Samaria,  and  a  multitude  of 
other  places  —  he  cannot  but  perceive 
how  in  its  palmy  days,  when  the  heights 
•were  crowned  with  foliage,  the  hillsides 
with  cattle,  and  the  fields  with  grain, 
Palestine  must  have  been  indeed  a  goodly 
land,  presenting  to  its  children  home- 
attractions  and  inextinguishable  recol- 
lections beyond  even  those  of  Scotland, 
Switzerland,  or  New  England." — From 
Egypt  to   Palestine,  p.   409. 

3.  The  Jordan  raf/ei/  and  plain. — This 
valley,  extending  from  the  base  of  Her- 
mon  to  the  south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
is  one  of  the  wonders  in  physical  geog- 
raphy. It  varies  greatly  in  width  from 
half  a  mile  to  5  miles,  and  at  some  points 
is  12  miles  broad.  At  the  foot  of  Her- 
mon  this  valley  is  about  1000  feet  above 
the  sea;  at  Lake  Huleh,  about  12  miles 
south  of  Hermon,  the  valley  is  upon  the 
sea-level ;  at  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  some  10 
miles  farther  south,  the  valley  falls  682 
feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea;  while  at 
the  Dead  Sea,  about  65  miles  south  of 
Galilee,  the  valley  sinks  to  the  astonish- 
ing depth  of  1300  feet  below  the  ocean- 
level.  The  sea  has  on  its  shore  a  salt- 
mountain,  Jebel  Usdum,  a  long  mass  of 
rock  -  salt  several  hundred  feet  high, 
nearly  7  miles  long,  and  from  1  to  3 
miles  wide.  The  mountain  is  capped 
with  marl  and  gypsum,  and  in  this  region 
are  numerous  salt  pillars,  among  them 
one  spire  which  tradition  points  out  as 
Lot's  wife.  Bitumen  abounds  also,  and 
sometimes  is  strongly  impregnated  with 
sulphur.  See  Salt  Sea.  The  mountains 
on  either  side  of  this  immense  depression 
rise  to  a  height,  near  Beisan,  of  about 
2000  feet  above  the  valley,  while  near 
Jericho  they  are  nearly  4000  feet  above 
the  river  Jordan.  These  heights,  com- 
bined with  the  deep  depression,  aff"ord  a 
great  variety  of  temperature,  and  bring 
into  close  proximity  productions  usually 
41 


found  widely  apart  in  the  temperate  and 
torrid  zones.     See  Jokdan. 

4.  7%e  table-land  eaut  of  the  Jordan. 
— The  broad  eastern  ])lateau  beyond 
Jordan  may  be  described  as  having  a 
general  altitude  of  about  2(t00  feet  above 
the  sea,  though  at  some  points  it  attains 
a  height  of  3000  feet  ;  the  surface  is  tol- 
erably uniform,  but  broken  on  its  west- 
ern edge  by  deep  ravines  running 
into  the  Jordan  valley.  Within  this  re- 
gion were  the  ancient  forests  and  rich 
pastures  of  Bashan,  famous  from  a  very 
early  age,  and  still  regarded  as  among 
the  most  fertile  portions  of  Palestine. 
This  plateau,  upon  its  extreme  eastern 
edge,  sinks  away  into  the  Arabian  desert. 
Eastward  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  however, 
it  is  broken  by  a  mountainous  tract  ex- 
tending from  40  to  50  miles  from  north- 
east to  south-west.  The  region  known 
as  the  Lejah  is  one  vast  lava-bed,  bro- 
ken by  deep  ravines,  where  water  is  found 
and  where  people  dwell  in  caves.  See 
Bashan. 

This  volcanic  or  basaltic  tract  rises 
gradually  from  the  north,  and  is  inter- 
spersed with  many  isolated  hills,  some 
of  which  are  beyond  doubt  craters  of 
extinct  volcanoes.  Nearly  opposite  Jeri- 
cho is  the  range  of  Abarim,  which  in- 
cludes Nebo  and  Pisgah,  the  place  where 
Moses  viewed  the  land  and  died.  Deut, 
34  :  1-6.     See  Abarim. 

Mountainti,  Panses,  and  Plains. — The 
only  mountain  of  importance  along  the 
coast  is  the  promontory  and  ridge  of 
Carmel,  which  extends  north-west  and 
south-east,  being  from  12  to  18  miles  in 
length,  about  1750  feet  high  at  its  high- 
est point,  and  about  600  feet  high  where 
it  breaks  off  into  the  sea.  Among  the 
noted  elevations  of  the  district  known 
as  '^  the  hill-country,"  west  of  the  Jor- 
dan, are  the  following  :  At  the  extreme 
north  the  Anti- Lebanon  range,  and 
southward,  in  Galilee,  Little  Hermon, 
Tabor,  the  Horns  of  Hattin,  the  hill 
of  Nazareth,  and  Mount  Gilboa;  still 
farther  south.  Mount  Ebal,  Mount  Geri- 
zim.  Gibeah,  Olivet,  the  mountain  Quar- 
antania,  and,  at  the  extreme  south. 
Mount  Seir.  Among  the  mountcains 
in  the  district  cast  of  Jordan  are 
Mount  Gilead,  the  range  of  Abarim, 
which  included  Pisgah,  Nebo,  and  Peor. 
Among  the  noted  "passes  "  on  the  west 
side  of   Jordan  is  that  at  Beth-horon, 

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the  one  in  the  south  at  Akrabbim,  and  ! 
that  on  the  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Jeri- 
cho through  the   Wacli/  Kelt.     There  are  j 
numerous    other  deep  ravines   on    both  ; 
sides  of  the   Jordan,   like   that   of  Mnr  \ 
Saba,  and   of  the   Callirrhoe   along  the 
Zerka    Main.     Among    the    plains,   the 
two  most  remarkable   are   the  plain  of 
Jezreel  and  the  plain  of  Sharon.     See 
Jezreel  and  Sharon. 

Rivers,  Lakes,  and  Fountains. — The 
great  river  of  Palestine  is  the  Jordan, 
which  divides  the  land  into  two  almost 
equal  portions.  It  has  no  important 
tributary  from  the  west,  but  there  are 
some  small  streams,  as  the  Derdarah, 
the  Nahr  el- Jalitd,  rising  in  the  fountain 
of  Jezreel,  and  the  Wady  el-Faria.  Of 
the  streams  running  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean are  the  Leontes,  the  Belus,  the 
Kishon — ''that  ancient  river" — the  Zer- 
ka, north  of  Caesarea,  and  the  Aujeh, 
near  Jaffa,  which  drains  the  mountains 
of  Samaria.  The  streams  running  into 
the  Jordan  from  the  east  are  the  Wady 
Za'areh,  the  Yarmuk  or  Hieromax,  the 
Jabbok — now  called  the  ez-Zerka — the 
Zerka  Main,  the  Arnon — now  called  the 
el-Mojib — and  the  Wady  Kerak.  Many 
of  the  so-called  *'  rivers  "  of  Palestine 
are  only  winter-torrents,  whose  beds  are 
dry  in  summer.  The  lakes  of  import- 
ance are  Lake  Huleh,  or  the  "  waters  of 
Merom,"  the  Lake  of  Galilee,  and  the 
Salt  or  Dead  Sea.  A  description  of 
these  is  given  under  their  respective  ti- 
tles. Palestine  was  noted  of  old  for  its 
fountains.  Among  the  most  important 
are  those  which  constitute  the  sources 
of  the  Jordan,  as  the  great  fountain  at 
Banias,  the  ancient "  Caesarea  Philippi," 
at  Tell  al-Kady,  the  ancient  Dan,  the 
fountain  of  Jezreel,  the  source  of  the 
Kishon,  the  fountain  of  Nazareth,  that 
of  et-Tabiijhah,  the  hot  springs  of  Ti- 
berias, the  various  fountains  in  and 
about  Jerusalem — of  which  Robinson 
says  there  are  not  less  than  thirty — the 
"fountain  of  Elisha,"  near  ancient  Jeri- 
cho, those  near  Hebron,  and  the  noted 
fountain  near  ancient  En-gedi.  Upon 
the  east  of  the  Jordan,  near  the  Dead 
Sea,  were  the  famous  hot  springs  of  Cal- 
lirrhoe, and  similar  springs  near  the 
Zerka,  the  Yarmuk  or  Hieromax,  and, 
besides  these,  the  copious  fountains  at 
some  of  the  principal  towns,  as  Kuna- 
wat,  Hebron,  Ornam,  and  Busra  or  Boz- 
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rah.  The  mineral  springs  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  and 
are  divided  by  Robinson  into  three 
classes:  (1)  Hot  sulphur  springs, 
which  are  found  in  five  places — near 
Tiberias,  on  the  western  shore  of  the 
lake,  with  a  temperature  of  144°;  near 
Um  Keis,  in  the  valley  of  the  Yarmuk, 
with  a  temperature  of  109°  ;  at  Callirr- 
hoe, east  of  the  Dead  Sea ;  and  in  Wady 
Hamad.  (2)  Warm  saline  springs  occur 
at  only  one  place,  the  Wady  Malih,  south 
of  Beisan,  which  have  a  temperature  of 
98°.  (3)  Warm  springs  in  general,  of 
which  there  are  several.  The  "  fountain 
of  Elisha,"  near  Jericho,  is  slightly 
warm,  but  not  brackish,  and  the  same  is 
true  of  the  fountains  et-Tabiyhah  and 
el-Feshkah,  on  the  western  shore  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  except  that  the  latter  is  quite 
brackish. 

Geoloyy. — There  never  has  been  a  com- 
jjlete  geological  survey  of  Palestine. 
The  general  character  of  its  formation 
has  been  ascertained,  however,  and  will 
be  briefly  described.  The  Lebanon  and 
Anti-Lebanon  ranges  of  mountains  are 
chiefly  composed  of  hard  limestone  over- 
laid with  a  formation  of  soft  white  chalk, 
the  latter  containing  numerous  fossils, 
those  of  the  fish  being  the  most  common. 
These  formations  occur  in  Western  Pal- 
estine, though  in  the  higher  hills  of 
Galilee  there  is  a  second  layer  of  lime- 
stone above  the  chalk.  The  upper 
limestone  varies  from  white  to  reddish- 
brown,  has  few  fossils,  and  abounds  in 
caverns,  the  strata  being  sometimes  vio- 
lently twisted,  as  between  Jerusalem 
and  Jericho,  and  in  other  places  blends 
into  dolomite  or  magnesian  limestone,  as 
on  the  western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
East  of  the  Jordan  and  south  of  Her- 
mon  are  vast  beds  of  volcanic  rock,  and 
in  the  Lejah  district  there  is  a  great 
field  of  basalt  covering  about  500  square 
miles.  East  of  the  Dead  Sea  occurs  the 
Nubian  sandstone,  while  beneath  this 
formation,  especially  near  Petra,  igne- 
ous formations  are  to  be  found,  the 
chains  of  Sinai  and  Serbal  being  formed 
of  diff"erent  varieties  of  granitic  rock. 
The  geological  origin  of  the  great  de- 
pression of  the  valley  of  the  Jordan 
may  be  due  to  volcanic  causes,  though 
this  question  has  not  yet  been  settled. 
Some  think  the  basins  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee  and  the  Dead  Sea  resemble  era- 


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ters ;  others  attribute  the  chasm  to  the 
gradual  action  of  the  ocean  at  some  im- 
mensely remote  period.  All  agree  that 
the  theory  which  ascribes  the  formation 
of  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  time  of  the  over- 
throw of  the  cities  of  the  plain  is  without 
any  scientific  support,  and  it  is  not  re- 
quired by  the  language  of  Scripture. 
The  soil  of  Palestine  is  noticed  under 
Agriculture. 

Climate. — Though  the  present  climate 
of  Palestine  appears  to  be  unhealthy 
for  Occidentals,  it  is  on  the  whole  mild, 
and  tends  toward  an  extreme  of  heat 
rather  than  of  cold.  The  mean  tem- 
perature at  Beirut  (a  little  north  of  Pal- 
estine proper)  of  each  month  for  a  pe- 
riod of  ten  years  was  as  follows:  Janu- 
ary, 67.3°;  February,  58.6°;  March, 
63.3°;  April,  67.3°;  May,  73.3°  ;  June, 
78.1°;  July,  83°;  August,  83.4°  ;  Sep- 
tember, 81.6°  ;  October,  77.8°;  Novem- 
ber, 67.6°;  December,  61.5°, — making 
the  mean  for  the  whole  period  71.1°. 
The  coldest  month,  on  the  average,  was 
Januarj' ;  the  warmest,  August.  The 
average  summer  heat,  according  to  Con- 
der,  ranges  between  100°  in  the  plains 
and  85°  in  the  mountains  as  a  maximum 
temperature  in  the  shade.  In  the  plains 
the  winter  temperature  seldom  falls  be- 
low freezing-point,  but  in  the  mountains 
frost  and  snow  are  of  frequent  occur- 
rence. On  the  sea-coast  the  heat  of  the 
summer  is  tempered  by  the  cool  breezes, 
but  in  the  valleys  of  the  Jordan  the 
heat  is  often  terrible,  sometimes  reach- 
ing 110°  in  the  shade. 

According  to  Dr.  Barclay,  the  highest 
temperature  at  Jerusalem  is  about  92° 
and  the  lowest  28°,  the  mean  tempera- 
ture being  not  far  from  62°.  About  the 
same  temperature  doubtless  prevails 
throughout  the  whole  hill  country.  Mount 
Hermon,  in  the  north,  9300  feet  high,  is 
never  entirely  clear  of  snow,  though 
sometimes  there  is  very  little  of  it  left 
upon  its  sides  late  in  autumn.  As  a 
rule,  the  year  consists  of  two  seasons 
only,  the  rainy  and  the  dry.  The  rainy 
season  begins  near  the  end  of  October, 
sometimes  preceded  by  violent  thunder- 
storms. This  may  be  the  "  former  rain  " 
noticed  in  the  Bible.  Deut.  11 :  14;  Joel 
2  :  23.  The  winds  from  the  south  and 
south-west  bring  frequent  showers.  De 
cember  is  usually  stormy,  January  and 
February  cold  and  rainy,  the  rain  fall- 


ing in  the  valleys  and  uplands  and  the 
snow  upon  the  mountains.  The  "latter 
rains "  come  in  March  and  April.  If 
scanty,  they  impair,  or  even  destroy,  the 
crops  ;  if  violent,  they  sometimes  sweep 
away  the  fruit  trees  and  gardens,  and  do 
not  spare  the  mud  hovels,  or  even  the 
better  houses  of  the  peasantry.  The 
average  annual  rainfall  at  Jerusalem 
has  been  found  to  be  about  60  inches, 
while  with  us  it  is  45,  and  in  California, 
where  the  climate  resembles  Palestine, 
it  is  only  20  inches.  The  annual  rain- 
fall at  Beirut  for  the  ten  years  noted  in 
the  previous  paragraph  was  63  inches, 
the  least  for  any  one  year  being  57,  and 
the  greatest  74.  The  average  number 
of  rainy  days  in  a  year  was  63.  The  dry 
season  extends  from  April  to  November, 
during  which  period  the  sky  is  almost 
uninterruptedly  cloudless.  Thunder- 
storms occasionally  occur  in  May,  but 
are  very  rare.  1  Sam.  12  :  17,  18.  Mists 
hover  about  the  mountains,  but  other- 
wise the  atmosphere  is  generally  bril- 
liantly clear.  Heavy  dews  fall  at  night, 
even  in  the  midst  of  summer,  except  in 
the  desert.  The  east  wind,  or  sirocco, 
blows  during  February,  March,  and 
April,  and  sometimes  darkens  the  air 
with  clouds  of  fine  dust.  A  drought  of 
three  months  before  harvest  is  fatal  to 
the  crops,  the  harvest  coming  in  the 
valley  of  the  Jordan  a  month  in  ad- 
vance of  that  on  the  highland.  The 
barley-harvest  usually  comes  early  in 
May  in  the  valley  ;  the  wheat-harvest  is 
a  few  weeks  later.  But  the  harvest-time 
varies  in  different  years,  and  even  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  countr}^,  in  the  same 
season,  owing  to  the  different  elevations 
of  the  land. 

In  regard  to  the  climate  and  seasons 
of  Palestine  now,  Warren  says  : 

"  There  is  but  one  rainy  season,  and 
then  a  long  interval  of  drought  and  des- 
olation from  July — I  might  say  May — • 
to  November.  During  this  long  period 
scarcely  a  green  blade  can  be  seen  as  far 
as  the  eye  can  stretchoverthe  vast  plains, 
nothing  but  sticks,  stones,  and  dust,  the 
monotony  relieved  only  by  the  noise  of 
the  wild  artichoke  careering  on  the  wings 
of  the  whirlwind,  or  by  a  troop  of  Bed- 
ouins rushing  off  on  a  plundering  ex- 
pedition. Toward  the  end  of  October 
there  is  a  sullen  stillness  in  the  air;  the 
attnosphere  is  loaded  to  the  senses,  and 

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the  soul  is  heavy  with  melancholy,  wait- 
ing for  the  rains.  Then  the  spell  of 
drought  is  broken;  a  storm  occurs.  For 
three  days  there  is  abundance  of  soft 
showers,  with  a  few  downpours,  and  again 
often  some  weeks  of  drought  until  the 
winter  solstice;  then  there  is  a  thorough 
break  up  :  cold  and  rain  s])read  over  the 
land.  In  January  the  rain  falls  now  and 
again  for  three  days,  with  a  week's  in- 
terval; but  February  is  the  really  rainy 
month.  I  have  known  it  to  rain  every 
day  throughout  the  month.  There  is, 
however,  no  certainty  in  the  matter; 
one  year  the  rain  is  later  than  the  next. 
In  March  there  are  pleasant  showers  and 
storms,  and  in  April  there  are  showers 
and  often  intervals  of  intense  cold  ;  even 
snow  I  have  known  at  Jerusalem  during 
that  month.  May  is  frequently  a  month 
of  hot  winds  blowing  from  the  east,  but 
in  June  there  are  clouds  and  a  few  show- 
ers. Now,  it  is  this  early  portion  of  the 
year  that  would  be  most  affected  by  the 
growth  of  trees  and  the  terracing  of  the 
hillsides.  The  April  showers  would  be 
extended  into  May,  the  June  clouds  and 
showers  into  July  ;  the  latter  rains  of 
June  will  fall  in  abundance,  giving  a 
second  season — a  never-ending  succes- 
sion of  crops — when  the  ploughman  will 
overtake  the  reaper  and  the  treader  of 
grapes  him  that  soweth  seed.  The  rich 
soil  is  well  prepare  1  to  yield  a  second 
crop  year  by  year;  all  that  is  required 
is  water  and  warmth,  and  this  it  will 
have,  for  water  will  now  be  found  gush- 
ing from  the  rocks,  from  springs  which 
have  long  been  silent.  Carried  along  the 
hillsides  in  ducts,  it  may  be  used  for  ir- 
rigation purposes  in  the  undulating  coun- 
try, and  then  into  the  plains,  to  be  used 
again,  or  else  it  may  assist  in  filling  up 
the  wells  of  the  plain  to  near  the  surface 
of  the  ground — wells  which  are  now  30 
to  90  feet  deep — with  water.  The  water 
so  freely  used  will  evaporate  and  form 
clouds  over  the  land  without  ever 
reaching  the  sea,  thus  preventing  the 
formation  of  the  unhealthy  lagoons  of 
half-salt,  half-fresh  water  along  the 
shore  of  Palestine,  now  so  common. 

"  Philistia,  Sharon,  and  the  other 
plains  bordering  on  the  sea,  are  even 
now  exceptionally  fertile,  but  they  may, 
by  a  regular  succession  of  crops,  be 
made  to  yield  far  more  ^ibundantly,  and 
the  advance  of  the  rolling  sand-hills  may 
644 


be  arrested — an  advance  which,  if  not 

looked  to,  will  soon  overwhelm  the  fair- 
est of  the  maritime  plains.  The  rich 
ground  between  Gaza  and  Ascalon,  be- 
tween Ascalon  and  Jaffa,  which  the 
sand  has  swallowed  up,  must  again  be 
uncovered.  United  action  is  requisite 
fur  this,  for  individual  efforts  can  be  of 
no  avail:  the  rolling  sand-hills  are  a 
common  enemy,  and  must  be  attacked 
by  the  nation.'' 

Of  the  effect  of  the  "  former  rains  "  in 
October  and  Xovember,  Tyrwhitt  Drake 
wrote  in  1872  :  "  These  rains  pro<luced  an 
immediate  change  in  the  appearance  of 
the  country.  Grass  began  to  sprout  all 
over  the  hills;  the  wasted  grain  on  the 
threshing-floors  soon  produced  a  close 
crop  some  6  inches  high.  The  cyclamen, 
white  crocus,  saffron  crocus,  and  jonquil 
are  in  full  flower  on  the  mountains  ;  the 
hallat  ( Qnercus  sec/ilops)  is  fast  putting 
out  its  new  leaves,  and  in  sheltered  nooks 
some  of  the  hawthorn  trees  are  doing 
the  same.  .  .  .  These,  to  our  notions,  are 
hardly  signs  of  coming  winter,  but  the 
advent  of  numberless  starlings  and  com- 
mon plovers  on  the  plains  and  woodcock 
in  the  woodlands  points  to  rain  not  far 
distant." 

Pro(h(ctio)is. — Among  the  trees  and 
plants  of  Palestine,  the  more  important 
are  the  cedar  and  the  cypress,  now  quite 
rai-e ;  the  Aleppo  pine,  still  abundant  on 
the  slopes  of  Lebanon ;  the  terebinth, 
evergreen  oak,  and  the  common  oak,  for 
which  Bashan  was  famed ;  the  locust  tree, 
the  carob — the  pods  of  which  were  the 
"  husks  "  the  prodigal  would  have  eaten — 
the  walnut,  the  plane  tree,  the  tamarisk, 
the  common  willow,  the  white  or  silver 
poplar,  the  maple,  juniper,  ash,  alder, 
and  hawthorn.  Of  fruit  trees  there  are 
the  sycamore-fig,  olive,  quince,  mulberry, 
almond,  banana,  pomegranate,  orange, 
pear — though  not  abundant — and  the 
common  fig,  which  is  one  of  the  staple 
products  of  the  country.  The  prickly 
pear  is  used  for  hedges ;  the  palm  tree, 
once  abundant,  is  now  rarely  seen ; 
though  the  date-palm  is  occasionally 
found,  yet  its  fruit  does  not  ripen. 
Vines  are  very  common,  grapes  being 
one  of  the  principal  products  of  the 
hill-country.  Melons  of  various  kinds, 
cucumbers,  lettuce,  purslane,  endive, 
gourds,  and  pumpkins  are  likewise 
common,  some   of  the   latter   attaining 


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great  size.  The  egg-plant  and  cauli- 
flower are  also  common,  and  artichokes 
and  asparagus  grow  wild.  Potatoes  are 
grown  in  some  places,  as  at  Jerusalem. 
Among  the  flowering-))lants  may  be  no- 
ticed the  tuliji,  various  kinds  of  tlie  an- 
emone, the  lily,  the  white  narcissus,  the 
iris,  the  flowering  oleander,  the  honey- 
suckle, the  jessamine,  the  primrose,  mis- 
tletoe, acacia,  poppy,  geranium,  and 
pink,  and  altogether  more  than  five 
hundred  different  varieties  of  wild- 
flowers  of  rich  and  delicate  color,  giv- 
ing the  country,  in  the  height  of  the 
season,  a  showy  and  gorgeous  appear- 
ance. Indeed,  the  wild  flowers  of  Pal- 
estine .are  the  chief  natural  attractions 
of  the  country.  The  various  grains 
grown  in  Palestine  are  described  under 
Agriculture  and  under  their  difi"erent 
titles. 

The  wild  animals  of  Palestine  are 
about  the  same  as  in  ancient  times,  ex- 
cept that  the  lion  and  a  species  of  the 
wild  ox  have  become  extinct.  The  num- 
ber of  species  of  mammals  is  about  eighty 
— a  large  number  for  so  small  a  country. 
Among  the  animals  are  the  badger,  bat, 
bear,  zemer,  coney,  various  kinds  of  deer, 
ferret,  fox,  wild  goat,  hare,  hedgehog 
and  porcupine,  hyajna,  jackal,  cheetah 
or  leopard,  wild  boar  and  wild  ass,  the 
mole,  mouse,  the  jerboa  or  jumping 
mouse,  weasel,  and  the  wolf.  Of  domestic 
animals  there  are  the  camel,  dog,  cat, 
goat,  horse,  mule,  ass,  ox,  sheep,  and  the 
half-wild  swine.  Of  the  reptiles  and 
''creeping  things"  of  Palestine  every 
traveller  is  painfully  conscious.  They 
are  the  adder,  lizard,  chameleon,  frog, 
shrill-crying  little  gecko,  the  viper,  and 
scorpions  under  every  stone.  Insects 
abound  on  every  hand.  The  more 
common  are  the  ant,  honey-bee,  flea, 
locust,  wasp,  hornet,  spiders  without 
number,  various  kinds  of  gnats  and 
flies,  beetles,  and  butterflies.  Of  fish 
the  most  common  are  the  carp,  perch, 
minnow,  barbel,  bream,  sheat-fish,  and 
the  dog-fish,  all  of  which  abound  in 
the  Jordan  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 
Larger  fish  are  found  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, among  them  the  shark,  which 
was  doubtless  the  ''great  fish"  (incor- 
rectly rendered  "whale")  that  swal- 
lowed the  truant  prophet  Jonah. 

The  birds  of  Palestine  are  very  numer- 
gus,  more  than  three  hundred  and  twenty 


species  having  been  already  identified. 
The  hills  abound  in  fine  specimens  of  the 
partridge,  and  quails  are  found  in  the 
grain-fields.  Wild  ducks  frequent  the 
plains  of  the  Jordan,  and  pigeons  swarm 
everywhere.  Large  flocks  of  storks  and 
cranes  hover  about  the  plain  of  Jezreel, 
while  sparrows  and  swallows  swarm  in 
the  ruins  of  towns  and  boldly  enter  the 
very  sanctuaries  of  the  Muslims  in  Jeru- 
salem and  elsewhere.  The  most  con- 
spicuous of  the  birds  of  prey  are  the 
eagle,  ospray,  vulture,  kite,  the  lapwing 
or  hoopoe,  the  filthiest  of  scavengers 
among  birds,  the  hawk,  and  the  majestic 
lammergeier.  The  ravens  are  still  abun- 
dant as  in  the  days  of  Elijah,  and  are 
of  various  kinds.  Singing-birds  are  not 
wanting.  Cant.  2  :  12  ;  Ps.  104  :  10,  12, 
the  more  common  being  the  thrush, 
nightingale  or  bulbul,  and  the  cuckoo, 
whose  sweet  call-notes  are  often  heard 
in  spring.  The  cormorant,  heron,  and 
pelican  are  also  found  upon  the  lakes  or 
along  the  coast.  Gulls  and  petrels  skim 
the  shores  of  the  sea;  jays  and  wood- 
peckers sport  in  the  forests  of  Carmel, 
Gilead,  and  Bashan ;  kestrels,  griffons, 
and  buzzards  soar  over  the  rugged  cliffs 
of  Jordan  or  sweep  across  the  marshes 
of  the  plains ;  bats  and  owls  swarm  in 
the  numerous  caverns  in  the  sides  of  the 
deep  ravines  and  limestone  precipices 
abounding  in  the  land  ;  larks  and  linnets 
are  taken  in  snares,  tamed,  and  used  like 
pigeons  as  decoys  to  catch  other  birds ; 
while  chattering  sparrows  are  on  every 
hand,  until  we  do  not  wonder  that  a 
single  one  of  these  birds  was  counted 
worth  next  to  nothing  —  two  for  a 
farthing  or  five  for  two  farthings. 
Matt.  10  :  29;  Luke  12  :  6.  While  the 
thrift,  prosperity,  and  true  religion  of 
the  people  of  Palestine  have  disappeared, 
and  with  them  the  beauty  and  natural 
loveliness  of  the  land,  the  prominent 
physical  features  remain  as  they  were 
4000  years  ago,  and  our  eyes  behold  the 
same  valleys,  hills,  and  mountains,  our 
feet  may  cross  the  same  streams,  and  our 
thirst  may  be  quenched  from  the  same 
fountains  and  wells  that  were  fumed  in 
the  days  of  the  patriarchs.  The  same 
kind  of  animals  survive  to  bear  bur- 
dens for  the  trader  and  to  feed  the 
hungry  now  as  in  those  remote  ages, 
the  same  kind  of  insects  annoy  and 
destroy  the  comfort  of  the  "sojourner," 

645 


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and  the  same  sort  of  birds  delight  the 
eye  with  their  majestic  flight  or  please 
the  ear  with  their  song. 

Palestine  is  itself  one  vast  ruin  ;  even 
the  very  land  seems  to  sympathize  with 
the  general  desolation  which  rests  upon 
its  cities  and  towns.  A  bad  government 
has  for  years  not  only  failed  to  protect 
its  inhabitants :  it  has  burdened  them 
with  taxes,  and  when  it  had  brought 
them  to  poverty  it  added  extortion  to 
oppression,  allowed  justice  and  honesty 
to  be  disregarded  by  its  officials,  made 
bribery  and  corruption  so  common,  and 
the  reward  to  the  extortionate  so  great, 
that  no  officer  could  afford  to  be  honest 
or  dare  to  be  just.  The  whole  system  of 
civil  rule  is  on  a  rotten  foundation,  and 
cannot  be  made  solid  so  long  as  it  is 
based  on  the  Turkish  belief  that  a 
Christian  and  a  Jew  can  never  be  raised 
to  an  equality  with  a  follower  of  Mo- 
hammed. Added  to  this  there  are  great 
physical  causes  which  have  been  sug- 
gested as  reasons  why  a  land  once  so 
fruitful  has  become  so  barren  and  deso- 
late. Among  these  are  :  (1)  Rains  have 
ceased  to  fall  in  proper  proportion ;  (2) 
Clouds  fail  to  protect  the  soil  from  the 
sun  in  spring;  (3)  There  are  neither 
people,  facilities,  nor  skill  to  till  the  land 
properly;  (4)  Soil  once  terraced  on  the 
mountain-sides  is  now  washed  into  the 
valleys. 

Respecting  the  possibilities  of  recover- 
ing the  former  fertility  and  productive- 
ness of  the  Holy  Land,  Warren  eloquently 
declares :  '*  Put  the  country  under  proper 
cultivation,  and  will  not  all  be  changed? 
Rich  loam  clogs  the  valleys,  the  hillsides 
are  bare.  The  work  to  be  done  is  not 
difficult.  It  is  practicable ;  it  is  going 
on  in  Spain,  and  even  in  parts  of  Pales- 
tine at  the  present  time.  Walls  of  rough 
stones  are  built  along  the  hillsides,  3  to 
4  feet  high,  according  to  the  steepness 
of  the  slope,  and  the  sjjace  between  them 
and  the  hill  filled  up  with  the  jet  loam; 
this  is  continued  from  bottom  to  top 
until  the  mountain -side  presents  the 
appearance,  from  the  opposite  side,  of  a 
series  of  steps :  from  the  bottom  it  looks 
like  a  great  stone  wall ;  from  the  top,  like 
a  loamy  plateau.  On  these  terraces  are 
planted  the  young  trees,  figs,  olives,  mul- 
berry, apricot,  the  pine,  those  of  a  more 
delicate  nature  being  planted  on  the 
northern  terraces  in  order  that  they  may 
648 


suffer  less  from  the  sun's  rays,  the  walls 
not  being  exposed  to  the  heat.  These 
trees  thrive  rapidly,  as  they  will  do  in 
Palestine,  and  spread  out  their  leaves 
and  thrust  their  roots  into  the  rocky 
clefts.  The  rain  falls,  but  not  as  hereto- 
fore ;  there  are  no  bare  rocks  for  it  now 
to  course  down,  no  torrent  is  foaming  in 
the  valley.  No !  Now  it  falls  on  the 
trees  and  terraces,  it  percolates  quietly 
into  the  soil  and  into  the  rocky  hillside, 
and  is  absorbed,  scarcely  injuring  the 
crops  in  the  valle}',  where  before  it  would 
have  ruthlessly  washed  them  away. 

"  The  water  that  thus  sinks  into  the 
rocks  is  not  lost,  for  it  will  shortly  re- 
issue at  some  distance  lower  down  in 
perennial  springs,  so  refreshing  in  a 
thirsty  land.  The  rain  that  remains  in 
the  soil  keeps  about  the  roots  of  the 
trees,  enabling  them  to  spread  out  their 
leaves  in  rich  groves  over  the  land  to 
protect  it  from  the  sun,  whose  rays  are 
now  intercepted  and  absorbed  by  the 
leaves  and  fruits,  giving  forth  no  glare 
or  reflection,  but  a  delicious  green  shade. 
The  soil,  though  warm,  is  not  burnt  up 
at  once,  but  every  day  gives  out  a  moist- 
ure which  rises  above  the  trees,  and  on 
reaching  the  higher  and  cooler  winds  is 
condensed  into  visible  vapor  or  clouds, 
constantly  forming  as  the  breeze  jiasses 
over  the  groves,  thus  protecting  them 
from  the  sun  as  with  an  umbrella.  The 
climate  becomes  changed,  for  the  rocks, 
once  bare  and  exposed  to  the  sun,  have 
now  upon  them  soil,  and,  sheltering  the 
soil,  trees,  and,  sheltering  the  trees, 
clouds.  Thus  where  were  but  glaring 
sun,  dry  winds,  dry  with  stony  land, 
absence  of  vegetable  products,  are  now 
to  be  found  fleecy  clouds  floating  through 
the  air,  the  heat  of  the  sun  tempered  by 
visible  and  invisible  vapors,  groves  with 
moist  soil,  trickling  streamlets  issuing 
from  the  rocks,  villages  springing  up 
apace — Palestine  renewed." 

HiHtory.  —  The  history  of  the  Holy 
Land  is  treated  in  detail  under  Canaan, 
Israel,  Jubah,  and  Jerusalem.  A  con- 
cise general  view  may  here  be  added  for 
convenience  to  the  reader.  The  history 
of  this  land  may  be  not  inappropriately 
divided  into  five  great  periods  :  (1)  Be- 
fore the  Israelitish  conquest;  (2)  Lender 
the  Judges  and  kings;  (3)  During  the 
Captivity  ami  Maccabaean  period ;  (4) 
The  Roman  and  Christian  period-   (5) 


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The  Mohammedan  period.     An  outline 
only  can  be  given  under  each  period. 

1.  Before  the  iKraelitish  CniK/itest. — 
The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Palestine  of 
whom  we  have  any  notice  were  Ilamites, 
descended  from  Canaan,  and  included 
ten  or  more  tribes,  grouped  under  the 
general  name  of  Canaanites.  Gen.  10  : 
15-18.  Some  suppose  these  tribes  were 
in  two  groups,  Sidon  and  Heth,  and  that 
the  curious  inscriptions  found  at  Hamath, 
yet  undeciphered  by  scholars,  are  of 
Hittite  origin.  At  an  early  date  there 
may  have  been  only  four  leading  tribes 
within  the  bounds  of  Palestine — Jebus- 
ites,  Amorites,  Girgasites,  and  Hivites  ; 
others  were  soon  added,  however,  and 
appear  in  the  days  of  Abraham,  the 
Hittites  probably  coming  from  the  north, 
as  did  also  the  Amorites.  The  walls  of 
the  temple  at  Karnak,  in  Egypt,  bear  a 
hieroglyphic  inscription,  lately  deci- 
phered, recording  an  invasion  by  Thoth- 
mes  III.  of  the  countries  east  of  the 
Mediterranean,  including  Palestine,  and 
the  conquest  of  one  hundred  and  nineteen 
towns  and  cities,  a  lai'ge  portion  of  them 
being  identified  as  cities  mentioned  in 
the  Bible.  For  the  later  conquest  of  the 
land  by  Joshua,  and  the  division  of  it 
among  the  tribes,  see  Canaan. 

2.  Under  the  Judyes  und  Kings. — Dur- 
ing the  rule  of  the  Judges  the  land  was 
not  under  any  united  or  strong  govern- 
ment. The  fortunes  and  the  possessions 
of  the  people  were  subject  to  constant 
fluctuations — sometimes  overrun  by  ene- 
mies, at  others  victorious  over  them,  as 
under  the  leadership  of  Samson,  Gideon, 
and  Jephthah  ;  but  there  was  little  general 
security,  and  the  former  tribes  kept  the 
new  settlers  in  a  state  of  constant  alarm. 
They  longed  for  a  central  and  monarch- 
ical government,  and  God  granted  their 
desire,  though  warning  them,  through 
the  prophet  Samuel,  of  the  result.  Under 
David  and  Solomon  the  nation  was  con- 
solidated and  reached  the  highest  point 
of  temporal  prosperity.  The  rupture  fol- 
lowed, and  for  five  hundred  years  the  na- 
tion gradually  declined  in  greatness  and 
power,  until  it  fell  into  captivity  under 
the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  empires. 
See  Israel  and  Judah,  Kingdoms  of. 

3.  The  Cnptivitif  and  Mnccabfrmi  Bide, 
— After  the  seventy  years'  captivity  por- 
tions of  the  southern  nation  returned  to 
repeople  Palestine.    The  ten  tribes  com- 


posing the  northern  kingdom  of  Israel 
were  "  lost,"  and  portions  of  their  terri- 
tory were  repeopled  by  a  mixed  class, 
afterward  known  as  Samaritans.  Later, 
Philip  and  his  son  Alexander  extended 
the  Grecian  concjuests  into  Asia.  The 
decisive  battle  of  Issus,  b.  c.  333,  in  which 
Darius  was  completely  deflated,  caused 
Palestine  to  pass  from  the  Persian  to  the 
Grecian  sway.  The  country  was  ruled 
under  the  Seleucidaj  by  governors  ap- 
pointed by  the  king  at  Antioch.  The 
war  of  independence,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  the  Maccabffian  princes,  is  among 
the  most  important  events  of  this  period. 
4.  Boman  and  Christian  Period. — About 
B.  c.  40  the  Parthians  plundered  Syria 
and  Palestine;  Herod  I.  (afterward  the 
Great)  obtained  the  vassal-kingship  from 
the  Romans,  and  was  confirmed  in  office 
B.  c.  37.  After  his  death  (b.  c.  4),  and  dur- 
ing the  ministry  of  our  Lord,  the  land 
was  divided  and  ruled  by  his  sons  and  by 
Roman  procurators,  Herod  Antipas  and 
Pilate  being  among  those  more  prominent 
in  biblical  history.  A  national  (Jewish) 
insurrection  broke  out  in  consequence 
of  the  maladministration  of  the  Roman 
governor,  and  in  A.  d.  70  the  capital, 
Jerusalem,  was  captured  after  great 
loss  of  life.  The  whole  land  was  soon 
after  reduced  to  the  condition  of  a 
colony,  and  the  Jews  excluded  from 
their  capital.  Later,  the  eastern  empire 
gained  the  ascendency  in  Western  Asia, 
and  under  the  Constantines  the  land  was 
favored,  Christianit}'  was  recognized, 
churches  built.  Christian  sees  established, 
and  partial  prosperity  restored.  The 
birth  of  the  false  prophet  Mohammed, 
A.  D.  670,  and  the  rapid  rise  of  Moham- 
medanism, led  the  way  for  the  Holy 
Land  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Arabs. 
6.  The  Mohammedan  Period. — The 
battle  of  Hieromax  (Yarmuk),  A.  D.  634, 
opened  the  whole  of  Palestine  to  the 
Arabs,  followers  of  Mohammed.  The 
political  history  of  the  Arab  rulers  of 
these  centuries  presents  a  continuous 
scene  of  war  and  bloodshed,  accompanied 
by  an  interminable  series  of  intestine  dis- 
sensions, intrigues,  and  murders.  The 
Arabs,  however,  made  considerable  pro- 
gress in  scientific  knowledge,  in  phil- 
osophy, and  in  mathematics.  The 
internal  disorders  of  the  Muslim  empire 
aided  in  giving  success  to  the  bold  bands 
of  Christian  Crusaders  who  were  detcr- 

649 


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mined  to  wrench  the  Holy  Land  from 
the  hand  of  the  Muslim,  and  for  a  time 
they  held  the  country,  but  their  rule  was 
comparatively  short:  and,  though  four 
or  five  crusades  were  undertaken  with 
remarkable  zeal,  the  Mamelukes  suc- 
ceeded in  coming  into  possession  of  the 
land,  to  be  followed  by  the  Osmans,  who 
have  held  the  country  under  their  mis- 
rule, scarcely  interrupted  by  the  famous 
invasion  of  the  French  under  Napoleon 
I.,  who  signally  defeated  the  Turks  in 
battle  on  the  plain  of  Jezreel.  The 
recent  intervention  of  England  and  the 
nations  of  Europe  was  supposed  to 
promise  some  reforms  in  misgoverned 
Turkey  and  its  possessions,  including 
Palestine,  but  the  realization  of  the 
promise  must  be  found  in  the  future, 
if  at  all, 

Palestine  now  belongs  to  the  pashalic 
of  Damascus,  which  includes  the  three 
sub-pashalics  of  Beirut,  Akka,  and 
Jerusalem. 

Present.  Inhabitants. — As  no  census  of 
Palestine  has  been  taken  under  its  pres- 
ent rule,  the  number  of  its  inhabitants 
can  be  only  approximately  determined. 
The  estimates  of  the  present  population 
vary  widely.  The  pashalic  of  Jerusalem, 
according  to  Ritter,  has  602,000;  the 
pashalic  of  Acre,  according  to  Robinson, 
has  72,000  ;  the  remaining  part  of  the 
pashalic  of  Sidon  in  Jerusalem  and  the 
East  Jordanic  region  is  estimated  to 
contain  about  150,000,  making  a  total 
population  of  824,000.  Dr.  Hitchcock,  in 
Johnson's  Cyclnps'xlia,  supposes  the  pres- 
ent population  "to  be  well  on  toward 
400,000,  less  than  a  tenth  of  what  it 
probably  was  in  the  time  of  Solomon," 
The  correct  number  can  only  be  ascer- 
tained by  a  census  under  a  government 
with  more  trustworthy  officials  than  the 
present  Turkish  rule  sustains.  Of  the 
population  of  Palestine  probably  about 
20,000  are  Jews,  chiefly  dwelling  in  the 
four  sacred  cities  of  Jerusalem,  Safed, 
Tiberias,  and  Hebron,  The  Samaritans 
number  scarcely  one  hundred  and  fifty, 
dwelling  in  Nabliis.  The  rest  of  the 
population  is  Mohammedan  and  of  a 
mixed  character,  from  the  ancient  Syri- 
ans and  their  conquerors  the  Arabs. 
Computations  based  on  the  statements 
of  Josephus  make  the  population  of 
Palestine  in  the  time  of  our  Lord  from 
4,000,000  to  6,000,000,-  the  number  in 
650 


the  most  prosperous  days  of  the  mon- 
archy under  Solomon  is  estimated  at 
from  3,000,000  to  4,000,000. 

The  peasantry  of  Juda?a  are  termed 
fellaheen  Arabs,  but  M.  Ganneau  argues 
that  this  sedentary  and  not  nomadic  race 
must  be  distinguished  from  the  nomad 
Arabs  who  came  from  Arabia  with  Caliph 
Omar.  He  thinks  that  the  fellaheen  Arabs 
are  descendants,  not  of  the  conquering 
Arabs,  but  of  the  peasants  found  by  them 
upon  the  soil.  "  Of  what  race,  then,  were 
these  peasants?  Were  they  Jews  ?  No; 
for  the  wars  of  extermination  waged  by 
Vespasian,  Titus,  Trajan,  and  Hadrian, 
and  the  persecutions  of  the  Christian  em- 
perors left  not  one  stone  upon  another  of 
either  political  or  ethnic  Judaism.  .  .  . 
Jewish  tradition,  properly  so  called,  is 
for  ever  lost  in  Palestine ;  and  all  the 
Jews  now  found  there  have,  without  ex- 
ception, come  to  the  country  at  a  com- 
paratively recent .  date,"  Were  they 
Greeks  ?  No ;  for  they  spoke  a  Sem- 
itic dialect,  M.  Ganneau's  conclusion 
is  "that  the  fellaheen  of  Palestine, 
taken  as  a  whole,  are  the  modern  rep- 
resentatives of  those  old  tribes  which 
the  Israelites  found  in  the  country,  such 
as  the  Canaanites,  Hittites,  Jebusites, 
Amorites,  Philistines,  Edomites,  etc," 
He  designates  these  as  "pre-Israelite" 
races,  "  Each  successive  change  in  the 
social  and  political  condition  of  the 
country  has  more  or  less  affected  it  in 
various  ways;  and  we  must  not  be  sur- 
prised, when  we  study  the  fellaheen, 
at  finding  Jewish,  Hellenic,  Rabbinic, 
Christian,  and  Mussulman  reminiscences 
mingled  pell-mell  and  in  the  quaintest 
combinations  with  traits  which  bring 
us  back  to  the  most  remote  and  obscure 
periods  of  pre-Israelite  existence, 

"  The  tenacity  with  which  old  relig- 
ious customs  have  been  kept  up  is  an- 
other remarkable  circumstance.  Not 
only  have  the  fellaheen,  as  Robinson 
conjectured,  preserved,  by  the  erection 
!  of  their  Mussulman  knbhehs  and  their 
I  fetichism  for  certain  large  isolated  trees, 
the  site  and  the  souvenir  of  the  hill- 
sanctuaries  and  shady  groves  which 
were  marked  out  for  the  execration  of 
the  Israelites  on  their  entry  into  the 
Promised  Land,  but  they  pay  them  al- 
most the  same  veneration  as  did  the 
Canaanite  Knoffars,  whose  descendants 
they    are,     These    viakoms^   as    Deuter- 


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onomy  calls  them  —  which  Manasseh 
rebuilt,  and  against  which  the  proph- 
ets in  vain  exhausted  their  invectives 
— are  word  for  word,  thing  for  thing, 
the  Arabic  makums,  whose  little  white- 
topped  cupolas  are  dotted  so  pictu- 
resquely over  the  mountain-horizon  of 
Central  Judtca. 

"  In  order  to  conceal  their  suspicious 
origin,  these  fellah  sanctuaries  have  been 
placed  under  the  protection  of  the  purest 
Mohammedan  orthodoxy  by  becoming 
the  tombs  or  shrines  of  shej/khfi,  iveli/s, 
and  iiebi/s — elders,  saints,  and  prophets — 
deceased  in  the  odor  of  sanctity.  But 
there  are  many  traces  of  their  true  ori- 
gin beneath  this  simple  disguise." 

On  account  of  the  close  connection 
between  the  names  and  places,  Moses 
insisted  upon  destroying  both.  The 
fellaheen  will  "  swear  fluently  and 
perjure  themselves  without  scruple  by 
any  other  sacred  object,  even  by  the 
Sakhrah — the  rock  upon  which  stood 
the  altar ;  but  if  they  take  an  oath  on 
their  local  sanctuary,  it  is  extremely 
rare  to  find  them  faithless  or  bearing 
false  witness." 

Antiquities  and  Explorations. — Pal- 
estine has  no  wonderful  pyramids  and 
obelisks  like  Egypt,  nor  has  it  ruins  of 
vast  temples  and  palaces  like  Assyria. 
There  are  few  remains  of  the  work  and 
art  of  the  Israelites,  most  of  the  ruins 
of  edifices  being  not  older  than  the  Ro- 
man period.  There  are  some  coins  of  the 
Maccabrean  era,  some  of  the  stones  of 
Solomon's  temple  and  palace  have  been 
found,  and  the  enclosure  of  Abraham's 
tomb  at  Hebron  has  not  been  explored 
and  its  age  is  unknown.  The  wells  at 
Beersheba  are,  however,  of  the  patri- 
archal ages,  and  the  well  at  Sychar  has 
also  been  generally  accepted  as  the  one 
dug  by  the  patriarch  Jacob. 

The  exploration  of  this  land  may  be 
traced  back  to  the  era  of  pilgrimages, 
when  Eusebius  and  Jerome  wrote  a  de- 
scription of  Palestine  in  the  Ononiasticon. 
Little  was  added  to  the  information  they 
gathered  until  a  recent  period,  when  Seet- 
zen  (1805-1807).  Burckhardt  (1810),  Irby 
and  Mangles  (1817),  and,  pre-eminently, 
Robinson  (1838  and  1852)  brought  a  true 
critical  and  scientific  method  to  the  ex- 
amination ♦f  this  land  of  lands.  Be- 
sides these,  a  multitude  of  noted  trav- 
ellers  have   visited    and    explored   the 


country,  and  presented  the  results  of 
their  labors  to  the  world. 

In  1865  the  English  Palestine  Fund 
was  formed  for  an  exact  survey  and 
thorough  scientific  exploration  of  West- 
ern Palestine.  This  has  been  completed, 
and  the  results  have  been  very  satisfac- 
tory, the  latest  being  given  in  the  ad- 
mirable large  sheet-maps  of  the  whole 
territory  between  the  Jordan  and  the 
Mediterranean,  accompanied  by  full  de- 
scriptive memoirs  of  the  survey. 

The  American  Palestine  Exploration 
Society  was  formed  in  1870  to  make 
a  similar  survey  of  the  Holy  Land  east 
of  the  Jordan.  It  has  furnished  valu- 
able information  relating  to  the  identi- 
fication of  Mt.  Nebo  and  of  many  places 
east  of  the  Jordan.  Its  work  of  ex- 
ploration has  now  (1884)  been  assumed 
by  the  English  Palestine  Fund.  The 
Moabite  Stone,  found  by  Mr.  Klein  in 
1868  (see  Dibon),  had  caused  explorers 
to  expect  rich  results  from  a  thorough 
survey  of  the  East  Jordanic  region — 
expectations  which  may  3'et  be  realized. 

Meanwhile,  there  are  a  number  of 
topographical  questions  unsettled  in 
respect  to  cities  in  the  West  Jordanic 
territory,  as  the  locations  of  Capernaum, 
Chorazin,  Bethsaida,  Cana  of  Galilee, 
Emmaus  and  the  sites  of  the  lost  cities 
of  the  plain,  the  true  Calvary,  and  a 
large  number  of  points  in  Jerusalem 
topography.  Some  of  these  will  be 
settled  more  surely  with  the  spade 
than  with  the  pen:  others  it  may  be 
impossible  to  solve  satisfactorily  by 
either  method.  It  is,  however,  remark- 
able to  note  how  completely  every  suc- 
cessive fact  in  the  history  or  topography 
of  this  land  has  tended  to  throw  addi- 
tional light  upon  the  Book  of  books,  and 
to  add  to  the  external  evidence  of  its 
divine  origin,  by  showing  how  writers 
of  such  a  variety  of  grades  of  intelli- 
gence, trained  under  such  widely-differ- 
ent circumstances,  and  at  eras  separated 
by  upward  of  fifteen  centuries,  each  re- 
corded descriptions,  allusions,  and  inci- 
dents which  are  now  found  to  be  in  exact 
accord  with  what  we  know  must  have 
been  the  physical  features  of  the  land, 
the  character,  customs,  conditions  of  the 
people,  and  the  influences  existing  at 
each  of  the  periods  of  which  he  professes 
to  write.  Renan  happily  calls  Palestine 
"the  fifth  Gospel."     The  Book  fits  the 

651 


PAL 


PAL 


Land,  and  the  Land  testifies  to  the  ac- 
curacy and  the  inspiration  of  the  Book. 
The  literature  upon  Palestine  would 
fill  a  large  library.  Tobler  notes  over 
one  thousand  writers  on  the  topic.  A 
few  of  the  most  important  and  of  the 
later  works  only  can  be  given  on  the 
subject.  Onvmasticon,  by  Eusebius  and 
Jerome  (830-338),  edited  by  Lasson 
and  Parthey  (1862);  Bescriptiones 
Terrse  Saurta>,  of  writers  in  the  eighth, 
ninth,  twelfth,  and  fifteenth  centuries, 
edited  by  Tobler  (1874);  Ahqipo  to  Je- 
rusalem, by  Maundrell  (1697);  Pnlestina 
Illustrata,  by  Reland  (1714);  Voyages 
and  Travels  in  the  Levant,  by  Ilasselquist 
(1749-1752),  edited  by  Linnaeus  (1766); 
Travels  in  Syria  and  the  Holy  Land, 
by  Burckhardt  (1822);  Egyj^t,  Nubia, 
Syria,  and  Asia  Minor,  by  Irby  and  Man- 
gles, (1822);  Biblical  Researches,  by  Rob- 
inson (1838-1841  and  1856);  Lands  of 
the  Bible  Visited  and  Described,  by  John 
Wilson  (1847);  Physical  Geography  of 
Palestine,  hj  Robinson (1865);  Expedition 
to  the  Dead  Sea  and  Jordan,  by  Lynch 
(1849);  Sinai  and  Palestine,  by  Stanley 
(1857);  Land  and  Book,  by  Thomson 
(1859,  and  new  edition  1880) ;  Narra- 
tive of  a  Journey  through  Syria  and 
Palestine,  by  Van  de  Velde  (1858  and 
1865);  Rob  Roy  on  the  Jordan,  by 
Macgregor  (1870);  Land  of  Israel,  by 
Tristram  (1865)  ;  Natural  History  of  the 
Bible,  by  Tristram  (1867);  Land  of 
Moab,  by  Tristram  (1873);  Geography 
of  Palestine,  Ritter,  translated  by 
Gage  (1866);  Damascus;  Giant  Cities 
of  Bashan,  by  Porter  (1855-1865) ;  Hand- 
book of  Syria  and  Palestine,  by  Mur- 
ray (1875);  Bible  Educator,  hy  Plumptre 
(1873-1875);  Handbook  of  Syria  and 
Palestine,  by  Baedeker  (1876);  Bible 
Lands,  their  Modern  Customs,  etc.,  by 
Van  Lennep  (1875);  Quarterlies  Pales- 
tine Exploration  Fund  (organized,  1865- 
1880) ;  American  Palestine  Exploration 
Society's  Statements  (1871-1877)  ;  Our 
Work  in  Palestine  (1875) ;  Through  Bible 
Lands,  by  Schalf  (1878);  Tent-work  in 
Palestine,  by  Conder  (1878) ;  Erom  Egypt 
to  Palestine,  by  Bartlett  (1879);  Hand- 
book to  the  Bible,  by  F.  R.  and  C. 
R.  Conder  (1879);  Sheet  Mapts  and 
Memoirs  of  the  Palestine  Exploration 
Fund  (1880). 

PALi'LU   {distinguished),  the  second 
son  of  Reiiben,  and  founder  of  the  family 
652 


of  the  Palluites,  Ex.  6:14;  Num.  26 :  5,  8 ; 
1  Chr.  5:3;  called  Phallu  in  Gen.  46  : 9. 

PAL'LUITES.     See  above. 

PALM  TREE.  The  date-palm 
(Phoenix  dactylifera)  is  found  from  the 
Indus  to  the  Nile,  through  most  of 
Northern  Africa,  and  upon  all  the  warm- 
er shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  it  is 
now  rare  in  Palestine.  Yet  in  ancient 
times,  when  the  land  was  peopled  with 
many  industrious  inhabitants,  it  was 
very  common.  Lev.  23  :  40 ;  Deut.  34  : 
3;  Jud.  1:  16;  3  :  13;  4:5.  Ancient 
historians  corroborate  this  statement, 
and  inform  us  that  the  region  of  the 
Dead  Sea  was  noted  for  the  palm,  of 
which  there  were  groves  twelve  miles  in 
extent. 

The  general  figure  and  appearance  of 
this  tree  is  familiar  to  our  minds  from 
pictures  and  descriptions.  It  grows  in 
sandy  soils,  in  hot  and  dry  climates,  but 
flourishes  best  in  the  vicinity  of  streams 
and  where  it  can  be  watered,  and  in 
valleys  and  plains,  especially  where  the 
water  is  moderately  salt  or  brackish.  It 
is  always  green  and  grows  to  a  great 
height — from  60  to  100  feet.  Its  straight 
and  slender  trunk  rises  very  high  before 
it  puts  forth  any  leaves,  and  its  foliage 
is  in  one  mass  at  the  top.  Cant.  7:7; 
Jer.  10  :  5.  This  ever  green  and  stately 
tree  is  the  emblem  of  the  righteous.  Ps. 
1 :  3  and  92  :  12.  The  columns  of  costly 
edifices  were  sometimes  hewn  in  imita- 
tion of  its  trunk,  as  may  be  observed  in 
some  of  the  ruins  of  Egypt.  Palm  trees 
were  carved  upon  the  doors  of  the  tem- 
ple.  1  Kgs.  6  :  32  ;  comp.  Eze.  41  :  19. 

It  is  a  peculiarity  of  palms  and  simi- 
lar endogenous  trees  that  the  diameter 
of  the  trunk  is  as  great  as  it  ever  be- 
comes when  the  tree  first  rises  above  the 
ground,  as  seen  in  the  cut  of  young 
palms.  Hence  there  is  growth  yet  com- 
pleteness almost  from  the  first. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  palm  has  no 
branches,  but  at  the  summit  from  forty 
to  eighty  leaf-stalks  spring  forth,  which 
are  intended  in  Neh.  8  :  15.  These  are 
set  around  the  trunk  in  circles  of  about 
six.  The  lower  row  is  of  great  length, 
and  the  vast  leaves,  often  12  feet  in 
length,  bend  themselves  in  a  curve  to- 
ward the  earth;  as  the  circles  ascend  the 
leaves  are  shorter.  In  the  month  of 
February  there  sprout  from  between  the 
junctures  of  the   lower   stalks    and  the 


PAL 


PAL 


trunk  little  scales,  which  develop  a  kind 
of  bud,  the  germ  of  the  coming  fruit. 
These  germs  arc  contained  in  a  thick 
and  tough  skin  not  unlike  leather.     Ac- 


Date- Palm 


cording  to  the  account  of  a  modern 
traveller,  a  single  tree  in  Barbary  and 
Egypt  bears  from  fifteen  to  twenty  large 
clusters  of  dates,  weighing  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  pounds  each.  The  palm  tree 
lives  more  than  two  hundred  years,  and 
is  most  productive  from  the  thirtieth  un- 
til the  eightieth  year.  The  Arabs  speak 
of  three  hundred  and  sixty  uses  to 
which  the  different  parts  of  the  palm 
tree  are  applied. 

The  inhabitants  of  Egypt,  Arabia,  and 
Persia  depend  much  on  the  fruit  of  the 
palm  tree  for  their  subsistence.  Camels 
feed  on  the  seed,  and  the  leaves,  branches, 
fibres,  and  sap  are  all  very  valuable. 

When  the  dates  are  ripe  they  are 
plucked  by  the  hand  or  shaken  into  a 
net,  which  is  held  below.     The   person 


who  ascends  the  lofty  trunk  is  assisted 
by  the  ragged  processes  or  scales  with 
which  the  body  of  the  tree  is  armed. 
The  dates  ripen  at  different  times,  so 
that  a  tree  is  commonly  ascended  two  or 
three  times  in  a  season.  When  gathered 
they  are  spread  upon  mats  in  the  open 
air,  and  after  a  few  days  begin  to  be 
used.  Some  are  eaten  fresh,  and  some 
are  laid  aside  for  future  use.  Others 
yield  a  rich  syrup  ;  which  being  ex- 
pressed, the  remaining  mass  is  steeped 
in  hot  water,  and  after  being  macerated 
and  cleansed  affords  a  pleasant  drink. 
These  diflTerent  kinds  of  syrups  are  the 
celebrated  dote-iciiie,  which  was  greatly 
prized  in  ancient  times  by  the  Orientals. 
Some  suppose  it  to  be  the  "  strong 
drink  "  often  named  in  the  Scriptures  ; 
but  this  term  rather  designates  all  in- 
toxicating liquors  except  wine.  See 
Wine. 

The  shoots,  which  are  annually  cut 
away  from  the  bottom  of  the  tree,  and 
the  leaves  themselves,  are  used  for  mak- 
ing ropes,  baskets,  sacks,  mats,  fans, 
hats,  and  sandals.  The  Hebrews  were 
accustomed  to  carry  the  leaves,  which 
they  called  "  branches,"  in  the  solemn 
festivities  of  the  feast  of  tabernacles, 
and  to  strew  them  in  the  way  of  tri- 
umphal processions.  Thus  branches 
were  spread  in  the  way  of  Christ  upon 
his  entry  into  Jerusalem.  John  12  :  13. 
They  were  anciently  used  as  a  symbol 
of  victor}',  and  carried  before  the  con- 
queror in  triumphal  processions.  Hence 
the  force  and  beauty  of  the  figure  in 
Rev.  7:9. 

The  former  abundance  of  the  palm 
and  the  estimation  in  which  the  He- 
brews held  it  are  seen  from  many  Bible 
names  and  references.  Phoenicia  and 
Phoenice  came  from  the  Greek  name  of 
the  palm  ;  Elim  and  Elath,  or  "  trees," 
refer  evidently  to  this  species  ;  Hazezon- 
tamar,  ''the  filling  of  the  palm  trees," 
is  identified  with  En-gedi,  Gen  14 :  7  ,• 
2  Chr.  20  :  2,  whose  palm  trees  are  men- 
tioned by  Josephus  and  Pliny  ;  Tamar, 
"  a  palm,"  occurs  twice  in  Ezekiel  for  a 
place,  and,  referring  to  the  tree  as  tall, 
straight,  and  graceful,  was  a  favorite  fe- 
male name  among  the  Hebrews;  Baal- 
tamar,  "  the  sanctuary  of  the  palm," 
occurs  ;  Bethany  is  "  the  house  of  dates:" 
and  Jericho  is  often  called  "  the  city  of 
palm  trees."      This  tree  is  found  upon 

653 


PAL 


PAP 


ancient  Hebrew  coins  as  the  symbol  of 
Judaea,  and  Roman  coins  struck  after 
the  conquest  of  Judtea  have  a  palm  with 
an  inscription  commemorating  the  event. 

PALMCRIST,  mentioned  in  the 
margin  of  Jonah  4:6,  is  the  Gourd, 
which  see. 

PALiM'ER-WORM,  a  destructive 
insect  of  the  locust  tribe,  figuratively 
spoken  of  in  Joel  1:4;  Am.  4:9  as  an 
instrument  employed  to  afflict  the  rebel- 
lious Jews.     See  Locust. 

PAL'SY  (contr.  from  2>">''^h/'^''^)'  * 
disease  which  deprives  the  part  affected 
of  sensation  or  the  power  of  motion,  or 
of  both,  according  as  the  sensory  or  the 
motor  nerves,  or  both,  are  attacked.  As 
the  term  is  used  iu  the  N.  T.  it  imports 
apoplexy,  or  paralysis  of  the  whole  sys- 
tem ;  paralysis  of  one  side ;  a  paralysis 
affecting  the  whole  body  below  the  neck; 
and  a  paralysis  caused  by  a  contraction 
of  the  muscles,  so  that  the  limbs  can  be 
neither  drawn  up  nor  extended,  and  soon 
become  emaciated  and  dried  up.  1  Kgs. 
13  :  4-6;  Matt.  4:  24;  12  :  10-13;  Luke 
6:6;  John  5  :  5-7.  A  fearful  form  of 
this  disease  is  known  in  Eastern  coun- 
tries. The  limbs  remain  immovably  fixed 
in  the  position  in  which  they  were  at  the 
time  of  the  attack,  and  the  suffering  is  so 
exquisitely  severe  that  death  is  often  oc- 
casioned in  a  few  days.  Matt.  8  :  6. 

PAL'TI  [delirerance  of  Jehovah),  a 
Benjamite,  and  one  of  the  twelve  spies. 
Num.  13  :  9. 

PAL'TIEL  [deliverance  of  God), 
the  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  and 
one  of  the  twelve  appointed  to  superin- 
tend the  division  of  the  land  of  Canaan. 
Num.  34:  26. 

PAL'TITE,  THE,  one  of  David's 
mighty  men,  2  Sam.  23  :  26 ;  called  the 
Pelonite  in  1  Chr.  11 :  27. 

PAHIPHYL'IA  {region  of  every 
tribe),  a  Roman  province  in  Asia  Minor. 
Acts  27  :  5.  It  was  bounded  on  the  east 
by  Cilicia,  on  the  north  by  Pisidia — from 
which  it  was  separated  by  the  Taurus 
Mountains — on  the  west  by  Lycia,  and 
on  the  south  by  the  sea.  Claudius  made 
Pamphylia  an  imperial  proviTice.  includ- 
ing in  it  the  regions  of  Pisidia  and 
Lycia,  which  are  distinguished  from 
Pamphylia  proper.  Acts  13  :  13,  14;  14  : 
24;  27  :  5. 

Physical  Features. — Sweeping  around 
the  head  of  the  bay  in  crescent  form  and 
654 


extending  to  the  Taurus  Mountains  on 
the  north  is  a  plain  about  80  miles  long 
and  30  miles  broad.  This  is  Pamphylia 
proper.  Three  principal  rivers  intersect 
this  plain,  the  Catarrhactes,  the  Cestrus, 
and  the  Eurynedon.  The  Cestrus  was 
navigable  for  7  miles  to  the  city  of  Perga, 
which  appears  to  have  been  the  capital 
of  the  province,  and  Attalia  its  chief  sea- 
port. Acts  14 :  25. 

History.  —  Pamphylia,  according  to 
Herodotus,  was  a  small  territory  during 
the  Persian  war,  when  it  sent  only  thirty 
ships,  while  Cilicia  contributed  one  hun- 
dred. The  Romans  united  it  to  the 
province  of  Asia,  but  later  it  was  de- 
tached, and  was  included  in  the  juris- 
diction of  M.  Tullius  Cicero.  Its  capital, 
Perga,  was  the  first  place  in  Asia  Minor 
visited  by  Paul  on  his  first  missionary- 
tour,  and  there  Mark  left  him.  Acts  13  : 
13.  On  his  return  from  Pisidia  he 
preached  at  Perga,  and  from  Attalia 
sailed  to  Antioch.  Acts  14  :  24-26. 
Strangers  from  Pamphylia  were  at  Jeru- 
salem on  the  day  of  Pentecost. 

PAN  is,  in  our  version,  the  rendering 
of  six  different  Hebrew  words,  of  which 
two  seem  to  have  denoted  flat  plates  of 
metal,  such  as  are  still  used  in  the  East 
for  baking  cakes  of  meal,  while  the  others 
seem  to  have  denoted  deeper  vessels,  used 
for  boiling  purposes.  Lev.  2:6;  6  :  21. 

PAN'NAG.  Eze.  27:17.  Our  trans- 
lators wisely  did  not  render  this  word 
into  English.  The  most  probable  opin- 
ions are  that  it  meant  some  kind  of 
spice,  or  that  it  is  millet.  It  has  also 
been  interpreted  "balsam,"  "cassia," 
"  sweetmeats,"  "  panax." 

PAMPER,  2  John  ver.  12,  PAPER 
REEDS,     See  Books,  Bulkush. 

PA'PHOS  [hoiling,  or  hot),  a  town 
in  the  western  end  of  Cyprus.  There 
were  two  towns  of  this  name — old  Pa- 
phos,  or  Paphos  of  the  poets,  situated  on 
a  height  about  2  miles  from  the  sea,  and 
new  Paphos,  on  the  seashore,  about  10 
miles  to  the  north-west  of  the  old  town. 
It  was  founded  B.  c.  1184.  Paul  and 
Barnabas  visited  it,  and  the  Roman 
governor  was  converted.  Acts  13  :  6-11. 
At  the  old  town  there  was  a  famous 
temple  dedicated  to  Venus,  which  was 
visited  annually  by  great  numbers  of 
heathen  pilgrims.  There  are  still  exten- 
sive ruins  and  catacombs  on  its  site. 
Not  long  before  the  visit  of  Paul  and 


PAP 


PAR 


Barnabas  the  new  town  had  been  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake.  Augustus 
rebuilt  it,  and  it  became  famous  from  its 
shrine  and  from  the  worship  of  Venus. 
Mingled  with  the  ruins  of  palaces  and 
churches  are  the  poor  dwellings  and 
hovels  of  the  Greek  and  Mohammedan 
inhabitants.  The  harbor  is  now  nearly 
filled  up.  The  modern  name  of  the  town 
is  Baffa. 

PAPY'RUS.  Job40:21.  See  Reed. 

PAR'ABLE  (from  a  Greek  word 
signifying  comparison)  is  used  in  the 
Bible  in  both  a  wider  and  a  narrower 
sense.  In  the  first  case  it  comprises  all 
forms  of  teaching  by  analogy  and  all 
forms  of  figurative  speech,  and  is  applied 
to  metaphors,  whether  expanded  into 
narratives,  Eze.  12  :  22,  or  not,  Matt. 
24  :  32  ;  to  proverbs  and  other  short  say- 
ings, 1  Sam.  10  :  12  ;  24  :  13  ;  2  Chr.  7  : 
20  ,•  Luke  4:23;  to  dark  utterances  or 
signs  of  prophetic  or  symbolical  mean- 
ing. Num.  23  :  17,  18;  24  :  3 ;  Eze.  20  : 
49  ;  Heb.  9  :  9,  etc.  In  the  second  case 
it  means  a  short  narrative  of  some  every- 
day event,  by  which  some  great  spiritual 
truth  is  conveyed  to  the  hearer.  In  this 
sense  the  parable  differs — 

1.  From  the  fable,  by  its  higher  aim 
to  illustrate  spiritual  truth,  and  by  the 
intrinsic  possibility  and  probability  of 
its  fictitious  narrative,  which  could  have 
happened,  though  perhaps  it  did  not 
actually  happen ;  while  the  fable  uses 
the  wonderful,  and  even  the  impossible 
(thinking,  talking,  acting  animals  and 
plants),  for  teaching  maxims  of  prudence 
and  lower  morality,  the  parables  of  Christ 
always  keep  within  the  limits  of  the 
simple  every-day  experience. 

2.  The  parable  diff'crs  from  the  allegory 
by  its  meaning,  its  idea  not  being  repre- 
sented, but  simply  suggested.  The  alle- 
gory is  self-interproting,  the  imaginary 
persons  being  named  and  performing 
acts  which  declare  the  meaning;  while 
the  parable  must  be  inter{)reted  by  means 
of  a  knowledge  of  him  who  speaks  it  and 
of  those  to  whom  it  is  spoken.  The  alle- 
gory itself  says  what  it  means  ;  the  par- 
able receives  its  whole  meaning  from  the 
situation  which  called  it  forth.  For  him 
who  knows  not  Christ  the  parable  of  the 
Sower  contains  nothing  beyond  a  com- 
mon every-day  experience,  but  to  him 
who  knows  the  Man  sitting  there  in  the 
boat  and  speaking  to  the  multitude  on 


the  shore  this  parable  reveals  a  sublime 
spiritual  truth. 

From  this  peculiarity^  of  the  character 
of  the  parable  it  is  easj"^  to  understand 
its  signification  in  the  teaching  of  Christ, 
and  easy  to  derive  the  law  for  its  in- 
terpretation. ''  The  purpose  of  our  Lord 
in  teaching  by  jtarables  was  twofold — to 
reveal  and  to  conceal  the  truth  :  to  reveal 
to  those  who  really  sought  the  truth,  to 
conce((l  from  those  who  did  not  desire 
such  knowledge,  thus  rewarding  the  for- 
mer and  punishing  the  latter." — Schaff. 
To  him  who  has,  the  parable  gives  more; 
but  it  takes  away  from  him  who  has  not. 
No  pondering  over  its  details  will  ever 
bring  out  its  meaning,  for,  although  the 
idea  may  be  reflected  a  thousand  times 
from  every  turn  of  the  narrative,  still  it 
is  not  present  in  the  words:  it  is  a  light 
thrown  upon  the  words  from  without, 
from  the  situation,  from  the  speaker. 

Teaching  by  parables  was  an  ancient 
method.  Striking  instances  occur  in  the 
0.  T. —  Nathan's  address  to  David,  2 
Sam.  12:1-4;  the  woman  of  Tekoah, 
2  Sam.  14:6;  the  rebuke  of  Ahab,  1 
Kgs.  20  :  39  ;  the  denunciation  of  Isaiah, 
Isa.  5  :  1-7 — and  later  on,  the  method 
found  much  favor  with  the  Hebrew 
teachers.  But  it  reached  its  perfection 
by  the  application  it  found  in  the  teach- 
ing of  Christ. 

Matthew  gives,  in  ch.  13,  seven  par- 
ables, which  represent  the  several  stages 
of  the  kingdom  of  God  and  its  relation 
to  the  world:  (1)  The  parable  of  the 
Sower,  or  the  beginning  of  the  kingdom 
and  its  reception  or  rejection  by  the 
different  classes  of  men  ;  (2)  The  parable 
of  the  Tares,  or  the  kingdom  of  heaven 
in  conflict  with  the  kingdom  of  Satan  ; 

(3)  The  parable  of  the  Mustard-seed  and 

(4)  the  parable  of  the  Leaven,  or  the 
growth  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  exten- 
sively, comprising  all  nations  and  in- 
tensively pervading  all  forms  of  human 
life ;  (.'))  The  parable  of  the  Hidden 
Treasure;  (6)  The  parable  of  the  Pearl 
of  Great  Price;  and  (7)  The  parable  of 
the  Net  cast  into  the  Sea,  or  the  relation 
between  the  kingdom  of  heaven  and 
individual  man  and  his  efforts  to  grasp 
it  and  to  develop  it. 

The  parables  occurring  in  the  N.  T. 
are : 

1.  The  Sower.  Matt.  13-.  3-8;  Mark 
4:3-8;  Luke  8:5-8. 

655 


PAB 


PAU 


2.  The  Wheat  and  the  Tares.  Matt. 
13  :  24-30. 

3.  The  Mustard-seed.  Matt.  13  :  31, 
32  ;  Mark  4  :  30-32. 

4.  The  Leaven.  Matt.  13  :  33. 

5.  The  Seed  cast  into  the  Ground  and 
Growing  up  Secretly.    Mark  4  :  26-29. 

6.  The  Hidden  Treasure.  Matt.  13  :  44. 

7.  The  Pearl  of  Great  Price.  Matt. 
13  :  45,  46. 

8.  The  Net  cast  into  the  Sea.  Matt. 
13  :  47,  48. 

9.  The  Lost  Sheep.  Matt.  18  :  12,  13 ; 
Luke  15  :  4-6. 

10.  The  Merciless  Servant.  Matt.  18  : 
23-34. 

11.  The  Two  Debtors.  Luke  7  :  41,  42. 

12.  The  Good  Samaritan.  Luke  10  : 
30-35. 

13.  The  Importunate  Friend.  Luke 
11  :  5-8. 

14.  The  Rich  Fool.  Luke  12  :  16-20. 

15.  The  Return  from  the  Wedding. 
Luke  12  :  35-40. 

16.  The  Fig  Tree.  Luke  13  :  6-9. 

17.  The  Great  Supper.  Luke  14  : 
16-24. 

18.  The  Lost  Piece  of  Money.  Luke 
15  :  8,  9. 

19.  The  Prodigal  Son.  Luke  15  :  11-32. 

20.  The  Unjust  Steward.  Luke  16  : 
1-8. 

21.  The  Rich  Man  and  Lazarus.  Luke 
16:  19-31. 

22.  The  Unjust  Judge.  Luke  18  :  2-5. 

23.  The  Pharisee  and  the  Publican. 
Luke  18  :  10-13. 

24.  The  Pounds.  Luke  19  :  12-27. 

25.  The  Laborers  in  the  Vineyard. 
Matt.  20:  1-16. 

26.  The  Two  Sons.  Matt.  21 :  28-30. 

27.  The  Vineyard  let  to  Husbandmen. 
Matt.  21  :  33-39 ;  Mark  12  :  1-9  ;  Luke 
20  :  9-15. 

28.  The  Marriage-Feast.  Matt.  22  : 
2-14. 

29.  The  Wise  and  the  Foolish  Virgins. 
Matt.  25  :  1-13. 

30.  The  Talents.  Matt.  25  :  14-30. 

31.  The  Sheep  and  the  Goats.  Matt. 
25  :  31-46. 

The  number  of  parables  in  the  Gospels 
differs  according  to  the  range  given  to 
the  application  of  the  term.  Greswell 
reckons  27  5  Trench,  30  ;  Plumptre,  31 ; 
others,  50. 

Matthew  and  Luke  give  us  most  of  the 
parables.  Mark  dwells  more  on  the  acts 
656 


than  the  discourses  of  Christ.  John  has 
no  parables  proper.  He  took  them  for 
granted  from  the  earlier  Gospels,  and 
gives  us  instead  those  higher  discourses 
of  our  Lord  respecting  his  relation  to 
the  Father. 

The  best  special  works  on  the  parables 
are  by  Lisco,  Greswell,  Trench,  Arndt, 
Arnot,  Stier.  Our  Lord  has  himself  ex- 
plained the  parable  of  the  Sower  and  the 
parable  of  the  Wheat  and  the  Tares. 
His  explanation  must  be  the  standard 
by  which  our  interpretations  are  to  be 
regulated  and  measured. 

PAR'ACLETE.     See  Advocate. 

PAR'ADISE,  a  word  of  Persian 
origin,  meaning  a  "garden."  "orchard," 
or  other  enclosed  place,  filled  with  beauty 
and  delight.  Hence  it  is  used  figuratively 
for  any  place  of  peculiar  happiness,  and 
particularly  for  the  kingdom  of  perfect 
happiness,  which  is  the  abode  of  the 
blessed  beyond  the  grave.  Luke  23  :  43 ; 
2  Cor.  12  :  4  :   Rev.  2  :  7.     See  Edex. 

PA'RAH  (hei/er-fowii),  a  place  in 
the  territory  of  Benjamin.  Josh.  18  :  23. 
It  has  been  located  south-east  of  Mich- 
mash,  at  the  ruined  village /"«*•« 7i,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Wadj/  Fa  rah  with  the 
Wadi/  Siiiveiiiif,  and  about  6  miles  north- 
east of  .Jerusalem. 

PARALYTIC*    See  Palsy. 

PA'RAN  {place  of  caverns),  a  wil- 
derness or  desert  region  west  of  the 
Elanitic  Gulf,  and  within  the  Sinaitic 
peninsula.  It  was  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  wilderness  of  Shur  and  the  land 
of  Canaan ;  on  the  east  by  the  great 
valley  of  the  Arabah — which  separated 
it  from  the  mountains  of  Moab — and  the 
Gulf  of  Akabah  ;  on  the  south  by  a  great 
sand-belt,  separating  it  from  the  gran- 
itic mountains  of  Sinai ;  and  on  the  west 
by  the  wilderness  of  Etham,  which  sepa- 
rated it  from  the  Gulf  of  Suez  and  from 
Egypt.  A  range  of  mountains  sweeps 
around  this  wilderness  on  all  sides  ex- 
cept the  north.  It  is  a  high  limestone 
plateau,  crossed  by  low  ranges  of  hills 
and  intersected  by  few  watercourses, 
always  dry  except  in  the  rainy  season. 
In  this  blanched  and  dreary  waste  of 
chalk,  covered  with  coarse  gravel,  black 
flint,  and  drifting  sand,  upon  which  a 
slight  coating  of  vegetation  struggles  for 
existence,  the  Israelites  spent  thirty- 
eight  years  after  leaving  Sinai.  Num. 
10  :  12.     The   modern   name,  Badiet  et 


PAH 


fAR 


Tih,  or  "desert  of  the  wandering,"  com- 
memorates this  historic  fact.  Across 
this  desert  lay  the  road  from  Canaan  to 
Egypt  which  was  travelled  by  Abraham, 
Jacob,  and  Joseph.  The  north-east 
corner  of  the  wilderness  is  a  hilly  pla- 
teau, the  home  and  pasture-ground  of 
the  patriarchs,  the  Negeb,  or  "  south 
country,"  of  Scripture. 

Scripture  Hiatori/. — Paran  is  first  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  the  conquest 
of  the  confederate  kings,  when  it  apjtears 
to  have  been  the  home  of  the  llorites. 
Gen.  14  :  6.  Hagar  and  Ishmael,  after 
being  driven  away  by  Abraham,  went 
into  the  wilderness  of  Paran,  Gen.  21 : 
21;  the  Israelites  entered  it  soon  after 
leaving  Sinai,  Num.  10  :  12,  3;};  11:  3, 
34,  35;  12:  16;  the  spies  were  sent  up 
to  Canaan  and  returned  from  this  region  : 
and  eighteen  stations  of  the  Israelites' 
journev  are  noted  in  this  wilderness. 
Num.  13  :  3,  26 ;  33  :  17-36  ;  comp.  Dent. 
1  :  1.  Probably,  during  their  thirty- 
eight  years  of  sojourn  in  the  wilderness, 
the  people  were  scattered  over  a  wide 
extent  of  territory,  like  the  modern  Bed- 
ouin tribes.  David  found  refuge  in  this 
wilderness,  1  Sam.  26  :  1,  and  Iladad 
passed  through  it  when  escaping  to 
Egypt.   1  K<rs.  11:  18. 

PARAN,  MOUNT  OF,  the  place 
where  the  Lord  is  said  to  have  shined 
forth.  Deut.  33  :  2  ;  Hab.  3  :  3.  It  was 
probably  the  most  southern  portion  of 
the  mountain-})lateau  in  the  north-east- 
ern part  of  the  wilderness  of  Paran,  now 
Jehel  Mngrali.  In  this  region  is  situ- 
ated 'Aln  Gadls,  which  some  identify 
with  Kadesh,  and  the  one  encampment 
in  the  wilderness  of  Kadesh.  Jehel 
Mafjrd'h  would  always  be  the  most  con- 
spicuous object,  and  would  completely 
shut  out  from  view  the  more  fertile 
mountains  bevond. 

PAR'BAR  occurs  only  in  1  Chr. 
26  :  18,  where  it  denotes  some  place  on 
the  western  side  of  the  temple-enclosure. 

PARCH'ED  CORN,  mentioned 
in  Ruth  2:14,  consisted  of  roasted 
heads  of  grain. 

PARCH'ED  GROUND.  The 
Hebrew  word  thus  rendered,  Isa.  35  :  7, 
denotes  that  optical  delusion  known  by 
the  name  of  "mirage,"  and  frequently 
occurring  in  the  African  and  Asiatic 
deserts.  On  account  of  the  different 
refraction  of  the  solar  rays  in  the  various 
42 


layers  of  the  atmosphere,  the  white,  bar- 
ren sand-waste  suddenly  assumes  the 
as|)ect  of  a  beautiful  lake  surrounded  by 
trees  and  a  most  luxuriant  vegetation. 

PARCH'MENTS.  The  skins  of 
beasts  were  early  and  extensively  used 
for  writing  ;  the  lonians  wrote  upon 
sheep-skins  five  centuries  before  Christ. 
Very  slight  preparation  was  used,  how- 
ever, until  under  Eunienes,  a  king  of 
Pergamos,  a  mode  <'f  producing  a  really 
fine  material  was  discovered,  whence  the 
skins  thus  prepared  were  called  by  the 
Latins  perf/rttjieiia,  which  is  translated 
"parchments."  2  Tim.  4:  13. 

PAR'DON.  Ps.  25  :  11.  The 
scriptural  import  of  this  term  is  very 
imperfectly  indicated  by  the  common 
acceptation  of  it  among  men.  In  the 
dispensation  of  grace  pardon  is  insepa- 
rably connected  with  justification.  Hence 
it  is  spoken  of  as  the  covering  of  sin, 
Ps.  85:2;  the  non-imputation  of  it,  Ps. 
32  :  2  ;  a  blotting  out,  Ps.  51  :  1,  9  ;  Isa. 
43  :  25  ;  forgetting  it,  Heb.  8  :  12;  passing 
by  it  or  removing  it  to  an  immeasurable 
distance  from  us.  Ps.  103  :  12;  Mic.  7  : 
19. 

It  is  evident  that  God  only  has  power 
to  bestow  pardon,  Mark  2:  7,  10-12,  and 
that  it  proceeds  from  free  sovereign 
grace,  Eph.  1  :  6,  7,  through  the  media- 
tion and  atonement  of  Jesus  Christ.  Heb. 
9  :  9-28  :   1  John  1  :  7. 

Men  are  commissioned  to  preach  par- 
don and  salvation  through  the  blood 
of  Christ,  but  no  man  can  forgive  sin 
or  pretend  to  the  right  and  power  of 
absolution  without  direct  and  daring 
blasphemy. 

PAR'LOR.     See  Dwellings. 

PARMASH'TA  {superior),  one  of 
the  ten  sons  of  llaman;  slain  by  the  Jews 
in  Shushan.   Esth.  9:9. 

PAR'MENAS  {xteadfaxt),  one  of  the 
seven  deacons  ordained  by  the  disciples 
to  administer  alms  to  the  widows  and 
the  poor  of  the  church.  Acts  6  :  5. 

PAR'NACH  (swl/t),  the  father  of 
Elizaphan,  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulun. 
Num.  34  :  25. 

PA'ROSH  (/er/).  Of  his  descend- 
ants one  group,  comprising  2172  persons, 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel, 
Ezr.  2  :  3  ;  Neh.  7:8;  and  another,  com- 
prising  150  males,  with  Ezra.   Ezr.  8:3. 

PARSHAN'DATHA  (r/h-en  by 
prayer),  the  eldest  of  the  ten  sons  of 

657 


PAR 


PAR 


Haman  ;  slain  by  the  Jews  in  Shushan. 
Esth.  9  :  7. 

PAR^THIA.  Originally  a  province 
of  Media,  on  its  eastern  side,  in  the  time 
of  the  apostles  it  had  spread  its  sway 
from  India  to  the  Tigris,  and  from  the 
Kharesem  desert  to  the  southern  ocean. 
Seleucia  was  a  chief  city,  and  Ecbatana 
was  its  king's  summer  residence.  Par- 
thia  was  united  to  the  Persian  empire 
under  Cyrus,  b.  c.  550.  But  in  B.  c.  256 
it  revolted  and  became  an  independent 
empire.  At  last,  however,  Parthia  was 
conquered  by  the  Persians  and  united 
to  their  empire,  A.  d.  226. 

PAR'THIANS,  inhabitants  of  Par- 
thia, were  at  Jerusalem  during  the  Pen- 
tecost. Acts  2  :  9.  They  spoke  the  Per- 
sian language,  so  that,  in  Scripture  and 
other  ancient  writing,  "Persia"  and 
"  Parthia  "  are  often  used  interchange- 
ably. Coming  from  the  ruins  of  the 
Persian  empire,  they  were   a  powerful 


enemy  to  the  Romans,  whom  they 
defeated  at  Carrhae  {Haran).  Under 
Mithridates  I.  their  cavalry  and  bow- 
men were  very  expert,  and  dangerous 
to  an  opposing  army.  They  were  ac- 
customed to  shoot  their  arrows  while 
at  full  speed.  They  possessed,  also, 
considerable  knowledge  of  architecture 
and  art.  But  it  is  for  their  remark- 
able skill  in  archery  that  they  are 
now  remembered,  and  for  a  long  time 
they  were  Rome's  formidable  rival  in 
the  East. 

PARTI'TION,  MIDDLE 
WALL  OF,  is  supposed  to  have 
reference  to  the  wall  in  the  temple  which 
separated  the  court  of  Israel  from  the 
court  of  the  Gentiles,  Eph.  2  :  14,  and  is 
figuratively  used  to  denote  whatever  in 
their  laws  or  customs  separated  the  Jews 
from  the  Gentiles,  and  rendered  the 
former  any  more  the  objects  of  divine 
favor  than  the  latter.     See  Temple. 


Tiie  Greek  raitiidjze. 


PAR'TRIDGE  (Ileb.  the  caller). 
The  Greek  \i&xiv\(\gQ  {Caccabis saxatilia) 
is  very  common  in  Palestine,  and  one  or 
two  other  kinds  are  found.  The  modern 
peasants  esteem  the  flesh  of  these  birds 
a  luxury  :  and  as,  when  hunted,  they  try 
to  save  themselves  by  running  rather 
than  by  flight,  they  are  often  chased  till, 
being  fatigued,  they  can  be  knocked 
658 


down  with  a  stick  or  a  stone.  1  Sam. 
26 :  20.  The  partridge  lays  many  eggs, 
which  are  prized  by  the  Syrians  and 
gathered  in  large  numbers.  The  ancients 
undoubtedly  hunted  the  bird  and  its  eggs 
in  the  same  way  as  is  now  customary. 
Thus  the  partridge  often  laid  her  eggs 
and  brooded  upon  them  in  vain,  which 
is  the  meaning  of  Jer.  17  :  11. 


PAR 


PAS 


PAR'UAH  {hloxsonn'u;/),  the  father 
of  Jehoshaphat,  one  of  Solomon's  officers. 
1  Kgs.  4:  17. 

PARVA'IM  {eastern  regions)  occurs 
only  once,  2  Chr.  3  :  6,  and  is  the  name 
of  the  country  or  place  producing  the 
gold  which  Solomon  used  for  the  decora- 
tion of  the  temple  ;  but  this  country  or 
place  it  has  not  been  possible  to  identifj'. 
Some  regard  it  as  an  abbreviation  for 
"  Sepharvaim,"  or  ''  Sephar,"  supposed 
to  be  a  seaport  in  Arabia. 

PA'SACH  {cut  off),  one  of  the  chiefs 
of  the  tribe  of  Asher.  1  Chr.  7  :  33. 

PAS-DAM'MIM  {boundary  of 
blood),  the  scene  of  fierce  contests  be- 
tween the  Israelites  and  the  Philistines. 

1  Chr.  11 :  13.  It  is  called  Ephes-dammim 
in  1  Sam.  17 :  1.  It  was  on  the  side  of 
the  valley  of  Elah,  and  Van  de  Velde 
proposes  to  identify  it  with  the  ruins 
called  Damum,  3  miles  east  of  Shochoh, 
about  11  miles  south-west  of  Jerusalem. 

PASE'AH  {lame).  1.  One  of  the 
descendants  of  Judah.  1  Chr.  4:12. 

2.  One  whose  descendants  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel,  Ezr.  2  : 
49  ;  called  Phaseah  in  Neh.  7  :  51.  One 
of  the  family,  Jehoiada,  assisted  in  re- 
building the  gate  under  Nehemiah.  Neh. 
3:6. 

PASH'UR  {freedom).  1.  The  son 
of  Malchijah,  and  founder  of  a  family 
of  priests,  1  Chr.  9:12;  24  :  9  ;  Neh.  11 : 
12,  which  seems  to  have  returned  with 
Zerubbabel,  and  which,  in  the  time  of 
Nehemiah,  was  one  of  the  chief  houses, 
its  head  being  the  head  of  a  course.  Ezr. 

2  :  38  ;  Neh.  7  :  41  :  10  :  3.  Sent  by  King 
Zedekiah  to  Jeremiah  to  inquire  about 
the  issue  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  prepara- 
tions against  Jerusalem,  Pashur  received 
a  sombre  warning,  Jer.  21 ;  but  when 
later  on  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  was  raised 
by  the  advance  of  the  Egyptian  army, 
Pashur,  together  with  other  prominent 
men,  demanded  of  Zedekiah  that  Jer- 
emiah should  be  put  to  death  as  a  traitor, 
and  the  prophet  was  actually  cast  into 
the  dungeon  or  well  where  was  mire. 
Jer.  38. 

2.  The  son  of  Immer,  also  a  priest, 
and  chief  governor  in  the  house  of  the 
Lord.  Jer.  20:1.  In  the  reign  of  Jehoi- 
akim  he  caused  Jeremiah  to  be  put  in 
the  stocks  because  he  pro])hesied  evil 
against  Jerusalem ;  but  the  prophet  pro- 
nounced a  fearful  sentence  against  him, 


Jer.  20  : 1-fi,  and  his  name  was  changed 
to  Maoou-missabib,  which  see. 

PAS'SIOJ^.  Acts  1:3.  The  word, 
in  this  connection,  denotes  the  last  suf- 
ferings of  Christ,  or  rather  his  death  as 
the  consummation  of  his  sufferings.  The 
expression  in  Acts  14  :  15  and  Jas.  5  :  17 
signifies  like  propensities,  feelings,  and 
susceptibilities.     See  Cross. 

PASS'OVER,  the  })rincipal  annual 
feast  of  the  Jews,  which  typified  the 
sacrifice  of  Christ,  the  Lamb  of  God, 
slain  for  the  sins  of  the  world.  Comp.  1 
Cor.  5  :  7,  8,  Christ  our  Passover  is  slain 
for  us,  etc.  It  was  appointed  to  com- 
memorate the  exemption  or  "passing 
over"  of  the  families  of  the  Israelites 
when  the  destroying  angel  smote  the 
first-born  of  Egypt,  and  also  their  de- 
parture from  the  land  of  bondage. 

At  even  of  the  14th  day  of  the  first 
month  (Nisan)  the  Passover  was  to  be 
celebrated,  and  on  the  15th  day  com- 
menced the  seven  days'  feast  of  unlea- 
vened bread.  The  term  "Passover"'  is 
strictly  applicable  only  to  the  meal  of 
the  paschal  lamb,  and  the  feast  of  un- 
leavened bread  was  celebrated  on  the  15th 
onward  for  seven  days  to  the  21st  inclu- 
sive. This  order  is  recognized  in  Josh. 
5  :  10,  11.  But  in  the  sacred  history  the 
term  "Passover"  is  used  also  to  denote 
the  whole  period — the  14th  day,  and  the 
festival  of  the  seven  da  vs  following.  Luke 
2:41;  John  2:13,  23;"' 6:4:  11:55. 

As  to  the  time  of  the  celebration  of 
the  Passover,  it  is  expressly  appointed 
"  between  the  two  evenings,"  Ex.  12  :  6  ; 
Lev.  23  :  5 ;  Num.  9:3,  5,  or,  as  it  is 
elsewhere  ex})ressed,  "at  even,  at  the 
going  down  of  the  sun."  Deut.  16  :  6. 
This  is  supposed  to  denote  the  com- 
mencement of  the  15th  day  of  Nisan, 
or  at  the  moment  when  the  14th  day 
closed  and  the  15th  began.  The 
twenty-four  hours,  reckoned  from  this 
point  of  time  to  the  same  period  of  the 
next  day,  or  15th,  was  the  day  of  the 
Passover.  At  sunset  of  the  14th  day 
the  15th  began,  and  with  it  the  feast 
of  unleavened  bread.  The  lamb  was  to 
be  selected  on  the  10th  day,  and  kept 
up  till  the  14th  day,  in  the  evening  of 
which  day  it  was  to  be  killed.  Ex.  12  : 
3-6.  A  male  lamb  was  demanded,  not 
more  than  one  year  old  and  without 
blemish ;  but  often  several  households, 
comprising,  perhaps,  one  hundred  per- 

659 


PAS 


PAT 


sons,  associated  and  had  a  lamb  in 
common,  in  which  case  each  person  was 
provided  with  a  piece  at  least  as  large 
as  an  olive.  The  feast  began  by  the 
handing  around  of  a  cup  of  wine  mixed 
with  water,  over  which  the  head  of  the 
familj'  or  the  chief  of  the  association 
pronounced  the  benediction.  The  lamb, 
roasted  whole,  and  the  other  dishes  were 
then  placed  on  the  table,  and  after  a 
second  cup  of  wine  the  meal  was  eaten. 
Everybody  present  partook  of  the  lamb, 
the  bitter  herbs,  and  the  unleavened 
bread,  and  care  was  taken  that  no  bone 
was  broken.  What  was  left  of  the  flesh 
•was  immediately  burnt.  After  the  meal 
followed  the  third  cup  of  wine,  then  the 
singing  of  psalms  and  hymns,  and  finally 
a  fourth,  and  perhaps  a  fifth,  cup  of 
■wine.  Then  followed  the  feast  of  un- 
leavened bread,  occupying  seven  daj's, 
the  first  and  last  of  which  were  pecu- 
liarly holy,  like  the  Sabbath.  Ex.  12  : 
15,  16. 

The  "preparation  of  the  Passover," 
John  19  :  14,  or  "  the  day  of  the  prep- 
aration," Matt.  27  :  C2.  was  the  Paschal 
Friday,  as  in  John  19  :  31  and  42,  or 
the  day  preceding  the  regular  Sabbath 
(Sabbath  eve).  It  was,  then,  at  the  close 
of  the  14th  day  of  the  month,  when  the 
feast  of  unleavened  bread,  called,  in  the 
larger  sense,  the  Passover,  Luke  22  :  1, 
approached,  that  Jesus  directed  the  lamb 
for  the  paschal  sacrifice  to  be  prepared 
for  himself  and  his  disciples.  This  being 
done  immediately  after  sunset  of  the 
14th,  which  was  the  beginning  of  the 
15th,  the  paschal  supper  was  eaten. 
After  this  supper,  and  in  the  course  of 
that  night,  Christ  was  arrested,  tried 
during  the  night,  condemned  the  next 
morning,  crucified  at  9  A.  m.,  and  died  at 
3  p.  M.  of  the  15th  of  Nisan  (this  being 
a  Friday).  The  whole  series  of  events 
occurred  between  what  we  should  call 
Thursday  evening  and  Friday  evening. 

The  facts  of  chief  importance  in  rec- 
onciling all  the  evangelists  are  that 
the  word  "Passover"  is  applied  some- 
times strictly  to  the  14th  day,  and  at 
other  times  to  the  whole  festival  of  un- 
leavened bread :  that  the  Passover,  or 
paschal  supper,  strictly  speaking,  was 
celebrated  at  6  p.  m.  at  the  close  of  the 
14th  or  at  the  beginning  of  the  15th 
day  of  the  month,  and  that  the  15th  of 
Nisan,  or  first  day  of  the  festival,  was 
660 


the  day  of  the  crucifixion.  This  has 
been  verified  by  astronomical  calcula- 
tion, which  proves  that  in  the  year  a.  d. 
30,  the  year  of  our  Saviour's  death,  the 
15th  of  Nisan  (April  7),  fell  on  a  Fri- 
day, which  agrees  with  the  testimony  of 
all  the  evangelists. 

PAS'TOR.  Jer.2:8.  See  Shepherd. 

PAT'ARA,  a  seaport-town  on  the 
south-west  shore  of  Lycia,  near  the  leit 
bank  of  Xanthus,  and  opposite  Rhodes. 
Acts  21  :  1,  2.  It  was  about  7  miles  east 
of  the  mouth  of  the  river,  had  a  con- 
venient harbor,  and  was  visited  by  ships 
of  all  nations.  The  gospel  was  early 
preached  there,  and  it  became  the  seat 
of  a  bishopric  and  was  represented  in  the 
Council  of  Nice.  The  city  was  given  up 
to  the  worship  of  Apollo,  its  founder, 
Patarus,  being  reputed  to  be  a  son  of 
that  god.  Patara  is  now  in  ruins,  but 
retains  its  ancient  name.  The  remains 
prove  it  to  have  been  a  city  of  consider- 
able importance.  Among  them  are  a 
theatre,  some  massive  walls  and  arches, 
a  gate  of  the  city  with  three  arches  nearly 
perfect,  and  numerous  sarcophagi.  Near 
the  theatre  is  a  deep  circular  pit,  and  a 
square  pillar  rising  above  it,  which 
Lewin  thinks  was  the  seat  of  the  oracle 
of  Patareus  Apollo.  The  port  is  com- 
pletely filled  with  sand,  and  is  a  malari- 
ous swamp ;  all  communication  with  the 
sea  is  cut  off  by  a  sand-beach,  and  the 
sand  is  also  gradually  encroaching  upon 
the  ruins. 

PATH'ROS  {region  of  the  south),  a 
district  of  Egypt  near  Thebes;  named, 
as  some  suppose,  from  a  town  called 
Ha-hathor,  or  "  the  abode  of  Hathor," 
the  Egyptian  ^''enus.  Originally  it  was 
ruled  by  its  own  kings,  independent  of 
Egypt.  It  was  probably  the  Thebaid  of 
the  Greeks  and  the  Said  of  the  Arabs. 
The  country  is  mentioned  in  the  Proph- 
ets, and  nearlv  alwavs  in  connection  with 
Egypt.  Isa.  li  :  1 1  ,• '  19  :  1 1  -1 :5 :  Jer.  44 : 
1-15  ;  Eze.  29  :  14.  Its  inhabitants  were 
known  as  the  Pathrusim,  the  descend- 
ants of  Ham  through  Mizraim.  Gen.  10: 
14;  1  Chr.  1:  12. 

PATHRUSIM.  See  above. 
PA'TIENCE.  With  God,  patience 
is  a  form  of  his  infinite  love  which  causes 
him  to  bear  long  with  sinners,  Isa.  30  : 
1 8  ;  Ptom.  3  :  25  ;  2  Pet.  3  :  9,  and  to  send 
them  warnings  of  judgments  before  the 
judgments  are  executed.  Hos.  6:5;  Am. 


PAT 


PAT 


1 : 1 ;  2  Pet.  2  :  5,  With  man,  patience 
is  a  grace  enabling  him  to  bear  with 
meekness  and  confidence  the  trials  which 
God  sends  him,  Rom.  2  :  7  ;  2  Tim.  3:10, 
and  to  deal  with  his  fellow-men  with 
love  and  forbearance.  1  Thess.  5  :  14.  In 
many  passages  of  our  English  Version 
where  ''patience"  occurs,  "endurance" 
or  "  constancy  "  would  be  a  better  render- 
ing of  the  Greek  (vn-o/oioi'Tj). 

PAT'MOS,  a  little  rugged  island  in 
the  ^-Egean  Sea,  20  miles  south  of  Samos 
and  24miles  west  of  Asia  Minor.  Rev.l:  9. 


It  is  from  15  to  25  miles  in  circumference, 
and  is  very  rocky  and  barren.  The  coast 
is  rock-bound,  but  indented  with  several 
deep  bays.  It  has  only  a  few  large  trees, 
among  them  a  palm,  some  olives,  and 
cypresses.  The  barrenness  of  the  island 
made  it  a  suitable  spot  for  the  banish- 
ment of  Roman  criminals.  To  it  the 
apostle  John  was  banished  by  the  em- 
peror Domitian,  a.  n.  95.  Its  rocky 
solitude  well  suited  the  sublime  nature 
of  the  Revelation.  There  is  a  grotto  on 
a  hill  in  the  southern  part  of  the  island 


Isle  of  Patmos, 


which  tradition  points  out  as  the  place 
where  John  received  the  Revelation. 
Upon  the  summit  of  the  mountain  is  a 
monastery  built  in  honor  of  St.  John, 
and  having  a  library  containing  about 
two  hundred  and  forty  manuscripts.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  the  island  was  called  Pal- 
mosa,  and  now  bears  the  name  o{  Patmn. 
PA  TRIARCH.  Acts  2  .  29.  In 
the  early  history  of  the  Jews  we  find  the 
ancestor  or  father  of  a  family  retaining 
authority  over  his  children  and  his 
children's  children  so  long  as  he  lived, 
whatever  new  connections  they  might 
form.  When  the  father  died  the  branch- 
families  did  not  break  off  and  form  new 
communities,  but  usually  united  under 
another  common  head.  The  eldest  son 
was  generally  invested  with  this  dignity. 
His  authority  was  paternal.  He  was 
honored  as  the  central  point  of  connec- 
tion, and  as  the  representative  of  the 
whole  kindred.     Thus  each  great  family 


had  its  patriarch  or  head,  and  each  tribe 
its  prince  selected  from  the  several  heads 
of  the  families  it  embraced.  These 
princes  were  called  '^  elders  of  Israel." 
See  Elders.  The  word  "patriarch"  is 
also  applied  to  the  founder  of  a  family 
or  to  any  illustrious  ancestor.  Acts  2  :  29. 
In  later  ages  of  the  Church  the  same 
title  is  found,  but  is  applied  to  ecclesi- 
astical dignitaries,  and  denotes  the  sup- 
posed paternal  character  of  their  author- 
ity. The  sons  of  Jacob,  as  the  progenitors 
of  the  Jewish  nation,  are  called,  by  way 
of  distinction,  "  the  twelve  patriarchs." 
Acts  7  :  S. 

PAT'ROBAS  {life  of  his  father  f), 
a  Christian  in  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sends 
salutation,  Rom.  16  :  14,  was,  according 
to  a  late  tradition,  one  of  the  seventy 
disciples,  and  became  bishop  of  Puteoli, 
where  he  suffered  martyrdom  on  No- 
vember 4,  which  accordingly  is  his 
anniversary  in  the  Romish  calendar. 

661 


PAT 


PAU 


PAT'TERNS,  in  Heb.  9 :  23,  should 
be  "  copies," 

PAU  {bleating),  a  place  in  Idumaea ; 
called  Pai  in  1  Chr.  1 :  50 ;  Gen.  36  :  39. 
It  may  be  identical  with  Phauara,  a 
ruined  site  in  Iduma3a. 

PAUL  [small),  OU  SAUL  {asked 
for).  1.  Life. — Paul,  or  Saul,  was  a  native 
of  Tarsus,  in  Cilicia,  and  inherited  the 
privileges  of  a  Roman  citizen.  Acts  22  : 
28,  29.  His  original  Hebrew  name  was 
*'  Saul,"  which  he  exchanged  afterward  in 
his  intercourse  with  the  Gentiles  for  the 
Hellenistic  or  Latin  form,  "  Paul."  His 
descent  and  education  were  Jewish,  but  he 
had  also  a  good  knowledge  of  the  Greek 
language  and  literature,  and  quotes  from 
three  poets  not  much  known — Aratus, 
Acts  17:28,-  Menander,  1  Cor.  15:33  ; 
and  Epimenides.  Tit.  1  :  12.  Being  a 
Jew  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  born  in 
the  Greek  city  of  Tarsus,  and  a  Roman 
citizen,  he  combined  the  three  great 
nationalities  of  the  Roman  empire,  and 
was  providentially  prepared  for  his 
apostolic  mission  among  Jews  and  Gen- 
tiles, Greeks  and  barbarians.  Under  the 
instruction  of  Gamaliel,  a  distinguished 
rabbi  at  Jerusalem,  Acts  5  :  34,  he  be- 
came master  of  the  Jewish  law.  Acts  22  : 
3;  Gal.  1  :  14,  and  was  also  taught  a 
useful  mechanical  trade,  according  to  the 
custom  of  the  rabbis.  Acts  18  :  3.  His 
residence  at  Jerusalem  commenced  at  an 
early  period,  Acts  26  :  4,  and  he  was 
probably  from  twenty-two  to  twenty- 
five  years  old  when  Christ  commenced 
his  public  ministry.  He  belonged  to 
the  strict  sect  of  the  Pharisees.  Acts 
23:6. 

The  preaching  of  the  apostles,  and 
especially  the  fact  of  Christ's  resur- 
rection, on  which  they  placed  their 
chief  stress,  excited  a  violent  opposi- 
tion among  the  Jews.  Stephen,  an 
eloquent  and  powerful  advocate  of 
the  new  religion,  was  seized  an  1 
stoned  to  death.  Among  the  spec- 
tators and  promoters  of  this  bloody 
deed  was  Paul.  Acts  7  :  58  ;  comp. 
22  :  20.  His  temperament,  talents, 
and  education  fitted  him  to  become 
a  leader  in  the  persecution  ;  and  he 
commenced  his  career  with  a  degree  of 
fanatical  zeal  bordering  on  madness. 
He  even  sought  for  authority  to  go  to 
Damascus,  whither  many  of  the  disci- 
ples had  fled  after  the  murder  of  Ste- 
662 


phen,  to  bind  and  drag  to  Jerusalem, 
without  distinction  of  age  or  sex,  all 
the  followers  of  Christ  whom  he  could 
find. 

Just  before  he  reached  Damascus, 
however,  he  was  arrested  by  a  miracu- 
lous light  so  intense  as  to  deprive  him 
of  sight.  Acts  9  :  8,  9.  At  the  same  time 
Christ  revealed  himself  as  the  real  object 
of  his  persecution.  Acts  26:  15;  comp. 
1  Cor.  15  :  8.  From  this  time  he  became 
a  new  man,  and  received  from  the  lips 
of  Christ  himself  his  commission  as  an 
apostle  to  the  Gentiles.  Acts  26  :  16. 
The  miraculous  restoration  of  his  sight, 
his  baptism,  and  the  gifts  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  followed  in  quick  succession,  and 
we  soon  find  him  zealously  preaching  the 
faith  he  had  set  out  to  subvert.  Acts  9 : 
20,  21 ;   Gal.  1  :  16, 

To  this  one  purpose  he  thenceforth 
gave  all  the  energies  of  his  mind  and  all 
the  affections  of  his  heart.  Forsaking, 
and  indeed  forgetting,  all  other  purposes 
and  pursuits,  he  devoted  the  residue  of 
his  life  to  the  cause  of  Christ  with  a 
singleness  of  purpose  and  an  energy  of 
devotion  that  have  no  parallel  in  history. 

The  Acts  trace  his  career  till  the  first 
imprisonment  at  Rome,  which  lasted  two 
years,  A.  D.  61-63,  and  left  him  compara- 
tively free  to  labor  for  the  gospel.  After 
this  we  are  left  in  the  dark.  Some 
scholars  maintain  that  he  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom in  the  Neronian  persecution  of 


The 


Traditional  Room  in  the  Centurion's  House  at 
Rome  in  w}iich  Paul  was  Imprisoned. 

A.  P.  64  J  others  that  he  was  freed  from 
the  first  Roman  imprisonment,  made 
new  missionary  tours  in  the  East,  and 
possibly  also  to  the  West  as  far  as 
Spain,  was  taken  prisoner  to  Rome  a 


Portrait  of  Paul.     (From  a  Eoman  Two-leaicd  Tablet  not  lata-  than  the  Fourth  Century.) 


PAU 


PAU 


second  time,  and  suffered  martyrdom 
A.  D.  67  or  68.  The  hypothesis  of  a 
second  Roman  imprisonment  has  some 
support  in  an  ancient  tradition  (men- 
tioned by  Eusebius),  and  explains  cer- 
tain historical  allusions  in  the  Pastoral 
Epistles,  which  cannot  well  be  placed 
before  the  first  imprisonment,  but  were 
probably  composed  between  the  first 
and  the  second  Roman  imprisonments, 
except  Second  Timothy,  the  last  of  all 
Pauline  Epistles.  Ancient  tradition  is 
unanimous  as  to  his  martyrdom  in 
Rome,  and  the  place  of  his  execution  by 
the  sword  is  still  shown  a  little  distance 
from  the  city.  He  himself  alludes  to  his 
approaching  martyrdom  in  those  noble 
words,  2  Tim.  4  :  6-8 :  I  am  already 
being  offered,  and  the  time  of  my  depar- 
ture is  at  hand,  I  have  fought  the  good 
fight,  I  have  finished  the  course,  I  have 
kept  the  faith :  henceforth  there  is  laid 
up  for  me  the  crown  of  righteousness, 
which  the  Lord,  the  righteous  Judge, 
shall  give  to  me  at  that  day  :  and  not 
only  to  me,  but  also  to  all  them  that 
have  loved  his  appearing. 

2.  Character  of  Panl. — Whether  we 
regard  his  sudden  and  radical  change 
from  an  enemy  to  a  most  devoted  friend 
of  the  Christian  religion,  or  the  purity 
and  loftiness  of  his  character,  or  the 
strength  and  depth  of  his  mind,  or  the 
extent  of  his  missionary'  labors,  or  his 
whole  heroic  career  from  his  conversion 
in  Damascus  to  his  martyrdom  in  Rome, 
St.  Paul  is  beyond  doubt  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  men  that  ever  lived,  and 
perhaps  the  greatest  man  in  the  history 
of  Christianity.  Without  money,  without 
family,  without  friends,  lonely  by  land 
and  lonely  by  sea,  he  faced  a  hostile 
world  and  converted  it  to  Christ,  whom 
he  himself  once  persecuted,  and  by  his 
Epistles  and  example  he  still  rules  the 
theology  and  feeds  the  devotions  of 
believers  in  all  parts  of  Christendom. 
His  motives  are  above  suspicion;  his 
intellect  is  apparent  on  every  page  of 
his  letters ;  it  is  impossible  to  charge 
him  with  hypocrisy  or  self-delusion,  as 
even  infidels  admit;  he  furnishes  an 
irresistible  argument  for  the  divine  truth 
of  the  religion  he  taught  and  practised 
to  the  end. 

3.  Chronological  Summary  of  the  Chief 
Events  in  the  Life  of  Paul  (from  Schaff's 
HiHtory  of  the  Apostolic  Church): 

664 


A.  D. 

Paul's  conversion 37 

Sojourn  in  Arabia 37-40 

First  journey  to  Jerusalem  after  his 
conversion,  Gal.  1  :  18 ;  sojourn  at 
Tarsus,  and  afterward  at  Antioch, 
Acts  11  :  26 40 

Second  journey  to  Jerusalem,  in  com- 
pany with  Barnabas,  to  relieve  the 
famine 44 

Paul's  first  great  missionary  journey, 
with  Barnabas  and  Mark ;  Cyprus, 
Antioch  in  Pisidia,  Iconium,  Lystra, 
Derbe  ;  return  to  Antioch  in  Syria..  45-49 

Apostolic  Council  at  Jerusalem  ;  con- 
flict between  Jewish  and  Gentile 
Christianity;  Paul's  third  journey 
to  Jerusalem,  with  Barnabas  and 
Titus;  settlement  of  the  difficulty; 
agreement  between  the  Jewish  and 
Gentile  apostles;  Paul's  return  to 
Antioch  ;  his  collision  with  Peter 
and  Barnabas  at  Antioch,  and  tem- 
porary separation  from  the  latter....        50 

Paul's  second  missionary  journey 
from  Antioch  to  Asia  Minor,  Cilicia, 
Lycaonia,  Galatia,  Troas,  and  Greece 
(Philippi,  Thessalonica,  Berasa,  Ath- 
ens, and  Corinth).  From  this  tour 
dates  the  Christianization  of  Europe.        51 

Paul  at  Corinth  (a  year  and  a  half). 
First  and  Second  Epistles  to  the 
Thessalonians 52-53 

Paul's  fourth  journey  to  Jerusalem 
(spring);  short  stay  at  Antioch.  His 
third  missionary  tour  (autumn) 54 

Paul  at  Ephesus (three  years);  Epistle 
to  the  Galatians  (56  or  57).  Excursion 
to  Macedonia,  Corinth,  and  Crete 
(not  mentioned  in  the  Acts);  First 
Epistle  to  Timothy  (?).  Return  to 
Ephesus.  First  Epistle  to  the  Cor- 
inthians (spring,  57) 54-57 

Paul's  departure  Ironi  Ephesus  (sum- 
mer) to  Macedonia.  Second  Epistle 
to  the  Corinthians 57 

Paul's  third  sojourn  at  Corinth  (three 
months).     Epistle  to  the  Romans 57,58 

Paul's  fifth  and  last  journey  to  Jeru- 
salem (spring),  where  he  is  arrested 
and  sent  to  Csesarea 58 

PauPs  captivity  at  Csesarea.  Testi- 
mony before'  Felix,  Festus,  and 
Agri'ppa  (the  Gospel  of  Luke  and 
the  Acts  commenced  at  Csesarea, 
and  concluded  at  Rome) 58-60 

Paul's  voyage  to  Rome  (autumn);  ship- 
wreck at  Malta;  arrival  at  Rome 
(spring,  61) 60,61 

Paul's  first  captivity  at  Rome.  Epistles 
to  the  Colossians,  Ephesians,  Philip- 
pians,  Philemon 61-63 

Conflagration  at  Rome  (Jiilv) ;  Nero- 
nian  persecution  of  the  Christians; 
martyrdom  of  Paul  (?) 64 

Hypothesis  of  a  second  Roman  cap- 
tivity and  preceding  missionary 
journeys  to  the  East,  and  possibly 
to  Spain.  First  Epistle  to  Timothy ; 
Titus  (Hebrews?),  Second  Timothy.  63-67 


PAV 


PEA 


4.  The  EjnstleH  of  Paul  are  thirteen, 
or,  if  we  count  the  Hebrews  (as  the  pro- 
duct of  Paul's  mind,  though  probably 
not  of  his  pen),  fourteen,  in  number. 
They  are  the  most  remarkable  body  of 
correspondence  in  the  history  of  litera- 
ture. They  are  tracts  for  the  times,  and 
yet  tracts  for  all  times.  They  will  be 
found  separately  considered  under  their 
titles.  Here  only  some  general  remarks 
are  given.  They  may  be  arranged  dif- 
ferently. 

(a)  Chronulog icnllij  : 

1  and  2  Thessalonians,  written  a.  d.  52,  53, 

from  Corinth. 
Galatians,  written  a.  d.  56-57,  from  Ephesus. 

1  Corinthians,  written  a.  d.  57,  from  Ephesus. 

2  Corinthians,  written  a.  d.  57,  from  Mace- 
donia. 

Eonians,  written  a.  d.  58,  from  Corinth. 
Colossians,  Ephesians,  Philippians,  and  Phil- 
emon, written  a.  d.  61-63,  from  Rome. 
Hebrews,  written  A.  D.  64  (?),  from  Italy. 

1  Timothy  and  Titus,  written  a.  d.  65  or  57  (?), 

from  jNIacedonia. 

2  Timothy,  written  A.  n.  67  or  6-4  (?),  from 
Rome. 

The  time  of  the  composition  of  the 
Pastoral  Epistles  depends  upon  the 
question  of  the  second  Roman  cap- 
tivity. The  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy 
was  at  all  events  the  last,  whether  writ- 
ten in  the  first  or  second  captivity. 

(6)  Topically: 

Romans  and  Galatians :  doctrines  of  sin  and 
grace. 

1  and  2  Corinthians:  moral  and  practical 
questions. 

Colossians  and  Philippians :  person  of 
Christ. 

Ephesians:  the  Church  of  Christ. 

1  and  2  Thessalonians:  the  second  advent. 

1  and  2  Timothy  and  Titus  :  church  govern- 
ment and  pastoral  care. 

Philemon :  slavery. 

Hebrews:  the  eternal  priesthood  and  sacri- 
fice of  Christ. 

(c)  As  to  importance,  the  order  in  our 
Bible  is  pretty  correct.  The  Epistles  are 
all  important,  but  were  not  equally  well 
understood  in  all  ag^s  of  the  Church. 
Thus  the  Galatians  and  Romans  were 
more  appreciated  in  the  time  of  the 
Reformation  than  in  any  preceding  cen- 
tury ;  they  are  the  stronghold  of  the 
evangelical  doctrines  of  total  depravity 
and  salvation  by  free  grace.  Paul's 
Epistles  give  us  the  most  complete  ex- 
hibition of  the  various  doctrines  of 
Christianity  and  of  the  spiritual  life  of 


the  apostolic  Church,  and  are  applicable 
to  all  ages  and  congregations. 

Works  on  the  life  and  Epistles  of  Paul 
are  very  numerous,  and  constantly  in- 
creasing. We  mention  only  three,  which 
are  very  elaborate,  yet  popular,  and  en- 
riched with  fine  maps  and  illustrations: 
Conybeare  and  Howson  {18.'J4  and  later 
editions),  Thomas  Lewin  (1875,  2  vols.), 
and  Canon  Farrar  (1879,  2  vols.). — See 
map  of  journeys  of  St.  Paul  at  the  close 
of  this  volume. 

PAVE'MENT,  an  area  in  Pilate's 
court- room,  the  floor  of  which  was  paved 
with  marble  or  other  stones.  John  19  :  13. 
See  Gabbatha. 

PAVIL'ION,  a  small  movable 
tabernacle  or  tent,  chiefly  used  for  a 
king,  prince,  or  general.  1  Kgs.  20 : 
12-16;  Jer.  43  :  10.  The  Psalmist  sub- 
limely describes  Jehovah  as  surrounding 
himself  with  dark  waters  and  thick  clouds 
of  the  skies  as  with  a  tent  or  pavilion. 
Ps.  18:11. 

PEACE.  Employed  in  various 
phrases,  such  as  "  Peace  be  to  thee,"  "  Go 
in  peace,"  etc.,  this  word  occurs  both  in 
the  0.  T.  and  the  N.  T.  as  a  common 
form  of  salutation.  Ex.  4:18;  Mark  4  : 
34;  Luke  10:  5;  John  20  :  19,  21;  Rom. 
1:7. 

In  a  more  special  sense,  the  word 
denotes  a  Christian  grace  obtained  by 
faith  in  Christ,  who  by  his  death  has 
restored  us  to  peace  with  God.  Rom.  5  : 
1 ;  Eph.  2  :  14.  Peace  with  ourselves 
springs  from  ])eace  with  God,  and  peace 
with  God  from  the  assurance  of  pardon 
and  reconciliation  with  God  by  the 
atoning  merits  of  Christ,  who  "  is  our 
peace."  Without  such  peace  there  can 
be  no  true  happiness. 

PEA'COCK.  1  Kgs.  10  :  22.  This 
singular  and  beautiful  bird  is  mentioned 
among  the  article?  imported  by  Solomon 
from  Tharshish,  the  modern  Ceylon  or 
Malabar  coast  of  India,  where  the  peacock 
is  indigenous.  In  Job  39  :  13  another 
Hebrew  word  is  found,  better  rendered 
"  ostriches,"  and  the  word  *'  ostrich " 
should  be  translated  (as  it  is  elsewhere) 
"  stork."  The  wings  of  the  ostrich  can- 
not raise  it  from  the  ground ;  yet  in 
running  it  catches  (or,  as  the  word  ren- 
dered ''  goodly  "  imports,  "  drinks  in  ") 
the  wind.  The  construction  of  the  ostrich 
and  that  of  the  stork  are  thus  contrasted, 
as  are  also  their  habits;  for  the  stork  is 

665 


PEA 


PEK 


as  proverbial  for  her  tenderness  to  her 
young  as  is  the  ostrich  for  her  seeming 
indifference.  Job  39: 14-16.  See  Ostrich, 
Stork. 


Peacock. 

PEARL.  The  best  pearls  are  pro- 
duced by  a  shell-fish  of  the  oyster 
species,  though  they  are  found  in  other 
mollusks.  The  pearl-oysters  grow  in 
clusters  on  rocks  (hence  called  "pearl- 
banks")  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  on  the 
western  coast  of  Ceylon,  on  the  coasts 
of  Java,  Sumatra,  etc.,  and  in  some  parts 
of  Europe.  The  shells  are  obtained  by 
diving,  and  this  is  done  by  a  class  of 
persons  trained  to  the  business.  The 
Ceylon  pearl-fishery  bank  is  about  15 
miles  from  the  shore,  and  72  feet  deep 
on  an  average.  The  fishery  begins  in 
April,  when  the  sea  is  most  calm,  and 
continues  five  or  six  weeks.  One 
shell  contains  from  eight  to  twelve 
pearls.  The  largest  are  of  the  size 
of  a  walnut,  but  they  are  rarely  as 
large  as  a  cherry-stone.  The  shell 
of  the  pearl-oyster,  or,  more  properly, 
the  interior  coat,  is  called  "mother-of- 
666 


pearl."     A  single  pearl  has  been  valued 

at  $350,000. 

Pearls  were  anciently,  as  now,  used  in 

the  East  as  personal  ornaments.  1  Tim. 
2:9;  Rev.  17  :  4  ;  18  :  12- 

/  16.     From  the  various  il- 

lustrations in  which  the 
pearl  is  introduced  in  the 
N.  T.,  it  was  evidently 
regarded  as  among  the 
most  precious  substances, 
and,  compared  with  gems, 
it  was  esteemed  as  more 
valuable  than  at  present. 
Matt.  7:6;  13  :  45,  46 ; 
Rev.  21  :  21. 

PED'AHEL  {icliom 
God  delivers),  the  son  of 
Ammihud,  chief  of  the 
tribe  of  Naphtali,  one  of 
the  superintendents  of  the 
division  of  Canaan.  Num. 
34  :  28. 

PEDAH^ZUR  {whom 
the  Kocli — i.  e.  God — de- 
livers), the  father  of  Gam- 
aliel, and  chief  of  the 
tribe  of  Manasseh  in  the 
time  of  the  Exodus.  Num. 
1  :  10;  2:  20;  7  :  64,  59; 
10  :  23. 

PEDA'IAH  {ichom 
Jehovah  delivers).  1.  The 
father  of  Zebudah,  Jehoi- 
akim's  mother.  2  Kgs.  23  : 
36. 

2.  The  brother  of  Shealtiel,  and  father 
of  Zerubbabel.   1  Chr.  3  :  17-19. 

3.  One  who  assisted  Nehemiah  in  re- 
pairing the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  Neh. 
3:25. 

4.  A  Levite  who  stood  on  the  left  hand 
of  Ezra  when  he  read  the  Law  to  the 
people.  Neh.  8:4;  called  Phaldaius  in 
1  Esd.  9:44. 

5.  A    Benjamite,    ancestor    of    Sallu. 
11  :7. 

A  Levite  in  the  time  of  Nehemiah. 
13  :  13. 

7.  The  father  of  Joel,  chief  of  the 
half-tribe  of  Manasseh  in  the  reign  of 
David.  1  Chr.  27  :  20. 

PEEP,  to  "chirp"  like  young  birds. 
Isa.  8  :  19;  10  :  14.  The  wizards  who 
pretended  to  raise  the  dead  spoke  in  low 
shrill  tones  because  the  dead  were  sup- 
posed to  speak  thus. 

PE'KAH  {o})eii-eyed),  a  general  of 


Neh. 
6. 
Neh. 


PEK 


PEL 


the  Israelitish  army  who  assassinated  the 
king  Pekahiah  in  his  palace  and  usurped 
the  government ;  but  his  reign,  which  last- 
ed twenty  years,  B.  c.  758-738,  was  highly 
inauspicious ;  the  country  was  invaded 
and  greatly  harassed  by  the  Assyrians, 
and  the  king  himself  became  finally  the 
victim  of  a  conspiracy.  2  Kgs.  15  :  25. 

PEKAHI'AH  (Jehovah  hits  opened 
his  eyes)  succeeded 
his  father,  Menahem, 
as  king  of  Israel  in 
760,  and  reigned  only 
two  years,  being  mur- 
dered by  Pekah,  b.  c. 
758.  2  Kgs.  15:  22-26. 

PE'KOD  {visita- 
tion?), a  symbolical 
name  for  Babylon. 
Jer.  50:21.  In  Eze. 
23  :  23  it  appears  to 
be  applied  to  a  Chal- 
daean  pro  vine  e.  A 
Pekod  is  mentioned 
in  the  cylinder  of 
Sennacherib  as  near 
the  Hauran,  and  Le- 
normant  thinks  it  was 
the  collective  name  of 
several  tribes  in  the 
Euphrates  valley. 
The  exact  meaning 
of  the  term  is  not 
known.  Some  ex- 
plain it  as  "visita- 
tion," "punish- 
ment," others  as 
"perfect,"  "noble." 

PELA'IAH 
[whom  Jehovah  dis- 
tinyuishes).  1.  A  de- 
scendant of  David.  1 
Chr.  3  :  24. 

2.  A  Levite  who 
assisted  Ezra  in  ex- 
pounding the  Law, 
Neh.  8  :  7,  and  sealed 
the  covenant  with  Ne- 
hemiah,  Neh.  10:10; 
called  Biatas  in  1  Esd. 

PELAL  I'AH 

judges),  a  priest  in 
the  return  from  the 
11  :  12. 

PELATI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  de- 
livers). 1.  The  grandson  of  Zerubbabel. 
1  Chr.  3:21. 


2.  A  Simeonite  captain  on  an  expedi- 
tion to  Mount  Seir.  1  Chr.  4  :  42. 

3.  One  of  the  heads  of  the  people,  who 
sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah. 
Neh.  10  :  22. 

4.  One  of  the  five-and-twenty  men  who 
withstood  the  prophet  ICzekiel  and  coun- 
selled the  people  of  Israel  wickedly,  but 
was    suddenly    struck    dead    while    the 


{whom  Jehovah 
Jerusalem  after 
Captivity.     Neh. 


The  Pelican. 

prophet    was    uttering    his    prediction. 
Eze.  11  :  1-13. 

PE'LEG  {division),  a  son  of  Eber  and 
brother  of  Joktan,  in  whose  time — that 
is,  in  the  age  immediately  succeeding 
the  Deluge— the  family  of  Eber  was 
divided,   the   elder    branch,   which   de- 

667 


PEL 


PEN 


scended  from  Peleg,  remaining  in  Meso- 
potamia, while  the  younger  branch, 
descending  from  Joktan,  emigrated  to 
Southern  Arabia.    Gen.  10  :  2o  ;  11 :  16  ; 

1  Chr.  1  :  25. 
lPE,'l.t:.T  (deliverance). 

1.  A  son  of  Jahdai.  descend- 
ant of  Judah.  1  Chr.  2:47. 

2.  One  of  the  Benjamites 
who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag.   1  Chr.  12  :  3. 

PE'LETH  {swiftness). 
1.  A  Reubenite  whose  son 
On  joined  Da  than  and 
Abiram  in  their  rebellion. 
Num.  16:1. 

2.  A  son  of  Jonathan, 
and  a  descendant  of  Ju- 
dah. 1  Chr.  2  :  33. 

PE'LETHITES.  2  Sam.  8  :  18. 
See  Chkrethites. 

PELICAN  (Ileb.  the  vomiter),  a 
voracious  water-bird,  unclean  by  the 
Levitical  law.  Lev.  11  :  IS,  of  singular 
construction  and  habits,  resembling  the 
goose,  though  nearly  twice  as  large.  Its 
bill  is  15  inches  long.  The  female  has 
a  large  pouch  or  bag  capable  of  contain- 
ing 2  or  3  gallons  of  water,  and  food 
enough  for  six  common  men.  Out  of 
this  pouch  she  feeds  herself  and  her 
young,  and  from  this  habit  and  the  red 
nail  at  the  end  of  her  bill  came  the 
notion  that  she  fed  her  offspring  on  her 
own  blood.  The  pelican  was  formerly 
more  abundant  than  now  in  the  Levant, 
but  Dr.  Thomson  has  seen  it  at  Lake 
Huleh  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  ILaving 
gorged  itself  with  fish,  this  bird  flies 
miles  into  the  wilderness,  where  it  sits 
in  some  lonely  place  "  for  hours,  or  even 
days,  with  its  bill  resting  on  its  breast, 
a  picture  of  melancholy."  Ps.  102  :  6. 
The  margin  correctly  reads  ''pelican" 
for  "cormorant"  in  Isa.  34:11;  Zeph. 
2:14.     (Sec  cut.  p.  067.) 

PEL'ONITE,  a  designation  ap- 
plied in  1  Chr.  11  :  27,  36  to  Helez  and 
Ahijah,  two  of  David's  mighty  men,  of 
whom  the  former  is  called  the  Paltite  in 

2  Sam.  23  :  26. 

PEN.  The  instruments  with  which 
the  characters  were  formed  in  the  writing 
of  the  ancients  varied  with  the  materials 
upon  which  the  letters  were  to  be  traced. 
Upon  hard  substances,  such  as  stone  or 
metallic  plates,  a  ffmrer  of  steel  was 
used,  the  same  which  Job  calls  "  an  iron 
668 


pen."  It  is  possible  that  an  instru- 
ment pointed  with  diamond,  such  as 
glaziers  now  use,  was  not  unknown,  as 
"  the  sin  of  Judah  is  written  with  a  pen 
of  iron,  and  with  the  point  of  a  diamond  ; 


Pens  and  Writing-Materials. 

it  is  graven  upon  the  table  of  their 
heart,  and  upon  the  horns  of  your  altars." 
Jer.  17  : 1.  Upon  tablets  of  wax  a  me- 
tallic pen  or  stylus  was  employed,  having 
one  end  pointed  to  trace  the  letters,  the 
other  broad  and  flat  to  erase  any  errone- 
ous marks  by  smoothing  the  wax. 

Upon  paper,  linen,  cotton,  skins,  and 
parchments,  it  was  in  very  early  times 
common  to  paint  the  letters  with  a  hair- 
pencil  brought  to  a  fine  point.  The  reed 
pen  was  introduced  afterward,  and  at 
first  used  without  being  split  at  the 
point.  The  reed  pen  is  used  by  the 
modern  Turks,  Sj'rians,  Persians,  Abys- 
sinians.  Arabs,  and  other  Orientals,  as 
their  languages  could  not  be  written 
without  difficulty  with  pens  made  from 
quills.  A  particular  kind  of  knife  is 
used  to  split  the  reed.  Jer.  36  :  23. 

PENI'EL,  OR  PENU'EL  (face  of 
God),  a  place  between  the  Jabbok  and 
Succoth  where  Jacob  had  his  mysterious 
wrestling  with  the  Angel.  Gen.  32  :  24-32. 
The  usual,  and  probably  the  original, 
form  was  "  Penuel,"  and  this  is  the  form 
in  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch.  Five 
hundred  years  later,  when  pursuing  the 
Midianites.  Gideon  found  a  city  and 
tower  at  Penuel,  and  slew  the  men  of 
the  city.  Jud.  8  :  17,  18.  Jeroboam  went 
from  Shechem  and  built  Penuel.  1  Kgs. 
12  :  25.  Its  site  has  long  been  counted 
as  unknown,  for  the  region  in  which  it 
was  situated  has  been  only  slightly  ex- 
plored. Dr.  Merrill,  however,  identifies 
Penuel  with  a  point  on  the  Zerka  (Jab- 
bok), about  4  miles  east  of  Canaan's  ford 
and  at  Tabill  edh  Dhahuh.     Sec  Jabbok. 


PEN 


PEN 


PENIN'NAH  (coral),  one  of  the  two 

wives  of  Elkanah,  the  father  of  Samuel. 

1  Sam.  1  :  2. 

PEN'KXIFE.    Jer.   36  :  2?,.      See 

K\IKK. 

PEN'NY.  This  word,  so  translated 
in  our  English  Version  for  the  Greek 
denarius,  is  equivalent  to  about  sixteen 
cents  or  eight  pence,  and  was  a  regular 
day's  wages.  The  "  penny  "  shown  to 
Christ  bore  the  likeness  and  name  of 
Caesar  (Tiberius),  who  had  then  been 
emperor  for  seventeen  or  eighteen  years. 
Matt.  22  :  19,  21,  Denarius  ought  to 
have  been  retained  or  Angliciz-ed  into 
deitar,  with  a  marginal  note  giving  its 
precise  value.     See  Money. 

PENTATEUCH,  THE,  is  the 
collective  name  for  the  first  five  books 
of  the  0.  T.,  the  books  of  Moses.  The 
name  is  of  Greek  origin,  meaning  "five 
volumes,"  and  was  probably  introduced 
by  the  Alexandrian  translators  of  the  0. 
T.  As  also  the  names  of  the  separate 
books  —  Genesis,  Exodus,  etc. — are  of 
Greek  origin,  referring  to  the  contents 
of  the  books,  and  as,  in  the  Jewish  man- 
uscripts, these  books  form  only  one  roll 
or  volume,  it  has  been  conjectured  that 
the  division  itself  is  due  to  the  Greek 
translators.  In  Scripture  the  Penta- 
teuch is  called  "a  book  of  the  law  of 
the  Lord  given  by  the  hand  of  Moses," 

2  Chr.  34  :  U;  "the  book  of  the  law  of 
the  Lord,"  2  Chr.  17  :  9  ;  "  the  book  of  the 
law,"  2  Kgs.  22:8;  "the  book  of  the 
covenant,"  2  Chr.  34  :  ?^^ ;  2  Kgs.  23  :  2, 
21  ;  "  the  law  of  Moses."  Ezr.  7:0;  "  the 
book  of  the  law  of  Moses,"  Neh.  8:1; 
"the  book  of  Moses,"  Ezr.  6:18;  Neh. 
13  :  1  ;  2  Chr.  25  :  4  ;  35  :  12  ;  or  simply 
"  the  law,"  Matt.  12  ;  5  ;  Luke  10  :  26  ; 
John  8  :  5,  17.  Among  the  Jews  the 
several  books  are  designated  by  their 
initial  letters — Bereshith  ("in  the  begin- 
ning"), Shemoth  ("names"),  etc.;  among 
the  Christians,  with  reference  to  their 
subject-matter — Genesis  giving  the  prim- 
itive history,  as  a  preparation  for  the  the- 
ocracy, from  the  Creation  to  the  death 
of  Jacob;  Exodus,  the  foundation  of  the 
theocracy,  by  the  legislation  from  Mount 
Sinai;  Leviticus,  the  inner  organization 
of  the  theocracy  by  the  ceremonial  laws 
on  the  Levitieal  worship  ;  Numbers,  the 
actual  establishment  of  the  theocracy  by 
the  march  through  the  wilderness  and 
the  conquest  of  Canaan ;  and  Deuteron- 


otiii/,  the  final  and  comprehensive  re- 
capitulation of  Mosaic  legislation.  The 
whole  is  one  couipact  and  complete 
representation  of  the  Hebrew  theocracy, 
the  first  and  the  last  books  having  a 
more  universal  character,  the  three  inter- 
mediate ones  a  more  specifically  Jewish 
character,  Exodus  giving  the  prophetic, 
Leviticus  the  priestly,  and  Numbers  the 
kingly,  aspect  of  the  theocracy. 

With  respect  to  the  authorship  of  this 
work,  various  circumstances  have  during 
the  last  two  centuries  caused  some 
doubt  whether  it  can  legitimately  be 
ascribed  to  Moses.  Moses  is  always 
spoken  of  in  the  third  person,  and  in 
the  last  passages  of  Deuteronomy  his 
death  and  burial  are  related.  Names 
of  places  occur,  though  we  know  that 
they  did  not  come  into  use  until  after 
the  conquest  of  Canaan — such  as  "  Dan," 
Gen.  14  :  14;  Deut.  34  :  1  ;  comp.  Josh. 
19  :  47,  and  "  Hebron."  Gen.  13  :  18; 
23  :  2  ;  comp.  Josh.  14  :  15  ;  Jud.  1:10. 
The  names  of  the  Lord,  "Jehovah"  and 
"  Elohim,"  alternate  in  such  a  way  as 
to  indicate  a  double  authorship,  and  al- 
leged differences  in  style  and  language 
and  repetitions  seem  to  point  the  same 
way.  On  these  grounds  a  school  of 
modern  critical  scholars  contends  that 
the  Pentateuch,  at  least,  in  its  present 
shape,  was  not  written  by  Moses,  or  by 
any  single  author,  but  is  a  compilation 
of  much  later  date  and  from  very  differ- 
ent sources. 

However  ingenious  many  of  the  ar- 
guments against  the  Mosaic  authorship 
may  be,  the  collected  evidence  in  its  favor 
is  nevertheless  overwhelming.  The  unity 
of  the  com]>osition,  as  set  forth  above,  is 
so  strong  that  no  attempt  at  breaking  it 
has  ever  succeeded,  and  the  book  itself, 
directly  and  indirectly,  bears  testimony 
to  its  essential  Mosaic  origin.  In  Deut. 
31  :  9-12,  24-26  we  are  told  that  Moses 
wrote  "  this  law,"  and  when  he  was  done 
with  it  he  placed  it  in  the  hands  of  the 
Levites,  to  be  kept  in  the  ark  of  the 
covenant  and  to  be  read  to  the  peo])le 
every  seventh  year  on  the  feast  of  the 
tabernacles.  "  This  law "  may  mean 
Deuteronomy  alone,  and  not  the  whole 
Pentateuch  ;  but  other  passages  refer  in 
exactly  the  same  manner  to  other  parts 
of  the  work.  He  Avrote,  by  divine  com- 
mand, the  book  of  the  covenant  and  the 
I  ten  commandments,  Ex.  24  :  3-7  ;    17  : 

669 


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PEO 


14,  and  also  the  camping-stations  of  the 
Israelites  in  the  wilderness.  Num.  33  : 
2  ff.  The  presumption  is  that  he  wrote 
the  rest,  unless  there  are  convincing 
arguments  to  the  contrary  (as  in  the 
account  of  his  death  at  the  close  of  Deu- 
teronomy, which  is  evidently  added  by  a 
later  hand).  The  Mosaic  authorship  of 
the  great  body  of  the  Pentateuch  is  sus- 
tained by  uninterrupted  and  unanimous 
tradition  of  the  Jewish  Synagogue  and 
the  Christian  Church,  and  by  the  internal 
evidence  of  the  work  itself.  Moses  was, 
of  all  men,  best  qualified  to  write  it. 
He  had  the  best  preparation,  he  knew 
all  about  the  events  in  which  he  figured 
so  prominently.  The  book  contains  so 
many  and  so  close  references  to  Egypt 
— the  land,  the  people,  and  the  civiliza- 
tion— that  its  author  must  not  only  have 
lived  for  a  long  time  in  Egypt,  but  also 
have  received  the  benefit  of  a  thorough 
Egyptian  education  and  partaken  in 
Egyptian  life  from  a  superior  position ; 
see,  for  instance,  the  references  to  irriga- 
tion, Deut.  11 :  10  ;  to  Avar,  Deut.  20  :  5  ; 
to  mining,  Deut.  8:9;  to  criminal  pun- 
ishment, Deut.  25  :  2,  etc.  Next,  the 
narrative  of  the  passage  through  the 
desert  gives  so  correct  and  so  fresh  a 
description  of  the  event  that  it  could 
never  have  been  made  by  any  one  who 
had  not  taken  part  in  that  long  trial, 
and  hardly  by  any  other  than  by  him 
who  was  the  leader.  The  language, 
also,  and  the  theology  (especially  the 
eschatology)  of  the  Pentateuch  are  ar- 
chaic, and  antedate  the  compositions 
of  the  Davidic,  and  still  more  of  the 
post-Exilian,  period.  There  is  no  man 
in  the  whole  subsequent  history  of 
Israel,  as  far  as  we  know,  who  could 
at  all  account  for  the  peculiarities  of 
the  Pentateuch  near  so  Avell  as  the  great 
lawgiver,  who  is  the  central  figure  of  the 
book.  Ezra,  for  instance,  to  whom  some 
ultra-critics  assign  the  authorship,  never 
was  in  Egypt  nor  in  the  wilderness,  and 
lived  in  the  reproductive  period  of  re- 
construction or  restoration  of  the  theoc- 
racy founded  by  .Jehovah  through  Moses 
centuries  before.  Thus  from  various 
sides  we  are  led  to  feel  not  only  that 
Moses  has  written  the  Pentateuch,  but 
also  that  he  was  the  only  one  who  could 
have  written  it;  and  the  objections  have 
so  much  the  less  power,  as  a  Mosaic 
authorship  by  no  means  excludes  either 
670 


the  use  of  earlier  documents  or  the  addi- 
tion of  later  notes. 

For  further  details  see  the  special 
articles  on  the  separate  books  :  Genesis, 
Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deu- 
teronomy. 

PEN'TECOST  (from  a  Greek  word 
signifying y?/ifi'e^/0  is  the  name  by  which 
the  N.  T.  denotes  the  second  great  festival 
of  the  Jews,  called  by  them  "  the  feast  of 
weeks  "  or  "  the  day  of  first-fruits."  It 
was  celebrated  on  the  fiftieth  day  (hence 
the  name)  after  the  Passover,  reckoning 
from  the  second  day  of  the  Passover  (the 
16th  of  Nisan),  Lev.  23  :  11,  15,  to  the 
morrow  after  the  end  of  the  seventh 
week.  Lev.  23  :  15,  16  ;  Deut.  16  :  9.  It 
was  originally  a  simple  thanksgiving  for 
the  harvest,  which  in  Palestine  fell  in 
the  weeks  between  the  Passover  and  the 
Pentecost.  The  festival  was  kept  only 
for  one  day,  and  the  principal  rite  con- 
sisted in  the  offering  of  two  loaves  made 
of  the  finest  flour  of  the  last  crop's 
wheat. 

Later  on,  however,  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  and  the  dispersion  of 
the  Jewish  nation,  the  feast  assumed  an 
historical  character.  It  was  made  out 
from  Ex.  19  that  the  giving  of  the  Law 
on  Mount  Sinai  took  place  on  the 
fiftieth  day  after  the  deliverance  from 
Egypt,  and  in  course  of  time,  and  among 
Jews  living  in  other  climes  with  another 
harvest-season,  this  became  the  principal 
signification  of  the  festival. 

In  the  Christian  Church,  Pentecost  is 
celebrated  seven  weeks  after  Easter,  in 
commemoration  of  the  outpouring  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  on  the  disciples,  as  the  birth- 
day of  the  Christian  Church.  Acts  2 : 
1-14. 

PENU'EL  {face  of  God).  1.  A  Ju- 
dite.   1  Chr.  4  :  4. 

2.  A  chief  Benjamite.  1  Chr.  8  :  25, 
28 

iPENU'EL.     See  Peniel. 

PE'OR  {cleft),  the  mountain-peak 
to  which  Balak  brought  Balaam  to  curse 
Israel.  Num.  23  :  28.  The  camp  of 
Israel  was  at  this  time  in  the  Jordan 
valley,  near  the  Dead  Sea.  Beth-peor 
was  "over  against"  the  camp.  Deut.  3  : 
29  ;  34  :  6.  Peor  is  described  as  "  facing 
Jeshimon,"  and  this  is  also  said  of  Pis- 
gah.  The  Rev.  J.  A.  Paine  proposed  to 
identify  Pisgah  with  Jebel  Siaghah  in 
the  Abarim  range  opposite  Jericho.    Of 


PER 


PER 


the  three  summits  of  Siaghah  he  sug- 
gested the  first  or  western  as  one  station 
of  Balaam.  Num.  22  :  41,  and  the  second 
summit  as  the  top  of  Peor,  but  his 
theory  is  disputed  by  Dr.  Merrill  and 
others.  Balaam  was  first  at  ''the  top 
of  Pisgah  "  and  then  upon  "the  top  of 
Peor,"  Num.  23  :  14,  28,  another  peak 
evidently  not  far  from  Pisgah.  From 
this  he  exclaimed,  "  How  goodly  are  thy 
tents,  0  Jacob  !"     See  Pisgah. 

PER'AZIM  (6>-eacAe«),  a  mountain 
upon  which  divine  vengeance  would  be 
manifested.  Isa.  28  :  21.  It  is  not  else- 
where mentioned  in  Scripture,  but  has 
been  regarded  as  identical  with  Baal- 
perazim  of  2  Sam.  5  :  20  and  1  Chr.  14 : 
8-17,  where  David  won  his  victory  over 
the  Philistines.  The  latter  place  was  in 
the  valley  of  Rephaim.     See  Baal-per- 

AZIM. 

PE'RES.  Dan.  5  :  28.     See  Mene. 

PE'RESH  {(lung),  son  of  Machir, 
and  descendant  of  Manasseh.  1  Chr.  7  : 
16. 

PE'REZ  (a  rent).     See  Pharez. 

PE'REZ-UZ'ZA,  OR  UZ'ZAH 
(breaking  of  Uzzah),  a  place  called  also 
Nachon  and  Chidon.  2  Sam.  6  :  6-8 ;  1 
Chr.  13  :  9-11 ;  15  :  13.  It  was  near  Jeru- 
salem, and  there  Uzzah  died  for  his  pre- 
sumptuous rashness  in  attempting  to 
steady  the  ark  of  God. 

PERFECTION.  That  which  is 
entire  and  complete  in  all  its  parts, 
without  defect  or  blemish,  is  per- 
fect. Thus  even  the  most  insignificant 
thing  can  be  perfect — perfect  in  its 
kind;  and,  although  perfection  can 
never  raise  a  thing  above  its  kind,  it 
nevertheless  confers  on  it  the  highest 
value  which  it  ever  can  reach.  When 
Christ  says,  *'  Be  ye  therefore  perfect, 
even  as  your  Father  which  is  in  heaven 
is  perfect,"  Matt.  5  :  48,  the  meaning  is 
not  that  we  should  be  perfect  as  God,  but 
simply  that  we  should  realize  all  the  possi- 
bilities which  are  involved  in  our  nature 
and  conditions  as  his  children — that  is, 
we  should  be  entire  in  our  faith  and 
without  blemish  in  our  love. 

PERTUME.  Ex.  30  :  35.  The 
use  of  perfumery  to  give  an  agreeable 
odor  to  the  person  and  apparel  is.  and 
ever  has  been,  widely  prevalent  in  East- 
ern countries.  In  the  passage  cited,  how- 
ever, the  composition  which  is  called  a 
perfume  was  to  be  used  in  the  tabernacle 


service.  The  composiiion  of  it  is  pre- 
scribed with  great  particularity,  and  the 
making  or  using  it  for  any  other  purpose 
was  forbidden  under  severe  penalties.  It 
is  of  little  importance  what  the  ingredi- 
ents were,  or  what  was  specially  denoted 
in  the  manner  of  using  it.  It  had  its 
value  as  a  test  of  obedience,  and  may 
have  had  some  significancy  to  the  view 
which  we  cannot  appreciate.  The  "art 
of  the  apothecary,"  after  or  according  to 
which  the  compound  was  to  be  made, 
probably  consisted  quite  as  much  in  the 
preparation  of  perfumes  as  in  the  sale 
of  drugs  and  medicines.     See  Incense. 

PER'GA  {extreinifij,  or  place  of  nap- 
tialn),  a  city  of  Pamphylia.  a  province  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  situated  on  the  river 
Cestrus,  about  7i  miles  from  the  sea.  It 
was  the  original  capital  of  the  province. 
The  inhabitants  were  Greeks,  and  had  a 
temple,  a  stadium,  theatres,  and  a  far- 
famed  temple  of  Diana,  standing  on  a 
high  eminence.  Coins  of  Perga  have 
been  found  bearing  the  image  of  this 
celebrated  goddess.  Paul  and  Barna- 
bas, with  Mark,  landed  at  Perga  in  the 
spring,  when  the  roads  to  Pisidia  would 
be  cleared  of  snow.  Paul  preached  in 
the  city,  and  Mark  here  forsook  him 
and  returned  to  Jerusalem.  Acts  13  : 
13;  14:25.  There  are  extensive  ruins 
at  the  place,  which  is  now  called  Eski 
Kalessi  by  the  Turks. 

PER'GAMOS  {place  of  nuptials), 
a  celebrated  city  of  Mysia,  about  3  miles 
north  of  the  river  Caicus  and  20  miles 
from  the  sea.  It  was  noted  for  its  Avealth, 
which  had  its  origin,  it  is  said,  from  the 
time  that  9000  talents  were  entrusted  by 
Lysimachus,  a  successor  of  Alexander, 
to  the  keeping  of  Philataerus,  who  (b.  c. 
283)  appropriated  the  money,  declared 
himself  independent,  and  founded  a 
successful  dynasty,  which  lasted  for 
over  four  centuries,  when  the  treasure 
was  bequeathed  to  the  Romans.  The 
city  was  celebrated  for  (1)  literary 
character;  (2)  idolatry.  It  had  avast 
library  of  200,000  volumes  (rolls),  rival- 
ling that  at  Alexandria,  but  Antony  pre- 
sented this  library  to  Cleopatra,  when 
it  was  removed  to  Egypt,  and,  with  the 
Alexandrine  Library,  destroyed  by  Ca- 
liph Omar.  At  this  city  also  the  art  of 
preparing  skins  for  writing  was  greatly 
improved,  and  our  word  "parchment" 
is    derived   from  the  Latin  charta  per- 

671 


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PER 


gavioia,  or  "paper  of  Pergamos."  The 
city  had,  in  a  grove  near  by,  a  cluster 
of  famous  temples  dedicated  to  Zeus, 
Minerva,  Apollo,  Venus,  Bacchus,  and 
^sculapius.  One  of  the  seven  churches 
of  Asia  was  at  Pergamos, ''  where  Satan's 
seat  is."  Rev.  1:11:2:12-17.  The  term 
"Satan's  seat"  some  regard  as  referring 
to  the  worship  of  ^sculapius,  whose 
common  emblem  Avas  the  serpent.  Oth- 
ers think  it  denotes  the  particular  wick- 
edness of  the  various  idolatries  and  the 
trials  which  had  come  upon  the  church, 
one  faithful  member,  Antipas,  having  al- 
ready suffered  martyrdom.  The  city  is 
now  called  Berqama,  and  has  a  popula- 
tion of  from  20,000  to  30,000,  of  which 
about  2000  are  Christians,  having  sev- 
eral churches.  The  rest  of  the  inhab- 
itants are  Turks  and  Mohammedans. 
There  are  ruins  of  fine  churches  and 
temples,  indicating  the  former  grandeur 
of  the  city,  but  the  modern  houses  are 
small  and  mean. 

PERI'DA.     See  Perupa. 

PER'IZZITES  {villagers).  The 
Canaanites  apparently  lived  in  the  cities 
of  Palestine,  while  the  Perizzites  lived 
in  the  open  country ;  accordingly,  the 
two  together  made  up  the  inhabitants 
of  the  country,  and  were  scattered  over 
the  land,  from  which  they  were,  how- 
ever, in  great  measure  expelled  during 
the  Conquest.  Gen.  13  :  7  ;  34  :  30  ;  Josh. 

17  :  15  ;  Jud.  3  :  5  ;  1  Kgs.  9  :  20  ;  2  Chr. 
8:7:  Ezr.  9  :  1. 

PERSECU'TION  is  the  applica- 
tion of  coercive  means  in  matters  of 
conscience,  or  the  infliction  of  pains  and 
penalties  for  conscience'  sake.  Under 
the  Mosaic  dispensation,  which  considers 
God  as  the  King  of  the  Hebrew  nation, 
the  enforcement  of  religious  views  was  a 
part  of  the  criminal  law.  To  worship 
another  god  was  treason,  and  was  pun- 
ished as  such.  Deut.  13.  Foreigners  who 
dwelt  in  Palestine  were  not  compelled 
to  embrace  Judaism,  but  they  would  not 
obtain  full  citizens'  rights  unless  fulfill- 
ing this  condition,  Ex.  12  :  48,  and  for 
open  idolatry  they  were  punished.  Lev. 

18  :  26;  20  i  1-5. 

Under  the  Christian  dispensation, 
which  considers  God  as  the  Father  of 
all  men,  persecution  becomes  itself  a 
crime,  which,  however,  does  not  encroach 
on  the  right  of  the  Christian  Chui-ch  to 
exclude  any  member  for  heretical  doc- 
43 


trine  or  scandalous  conduct.  1  Cor.  5  : 
3-5,  13. 

Persecution  in  the  Christian  Church 
has  indeed  been  defended  by  reference 
to  the  Mosaic  Law,  but  it  is  manifestly 
contrary  to  both  the  spirit  and  action  of 
Christ  and  the  apostles,  who  had  rather 
suffer  than  inflict  punishment,  and  who 
trusted  to  the  power  of  the  truth,  and  not 
to  carnal  weapons,  for  the  universal  suc- 
cess of  their  religion.  Thus  Jesus  said, 
"  My  kingdom  is  not  of  this  world."  John 
18  :  36.  And  Paul  affirms,  "  The  weapons 
of  our  warfare  are  not  carnal,  but  mighty 
through  God  to  the  pulling  down  of 
strongholds."  2   Cor.  10  :  4. 

PERSEP'OLIS,  a  celebrated  city, 
and  the  capital  of  Persia.  It  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  canonical  books  of  the 
Bible,  but  is  noticed  in  the  Apocrypha. 
2  Mace.  9:2.  It  was  probably  founded 
by  Darius  Hystaspes,  and  became  a  resi- 
dence of  Persian  monarchs  until  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Avho 
wantonly  burned  the  city.  It  partially 
recovered,  and  was  again  attacked  by 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  who  attempted  to 
plunder  it.  The  city  was  situated  near 
the  plains  of  Merf/nnhf,  where  extensive 
and  magnificent  ruins  still  exist,  and  are 
called  Cliehl-Minar,  or  "  fortv  pillars." 

PER'SIA  (Heb.  Pharas,  'pure,  or 
tigers  ?),  a  country  in  Central  Asia.  The 
term  is  generally  applied  in  Scripture  to 
the  entire  Persian  empire,  but  in  Eze. 
38  :  5  it  appears  to  designate  Persia 
proper.  The  latter  country  was  bounded 
by  Media  on  the  north,  Carmania  on  the 
east,  Susiana  on  the  west,  and  the  Persian 
Gulf  on  the  south.  The  Persian  empire, 
however,  extended  from  the  Indus  on  the 
east  to  Thrace  on  the  west,  and  from  the 
Black  and  Caspian  Seas  on  the  north 
to  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  Persian  Gulf, 
and  the  Red  Sea  on  the  south.  It  in- 
cluded all  Western  Asia  and  portions 
of  Europe  and  Africa.  Persia  proper 
was  in  general  an  unproductive  country, 
low  and  sandy  on  the  gulf,  hilly  and 
mountainous  inland.  The  interior  was 
a  great  plateau,  having  an  average  ele- 
vation of  4000  feet  above  the  sea,  broken 
by  mountains  and  valleys  and  inter- 
spersed with  fruitful  plains. 

Ilisfori/. — Persia  Avas  settled  originally 
by  Aryan  tribes  from  the  east,  probably 
about  B.  c.  880.  They  were  brave  and 
enterprising,  and  divided  into  ten  castes 

673 


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PET 


or  tribes,  of  which  the  Pasargadse  were 
the  nobles.  Their  hinguage  was  closely 
allied  to  the  Sanscrit,  and  in  their  re- 
ligion they  were  dualists,  believing  in 
one  supreme  god  and  in  one  great  power 
of  evil.  These  good  and  evil  beings 
were  regarded  as  co-eternal  and  co- 
equal. The  founder  of  the  Persian 
dynasty  was  Achgemes,  and  it  was 
tributary  to  the  Medes  for  a  time,  un- 
til a  revolt  under  Cyrus  about  B.  c.  588. 
Their  sway  was  then  raj^idly  extended 
over  Asia  Minor,  and  in  B.  c.  539  over 
Babylon,  where  the  Persians  came  into 
contact  with  the  captive  Jews,  Cyrus 
issuing  a  decree  permitting  these  cap- 
tives to  return  to  their  own  land.  2  Chr. 
36  :  20-23;  Ezr.  1  :  8.  Cyrus  died  in 
B.  c.  529,  and  his  tomb  is  still  pointed 
out  near  the  ancient  capital,  now  known 
as  Mitrghah.  A  later  king,  called  Ar- 
taxerxes  in  Scripture,  forbade  the  re- 
building of  the  temple,  but  Darius 
Hystaspes  authorized  the  work  to  go 
on.  Ezr.  4:5-24;  6:7-12.  Xerxes, 
who  was  probably  the  Ahasuerus  of  the 
book  of  Esther,  succeeded  him,  and  was 
defeated  by  the  Greeks,  assassinated,  and 
succeeded  by  his  son  Artaxerxes  Longi- 
manus,  who  was  friendly  to  the  Jews. 
Ezr.  7  :  11-28;  Neh.  2  :  1-9.  Only  one 
of  his  successors  is  noticed  in  Scripture, 
Darius  the  Persian.  Neh.  12  :  22.  After 
lasting  about  two  hundred  years  the 
Persian  empire  was  overthrown  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  b.  c.  330,  and  followed 
by  the  Macedonian,  the  third  great 
woi'ld-empire.    Dan.  8  :  3-7. 

Presoit  Conditio)!. — Persia  now  has  an 
area  of  about  500,000  square  miles  and 
a  population  of  about  10,000,000.  Its 
principal  seaport-town  is  Bushire,  a 
city  of  30,000  inhabitants  having  con- 
siderable trade  with  England.  The  chief 
ruler  is  called  the  Shah.  The  province 
of  Shiraz  is  properly  the  ancient  king- 
dom of  Persia  before  Cyrus.  "Within  it 
are  the  ruins  of  Persepolis,  the  palace  of 
Darius,  which  was  burned  by  Alexander 
the  Great  when  in  a  drunken  frolic,  fire- 
temples,  inscriptions,  altars,  and  various 
mementoes  of  the  old  Persian  faith,  which 
is  still  held  by  the  Parsees.  Christian 
missions  have  been  established  among 
the  Nestorians  in  Persia  by  the  Amer- 
ican Congregational,  and  the  American 
Presbyterian  Board  of  Missions,  which 
have  met  with  encouraging  success. 
674 


PER'SIANS,  inhabitants  of  Persia. 
Dan.  6  :  28.     See  Pkhsia. 

PER'SIS  («  Persian  woman),  a 
Christian  woman  in  Rome  to  whom 
Paul  sends  his  salutation.  Rom.  16  :  12. 

PERU'DA  (kerne/),  a  servant  of 
Solomon  whose  descendants  returned 
with  Zerubbabel,  Ezr.  2  :  55 ;  called 
Perida  in   Neh.  7  :  57. 

PES'TILENCE  expresses  all  sorts 
of  distempers  and  calamities.  Jer.  21  : 
6.  The  Hebrew  word,  which  properly 
signifies  the  ''plague,"  is  applied  to  all 
epidemical  and  contagious  diseases. 

Pestilences  are  still  very  common  in 
Asia  and  Africa.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
been  by  a  species  of  pestilence  that  the 
first-born  of  Egypt  were  cut  off.  Ps.  78  : 
60,  51. 

A  pestilent  fellow  is  one  who  is  mis- 
chievous and  disposed  to  corrupt  and 
ruin  a  multitude.  Acts  24  :  5.  See 
Plague. 

PE'TER  (stone,  or  rock;  Syriac 
Cephas;  Greek  Petros),  one  of  the 
twelve  apostles,  one  of  the  three  fa- 
vorite disciples  (with  John  and  James), 
and  the  most  active  of  all  in  word  and 
deed  (excejjt  Paul,  who  did  not  belong 
to  the  twelve).  His  original  name  was 
"Simon"  or  "Simeon."  He  was  a  son 
of  Jonas  (John,  according  to  the  read- 
ing of  the  best  manuscripts),  a  brother 
of  Andrew,  probably  a  native  of  Beth- 
saida  in  Galilee.  He  was  a  fisherman 
by  trade,  and  resided  at  Capernaum 
with -his  wife  and  mother-in-law,  who 
was  healed  by  Christ  of  a  fever.  See 
John  1 :  42  ;  2i  :  15  ;  Matt.  16  :  18  :  Luke 
5  :  3-1 0  ;  Matt.  8  :  14,  15 ;  Mark  1 :  29-31  ; 
Luke  4  :  38.  When  he  forsook  all  to 
follow  Christ  he  must  have  made  a 
considerable  sacrifice.  His  new  name 
"  Peter  "  ("  rock-man  ")  was  given  him 
when  he  was  called  to  the  apostleship, 
John  1 :  42.  and  was  solemnly  confirmed 
when  he,  in  the  name  of  all  the  other 
apostles,  made  that  remarkable  confes- 
sion of  the  divinity  of  our  Lord  which 
is  the  fundamental  creed  of  Christendom 
and  the  immovable  foundation  of  the 
Christian  Church.  Matt.  16  :  18.  The 
name  "Peter"  or  "Cephas"  was  a 
prophecy  of  the  prominent  position 
which  he,  as  the  confessor  of  Christ, 
would  occupy  in  the  primitive  age  of 
the  Church.  He  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  Church  among  the  Jews  on  the  day 


PET 


PET 


of  Pentecost,  Acts  2,  and,  after  a  special 
revelation,  among  the  Gentiles  also,  in 
the  conversion  of  Cornelius.  Acts  10. 
He  appears  throughout  in  the  Gospels 
and  the  lirst  part  of  the  Acts  as  the  head 
and  mouthpiece  of  the  twelve.  He  had 
an  ardent  nature,  a  sanguine,  impulsive, 
hopeful  temperament,  was  frank,  open, 
fresh,  enthusiastic,  and  energetic,  and 
born  to  take  the  lead,  but  apt  to  over- 
rate his  strength  and  liable  to  change 
and  inconsistency.  He  was  the  first  to 
confess  and  the  first  to  deny  his  Lord 
and  Saviour,  yet  he  repented  bitterly, 
and  had  no  rest  and  peace  till  the  Lord 
forgave  him.  He  had  a  great  deal  of 
genuine  human  nature,  but  divine  grace 
did  its  full  work,  and  overruled  even 
his  faults  for  his  advancement  in  hu- 
mility and  meekness,  which  shine  out 
so  beautifully  from  his  Epistles. 

The  labors  of  Peter  are  recorded  in  the 
Acts.  Chs.  1  to  12  and  ch.  15.  He  was 
the  leading  apostle  from  the  day  of  Pen- 
tecost to  the  Council  of  Jerusalem,  in 
A.D.  50.  After  that  time  his  where- 
abouts are  involved  in  obscurity.  Paul 
mentions  him  as  being  at  Antioch,  about 
A.  D.  52,  and  censures  him  for  inconsist- 
ency of  conduct,  which  he  showed  at 
that  time  toward  the  Gentile  converts, 
from  fear  of  offending  the  Judaizing 
party.  The  alienation  of  the  two  apos- 
tles was  merely  temporary.  We  must 
admire  the  meekness  and  humility  with 
■which  Peter  bore  the  sharp  rebuke  of 
his  younger  colleague,  and  with  which 
he  alluded  afterward  to  the  Epistles  of 
his  "  beloved  brother  Paul,"  2  Pet.  3  :  15, 
as  much  as  the  boldness  and  fearlessness 
with  which  Paul  stood  up  for  principle 
and  the  rights  and  liberty  of  the  Gentile 
Christians.  Paul  mentions  him  again, 
A.D.  57,  1  Cor.  9  :  5,  as  engaged,  in 
company  with  his  wife,  in  missionary 
journeys  and  labors,  perhaps  among  the 
dispersed  Jews  in  Asia  Minor,  to  whom 
he  addressed  his  Epistles.  1  Pet.  1  :  1. 
This  allusion  to  Peter's  wife  is  important 
as  proving  that  he  did  not  give  up  the 
family  ties  when  he  entered  upon  his 
spiritual  calling.  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria expressly  states  that  Peter  and  Philip 
had  children,  and  that  both  took  about 
with  them  their  wives,  who  aided  them 
in  ministering  to  women  at  their  own 
homes.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  he 
whom  Roman  Catholics  hold  to  be  the 


first  pope  should  have  been  and  remain- 
ed a  married  man  and  thus  protested 
against  clerical  celibacy. 

According  to  the  unanimous  testimony 
of    Christian    antiquity,    Peter  suffered 


Portraits  of  Peter  and  Paul.     (From  a  Gilded 
Glass  Cup  found  in  the  Catacombs  of  Rome.) 

martyrdom  in  Rome  under  Nero,  but  the 
length  of  his  residence  in  Rome  and  the 
year  of  his  martyrdom  are  uncertain. 
When  Paul  arrived  at  Rome,  a.  d.  61, 
and  during  his  imprisonment,  a.  d.  61-63, 
no  mention  is  made  of  Peter.  It  is 
therefore  improbable  that  he  reached 
Rome  before  the  close  of  63.  The  report 
of  a  twenty  or  twenty-five  years'  resi- 
dence of  Peter  in  Rome  rests  on  a  chron- 
ological miscalculation  of  Eusebius  and 
Jerome,  who  assume  that  he  went  to 
Rome  A.I).  42,  immediately  after  his  de- 
liverance from  prison  (Acts  12  :  17,  "he 
went  into  another  place"),  and  is  en- 
tirely irreconcilable  with  the  silence  of 
Scripture,  and  we  may  say  even  with  the 
mere  fact  of  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans, 
written  in  5S ;  for  Paul  says  not  a  word 
of  previous  labors  of  Peter  in  that  city, 
and  never  built  on  other  men's  foun- 
dation. Peter's  martyrdom  may  have 
taken  place  either  in  A.  D.  64,  during  the 
terrible  Neronian  persecution  after  the 
great  confi.agration,  or  in  67.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  crucified,  and  thus  he  fol- 
lowed his  Lord  literally  in  the  mode  of 
his  death.  Comp.  John  21  :  18,  19. 
Origen  adds,  however,  that  Peter,  deem- 
ing himself  unworthy  to  be,  in  the  mode 
of  his  death,  conformed  to  his  Master, 
was  at  his  own  request  crucified  with 
his  head  downward. 

675 


PET 


PHA 


The  Epistles  of  Peter  belong  to  the 
last  years  of  his  life,  and  are  addressed 
to  churches  in  Asia  Minor,  chiefly  planted 
by  Paul  and  his  companions.  They  con- 
tain precious  consolations  and  exhor- 
tations, and  confirm  the  harmony  of  his 
doctrine  with  that  of  the  apostle  of  the 
Gentiles.  1  Pet.  5  :  12 ;  2  Pet.  3  :  15. 
They  breathe  a  sweet,  gentle,  lovely, 
humble  spirit,  thoroughly  mastered  and 
softened  by  divine  grace,  and  are  full  of 
joy  and  hope  in  view  of  the  threatening 
persecutions. 

The  First  Epistle  is  dated  fromBabylon, 
1  Pet.  5  :  13  :  but  commentators  diflFer. 
Some  refer  it  to  the  famous  Babylon  in 
Asia,  which  after  its  destruction  was 
still  inhabited  by  a  Jewish  colony,  and 
remained  for  several  centuries  a  chief 
seat  of  rabbinical  learning  ;  others  refer 
it  to  Babylon  in  Egypt,  now  called  Old 
Cairo;  still  others  understand  it  mys- 
tically of  heathen  Rome,  in  which  serkse 
"  Babylon  "  is  certainly  used  in  the  Apoc- 
alypse of  John.  The  last  view  is  favored 
by  the  terms  co-elect  ("elected  together 
with  yon  ")  and  Marcus  my  son,  which 
occur  in  the  same  verse,  and  which 
scarcely  bear  a  literal  interpretation 
("Peter's  wife  and  son''),  but  probably 
mean  the  Christian  Church  and  Mark 
the  evangelist,  who  was  his  spiritual  son. 
In  this  case  the  passage  would  be  the 
first,  and  the  only  scriptural,  proof  for 
Peter's  presence  in  Rome.  If  the  letter 
was  written  during  or  after  the  terrible 
persecution  of  64,  he  might  have  had 
good  reason  to  call  Rome  by  the  name 
of  Babylon,  the  ancient  enemy  of  the 
people  of  God.  Mark  was  a  companion 
and  interpreter  of  Peter  in  his  mission- 
ary labors.  The  Epistle  was  transmitted 
by  Silvanus,  1  Pet.  5  :  12,  a  disciple  and 
fellow-laborer  of  Paul,  and  a  connecting 
link  between  him  and  Peter,  well  qual- 
ified to  assure  the  Jewish  converts  in 
the  churches  of  Asia  Minor  of  the  har- 
mony of  the  two  great  apostles  in  all  the 
essential  doctrines  of  salvation. 

The  Second  Epistle  is  a  valedictory  of 
Peter,  written  shortly  before  his  martyr- 
dom, with  warnings  against  Antinomian 
heresies,  which  began  to  disturb  the  har- 
mony and  purity  of  the  Church.  The 
external  testimonies  in  favor  of  the 
Second  Epistle  are  not  so  numerous  as 
those  in  favor  of  the  First,  nor  was  it  as 
much  used.  But  the  author  expressly 
676 


designates  himself  as  an  eye-witness  of 
the  transfiguration  of  Christ  on  the 
mount,  2  Pet.  1  :  16-18,  and  bears  am- 
ple evidence  of  apostolic  depth  and  unc- 
tion. It  attests  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant facts  in  our  Lord's  ministry :  it 
confirms  the  unity  of  apostolic  teaching; 
it  adds  the  doctrine  of  the  final  destruc- 
tion of  the  material  universe  to  make 
room  for  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth 
"wherein  dwelleth  righteousness;"  and 
it  appropriately  closes  with  the  exhor- 
tation to  "  grow  in  grace  and  in  the 
knowledge  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour 
Jesus  Chi-ist.  To  him  he  glory  both  now 
and  for  ever." 

PETHAHI'AH  {whom  God  sets 
free).  1.  The  head  of  the  nineteenth 
course  of  the  priests  in  the  reign  of 
David.    1  Chr.  24  :  16. 

2.  A  Levite  who  had  married  a  foreign 
woman  in  the  time  of  Ezra,  Ezr.  10  :  23, 
and  probably  the  same  who  conducted 
the  solemn  service  of  the  fast.  Neh. 
9  :  5. 

3.  A  descendant  of  Judah  who  held  an 
office  at  the  Persian  court.  Neh.  11 :  24. 

PE'THOR  [soothsayer  ?),  the  native 
place  of  Balaam,  situated  "  upon  the 
river,"  probably  the  Euphrates,  as  it 
was  in  Mesopotamia.  Num.  22  :  5 ; 
Deut.  23  :  4.  Pethor  has  been  sup- 
posed to  be  identical  with  Balis,  on 
the  Euphrates,  where  Benjamin  of 
Tudela  states  there  is  the  "tower  of 
Balaam,  son  of  Beor."  Some  scholars 
have  recently  proposed,  however,  to 
locate  the  country  of  Balaam  in  Syria, 
but  this  view  lacks  sufficient  support. 
See  Pad.vn-aram. 

PETHU'EL  [vision  of  God),  or 
perhaps  METHU'EL  [peace  of  God), 
the  father  of  the  prophet  Joel.  Joel  1 : 1. 

PE'TRA.  Isa.  16  :  1.     See  Sela. 

PEUL'THAI  [wages  of  Jehovah), 
a  Levite  porter,  the  eighth  son  of  Obed- 
edom.   IChr.  26  :  5. 

PHA'LEC,  same  as  Peleg,  the  son 
of  Eber.    Luke  3  :  35. 

PHAL'LU  [distinguished).  Gen.  46  : 
9.     See  Pallu. 

PHAL'TI  [deliverance  of  Jehovah), 
called  PHAL'TIEL,  2  Sam.  3:15,  the 
man  to  whom  Saul  gave  Michal,  the  wife 
of  David.  1  Sam.  25  :  44. 

PHAL'TIEL.     See  above. 

PHANU'EL  [face  of  God),  father 
of  the  prophetess  Anna.  Luke  2  :  36. 


PHA 


PHA 


PHA'RAOH,  an  Egyptian  word 
applied  by  the  Egyptians  themselves  to 
their  kings  as  a  generic  name  or  title, 
and  adopted  into  Hebrew,  where  it  was 
used  either  alone  or  with  the  addition 
"king  of  Egypt,"  or,  as  in  two  cases, 
followed  by  a  proper  name — Pharaoh- 
nechoh  and  Pharaoh-hophra.  The  word 
was  formerly  derived  from  the  Egyptian 
article  Pi  or  Ph  and  the  word  Ra,  de- 
noting "  the  sun,"  as  the  Egyptian  king 
was  considered  the  representative  on 
earth  of  the  sun-god,  or  from  the 
Coptic  onro,  "•  king."  Modern  Egypt- 
ologists (De  Rouge,  Brugsch,  and  Ebers) 
define  its  meaning  as  "the  great  house," 
and  its  application  would  thus  be  equiv- 
alent to  our  "  the  sublime  porte."  On 
account  of  the  great  uncertainty  which 
still  surrounds  Egyptian  chronology,  it 
has  proved  very  difficult  to  identify  the 
different  Pharaohs  mentioned  in  the 
Bible,  but,  in  many  points,  the  investi- 
gations of  Egyptologists  and  biblical 
scholars  have  reached  pretty  certain 
conclusions.  Ten  Pharaohs  are  men- 
tioned in  the  0.  T. 

1.  The  Pharaoh  of  the  time  of  Abra- 
ham. Gen.  12  :  15.  He  is  probably 
identical  with  Salatis,  the  head  of  the 
fifteenth  dynasty,  one  of  the  Shepherd- 
kings  (Hyksos),  foreigners  of  the  Semitic 
race,  who  conquered  Egypt  and,  having 
become  Egyptianized,  ruled  it  for  several 
centuries.  The  date  of  Abraham's  visit 
to  Egypt  is  most  probably  fixed  at  about 
B.  c.  2080. 

2.  The  Pharaoh  of  Joseph,  Gen.  41, 
was  the  last,  or  the  last  but  one,  of  the 
fifteenth  dynasty ;  probably  identical 
with  Apophis,  who  reigned  at  least  26 
years,  b.  c  1876-1850. 

3.  The  Pharaoh  of  the  Oppression — 
"the   new   king  over  Egypt  who  knew 
not  Joseph,"  Ex.  1  :  8,  and  under  whose 
reign  Moses  was  born — is  now  by  most 
Egyptologists  identified  with    Rameses 
II.,  the  third  sovereign  of  the  nineteenth  i 
dynasty   (the  Sesostris    of  the   Greeks),  ' 
the  most  prominent  of  the  Pharaohs,  a  I 
conqueror  of   many  lands,   the  master- 
builder    of    Egypt,    whose    statues   and  | 
temples  in  ruins  are  found  all  over  the 
Nile  valley  from  Zoan  (Tanis)  to  Kar-  I 
nak  and  Aboo  Simbel.    The  other  theory,  i 
which  seeks  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Oppres-  j 
sion  in  Aahmes  I.  (the  Amosis  of  .Jose- 
phus),  who  began  to  reign  b.  c.  1706  as  , 


the  first  sovereign  of  the  eighteenth 
dynasty,  is  now  pretty  generally  aban- 
doned.    See  Egypt. 

4.  The  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  Ex. 
5  :  1,  before  whom  Moses  wrought  his 
miracles,  and  who  perished  with  his 
army  in  the  pursuit  of  the  Israelites, 
was  Menephtha,  the  thirteenth  son  of 
Rameses  II.,  who  began  to  rule  b.  c. 
1325.  His  reign  was  inglorious  and 
marked  a  period  of  decline.  He  did 
not  even  finish  his  father's  tomb.  On  a 
monument  of  Tanis  mention  is  made 
of  the  fact  that  he  lost  a  son,  and  Dr. 
Brugsch  connects  this  with  the  death 
of  the  first-born,  the  last  of  the  plagues. 

5.  The  Pharaoh  whose  daughter, 
Bithiah,  was  given  in  marriage  to 
Mered,  a  descendant  of  Judah.  1  Chr. 
4  :  18. 

6.  The  Pharaoh  who  gave  the  sister 
of  his  queen  in  marriage  to  Hadad,  an 
Edomite  of  royal  blood,  who  escaped  thf 
massacre  of  Joab  and  fled  to  Egypt.  ' 
Kgs.  11  :  18-20. 

7.  The  Pharaoh  whose  daughter  Solo 
mon  married  and  brought  "into  thecit; 
of  David  until  he  had  made  an  end  of 
building  his  own  house,  and  the  house 
of  the  Lord,"  1  Kgs.  3:1,  consequently 
before  the  eleventh  year  of  his  reign,  in 
which  year  the  temple  was  finished.  1 
Kgs.  6  :  37,  38.  This  Pharaoh  after- 
ward made  an  expedition  into  Pales- 
tine, took  Gerar,  slew  the  Canaanites 
who  dwelt  in  the  city,  and  gave  it  to 
his  daughter,  Solomon's  wife.  1  Kgs. 
9  :  16. 

8.  The  Pharaoh  in  whom  King  Heze- 
kiah  put  his  confidence  in  his  war  with 
Sennacherib,  2  Kgs.  18  :  21,  probably 
identical  with  Sethos  or  Zet. 

9.  Pharaoh-nechoh,  also  called  simply 
Necho,  was  the  fifth  or  sixth  ruler  of  the 
Saite  dynasty,  and  reigned  from  b.  c.  610 
to  594.  He  made  an  expedition  against 
Assyria,  but  was  encountered  by  Josiah, 
king  of  Judah,  who  sided  with  Assyria, 
but  was  defeated  and  killed  at  Megiddo. 
2  Chr.  35  :  20-24;  2  Kgs.  23  :  29,  30. 
The  Jews  then  raised  Jchoahaz,  the 
younger  son  of  Josiah,  to  the  throne, 
but  he  was  deposed  by  Necho,  who  gave 
the  sceptre  to  Jehoiakim,  the  elder  son 
of  Josiah.  Necho's  army  was  afterward 
defeated  at  Carchemish  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and  he  lost  all  his  Asiatic  pos- 
sessions. 2  Kgs.  24  :  7.     See  Necho. 

677 


PHA 


PHA 


10.  Pharaoh-hophra,  the  Apries  of 
secular  historians,  was  the  second  suc- 
cessor of  Necho,  and  entered  Palestine, 
probably  in  b.  c.  590,  in  order  to  relieve 
Jerusalem,  which  was  besieged  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. Jer.  37  :  5-8;  Eze.  17:  11-13; 
comp.  2  Kgs.  25  :  1-4.  The  campaign 
was  of  no  avail.  Jerusalem  fell,  and 
Nebuchadnezzar  made  a  successful  in- 
vasion into  Egypt.  Pharaoh-hophra 
was  afterward  deposed  by  his  own  sub- 
jects, and,  though  he  was  at  first  treated 
kindly  by  his  successor,  Amosis,  he  was 
finally  strangled.  In  their  prophecies 
Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  give  a  very 
striking  picture  of  this  king,  his  arro- 
gance and  conceit,  which  corresponds 
closely  with  that  given  by  Herodotus. 

PHARAOH'S  DAUGHTER. 
Three  Egyptian  princesses  are  mentioned 
in  the  Bible. 

1.  Moses'  preserver.  Ex.  2  :  10. 

2.  Bithiah,  the  wife  of  Mered,  an 
Israelite.  1  Chr.  4  :  18. 

3.  A  wife  of  Solomon.  1  Kgs.  3  :  1. 
PHA'RES.  Matt.  1:3;  Luke  3  :  33. 

See  Pharez. 

PHA'REZ  (a  breach),  a  son  of 
Judah,  and  twin-brother  of  Zarah,  Gen. 
38  :  29  ;  46  :  12,  the  ancestor  of  a  great 
family  called  the  Pharzites,  Num.  26 : 
20  ;  Ruth  4  :  12,  18  ;  1  Chr.  2:4;  4:1; 
9:4;  called  Perez  in  Neh.  11 :  4,  6,  and 
Phares  in  Matt.  1:3;  Luke  3  :  33. 

PHARISEES,  THE  (from  a 
Hebrew  word  meaning  separated),  form- 
ed one  of  the  most  conspicuous  and 
powerful  sects  or  parties  among  the 
Jews  in  the  time  of  our  Lord.  The 
name  does  not  occur  before  the  N.  T. 
period,  and  the  origin  of  the  sect  is 
somewhat  obscure.  It  is  probable,  how- 
ever, that  the  Pharisees  were  simply  a 
continuation  or  development  of  the  As- 
sideans  {"  the  pious  ")  in  the  time  of  the 
Maccabees.  1  Mace.  2  :  42 ;  7  :  13;  2 
Mace.  14  :  6.  Under  the  foreign  rule, 
and  more  especially  under  the  Syrian 
government,  which  left  no  means  unem- 
ployed— even  resorting  to  violence — in 
order  to  effect  an  amalgamation  of  the 
different  nationalities  under  its  sway,  it 
was  natural  that  there  should  rise  among 
the  Jews  a  party  which  opposed  this 
influence  and  labored  to  preserve  the 
national  integrity.  The  Pharisees  were 
this  party,  and  much  of  their  influence 
with  the  people  was  no  doubt  due  to 
678 


their  political  position.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Herod,  6000  Pharisees  refused  to 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  but  were  "  put 
down  with  a  strong  hand ;"  and,  again, 
it  was  the  Pharisees  who  originated  and 
organized  that  desperate  resistance  to 
the  Romans  which  finally  led  to  the 
dispersion  of  the  whole  nation.  In  a 
constitution,  however,  like  that  of  the 
Hebrew  theocracy,  a  political  party  must 
always  be  a  religious  sect  at  the  same 
time,  and  with  the  Pharisees  their 
political  position  was  a  simple  conse- 
quence of  their  religious  standpoint.  As 
they  were  national  in  politics,  they  were 
orthodox  in  religion ;  and  in  opposition 
to  the  two  other  sects,  the  Sadducees  and 
the  Essenes,  they  stood  among  the  people 
as  the  true  expounders  of  the  Law.  In 
the  time  of  our  Lord,  however,  their 
orthodoxy  had  degenerated  into  mere 
formalism. 

The  principal  points  of  difference  be- 
tween the  Pharisees  and  the  Sadducees 
were  the  doctrine  of  the  immortality  of 
the  soul  and  a  future  reward  or  punish- 
ment ;  the  doctrine  of  a  divine  Provi- 
dence acting  side  by  side  with  the  free 
will  of  man  ;  and  the  doctrine  of  an  oral 
tradition  descending  from  Moses  and 
involving  the  same  authority  as  the 
written  Law, — all  of  which  doctrines  the 
Pharisees  accepted,  while  the  Sadducees 
rejected  them.  It  was,  however,  more 
especially  the  last-mentioned  doctrine 
which  gave  the  Pharisees  their  peculiar 
character,  and  which  caused  our  Lord  to 
denounce  them  so  often  and  so  severely. 
Teaching  that  God  had  given  to  Moses, 
on  Mount  Sinai,  an  oral  explanation 
with  respect  to  the  proper  application 
of  the  written  Law,  and  commanded  him 
to  transmit  this  explanation  by  word  of 
mouth,  the  Pharisees  ended  by  placing 
the  oral  explanation  above  the  written 
commandment,  the  tradition  above  the 
Law.  Entangled  in  the  minute  and 
subtle  application  of  the  Law,  they 
missed  its  spirit;  and  though  to  the  very 
last  there  were  found  noble  characters 
among  them,  such  as  Nicodemus,  .Joseph 
of  Arimathea,  Gamaliel,  and  others, 
self-conceit,  arrogance,  and  hypocrisy 
became  the  general  characteristics  of  the 
sect.  They  were  exceedingly  particular 
in  refraining  from  anything  which  had 
not  been  duly  tithed,  but  they  forgot  to 
pay  that  tithe  which  is  most  necessary 


PHA 


PHI 


of  all,  and  which  consists  in  meekness 
and  mercj'.  Matt.  23  :  23  ;  Luke  18  :  12. 
They  were  exceedingly  particular  in 
av'oiding  anything  which  the  Law  de- 
clared unclean,  but  they  forgot  to  acquire 
that  cleanness  which  is  the  most  import- 
ant of  all,  and  which  consists  in  the 
purity  of  the  heart.  Matt.  16  :  11.  And 
while  they  themselves  degenerated  into 
empty  formalists,  they  troubled  the  con- 
science of  the  people  by  the  absurd  im- 
portance they  ascribed  to  the  most  futile 
questions,  such  as  what  material  the 
wick  of  the  Sabbath-lamp  was  to  be 
made  of,  whether  or  not  it  was  permitted 
to  eat  an  egg  laid  on  a  Sabbath-day, 
etc.  Hence  we  understand  how  the}' 
could  at  the  same  time  be  the  true 
bearers  of  Judaism  in  politics  and  in 
religion,  and  yet  be  punished  by  our 
Lord  by  the  severest  denunciations. 

PHA'ROSH.  Ezr.8:3.  SeePAROsH. 

PHAR'PAR  (swift),  a  river  of 
Damascus  named  by  Naaman.  2  Kgs.  5  : 
12.  It  is  about  8  miles  from  Damascus, 
and  is  the  modern  Awaj,  while  the 
Abana  is  the  modern  Barada.  The 
Pharpar,  or  AivaJ,  rises  high  up  on  the 
eastern  side  of  Hermon,  near  the  moun- 
tain-village of  Beit  Jann.  There  are 
several  other  small  streams,  which  unite 
near  Sasa,  and  the  river  flows  eastward 
in  a  serpentine  course  through  a  deep 
glen  and  thickets  of  poplars  and  willows, 
and  through  green  meadows  rendered 
fertile  by  its  waters.  It  empties  into  a 
lake  or  marsh  called  Bah  ret  Hijaneh, 
about  4  miles  south  of  the  lake  into  which 
the  Barada  falls,  and  about  16  miles 
south  of  Damascus.  In  spring  and 
summer  these  so-called  "meadow-lakes" 
are  of  considerable  size,  but  in  autumn 
and  winter  they  are  mere  morasses. 
The  Awaj  flows  across  the  plain  of 
Damascus,  but  its  waters  are  diminished 
by  canals  constructed  to  irrigate  the 
fields  and  gardens  almost  up  to  the  walls 
of  the  city.  Its  length  is  from  30  to  40 
miles,  and  it  is  a  much  smaller  stream 
than  the  Barada,  for  it  is  described  as  a 
little  and  lively  stream,  often  dry  in  the 
lower  part  of  its  course,  while  the  Barada 
is  perennial  and  is  a  copious  stream  in 
the  hottest  season.  The  traveller  from 
Banias  to  Damascus  now  crosses  a  deep 
ravine  east  of  Hermon,  through  which 
runs  the  Nalir  Barhar,  a  name  in  which 
the  ancient  Pharpar  survives,  according 


to  Baedeker,  but  it  no  longer  falls  into 
the  el- Awaj. 

PHAR'ZITES,  a  family  descend- 
ing from  Pharez,  and  belonging  to  the 
tribe  of  Judah.  Num.  26  :  20. 

PHASE'AH.     See  Paskaii. 

PHASE'LIS,  a  town  on  the  border 
of  Lycia  and  Pamphylia,  where  the 
Jews  settled.  It  was  at  one  time  a  place 
of  considerable  im])ortance,  but  later 
became  a  resort  of  pirates.  It  is  now 
called  Tckrova.  It  is  mentioned  only  in 
the  Apocryphal  book  of  Maccabees. 
1  Mace.  15  :  23. 

PHE'BE  (shining).     See  Pho:be. 

PHEN'ICE,  OH  PHENI'CE.  I. 
Another  and  more  accurate  form  for  Phoe- 
nicia. Acts  11 :  19  ;  15:3.    See  Phoenicia. 

2.  A  town  and  harbor,  more  properly 
Phoenix  (from  the  Greek  word  for  the 
palm  tree,  which  was  indigenous  to 
Crete).  The  town  was  on  the  south-west 
coast  of  the  island  of  Crete.  It  had  a 
safe  winter  harbor,  into  which  the  cap- 
tain of  the  ship  upon  which  Paul  was  a 
prisoner  attempted  to  sail  after  leaving 
Fair  Havens.  He  was  caught  in  the 
storm,  however,  and  his  ship  was  wrecked 
on  the  island  of  Melita.  Acts  27  :  8,  12. 
PhaMiix  or  Phenice  has  been  identified 
with  the  harbor  of  Lntro,  about  35  miles 
west-north-west  from  Cape  Matala.  It 
has  lately  been  shown  that  this  place 
has  an  admirable  harbor  with  a  good 
depth  of  water,  and  sheltered  from  the 
winter  winds. 

PHI-BE'SETH.     See  Pi-beseth. 

P  H  I '  C  H  O  L  (according  to  some, 
strong;  according  to  others,  mouth  of 
all),  chief  of  the  army  of  Abimelech, 
king  of  the  Philistines  of  Gerar  in  the 
times  of  Abraham,  Gen.  21 :  22,  and  of 
Isaac.  Gen.  26  :  26. 

PHILADEL'PHIA  (hrothcrl,/ 
love),  a  city  on  the  borders  of  Lydia  and 
Phrygia,  about  25  miles  south-east  of 
Sardis.  It  was  built  by  Attains  Phila- 
delphus,  king  of  Pergamos,  who  died 
B.  c.  138.  It  then  came  into  the  hands 
of  the  Romans;  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  A.  d.  17;  was  restored,  and 
continued  a  place  of  importance  to  the 
Byzantine  age ;  was  taken  by  the  Turks 
in  A.  D.  1392.  Philadelphia  is  menitioned 
in  the  N.  T.  as  the  seat  of  one  of  the 
seven  churches.  Rev.  1  :  11;  3  :  7-13. 
The  church  at  this  place  was  highly 
commended,  and  it  is  noticeable  that  the 

679 


PHI 


PHI 


city  has  survived  all  the  vicissitudes  of 
earthquakes  and  wars  until  the  present 
day.  Its  bishojis  were  at  the  councils 
of  NicEea,  Laodicaja,  and  Constantinople; 
and  when  Tamerlane  destroj^ed  the  seats 
of  the  other  Christian  churches  and  mas- 
sacred the  Christians,  Philadelphia 
escaped,  and  was  an  asylum  for  some 
of  the  Christians  of  Sardis.  Even  the 
sceptical  Gibbon  speaks  of  its  preserva- 
tion as  remarkable.  A  solitary  pillar  is 
still  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  features 
of  the  town,  and  the  modern  name  is 
Allah  Shehr,  or  "city  of  God,"  seeming 
to  illustrate  the  promise  in  Rev.  3  :  12. 
The  modern  city,  situated  upon  four  or 
five  flat  summits  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Tmolus,  contains  about  3000  houses  and 
10,000  inhabitants,  mostly  Turks.  The 
dwellings  are  mean  and  badly  built,  and 
the  streets  filthj^.  The  ruins  include  a 
wall  and  about  25  churches.  In  one 
place  there  are  four  large  marble  pillars 
which  may  have  once  supported  the  dome 
of  a  church.  Tradition  points  out  an  old 
mosque  in  which  the  primitive  Chris- 
tians addressed  in  the  Apocalypse  are 
said  to  have  worshipped.  Earthquakes 
have  frequently  overthrown  the  city  and 
rendered  even  its  walls  unsafe. 

PHILE^MON,  a  native  of  Laodiesea 
and  a  resident  of  Colossae,  was  a  man 
of  means  and  influence,  the  head  of  a 
large  household  and  of  a  Christian  con- 
gregation in  his  own  house.  He  had  been 
converted  to  Christianity  through  Paul, 
probably  during  the  apostle's  stay  at 
Ephesus,  A.  D.  54-57,  and  appears,  from 
the  letter  addressed  to  him  by  Paul,  to 
have  been  a  large-hearted  and  sympa- 
thetic character. 

The  Epistle  of  Paul  to  Philemon 
was  written  at  the  same  period  as  those 
to  the  Ephesians  and  Colossians — that 
is,  toward  the  close  of  the  apostle's  first 
captivity  in  Rome,  A.  d.  62  or  63.  Ones- 
imus,  a  slave  of  Philemon's,  had  com- 
mitted some  crime — theft,  it  would  seem 
— and  fled  from  the  house  from  fear  of 
punishment.  Arrived  at  Rome,  he  met 
with  Paul,  and  was  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity :  and  when  he  was  ready  to 
return  penitently  to  his  former  master, 
the  apostle  furnished  him  with  a  letter 
bespeaking  for  him  a  good  reception  as 
a  brother  and  freeman  in  Christ. 

About  the  genuineness  of  the  letter 
there  can  be  no  doubt,  and,  though  short 
680 


and  occasioned  by  a  private  aff'air,  it  is  a 
"  gem  of  Christian  tenderness,"  and  an 
invaluable  testimony  to  the  character  of 
the  apostle  as  a  perfect  Christian  gentle- 
man. 

PHILE'TUS  (amiable),  one  whom 
Paul  associates  with  Hymeneus  as  an 
errorist.  2  Tim.  2  :  17.  "They  appear 
to  have  been  persons  who  believed  the 
Scriptures  of  the  0.  T.,  but  misinter- 
preted them,  allegorizing  away  the  doc- 
trine of  the  resurrection,  resolving  it  all 
into  figure  and  metaphor.  The  deliver- 
ing over  unto  Satan  seems  to  have  been 
a  form  of  excommunication  declaring  the 
person  reduced  to  the  state  of  a  heathen, 
and  in  the  apostolic  age  it  was  accom- 
panied with  supernatural  or  miraculous 
effects  upon  the  bodies  of  the  persons  so 
delivered." — Waterland:  Importance  of 
Doctrine  of  Holy  Trinity. 

PHILaP  [lover  of  hor.,es).  1.  The 
apostle,  a  native  of  Bethsaida,  and 
known  to  the  Lord  before  called  to  follow 
him.  He  is  always  mentioned  as  the  fifth 
among  the  twelve,  Matt.  10  :  3  ;  Mark  3  : 
18;  Luke  6: 14:  John  1 :  43-46  ;  Acts  1 : 
13,  but  the  Gospels  contain  only  a  few  no- 
tices of  him.  According  to  tradition,  he 
preached  in  Phrygia  and  died  at  Hier- 
apolis. 

2.  The  evangelist,  one  of  the  seven 
persons  appointed  to  the  ofiice  of  deacon 
in  the  primitive  church  in  Jerusalem, 
Acts  6  : 3-5,  and  who  preached  the  gospel 
with  great  success  in  Samaria.  Acts  8  : 
6-S.  While  there  he  received  a  divine 
intimation  to  go  southward  from  Samaria 
to  the  road  leading  from  Jerusalem  to 
Gaza.  In  the  course  of  his  journey  he 
found  a  distinguished  Ethiopian  trav- 
eller on  his  way  home  from  Jerusalem 
— probably  either  a  Jew  or  a  proselyte 
to  the  Jewish  religion — who  had  been 
to  the  city  to  celebrate  some  feast.  He 
was  an  ofiicer  of  high  rank  in  the  court 
of  Candaee,  queen  of  Ethiopia,  and  as 
he  was  sitting  in  his  chariot  in  the 
leisurely  pursuit  of  his  journey  he  read 
aloud  a  portion  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures. 
At  this  time  Philip  saw  him,  and  was 
divinely  admonished  to  approach  him. 
Without  hesitation  he  obeyed  the  sugges- 
tion, and  ran  to  overtake  the  chariot. 
He  overheard  the  traveller  reading  Isa. 
53  :  7,  8,  and  immediately  inquired  of  him 
if  he  understood  the  force  and  scope  of 
the  passage.     The  traveller  meekly  ac- 


PHI 


PHI 


knoAvledged  his  need  of  instruction,  and 
invited  Philip  to  take  a  seat  with  him  in 
the  chariot.  The  hitter  then  explained 
the  great  subject  of  redemption,  to  which 
the  passage  so  naturally  led  ;  and  the 
result  was  that  the  traveller  became  a 
convert  to  the  faith  of  the  gospel  and 
was  baptized.  Philip  was  next  found  at 
Azotus,  about  40  miles  from  Gaza,  and 
afterward  settled,  it  is  supposed,  in 
Ciysarea.  Acts  21  :  8.  He  had  four 
daughters,  who  were  endued  with  gifts 
of  prophecy.   Acts  21 :  9. 

3.  The  tetrarch.  Luke  3  :  1.  See 
Herod. 

4.  The  husband  of  Herodias.  Matt. 
14  :  3.     See  Herod. 

5.  The  foster-brother  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  who  appointed  him  regent 
of  Syria  and  guardian  of  his  son,  An- 
tiochus V.  1  Mace.  6  :  14,  15,  55.  He 
is  probably  identical  with  that  Philip 
who  was  made  governor  of  Jerusalem 
in  B.C.  170.  2  Mace.  5  :  22 ;  6  :  11. 

6.  King  of  Macedonia,  B.  c.  359-336, 
father  of  Alexander  the  Great.  1  Mace. 
1:1,-  6:1. 

7.  Another  king  of  Macedonia,  b.  c. 
220-179,  defeated  by  the  Romans.  1 
Mace.  8  :  5. 

PHILIP'PI  (see  Philip),  the  chief 
city  of  the  eastern  division  of  Macedo- 
nia, situated  near  the  borders  of  Thrace 
and  8  miles  north-west  of  Neapolis, 
which  was  its  seaport.  It  lay  between 
two  mountain-ranges,  and  a  paved  Ro- 
man road  led  over  the  steep  range  Sym- 
bolum  from  Neapolis  to  Philippi,  over 
which  Paul  went. 

History. — The  place  was  at  first  called 
Crenides,  or  ''fountains,"  from  its  numer- 
ous springs.  It  also  at  one  time  bore  the 
name  of  Datum.  Philip,  the  father  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  took  it  from  the 
Thracians,  garrisoned  it  as  a  frontier- 
town,  and  gave  it  his  name.  It  is  made 
famous  by  the  noted  battle  of  Philippi, 
fought,  B.  c.  42,  between  Octavius  and 
Antony  on  the  one  side,  and  Brutus  and 
Cassius  on  the  other.  In  honor  of  this 
victory  Augustus  made  Philippi  a  "  col- 
ony." These  colonies  were  miniature 
Romes  established  on  foreign  soil.  The 
Roman  law  was  administered,  and  the 
Roman  language  was  used  even  among 
natives  who  spoke  Greek. 

Scripture  References. — Philippi  was 
the  first  place  in  Europe  to  receive  the 


gospel.  Paul  and  Silas  preached  there ; 
Lydia  became  a  conirert ;  the  apostles 
cast  out  the  "  spirit  of  divination  "  from 
a  damsel ;  were  thrown  into  prison  and 
miraculously  delivered  ;  the  jailer  was 
converted.  Acts  16.  Afterward,  Paul 
revisited  Philippi,  and  perhaps  remain- 
ed for  a  considerable  time.  Acts  20  : 
1-6.  The  Christians  of  that  city  on 
four  occasions  sent  contributions  for 
his  support,  and  he  wrote  to  them  the 
Epistle  to  the  Philippians.  Ignatius 
visited  the  city,  A.  d.  107,  on  his  way 
to  Rome,  where  he  sviffered  martyrdom, 
and  Polycarp  sent  the  church  at  Phil- 
ippi all  the  letters  of  Ignatius  which 
Sardis  had  received,  thus  keeping  up 
their  sympathy  with  the  suff"ering  Chris- 
tians. 

Present  A2)pearance. — The  ruins  of  the 
citadel  are  still  seen  on  the  summit  of  a 
rounded  hill.  The  circuit  of  the  walls 
which  enclosed  the  hill  and  a  part  of  the 
plain  can  be  traced.  Next  to  the  theatre 
is  a  temple  of  Silvanus,  and  various  tab- 
lets show  the  list  of  donors,  the  members 
of  the  sacred  college,  etc.  Four  massive 
pillars  mark  the  site  of  the  forum,  where 
the  apostles  were  publicly  scourged. 

About  10  furlongs  to  the  west  of  Phil- 
ippi is  a  small  river  called  the  Gangas  or 
Gangites,  now  the  Bournabaclii,  which  is 
probably  the  place  where  the  Jews  had 
their  place  of  prayer. 

PHILIPPIANS,  EPIS'TLE 
TOj  is  the  eleventh  in  the  order  of  the 
books  of  the  N.  T.,  and  was  addressed 
by  Paul  to  the  Christians  at  Philippi, 
with  whom  he  appears  to  have  enter- 
tained particularly  friendly  relations. 
They  had  kindly  ministered  to  his  ne- 
cessities by  sending  Epaphroditus  to 
him  with  a  present  of  money  ;  and  when 
Epaphroditus  returned  to  Philippi,  Paul 
acknowledged  the  kindness  shown  to 
him  in  grateful  and  affecting  terms,  and 
took  occasion  to  warn  the  church  in 
Philippi  against  certain  Judaizing  teach- 
ers. The  second  chapter  contains  one  of 
the  most  important  passages  on  the  doc- 
trine of  the  person  of  Christ  and  his 
states  of  humiliation  and  exaltation. 
The  Epistle  was  probably  written  about 
62,  when  Paul  was  a  prisoner  at  Rome. 
About  its  genuineness  there  can  be  no 
reasonable  doubt. 

The  following  is  the  analysis  of  the 
Epistle  given  by  Dr.  Braune  in  Lange's 

681 


PHI 


PHI 


Commeniary :  I.  Address  and  salutation. 

1  : 1,  2.  II.  Situation  and  labors  of  the 
apostle  at  Rome.  1  :  3-26.  III.  The 
Lord's  example  and  pattern  for  the 
observance  of  the  church.  1  :  27-2  :  18. 
IV.     Paul's    assistants    and    colaborers. 

2  :  19-30.  V.  Warning  against  Juda- 
istic  false  teachers  and  wicked  deceiv- 
ers, in  contrast  with  the  apostle.  3  : 
1-4  :  1.  VI.  Final  exhortation  to  co- 
operation between  himself  and  the 
Philippian  church.  4:2-20.  VII.  Sal- 
utation and  benediction.  4  :  21-23. 

PHIJjIS'TIA  {land  of  sojourners), 
in  Ps.  60  :  8;  87  :  4;  108  :  9,  the  only 
places  where  the  word  ''  Philistia  "  oc- 
curs, is  the  same  Hebrew  word  elsewhere 
translated  "  Palestine."  "  Palestine  " 
originally  meant  only  the  district  in- 
habited by  the  '•  Philistines."  In  Ps. 
83  :  7  the  word  is  rendered  "  Philistines." 
Josephus  calls  these  people  "  Palestines." 

Situation  and  Extent. — Philistia,  or  the 
''  land  of  the  Philistines,"  included  the 
coast-plain  on  the  south-west  of  Pales- 
tine, from  Joppa  on  the  north  to  the 
valley  of  Gerar  on  the  south,  a  distance 
of  about  40  miles,  and  from  the  Medi- 
terranean on  the  west  to  the  Judsean  hills. 
Its  breadth  at  the  northern  end  was  10 
miles,  and  at  the  southern  about  20.  It 
appears  to  have  extended  as  far  inland 
as  Beersheba.  Gen.  21  :  33,  34 ;  26  :  1, 
14-18;  Ex.  23  :  31;  Josh.  13  :  2,  3. 
Warren  limited  it,  somewhat  more  close- 
ly, to  the  plain  reaching  32  miles  from 
Ekron  to  Gaza,  with  a  breadth  of  from 
9  to  16  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  plain  of  Sharon,  east  by  the 
hill-country,  south  by  "  the  south  coun- 
try," and  west  by  the  Mediterranean. 

Physical  Features, — Along  the  whole 
sea-board  are  white  sandy  dunes.  Behind 
these  is  the  broad  undulating  plain, 
from  50  to  300  feet  above  the  sea-level, 
with  a  deep  rich  soil.  To  the  east  of 
this  plain  is  found  a  series  of  low  spurs 
and  undulating  ground  culminating  in 
hogs'  backs,  running  nearly  north  and 
south,  and  rising  in  places  1200  feet 
above  the  ocean;  to  the  east  of  these  is 
a  steep  descent  of  about  500  feet  to  the 
valleys,  and  east  of  these  the  hill-country 
of  Judah  begins.  From  the  deep  and 
narrow  ravines  of  the  hill-country  rapid 
torrents  roll  during  the  rainy  season. 
On  coming  into  the  plain  the  water  forms 
marshes  and  pools,  and  quietly  sinks 
682 


away,  most  of  the  water  reaching  the 
ocean  underground.  The  sand  from  the 
shore  is  constantly  encroaching  upon  the 
fertile  land.  This  whole  great  maritime 
plain  was  called  in  the  Hebrew  the  She- 
phelah,  signifying  properly  '*low  coun- 
try," and  sometimes  so  rendered  in  the 
English  version,  2  Chr.  26:10;  28:18, 
as  likewise  the  "  low  plains,"  1  Chr.  27  : 
28  ;  2  Chr.  9:27;  the  "  plain,"  Jer.  17 : 
26;  the  "valley."  Josh.  11  :  16 ;  Jud. 
1:9. 

History. — The  origin  of  the  Philistines 
has  been  a  matter  of  much  discussion. 
That  the  Hebrews  regarded  the  Philis- 
tines as  a  branch  of  the  Caphtorim  is 
clearly  stated  in  Jer.  47  :  4 ;  Am.  9:7; 
Deut.  2  :  23.  In  the  last  text,  "  the  Caph- 
torims  which  came  forth  out  of  Caphtor  " 
are  said  to  have  destroyed  "  the  Avim 
which  dwelt  in  Hazerim  " — /.  e.,  in  the 
villages  —  "even  unto  Azzah  "  (Gaza). 
These  could  certainly  have  been  no  other 
than  the  Philistines.  The  Hebrew  words 
in  Gen.  10  :  14  which  are  translated 
"out  of  whom" — i.e.,  the  Casluhim — 
"came  Philistim  "  appear  to  mean,  not 
that  the  Philistines  were  descended  from 
the  Casluhim,  but  that  they  came  out  of 
or  passed  through  their  country.  The 
purport  of  the  two  passages  seems  there- 
fore to  be  that  the  Philistines  (or  Caph- 
torim) who  took  possession  of  the  Holy 
Land  entered  it  on  the  south-west  by 
way  of  the  land  of  the  Casluhim  (Egypt), 
having,  as  is  probable,  come  thither 
from  Crete.  But  although  the  balance 
of  authority  places  the  Caphtorim  in 
Crete,  the  evidence  is  by  no  means  con- 
clusive. The  Vulgate  in  several  places 
identifies  them  with  the  Cappadocians, 
and  some  modern  critics  identify  them 
with  the  Cyprians.  Baedeker  (Hand- 
book) says :  "  Their  original  home,  the 
land  of  Caphtor  or  Kaftor  (Kaft)  being 
the  same  word  as  Oypt  in  Egypt),  must 
have  been  in  the  Delta  of  the  Nile,  and 
not  in  Crete,  as  was  once  supposed." 

It  would  seem  that  the  Philistines  who 
were  settled  in  the  land  in  the  time  of 
Abraham,  whose  capital  was  Gerar  and 
whose  king  was  called  Abiinelcch,  Gen. 
21:  34;  .26:  14,  did  not  possess  Gaza 
or  either  of  the  five  Philistine  cities  that 
became  povverful  in  later  times.  In  Gen. 
10:  19,  Gaza  is  named  as  the  frontier- 
town  of  the  Canaanites  in  the  direction 
of    Gerar,  and  from  Deut.  2:  23  it  ap- 


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pears  that  the  Avims  held  it  till  they 
were  driven  out  by  the  Caphtorim.  This 
seems  to  indicate  a  second  immigration 
of  Philistines,  probably  direct  from 
Crete  or  Cyrus,  that  may  have  taken 
place  but  little  before  the  time  of  Moses. 
Abraham  found  them  in  possession  of 
the  "'south  country,"  but  they  seem  then 
to  have  treated  with  him  as  an  equal  in 
power.  He  made  a  treaty  with  their  chief, 
Abimelech,  at  Beersheba,  and  this  treaty 
was  renewed  in  the  days  of  Isaac.  Gen. 
21  :  32,  33:  26  :  12-23. 

But  at  the  Exodus  the  Philistines  seem 
to  have  been  such  a  mighty  and  warlike 
people  that  it  was  thought  best  for  the 
Israelites  to  avoid  their  land,  lest  "the 
people  repent  when  they  see  war,  and 
they  return  to  Egypt."  Ex.  13  :  17. 

Thenceforward,  during  the  whole  pe- 
riod of  0.  T.  history,  the  Israelites  and 
the  Philistines  were  frequently  brought 
in  contact.  The  Philistines  are  men- 
tioned three  hundred  and  ten  times  in 
the  0.  T.  from  Genesis  to  Zechariah,  but 
the  limits  of  this  article  will  allow  of 
only  the  briefest  outline  of  the  leading 
events. 


Philistine.     (From  an  Egy^dian  Painting.') 

The  land  of  the  Philistines  was  within 
the  limits  of  the  land  promised  to  Israel, 
Num.  34  :  5,  6;  Eze.  13  :  17;  23  :  31, 
and  it  was  assigned  to  Judah  and  Dan, 


Josh.  15  :  45-47 ;  19  :  41-45,  but  no  at- 
tempt to  conquer  it  was  made  under 
Joshua's  leadership.  They  had  a  league 
of  their  five  chief  towns,  Gaza,  Ashdod, 
Ashkelon,  Gath,  and  Ekron,  under  the 
direction  of  the  five  lords  or  kings. 

After  Joshua's  death  Gaza,  Ashkelon, 
and  Ekron  were  taken,  Jud.  1:18,  but 
not  ])ermancntly  held,  by  Israel.  The 
Philistines  gained  the  ascendency  and 
long  held  it,  although  occasionally 
shaken  off  for  a  brief  period,  as  by 
Shamgar,  Jud.  3  :  31;  10  :  7 ;  and 
Samson.  Jud.  13  to  16.  Even  Samson, 
who  broke  up  the  subjection  of  forty 
years,  did  not  succeed  in  permanently 
delivering  his  people  from  the  Philistine 
yoke.  Under  Eli  the  Israelites  again 
resisted,  but  were  defeated  at  Aphek, 
30,000  slain,  and  the  ark  captured. 
1  Sam.  4  :  1-11.  Under  Samuel's  leader- 
ship success  crowned  the  arms  of  Israel. 
1  Sam.  7  :  11-14.  When  Saul  became 
king  he  continued  the  contest  against 
the  ancient  foe,  and  Jonathan  and  his 
armor-bearer  began  the  fight  which  ter- 
minated in  the  slaughter  of  the  Philis- 
tines at  Michmash.  1  Sam,  13  and  14. 
David  killed  Goliath  later,  and  the 
Philistines  were  pursued  to  the  gates  of 
Gath  and  Ekron  with  great  slaughter 
(30,000  killed  and  60,000  wounded,  ac- 
cording to  Josephus).  1  Sam.  17. 

David,  after  inflicting  many  defeats 
upon  the  Philistines,  sought  refuge 
among  them  from  the  malignity  of  Saul. 

1  Sam.  19  :  8:  23  :  1-5:  27  :  1-7 ;  29; 
Ps.  56,  title.  Saul  and  his  sons  were 
slain  at  Gilboa  by  the  Philistines.  1  Sam, 
31;  1  Chr.  10  :  1.  When  David  became 
king  the  Philistines  attacked  him.  He 
defeated  them  at  Baal-perazim  and 
Rephaim.  During  Solomon's  reign  the 
Philistines  were  subjects,  1  Kgs.  2  :  39, 
40;  4  :  21,  24,  and  he  fortified  Gezer 
and  some  other  border-towns.  After 
the  division  of  Israel  the  Philistines  en- 
gaged in  hostilities  at  various  times 
with   both   kingdoms.    1    Kgs.  16  :  15; 

2  Chr.  21  :  16, 17.  Jehoshaphat,  Uzziah, 
and  Hezekiah  defeated  them.  2  Chr.  17 : 
11 ;  26  :  6 ;  2  Kgs.  18  :  8.  As  Philistia 
was  on  the  great  route  between  Egypt 
and  Assyria,  it  was  often  involved  in  the 
great  wars  between  those  powers.  Ash- 
dod was  taken  by  Sargon,  king  of  Assyria, 
after  a  siege  of  three  years,  Isa.  20  :  1, 
and  to  Sennacherib  most  of  the  towns 

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became  subject.  Isa.  36.  Pharaoh  took 
Gaza.  Jer.  47  :  1. 

Before  the  Jewish  Captivity  the  king- 
dom of  the  Philistines  had  disappeared, 
and  a  few  of  their  towns  only  retained 
some  importance.  Upon  the  return  from 
captivity*  some  of  the  Jews  married 
Philistine  women,  "  wives  of  Ashdod." 
Neh.  13  :  23.  After  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander the  power  of  the  Philistines  was 
entirely  gone.  Later  the  country  shared 
in  the  reverses  and  desolations  of  the 
Syrian  and  Egyptian,  Maccabsean,  and 
Jewish  and  Roman  wars. 

Customs,  Relifjion,  etc. — According  to 
all  accounts,  the  Philistines  far  surpassed 
the  Hebrews  in  culture,  and  in  war- 
chariots  and  cavalry  they  were  superior 
to  the  Israelites.  1  Sam.  13  :  5. 

The  heavy-armed  soldiers  wore  a  I'ound 
copper  helmet,  a  coat-of-mail,  brazen 
greaves.  Their  weapons  were  a  javelin 
and  long  lance,  and  each  had  an  attend- 
ant to  bear  his  shield  and  weapons,  like 
the  Greeks  in  the  Homeric  poems.  The 
light-armed  soldiers  were  archers.  The 
Philistines  had  fortified  encampments, 
surrounded  their  towns  with  lofty  walls, 
and  kept  the  territories  they  had  con- 
quered in  subjection  by  means  of  garri- 
sons. They  were  a  commercial  as  well 
as  a  warlike  people,  and  not  only 
competed  with  the  Phoenicians  by  sea, 
but  endeavored  to  keep  in  their  own 
hands  the  inland  and  caravan  traffic. 
Their  chief  god  was  Dagon,  Jud.  16  :  23  ; 
1  Sam.  5  :  l-o,  who,  as  well  as  the  god- 
dess Derketo,  had  the  form  of  a  fish. 
Baalzebub,  2  Kgs.  1:2,  3,  6,  16,  the 
fly-god  of  Ekron,  was  famed  for  his 
oracles.  On  their'  various  campaigns 
thev  took  their  idols  with  them.  2  Sam. 
5  :  21 ;  1  Chr.  14  :  12.  Their  seers  or 
prophets  seem  to  have  formed  a  distinct 
profession. 

Present  Condition. — It  is  a  remarkable 
fact  that  the  principal  towns  of  Philistia, 
Gaza,  Ashkelon,  Joppa,  Ashdod,  Lachish, 
and  Gath,  have  never  once  disappeared 
from  history,  but  exist  at  the  present 
day  under  the  names  of  Gazzeh,  Askalun, 
Yafa,  Esdud,  Umm  Lukis,  and  Beit 
Jihrin  —  that  is,  Beth  -  geborim,  *'the 
house  of  the  giants."  Many  other  of 
the  modern  names  also  preserve  the 
memory  of  the  old  Philistine  history 
and  worship.  Low  mounds  at  intervals 
show  the  sites  of  former  cities.  Four 
684 


and  a  half  miles  from  Gaza  a  colossal 
marble  statue  has  recently  been  discov- 
ered (1879).  The  total  height  of  the 
figure  is  15  feet.  The  hair  hangs  in 
long  ringlets  down  upon  the  shoulders, 
and  the  beard  is  long,  indicating  a  man 
of  venerable  age.  The  right  arm  is  bro- 
ken in  half,  while  the  left  arm  is  crossed 
over  the  breast  to  the  right  shoulder, 
the  hand  being  hidden  by  the  drapery 
of  a  cloth  covering  the  shoulders.  There 
is  no  inscription  on  the  figure  or  the 
pedestal,  which  is  a  huge  block  carved 
in  one  piece  with  the  figure.  The  statue 
was  found  in  a  recumbent  position,  bur- 
ied in  the  sand,  on  the  top  of  a  hill  near 
the  sea.  It  had  evidently  been  removed 
from  its  original  site,  which  is  unknown. 
Its  estimated  weight  is  12,000  pounds. 
Lieut.  Conder  thinks  it  is  the  statue  of 
Marnas  (the  Cretan  Jupiter),  the  god 
of  Gaza,  which  once  stood  in  the  princi- 
pal temple  of  Gaza,  but  which  had  been 
buried,  perhaps  at  the  time  of  the  de- 
struction of  the  temple,  by  Porphyrins, 
A.  D.  406.  See  Palestine  Exploration 
Fund's  Quarterly  Statement  for  January, 
1880. 

The  inhabitants  are  a  race  distinct 
from  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Palestine,  and  it  has  been  suggested 
that  the  fellaJnn,  or  peasantr}^,  are  of 
Canaanite  origin,  though  no  doubt  a 
mixed  race  as  now  constituted. 

For  the  present  condition  of  the  land 
of  the  Philistines,  see  Ashdod,  Ashkelon, 
Ekron,  Gath,  Gaza,  Gerar,  Gibbethon, 
Jabneel.  Metheg-amma,  Palestine. 

PHILIS'TIM,  PHILIS'TINE. 
See  above. 

PHILOL'OGUS(?earHe(;),  a  Chris- 
tian in  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sends  a 
salutation.   Rom.  16  :  16. 

PHILOS'OPHY.  During  his  visit 
to  Athens,  Paul  was  encountered  hy  cer- 
tain philosophers  of  the  Epicureans  and 
of  the  Stoics,  Acts  17  :  18,  the  two 
great  moral  schools  of  Greek  philosophy. 
This  is  the  only  instance  related  in  the 
N.  T.  of  an  encounter  between  Chris- 
tianity and  Western  speculation.  But 
Eastern  speculation,  in  many  ways  and 
under  many  forms,  tried  from  the  earliest 
times  to  penetrate  into  the  mysteries 
of  Christianity,  and  in  the  philosophy 
against  which  Paul  warned  the  Colos- 
sians,  Col.  2  :  8  e(  seq.,  we  recognize  not 
only  an  outgrowth  of  Eastern  speculg,- 


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tion,  but  the  prototype  of  that  phantastic 
mysticism  which  afterward  phiycd  so 
conspicuous  a  part  in  the  history  of  the 
Eastern  Church  under  the  name  of  (Inos- 
ticism.     Conip.  1  Tim.  6  :  20. 

PHIN'EHAS  [brazen  mouth).  1.  A 
son  of  Eleazar,  and  grandson  of  Aaron, 
Ex.  6  :  25:  1  Chr.  6:4,  50  filled  the 
office  of  high  priest  of  the  Jews  for 
nearly  twenty  years.  His  zeal  and 
promptitude  in  punishing  the  sin  of 
Zimri  turned  away  the  anger  of  the 
Lord  against  the  nation,  and  was  re- 
warded by  the  promise  to  his  family  of 
perpetual  succession  in  the  Jewish  priest- 
hood. Num.  25  :  6-15.  This  promise 
was  fulfilled ;  for  except  the  interval 
from  Eli  to  Zadok,  the  priesthood  con- 
tinued in  the  family  of  Phinehas  until 
the  destruction  of  the  temple  and  the 
captivity  of  the  nation. 

2.  A  son  of  Eli,  and  noted  for  his 
wickedness.  1  Sam.  1:3;  2  :  34;  4:4, 
11,  17,  19  ;  14  :  3. 

3.  A  Levite  in  the  time  of  Ezra.  Ezr. 
8  *  33. 

PHLE'GON  (flame),  a  Christian 
in  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent  salutation. 
Rom.  16  :  14. 

PHCE'BE,  a  distinguished  member 
of  the  church  at  Cenchra?a,  a  city  of 
Corinth.  Rom.  16  :  1.  She  is  called  a 
"servant  of  the  church"  (see  Dkacon- 
Ess) ;  and  the  strong  commendation  of 
the  apostle  shows  her  to  have  been 
prominent  in  works  of  faith  and  labors 
of  love. 

PHfENlCE.     See  Phenice. 

PHCENI'CIA,  a  country  north  of 
Palestine,  so  named  by  the  Greeks,  either 
from  the  abundance  of  palm  trees  or  from 
Phoenix,  the  brother  of  Cadmus.  It  was 
a  narrow  strip  of  country  between  the 
Lebanon  mountains  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  It  varied  in  extent  at 
diff"erent  periods,  sometimes  extending 
about  30  miles  from  the  "  Ladder  of 
Tyre"  to  the  Nahr  Auly,  2  miles  north 
of  Sidon,  and  sometimes  about  120  miles 
north  of  the  "  Ladder  of  Tyre."  Along 
the  shore  it  was  sandy,  but  behind  this 
sand-belt  was  fertile  land,  and  upon  the 
slopes  of  the  mountain  good  pasture  and 
excellent  timber.  Promonotories  jut  out 
into  the  sea,  making  good  harbors  and 
sites  for  towns,  as  at  Tyre,  Sidon.  and 
Beirut.  The  country  is  well  watered,  its 
principal  rivers  being  the  Leontes,  Bos- 


trenus,  Lycus,  or  "dog  river,"  Adonis, 
and  Eleutherus.  Its  principal  towns  are 
Arvad,  Tripoli,  Beirut,  Sidon,  and  Tyre. 

Phoenicia  was  included  in  the  Land  of 
Promise,  but  it  was  not  occupied  by  the 
Israelites.  Josh.  13  :  4-6  ;  Jud.  1:31,32. 
David  and  Solomon  traded  with  its  king, 
receiving  timber  from  its  territory,  and 
employing  its  sailors,  laborers,  and  skilled 
workmen.  2  Sam.  6  :  U  ;  1  Kgs.  5 :  9,  17, 18. 
Ahab  married  a  princess  of  this  country, 
and  there  Elijah  found  a  refuge.  1  Kgs. 
16  :  31 ;  17  :  9  ;  Luke  4  :  26.  Jesus  also 
visited  this  country — the  only  time  he 
passed  the  borders  of  Palestine.  Matt. 
15  :  21 ;  Mark  7  :  26.  Paul  visited  Tyre, 
Sidon,  and  Ptolemais.  Acts  21 :  2,  3,  7  : 
27  :  3. 

The  name  "Phoenicia"  does  not  occur 
in  the  0.  T. ;  in  the  N.  T.  it  appears 
once  as  "Phoenicia"  and  twice  as 
"  Phenice."  Acts  21  :  2;  11  :  19;  15  :  3. 
There  are  numerous  prophecies  in  the 
0.  T.,  however,  concerning  the  overthrow 
of  cities  in  this  country,  which  have  been 
signally  fulfilled.     See  Tyre  and  Sidon. 

Present  Condition. — Phoenicia  is  now 
a  land  of  ruins,  the  whole  shore  from  the 
"  Ladder  of  Tyre  "  northward,  according 
to  Porter,  being  strewn  with  them. 
"  Heaps  of  hewn  stones  and  quantities 
of  marble  tessera?  lay  in  my  path,  while 
broken  shafts  and  mounds  of  rubbish 
were  seen  to  the  right  and  left,  here 
crowning  a  cliff,  there  washed  by  the 
waves.  One  thing  I  specially  noticed : 
from  the  time  I  left  Achzib  till  I  reached 
the  fountains  [of  Tyre]  I  did  not  see  a 
human  being ;  a  mournful  and  solitary 
silence  reigns  along  Phoenicia's  coast." 
—  Giant  Cities,  p.  277.  Stanley  writes 
in  a  similar  strain  :  "  There  is  one  point 
of  view  in  which  this  whole  coast  is 
specially  remarkable.  'A  mournful  and 
solitary  silence  now  prevails  along  the 
shore  which  once  resounded  with  the 
world's  debate.'  This  sentence,  with 
which  (iibbon  solemnly  closes  his  chapter 
on  the  Crusades,  well  sums  up  the  general 
impression  still  left  by  the  six  days'  ride 
from  Beirut  to  Ascalon  :  and  it  is  no 
matter  of  surprise  that  in  this  impression 
travellers  have  felt  a  response  to  the 
strains  in  which  Isaiah  and  Ezekiel 
foretold  the  desolation  of  Tyre  and  Sidon. 
In  one  sense,  and  that  the  highest,  this 
feeling  is  just.  The  Phoenician  j)ower 
which  the  prophets  denounced   has  en- 

686 


PHCE 


PHE 


tirely  perished." — SiJiai  and  Palestine, 
p.  266. 

PHCENIC'IANS.  At  the  very 
dawn  of  history  the  Phoenicians  appear 
to  occupy  one  of  the  most  prominent 
phices  among  the  nations  of  the  earth. 
They  were  closely  related  to,  if  not 
identical  with,  the  Canaanites,  Gen.  10  : 
15,  and  of  the  whole  group  of  Semitic 
languages  their  language  was  nearest 
allied  to  the  Hebrew ;  indeed,  the  few 
remnants  of  the  Phoenician  tongue  — 
names  of  persons  and  places,  inscriptions 
on  coins  and  monuments,  etc. — which 
are  still  extant  can  be  interpreted  only 
by  means  of  Hebrew.  The  nation,  though 
cultured  in  literature  and  art,  was  de- 
based by  its  religion.  The  worship  of 
Baal  was  made  corrupt  and  revolting 
in  the  extreme.  While  the  burning  of 
children  to  this  god  may  have  originated 
in  the  idea  that  sin  required  some  blood- 
expiation,  the  form  of  the  sacrifice  was 
so  cruel,  and  many  features  of  the  wor- 
ship were  so  shameless,  that  they  tended 
to  destroy  all  virtue  in  the  people,  and 
the  nation  died  of  immoral  rottenness. 
Passion  and  licentiousness  were  deified 
in  connection  with  the  worship  of  Astarte, 
the  Phoenician  Venus.  2  Kgs.  23 :  7  :  Deut. 
23:17,  18;  1  Kgs.  14:24;  15:12;  22: 
46 ;  Hos.  4  :  14.  Their  religion  was  a  kind 
of  Nature-worship,  centering  in  the  idea 
of  generation,  and  most  of  their  gods, 
such  as  Baal,  Ashtaroth,  etc.,  seem  to  have 
had  a  double  signification — one  allegor- 
ical and  lofty,  and  another  literal  and 
sensuous.  Their  occupation  was  com- 
merce. They  maintained  commercial 
stations  on  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea 
and  all  along  the  coasts  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. They  worked  the  silver-mines 
of  Spain  and  the  lead-mines  of  Cornwall, 
and  their  sailors  brought  amber  from 
the  Baltic  and  tin  from  Britain.  Through 
their  commerce  they  became  the  bearers 
of  civilization,  and  from  them  both  the 
Greeks  and  the  Romans  learnt  the  use 
of  letters  and  of  coins,  of  the  compass 
and  of  astronomy  in  navigation,  of  glass, 
purple,  etc. 

Between  the  Jews  and  the  Phoenicians 
friendly  relations  seem  to  have  been 
established  very  early.  Palestine  was 
the  granary  of  the  Phoenician  cities,  and, 
indeed,  all  its  surjjlus  products — wheat, 
honey,  oil,  balm,  etc. — were  exported 
from  Tyre  and  Sidon,  Eze.  27  :  17,  as  the 
686 


Jews  had  no  ports  themselves.  Under 
King  David  these  friendly  relations 
grew  into  an  alliance,  and  the  conquest 
of  Edom  and  the  establishment  by  the 
Jews  of  a  harbor  at  Ezion-geber,  on  the 
Red  Sea,  did  not  cause  any  disturbance. 
Phoenician  mechanics  worked  at  the 
erection  of  the  temple  in  Jerusalem  be- 
side Jewish,  and  Phoenician  vessels  sailed 
together  with  Jewish  from  the  port  of 
Ezion-geber  for  Ophir  and  other  places. 
1  Kgs.  10  :  11,  22  ;  9  :  26-28  ;  1  Chr.  14  : 
1 ;  2  Chr.  8:18;  9:10.  After  the  seces- 
sion of  the  ten  tribes  the  Phoenicians 
sided  with  the  kingdom  of  Israel  and 
broke  the  old  covenant  with  Judah,  Joel 
3:4-8;  Am.  1  :  9,  10  ;  Isa.  23  ;  Eze.  28  ; 
they  even  went  so  far  as  to  sell  the  Jews 
to  the  Edomites  as  slaves.  The  influ- 
ence, however,  of  the  Phoenician  idolatry 
on  the  Israelites  was  very  baneful,  though 
it  would  seem  that  the  Phoenicians  them- 
selves were  not  so  very  an.\ious  to  make 
proselytes :  at  least,  they  did  not  inter- 
fere when  Elijah  sIcav  four  hundred  and 
fifty  prophets  of  Baal  at  the  brook  of 
Kishon.  1  Kgs.  18  :  40. 

PHRYG'IA  {cb-i/,  barren),  a  district 
of  Asia  Minor,  whose  limits  varied  so 
much  at  different  times  that  no  exact 
boundaries  can  be  given.  Its  settlement 
was  very  early.  Phrygian  traditions 
and  those  of  the  Egyptians  make  them 
the  most  ancient  race  of  men  in  the 
world.  Profane  writers  say  that  the 
Phrygians  migrated  from  Macedonia 
long  before  the  Trojan  war.  Phrygia  is 
mentioned  in  Homer's  Iliad.  It  then 
appears  to  have  included  a  large  part  of 
Central  Asia  Minor.  Later  it  was  divided 
into  Phrygia  Major  on  the  south,  and 
Phrygia  Minor  on  the  west.  It  was  of 
a  very  irregular  and  undefined  shape ; 
and  when  Galatia  was  a  part  of  it, 
Phrygia  touched,  so  it  was  said,  upon 
every  other  province  in  Asia  Minor. 
The  Romans  divided  it  into  three  dis- 
tricts. Part  of  it  belonged  to  the  prov- 
ince of  Asia  and  part  to  Cilicia,  and 
in  N.  T.  times  it  was  not  a  regularly- 
defined  Roman  province,  but  an  ancient 
country,  apportioned  to  other  provinces, 
but  mostly  included  in  the  province  of 
Asia.  Within  its  limits  were  the  cities 
of  Laodica^a,  Hierapolis,  Colossal,  and 
Antioch  of  Pisidia. 

Phrygia  is  mentioned  three  times  in 
the  book  of  the  Acts.    People  from  there 


PHU 


PHY 


were  present  at  Pentecost.  Acts  2  :  10, 
and  the  apostle  Paul  twice  traversed  the 
country.  Acts  16  :  G  ;  18  :  23.  Some  con- 
verts were  made,  and  we  find  Paul 
"  strengthening  all  the  disciples.''  Acts 
18  :  23.  At  the  Council  of  Nice,  A.  n. 
325,  the  Phrygian  churches  were  repre- 
sented bj'  eight  bishops,  and  still  more 
attended  the  Council  of  Constantinople, 
A.  I).  3S1. 

PHU'RAH  {hom/h),  the  armor- 
bearer  of  (iideon,  who  accompanied 
him  into  the  camp  of  the  Midianites. 
Jud.  7  :  10,  11. 

PHUT,  Gen.  10  :  G,  or  PUT,  Nah. 
3  :  9  (probably  a  botr),  the  name  of  the 
third  son  of  Ham  and  of  the  country 
occupied  by  his  descendants. 

VH.\JT\afflicted,  or  a  bow?},  Gen. 
10:6;  more  properly,  PUT,  1  Chr. 
1 :  8.  Phut  was  a  son  of  Ham,  and  pro- 
genitor of  an  African  people  of  the  same 
name,  though  sometimes  the  name  is 
rendered  "Libvfv''  or  "Libyans."  Jer. 
46  :  9 ;  Eze.  27  : 1 0  ;  30  :  5  :  38:5;  Nah. 
8  :  9.  These  people  probably  occupied 
Libya,  in  North  Africa,  to  the  west  of 
Lydia,  or  Ludim,  near  the  Mediterranean 
coast.  This  is  the  land  of  the  Moors  in 
modern  times. 

Mr.  Poole  would  identify  Phut  with 
Nubia,  south  of  Egypt.  The  Egyptian 
monuments  mention  a  people  called 
**  Pet,"  whose  emblem  was  a  bow  un- 
strung, and  who  dwelt  between  Egypt 
and  Ethiopia.  Phut  may  be  Pet,  or 
To-Pef,  and  therefore  modern  Nubia,  as 
To-meni-Pet  of  the  monuments  answered 
to  the  island  of  Meroe. 

PHU'VAH  {mouth),  a  son  of  Issa- 
char,  Gen.  46  :  13;  called  Pua  in  Num. 
26  :  23,  and  Puah  in  1  Chr.  7  :  1. 
I  PHYGEL'LUS  {fugitive),  a  Chris- 
tian of  Pronconsular  Asia  who  "turned 
away"  from  Paul.  Nothing  more  is 
known  of  him  than  his  name  and  this 
circumstance.  2  Tim.  1  :  15. 

PHYLACTERIES  {preservation, 
OT  sofegiiard,  with  reference  either  to  the 
preserving  of  the  words  of  the  Law  in 
the  memory  or  to  the  preservation  of  the 
person  from  danger,  as  by  the  amulets 
or  charms  of  modern  superstition).  The 
practice  of  using  phylacteries  was  found- 
ed on  a  literal  interpretation  of  Ex.  13  : 
9,  16;  Deut.  6:8;  11  :  18,  where  God 
commands  the  Hebrews  to  bear  the  Law 
in  their  hearts  and  in  their  heads,  and  it 


is  still  continued  in  our  days.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  ])hylacteries  —  one  to  be 
worn  on  the  forehead,  between  the  eye- 
brows, and  another  to  be  worn  on  tlie 
left  arm.  The  former  was  called  a 
"  frontlet,"  and  was  composed  of  four 
pieces  of  parchment,  on  the  first  of  which 
was  written  E.\.  12  :  2-10  ;  on  the  second, 
Ex.  13  :  11-21  ;  on  the  third,  Deut.  6  : 
4-9;  and  on  the  fourth,  Deut.  11 :  18-21. 
These  pieces  of  parchment,  thus  inscrib- 
ed, were  inclosed  in  a  piece  of  tough 
skin,  making  a  square,  on  one  side  of 
which  was  placed  the  Hebrew  letter  «/(?», 
ty,  and  this  box  was  tied  to  the  forehead 
with  a  thong  or  riband.  Some  wore  them 
both  evening  and  morning,  and  others 
only  at  morning  prayer. 


The  Phylactery. 

The  other  kind  of  phylacteries  con- 
sisted of  two  rolls  of  parchment,  written 
in  square  letters,  Avith  an  ink  made  on 
purpose,  and  with  much  care.  They 
were  rolled  up  to  a  point,  enclosed  in  a 
sort  of  case  of  black  calfskin,  and  then 
put  upon  a  square  bit  of  the  same 
leather,  whence  hung  a  thong  of  the 
same,  about  a  finger  in  breadth  and 
about  two  feet  long.  These  rolls  were 
placed  near  the  elbow  of  the  left  arm, 
and  after  one  end  of  the  thong  had  been 
made  into  a  little  knot  in  the  form  of 
the  Hebrew  letter  i/od,  ">,  it  was  wound 
about  the  arm  in  a  spiral  line,  which 
ended  at  the  top  of  the  middle  finger. 

PHYSI'CIAN.  It  was  natural 
that  the  Jews  should  have  learned  some- 
thing about  medicine  in  Egypt,  where, 
at  the  time  of  their  stay  in  the  country, 

687 


PIB 


PIL 


this  art  was  cultivated  with  great  zeal. 
It  also  appears  from  several  passages  in 
the  books  of  Moses  that  at  his  time  there 
were  not  only  midwives,  but  also  sur- 
geons and  physicians,  among  the  Jews. 
Thus  it  was  ordained,  Ex.  21  :  19,  that 
he  who  hurt  another  should  not  only  pay 
for  the  loss  of  time,  but  also  "cause  him 
to  be  thoroughly  healed."  At  a  later 
period  surgeons  and  physicians  became 
quite  numerous.  2  Chr.  16  :  12  ;  Jer.  8  : 
22;  Mark  5  :  26.  A  special  physician 
was  appointed  at  the  temple,  and  every 
parish  had  its  surgeon  and  physician. 
The  art,  however,  never  reached  any 
high  degree  of  perfection  in  Palestine, 
because  the  people  were  jjrevented  from 
acquiring  sufficient  anatomical  know- 
ledge by  their  great  aversion  to  contact 
with  dead  bodies;  and  to  the  last  we 
find  them  employing  amulets,  charms, 
invocations,  etc.,  as  remedies.  Some 
medical  knowledge  was  demanded  of 
the  priests,  who  exercised  a  kind  of 
sanitary  superintendence ;  also  the 
prophets  gave  medical  advice.  2  Kgs. 
4  :  18;  20  :  7.  But  generally  medicine 
was  cultivated  as  a  separate  profession. 
Luke  was  a  physician.  Col.  4  :  14. 

PI-BE' SET  H,  OR  PIB'- 
ESETH,  a  city  of  Lower  Egypt, 
named  from  the  goddess  Bubastis.  The 
hieroglyphic  name  is  "  Pe-Bast,"  "  the 
house  of  Bast,"  the  Egyptian  Artemis, 
the  goddess  of  fire,  the  calf-headed 
goddess,  also  shown  with  a  lion's  head. 
The  name  appears  in  Scripture  only  as 
one  of  the  cities  of  Egypt  which  Ezekiel 
foretold  would  be  destroyed.  Eze.  30  :  17. 
From  this  it  would  seem  to  have  been  a 
city  of  great  importance.  The  name 
appears  occasionally  in  Egyptian  annals. 
An  earthquake  is  mentioned  on  Mane- 
tho's  list  which  took  place  there  about 
B.  c.  2470.  Herodotus  speaks  of  the 
temple  of  the  goddess  Bubastis,  whom 
he  identifies  with  the  Greek  Artemis,  as 
the  most  beautiful  he  had  ever  seen.  It 
was  built  of  the  finest  red  granite,  in  the  j 
midst  of  a  sacred  enclosure  600  feet  I 
square.  } 

Ruins  still  bearing  the  name  of  Fel  i 
Besta  mark  the  site  of  the  ancient  city,  ' 
which  was  situated  on  the  eastern  or  i 
Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Delta,  some  20  : 
miles  from  the  Nile  and  40  miles  north-  I 
east  of  Memphis.  Remains  of  the  an-  i 
cient  houses  of  brick  and  of  a  fortress  \ 
688 


are  found.  The  temple  is  entirely  ruined, 
but  the  names  of  several  of  the  sover- 
eigns have  been  traced  out,  including 
those  of  Rameses  II.  and  Shishak.  The 
city  was  taken  by  the  Persians,  b.  c.  352, 
and  the  walls  were  overthrown.  It  con- 
tinued to  exist,  however,  as  a  consider- 
able city  under  the  Roman  empire. 

PICT'URE.     See  Paint. 

PIECE  OF  GOLD— 6.(7,  2  Kgs. 
5  :  5 — should  be  "  shekels  of  gold,"  as 
there  was  no  coined  money  in  Pales- 
tine before  the  Persian  period. 

PIECE  OFMON'EY.  See  Money. 

PIECE  OF  SILVER.  In  the 
0.  T.  the  word  "  pieces,"  in  every  pas- 
sage but  one,  is  inserted  in  the  A.  V., 
the  phrase  being  "  a  thousand,"  or  the 
like,  "  of  silver,"  and  may  be  interpreted 
"shekels,"  as  the  shekel  was  the  common 
weight  for  money.     See  Money. 

In  the  N.  T.  ''piece  of  silver"  is  the 
translation  of  "  drachma,"  Luke  15  :  8, 
and  of  a  coin  of  uncertain  value,  prob- 
ably shekel.   Matt.  26  :  15. 

PI'ETY  occurs  only  once  in  our 
version,  1  Tim.  6  :  4,  where  it  denotes 
the  reverence  which  children  owe  their 
parents. 

PIG'EON.     See  Dove. 

PIHAHI'ROTH  [moutTi,  or  en- 
trance of  caverns,  or  i)lfice  of  reservoirs), 
the  last  place  where  the  Israelites  en- 
camped before  crossing  the  Red  Sea. 
Ex.  14  :  2,  9;  Num.  33  :  7,  8.  Robinson 
identifies  it  with  Ajrud,  12  miles  from 
Suez,  now  a  watering-place  for  caravans, 
and  is  approved  by  Lepsius.  In  a  curi- 
ous papyrus  deciphered  by  Chabas  it  is 
said  that  Pehir  (which  seems  to  be  the 
same  as  Pihahiroth)  was  the  place  from 
which  King  Rameses  was  supplied  with 
garlands  of  beautiful  flowers.  Stanley 
says  that  there  is  now  no  appearance 
of  verdure  there. 

PI'LATE,  John  19  :  1,  or  PON'- 
TIUS  PI'LATE,  Matt.  26  :  2,  was 
appointed  procurator  of  Judaea,  A.  D.  • 
29.  The  proper  residence  of  the  pro- 
curator was  Caesarea,  but  it  was  custom- 
ary for  him  to  go  to  Jerusalem  at  the 
great  festivals  for  the  purpose  of  secur- 
ing order  and  safety  in  the  city,  and  thus 
it  happened  that  Pilate  was  present  in 
Jerusalem  during  the  Passover  when  our 
Lord  suffered  death.  The  chief  duty  of 
the  procurator  respected  the  revenues, 
but  in  a  minor  territory,   such  as  Ju- 


PIL 


PTN 


daea,  which  was  dependent  on  a  larger 
contiguous  province  (Syria),  the  procu- 
rator was  the  head  of  the  whole  ad- 
ministration, and  held  the  highest  mili- 
tary and  judicial  authority;  and  thus 
Pilate  became  the  judge  of  our  Lord. 

The  administration  of  Pilate  was  ex- 
tremely oflfensive  to  the  Jews,  and  more 
than  once  he  drove  them  to  the  very 
verge  of  insurrection.  He  seems  to  have 
nourished  a  special  contempt  for  them 
and  taken  pleasure  in  showing  it,  but 
when,  by  cruelty  and  perfidy,  he  had 
brought  them  into  a  rage,  he  generally 
became  frightened  and  yielded.  Having 
transferred  the  military  headquarters 
from  Caesarea  to  Jerusalem,  he  sent  the 
standards  with  the  images  of  the  em- 
peror into  the  city.  As  soon  as  this 
became  known  the  Jews  rushed  in  great 
multitudes  down  to  Csesarea,  and  de- 
manded to  have  the  standai'ds  removed, 
because,  as  idols,  they  defiled  the  Holy 
City.  Pilate  permitted  the  multitude  to 
be  surrounded  by  soldiers,  and  told  them 
to  disperse  quietly  or  else  they  would  be 
massacred.  But  when  the  Jews  declared 
that  they  would  die  rather  than  tolerate 
the  images  of  the  emperor  within  the 
walls  of  Jei*usalem,  Pilate  was  frightened 
and  yielded. 

The  principal  feature  in  the  character 
of  Pilate  was  weakness,  and  it  became 
piteously  apparent  during  the  trial  of 
our  Lord.  When  Jesus  was  arraigned 
before  him  he  was  not  only  anxious  to 
avoid  trying  him,  but  he  once  and  again, 
in  the  most  solemn  and  impressive  man- 
ner, even  in  presence  of  his  malicious 
and  bloodthirsty  persecutors,  declared 
his  conviction  of  his  perfect  innocence. 
He  even  remonstrated  with  them  on  the 
iniquity  and  unreasonableness  of  their 
conduct,  and  would  fain  throw  upon 
them  the  whole  responsibility  of  the 
deed  they  were  about  to  perpetrate. 
Nevertheless,  as  soon  as  he  saw  that 
the  acquittal  of  Jesus  might  be  so  con- 
strued as  to  arouse  the  suspicion  of  the 
emperor,  he  renounced  his  own  conviction 
and  delivered  up  the  innocent  Saviour 
to  the  hands  of  the  enraged  multitude 
to  be  crucified. 

In  36  the  governor  of  Syria  raised  some 
severe  accusations  against  Pilate,  who 
went  to  Rome  to  defend  himself  before 
the  emperor.  He  did  not  succeed,  how- 
ever, and  was  banished  to  Vienne,  in 
44 


Gaul,  and  there,  or,  according  to  another 
tradition,  on  the  mountain  near  Lake 
Lucerne  which  bears  his  name,  he 
committed  suicide  shortly  after.  The 
Fathers  speak  often  about  an  oflficial 
report  of  the  trial  and  condemnation 
of  our  Lord  sent  by  Pilate  to  Tiberius, 
but  the  Acta  Pi/ati  now  extant  are 
spurious. 

PIL'DASH  (Jlame  of  fire),  a  son 
of  Nahor,  Abraham's  brother.  Gen. 
22  :  22. 

PIL'EHA,  one  of  the  chiefs  who 
signed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah. 
Neh.  10  :  24. 

PILi'LAR.  This  word  is  often  used 
metaphorically  in  the  Bible,  thus  a  pil- 
lar of  fire,  cloud,  smoke,  etc.,  denoting  a 
fire,  a  cloud,  or  a  mass  of  smoke  in  the 
form  of  a  pillar.  Ex.  13  :  21 ;  Jud.  20  : 
40.  Besides,  in  architecture,  where  it 
was  employed  both  as  support  and  orna- 
ment, it  was  common  to  erect  a  pillar  as 
a  monument  of  some  distinguished  per- 
son or  event.  Gen.  28  :  18;  35  :  20; 
Josh.  24  :  26. 

"  The  plain  of  the  pillar,"  Jud.  9  :  6, 
properly  the  "  oak  of  the  pillar,"  a  tree 
near  Shechem  under  which  Abimelech 
was  crowned. 

PIL'LAR  OF  SALT.     See  Salt. 

PILL'ED.  Gen.  30:37.  The  same 
with  "peeled." 

PIL'LiOW,  a  cushion  for  the  head. 
Mark  4  :  38.  Jacob  used  a  stone  for  his 
pillow.  Gen.  28  :  11,  18;  in  Eze.  13  :  18, 
20  pillows  are  spoken  of  as  an  ajipli- 
ance  of  luxury. 

PIL'TAI  (rohom  Jehovah  delivers),  a 
priest.  Neh.  12  :  17. 

PINE.  Isa.  41  :  19  ;  60  :  13.  This 
is  mentioned  as  a  tree  of  Lebanon.  The 
root  of  the  original  word  denotes  "curv- 
ature "  or  "  duration,"  neither  of  which 
meanings  suits  the  pine.  Tristram  sug- 
gests the  elm,  a  species  of  which  grows 
upon  Lebanon,  and  Gesenius  the  oak, 
but  the  proper  translation  is  very  doubt- 
ful. Another  word  is  rendered  "pine 
branches  "  in  Neh.  8:15,  where  the  Oil 
Tree  (to  which  refer)  is  undoubtedly 
meant.     (See  cut,  p.  690.) 

PIN'NACliE.  The  word  translated 
"  pinnacle,"  Matt.  4:5;  Luke  4  :  9, 
signifies,  not  a  summit,  but  a  wing  ;  and 
the  part  of  the  temple  to  which  our 
Lord  was  taken  by  Satan  was  probably 
the  elevation  over  the  roof  of  Solomon's 

689 


PIN 


PIS 


porch,  to  which  there  was  a  passage  by 
stairs,  and  which  overlooked  the  valley 
on  the  east,  and  had  beneath  a  perpen- 
dicular depth  of  000  or  700  feet,  for  at 
this  part  of  the  valley  a  wall  had  been 


The  Eastern  Pine. 

carried  up  to  a  level  with  the  ground  on 
which  the  temple  stood  (some  historians 
say  750  feet). 

PI^NON  {darkness),  one  of  the  dulses 
of  Edom.  Gen.  36  :  41 ;  1  Chr.  1  :  52. 
His  tribe  was  settled,  according  to  later 
traditions,  at  Punon,  one  of  the  stations 
of  the  Israelites  in  the  wildei-ness. 

PINS.     See  Nail,  Weaving. 

PIPE,  OR  FLUTE,  similar  to  the 
present  instrument,  was  the  principal 
perforated  wind  instrument  among  the 
Hebrews,  as  the  harp  was  the  principal 
string  instrument.  It  was  made  of 
different  materials,  reed,  copper,  bronze, 
etc.,  and  was  played  on  all  occasions — the 
procession,  1  Kgs.  1  :  40,  the  banquet, 
Isa.  5  :  12,  the  wedding,  the  funeral. 
Matt.  9  :  23.  Thus,  in  times  of  joy 
and  in  times  of  sorrow,  in  the  religious 
festivals  and  in  pi'ivate  life,  the  pipe, 
the  simplest,  and  probably  the  oldest, 
690 


musical    instrument,  was    heard.      See 
Mrsic  and  Musical  Ixstruments. 

Pl'RAM{\)erha.Y>sJieetastheioildass), 
king  of  Jarmuth,  one  of  the  Amorite  chiefs 
in  the  time  of  Joshua.     Josh.  10  :  3. 

PIR'ATHON  {prince- 
ly), Si  place  in  Ephraim,  the 
home  and  burial-place  of 
Abdon,  one  of  the  judges  of 
Israel.  Jud  12  :  15.  One  of 
David's  mighty  men  was  a 
Pirathonite.  1  Chr.  27:  14; 
11  :  31  ;  2  Sam.  23  :  30. 
Robinson  proposed  Ferata, 
6  miles  from  Shechein  ;  the 
Pal.  Memoirs  suggest  Feron, 
a  hamlet  on  the  edge  of  a 
plain,  10  miles  west  of  Sa- 
maria, as  its  site. 

PIRATHONITE, 
THE.  1.  One  of  the 
judges  of  Israel,  Abdon 
ben-Hillel.  Jud.  12  :  13,  15. 
2.  A  captain  in  David's 
army,  and  one  of  the  king's 
guard.  1  Chr.  27  :  14;  2 
Sam.  23  :  30 ;  1  Chr.  11  : 
31. 

PIS'GAH"(/^///,  or  the 
height),  the  summit  from 
which  Moses,  before  his 
death,  gained  his  view  of 
the  Promised  Land.  It  was 
in  Moab,  one  of  the  moun- 
tains of  Abarim,  and  the 
top  of  Nebo.  It  was  in 
the  territory  afterward  assigned  to  Reu- 
ben, and  thus  was  north  of  the  Arnon. 
Num.  21 :  20  ;  Deut.  3:27;  4 :  49  ;  34  :  1 ; 
Josh.  13  :  20.  Pisgah  had  cultivated 
land.  Balaak  brought  Balaam  ''into  the 
field  of  Zophim,  to  the  top  of  Pisgah," 
and  there  ''  built  seven  altars."  Num. 
23  :  14. 

Situation. — While  the  general  position 
of  Pisgah  is  clearly  given  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, the  precise  location  has  been 
sharply  disputed,  and  is  yet  unsettled. 
So  able  a  writer  as  Dean  Stanley  says  : 
"In  the  long  line  of  those  Eastern 
mountains  which  so  constantly  meet 
the  view  of  the  traveller  in  all  the 
western  parts  of  Palestine,  the  eye 
vainly  strives  to  discern  any  point 
emerging  from  this  horizontal  plat- 
form which  may  be  fixed  as  the  top 
of  Nebo.  Nothing  but  a  fuller  descrip- 
tion than  has  ever  yet  been   given  of 


PIS 


PIS 


these  regions  can  determine  the  spot 
where  the  great  hiwgiver  and  leader  of 
his  people  looked  down  upon  their  em- 
battled ranks,  and  over  the  *  land  which 
he  was  to  see  with  his  eyes,  but  was  not 
to  go  in  thither.'" — Sinai  and  Palestine, 
p.  294. 

Some  scholars  have  questioned  whether 
"pisgah"is  a  proper  name.  It  occurs 
eight  times  in  Scripture  :  four  times  with 
Ashdoth.  In  Deut.  4  :  4,  9  the  English 
version  reads  '*  springs  of  Pisgah."  The 
Septuagint  renders  "  Pisgah  "  and  '*Ash- 
doth-pisgah  "  as  a  proper  name  only  four 
times ;  the  Jewish  Targums  render  it 
"hill."  The  English  version  regards  it 
as  a  proper  name,  and  it  has  a  promi- 
nent place  in  Christian  literature. 

The  great  interest  which  Nebo  and 
Pisgah  possess,  as  the  scene  of  the  last 
days  of  Israel's  lawgiver,  has  led  recent 
travellers  carefully  to  explore  the  region 
in  order  to  discover  the  location  of  these 
historic  peaks.  Robinson  long  ago  sug- 
gested that  the  name  Nehd  might  repre- 
sent the  ancient  Nebo.  In  1868,  De 
Saulcy,  when  about  an  hour's  ride  from 
Hesban  on  his  way  to  Ma'in,  found  a 
peak  which  the  Arabs  called  Jehel  Nebd. 
This  he  regarded  as  the  long-lost  Nebo, 
and  says  he  was  proud  to  recover  the 
famous  mount  so  long  searched  for  with- 
out success.  Among  other  explorers  who 
have  visited  the  region  are  Tristram  in 
1864,  and  again  in  1872  ;  Due  de  Luynes, 
1864 ;  Captain  Warren,  1867 ;  and  the 
expeditions  of  the  American  Exploration 
Society  in  1873  and  1877. 

In  1875  the  American  Society  issued 
an  extended  statement  on  the  identifica- 
tion of  Pisgah  by  the  Rev.  J.  A.  Paine. 
He  thinks  De  Saulcy  mistook  the  height 
of  Nebi  'AhdiiUdh  for  Jehel  Nebd;  he 
likewise  rejects  the  description  of  Tris- 
tram as  inaccurate,  and  infers  that  Due 
de  Luynes  may  have  "  suppressed  the 
real  name,  Jebel  Nebd,  and  endeavored 
to  substitute  a  term  of  his  own,  Jebel 
Mnsd,  as  the  Arabic  name  of  the  moun- 
tain," though  he  holds  *'  that  the  mem- 
bers of  Due  de  Luynes'  party  were  the 
first  to  ascend  Mount  Nebo  with  a  con- 
sciousness that  they  were  standing  on 
the  summit  supposed  to  be  made  sacred 
by  the  death  of  the  great  lawgiver."  Mr. 
Paine  claims  to  have  discovered  that  the 
name  Jebel  Siayhah  is  aj>plied  by  the 
Arabs  to  the  extreme  western  headland 


or  peak  near  Jebel  Nebd  ;  and  after  noti- 
cing the  extent  of  the  view  and  the  grand- 
eur of  the  scenery  declares  :  "  Two  con- 
clusions are  irresistible — namely  :  the 
highest  portion  of  the  range  is  Nebo  :  the 
extreme  headland  of  the  range  is  Pis- 
gah." He  urges  in  favor  ».f  this  identi- 
fication of  Pisgah  with  Jebel  Sint/hah: 
(1)  the  similarity  in  the  names;  (2)  the 
position  of  Siaghah,  "  the  only  headland 
overlooking  the  circuit  of  the  Jordan — 
the  place  above  all  others  to  be  selected 
for  the  sake  of  a  remarkable  view ;" 
Mr.  Paine  says:  ''Two-thirds  of  the 
Dead  Sea  stretches  out  an  azure  sheet 
to  the  southward,  and  beyond  it  the 
Negeb  Moses  saw."   Deut.  34  :  1-4. 

His  theory  of  the  site  of  Pisgah  is 
sharply  questioned  by  Wolcott,  Tris- 
tram, Warren,  and  others,  chiefly  on  the 
ground  that  it  fails  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  biblical  narrative,  and  that 
Siayhah  is  not  the  modern  equivalent  of 
Pisgah.  Merrill,  as  the  results  of  a 
later  exploration,  says  :"Mr.  Paine  makes 
the  lowest  and  most  western  of  his  five 
flat  summits  to  be  the  Pisgah  of  Moses. 
The  most  prominent  summit  directly 
south  of  'Ayfin  Mtisa  is  called  by  Due 
de  Luynes  Jebel  Musa,  and  is  covered 
with  ruins."  Mr.  Paine's  theory  places 
Pisgah  a  quarter  of  a  mile  south-west  of 
this  ruin  summit,  while  Due  de  Luynes 
regards  a  higher  peak  in  the  opposite 
direction  as  Pisgah.  Merrill  favors  this 
"highest  point  and  most  commanding 
outlook"  as  the  probable  point  to  which 
Moses  ascended.  (See  East  of  the  Jor- 
dan, pp.  242-250.)  The  biblical  state- 
ment seems  to  designate  the  summit  of 
Nebo,  Deut.  34  :  1  ;  and  if  Nebo  is  Jebel 
Nebd,  as  many  explorers  now  hold,  then 
Pisgah  should  be  its  most  prominent 
peak.  The  Due  de  Luynes  gives  the 
following  graphic  description  of  the 
view  from  this  mount : 

"Observing  that  a  second  height  of 
this  mountain  seemed  more  elevated  and 
to  give  a  perspective  of  greater  extent 
over  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Holy  Land, 
we  proceed  thither.  In  spite  of  the  hazy 
state  of  the  horizon,  we  ascertained  that 
from  this  elevation  one  discerned  the 
north  and  the  north-west  shore  of  the 
Dead  Sea  from  the  mouth  of  the  Jordan 
as  far  as  nearly  to  Jebel  Esdoum  and  to 
Jebel  Safda,  the  whole  mountain-chain 
from  Hebron  to  the  Quarantania  Mount, 

691 


PIS 


PIT 


all  the  land  from  the  mountain  of  Hes- 
ban,  of  Jehel  Oshn,  and  of  es-Salt,  even 
into  the  Ghor,  to  the  mountains  of 
Nahlus,  of  Jenin,  and  of  Nazareth, 
Mount  Tabor,  a  part  of  its  plain,  and 
even  Banias,  as  our  guides  assured  us : 
only  they  said  that  one  could  not  see 
the  snow  of  Hermon,  even  in  the  purest 
atmosphere.  The  perspective  of  that 
elevated  spot  was  without  limits,  and 
its  effect  of  the  utmost  majesty.  It  is  un- 
derstood that  tradition  [Scripture]  causes 
Moses  to  be  conducted  to  this  place  by 
Jehovah,  in  order  to  show  him  all  the 
Promised  Land.  The  view  from  this 
second  height  does  not  reach  as  far  as 
the  place  where  Segor  is  admitted  to  be, 
the  refuge  of  Lot,  whether  situated  at 
Wddy  es-Safieh,  or  supposed  to  lie  in 
Wddy  Eddida.  .  .  .  We  were,  then,  on 
the  summit  of  Pisgah,  among  the  heights 
of  Mount  Nebo,  and  in  the  chain  called 
Abarim :  we  were  beholding  the  same 
spectacle  that  Jehovah  spread  before 
Moses,  after  having  prohibited  him  from 
crossing  the  Jordan." — Voyage  d'Ex- 
2)lorati<}n  a  la  Mer  Morte  (1866-67),  pp. 
150-152. 

PISID'IA  {pitchy),  a  district  of  Asia 
Minor.  The  boundaries  varied  at  dif- 
ferent times.  It  lay  to  the  north  of 
Pamphylia  and  to  the  south  of  Phrygia, 
and  was  during  the  republic  contained 
in  the  province  of  Cilicia. 

The  ranges  of  the  Taurus  Mountains 
extended  through  it,  and  the  mountains 
are  cut  by  deep  defiles,  through  which 
dash  rapid  torrents.  The  inhabitants 
also  were  rough  highlanders,  famous  for 
their  warlike  character,  and  long  main- 
taining their  independence.  They  were 
also  notorious  robbers,  and  in  this  region 
Paul  may  have  been  "  in  perils  of  waters, 
in  perils  of  robbers."  2  Cor.  11  :  26. 

Paul  twice  visited  Pisidia,  passing 
directly  north  from  Perga  to  Antioch, 
Acts  13  :  14,  and  again  returning  through 
Pisidia  to  Pamphylia.  Acts  14  :  21-24. 
See  Antioch. 

PI'S  ON  {the  full-flowing,  Gesenius, 
or  the  free-flowing,  Fiirst),  one  of  the 
four  "  heads  "  into  which  the  stream  that 
watered  Eden  was  parted.  Gen.  2  :  11. 
There  have  been  numberless  conjectural 
identifications  of  the  Pison,  which  of 
course  will  depend  for  their  likelihood 
upon  the  location  of  Eden,  which  see. 
If  Eden  was  in  Armenia,  near  the  sources 
692 


of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  then  the 
ancient  Pison  may  be  the  modern 
Phasis. 

The  Rev.  L.  W.  Bacon  sums  up  these 
views  by  stating  that  "  for  the  river  of 
Havilah,  the  Pison,  some  like  (for  the 
sound  of  the  name  doubtless)  the  Pha- 
sis ;  others  (because  it  is  so  great  and 
beautiful),  the  Halys ;  and  others,  the 
Cyrus,  flowing  into  the  Araxes."  The 
above  writer  would  identif}^  the  Pison 
with  the  Jnrak  or  Acampis,  that  rises  in 
the  same  mountain  with  the  Araxes  and 
the  Euphrates,  and  bounds  Colchis  on 
the  west. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  Eden  was  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Euphrates,  some  would 
identify  the  Pison  with  the  river  Jaah, 
which  empties  into  the  Tigris  near 
Kurnah.  —  Newman's  Babylon,  p.  68. 
Among  other  streams  which  have  been 
suggested  as  identical  with  the  Pison 
are  the  Indus,  the  Ganges,  the  Hyphasis, 
the  Nile,  etc.  Dr.  Tayler  Lewis  sug- 
gests the  northern  shore  of  the  Arabian 
Sea.  —  Lange's  Genesis,  p.  219.  See 
Havilah. 

PIS'PAH  {expansion),  an  Asherite 
chief.  1  Chr.  7  :  38. 

PIT.  This  term  is  used  to  render 
several  Hebrew  words.  It  denotes  a 
cistern  or  a  reservoir,  which  the  Eastern 
people  are  in  the  habit  of  preparing  in 
those  regions  where  there  are  few  or  no 
springs  for  the  purpose  of  preserving 
rain-water  for  travellers  and  cattle. 
These  cisterns  and  trenches  are  often 
without  water,  there  being  no  supply 
for  them  except  from  the  rain.  It  was 
into  such  a  dry  cistern  that  Joseph 
was  cast.  In  old  decayed  cisterns  the 
water  leaks  out  or  becomes  slimy,  and 
such  a  pit  becomes  the  image  of  drear- 
iness and  misery.  Jer.  2  :  13  ;  Ps.  40  :  2  ; 
Zech.  9  :  11. 

Next,  the  word  is  used  for  the  grave 
and  as  an  image  of  the  realm  of  death, 
Ps.  28  :  1  ;  30  :  3,  9 ;  88  :  4,  and  finally 
it  is  employed  as  the  name  of  the  game- 
trap.  Eze.  19  :  8.  The  pit  here  spoken 
of  is  used  at  this  day  in  all  wild  coun- 
tries. A  deep  hole  in  the  earth  is  covered 
very  slightly  with  boughs  or  shrubs, 
upon  which  is  placed  a  living  lamb, 
which  by  its  cries  allures  the  lion  or 
wolf;  and  when  the  beast  makes  a  sud- 
den spring  upon  his  prey,  he  is  caught 
in   the  pit  below.     This  aff"ords   a  sig- 


PIT 


PLA 


nificant  figure  of  the  devices  of  crafty 
men  and  devils.  Ps.  119  :  85  ;  Prov.  26  : 
27;  Eze.  19  :  4. 

PITCH.  This  word  is  used  in  the 
Bible  for  asphalt  or  bitumen,  a  light, 
inflammable,  and  nearly  black  mineral 
which  in  its  soft  form  is  called  slime. 
Gen.  14  :  10.  In  this  latter  state  it  was 
formerly  obtained  in  pits  near  the  Dead 
Sea  (hence  called  the  "  Lake  of  Asphal- 
tites  ").  On  exposure  this  pitch  becomes 
dry  and  hard  like  mortar,  for  which  it 
was  often  used,  especially  in  stone-work. 
It  was  also  employed  for  coating  the 
outside  of  vessels  and  for  making  water- 
tight the  papyrus  boats  of  Egypt.  Gen. 
11 :  3  ;  6:14;  Ex.  2  :  3.  There  is  refer- 
ence to  its  inflammable  nature  in  Isa. 
34  :  9.  The  ancients  obtained  pitch  in 
various  localities  of  the  Old  World.  At 
the  present  time  fragments  of  asphalt 
occasionally  rise  from  the  bottom  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  having  been  dislodged  by 
earthquakes  and  other  causes,  and  are 
washed  ashore. 

PITCHIER.  The  custom  of  draw- 
ing water  in  pitchers  still  prevails  in  the 
East,  an  earthen  vessel  with  two  handles 
or  in  modern  times  a  skin-bottle  being 
used  for  the  purpose;  and  the  letting 
down  of  the  pitcher  upon  the  hand. 
Gen.  24  :  18,  justifies  the  inference  that 
it  Avas  carried  upon  the  head  or  left 
shoulder  and  balanced  with  the  right 
hand,  and  when  presented  was  rested 
on  the  left  hand. 

PI'THOM  {hnise,  or  temjde,  of  Turn, 
who  was  the  Sun-god  of  Heliopolis),  a 
"treasure  city,"  or  depot  of  provisions, 
built  by  the  Israelites  in  Goshen.  Ex. 
1 :  11.  It  was  probably  not  far  from  the 
"  Bitter  Lakes "  of  Suez  and  near  the 
canal.  Some  critics  identify  it  with  the 
Patumos  of  Herodotus  and  the  Thoum  of 
the  Antonine  Itinerary,  between  Heliopo- 
lis and  Pelusium,  50  Roman  miles  from 
the  former  and  48  miles  from  the  latter. 
M.  Naville  identifies  Pithom  with  Pa- 
Tum, ''setting  sun, "and  with  Tel  el-Mask- 
hUta,  where  he  made  excavations  in  1883, 
and  found  remarkable  ruins,  brick  grain- 
chambers,  and  similar  evidences  of  a 
"  store  city."  The  conclusions  of  M. 
Naville  have  been  disputed,  but  Poole, 
Sayce,  and  other  Egyptologists  accept 
his  '"find"  as  settling  the  question  of 
Pithom.  According  to  this  view,  Ra- 
meses  II.  was  its  founder. 


PI'THON  (probably  harmless),  a 
son  of  Micah,  a  descendant  of  Saul.  1 
Chr.  8:35;  9:41. 

PLAGUE,  an  eminently  contagious 
and  destructive  disease,  a  virulent  tj'phus 
accompanied  by  loathsome  eruptions, 
prevalent  in  the  East  from  the  earliest 
ages,  and  still  ravaging  Egypt  even  in 
modern  times.  Ex.  11  :  1.  Besides  in 
this  its  specific  sense,  the  sacred  writers 
also  employ  the  word  to  express  any 
terrific  and  desolating  disease,  Lev.  13  : 
3 :  1  Kgs.  8  :  37,  or  any  severe  calamity 
or  scourge,  Mark  5  :  29,  34  ;  Luke  7  :  21, 
or  as  a  general  term  for  the  judgment 
of  God.  Ex.  9  :  14.  The  judgments  of 
God  on  Pharaoh  are  called  plagues.  In 
the  A.  V.  "  plague  "  is  the  translation  of 
seven  words. 

PLAGUES  OF  E'GYPT.  When 
the  Lord  had  ordered  Moses  to  lead  the 
people  of  Israel  out  of  Goshen  and  con- 
duct them  to  Canaan,  and  Pharaoh, 
hardening  his  heart,  opposed  the  com- 
mand of  the  Lord  and  would  not  let  the 
people  go,  ten  fearful  plagues  fell  upon 
the  land  of  Egypt. 

1.  The  waters  of  the  Nile  changed  into 
blood  ;  the  fishes  died,  and  no  man  could 
drink  of  the  river.  But  the  magicians 
imitated  the  miracle,  and  Pharaoh  hard- 
ened his  heart.  Ex.  7  :  14-25. 

2.  Then  followed  the  plague  of  the 
frogs ;  but  this  too  was  imitated  by  the 
magicians,  and  Pharaoh  hardened  his 
heart  still  more.  Ex.  8  :  1-15. 

3.  With  the  third  plague,  however — 
that  of  lice — the  magicians  gave  in,  and 
acknowledged,  "  This  is  the  finger  of 
God."  Ex.  8  :  16-19. 

4.  The  fourth  plague  sent  swarms  of 
flies  out  over  the  country,  and  the  people 
were  devoured  by  their  venomous  bite. 
Ps.  78  :  45.  Pharaoh  now  relented  and 
declared  himself  willing  to  yield,  but  on 
the  removal  of  the  plague  he  again  hard- 
ened his  heart.  Ex.  8  :  20-32. 

5.  A  very  grievous  murrain  attacked 
the  horses,  asses,  camels,  oxen,  and  sheep 
of  Egypt,  while  those  of  the  children  of 
Israel  were  free.  Ex.  9  : 1-7. 

6.  Boils  broke  out  upon  man  and  beast, 
even  upon  the  magicians  themselves. 
Ex.  9  :  8-12. 

7.  Then  a  frightful  thunderstorm,  with 
hail,  passed  over  the  land  of  Egypt,  de- 
stroying the  growing  crops,  breaking 
trees,    overthrowing     buildings    every- 

693 


PLA 


PLO 


where,  but  sparing  Goshen.  Alarmed, 
Pharaoh  promised  to  yield,  but  on  the 
withdrawal  of  the  plague  he  again  hard- 
ened his  heart.  Ex.  9  :  13-35. 

8.  Locusts  followed,  and  ate  up  what 
the  hail-storm  had  left ;  but  Pharaoh 
sent  Moses  and  Aaron  away  from  his 
presence,  and  heeded  not  the  warning. 
Ex.  10  :  1-20. 

9.  A  thick  darkness  fell  for  three  days 
upon  the  land.  For  three  days  no  man 
was  able  to  rise.  But  in  Goshen  there 
was  light.  Then  Pharaoh  was  seized  by 
despair,  and  he  threatened  Moses  with 
death  if  he  ever  saw  his  face  again.  Ex. 
10  :  21-28. 

10.  Finally,  the  first-born  of  the  Egyp- 
tians were  smitten  at  midnight;  "and 
Pharaoh  rose  up  in  the  night,  he,  and 
all  his  servants,  and  all  the  Egyptians; 
and  there  was  a  great  cry  in  Egypt,  for 
there  was  not  a  house  where  there  teas 
not  one  dead."  Ex.  12  :  29,  30.  Pharaoh 
now  yielded,  and  allowed  the  children 
of  Israel  to  leave  Egypt. 

These  ten  plagues  were  doubtless 
spread  over  a  long  time,  and  probably 
they  followed,  as  much  as  possible,  the 
order  of  the  seasons ;  for  some  of  them 
were  not  only  distinctively  Egyptian, 
but  really  only  an  aggravation  of  yearly 
maladies.  Canon  Cook,  in  the  Bible 
Commentary,  distributes  them  thus  :  The 
first  was  toward  the  end  of  June,  when 
the  Nile  begins  to  overflow.  The  second 
came  three  months  later,  at  the  time  of 
the  greatest  inundation, in  September,and 
was  an  attack  on  a  native  worship.  The 
third  was  early  in  October,  and  t\\Q  fourth 
after  the  subsidence  of  the  inundation. 
The Ji/th  was  in  December  or  January; 
the  sixth,  shortly  after;  the  seventh,  at 
the  time  when  hailstorms  occur  now  in 
Egypt,  from  the  middle  of  February  to 
early  March.  The  eighth  was  when  the 
leaves  are  green,  toward  the  middle  of 
March.  The  ninth  was  peculiarly  Egyp- 
tian, and  was  the  immediate  precursor  of 
the  tenth.  During  this  time  the  Israel- 
ites had  frequent  opportunities  to  gather, 
and  thus  were  prepared  for  their  exodus. 

It  is  interesting  to  know  that  the  so- 
called  ten  persecutions  of  the  Christian 
Church  are  thus  numbered  in  remem- 
brance of  the  ten  plagues.  The  num- 
ber, in  reality,  is  either  greater  or  less — 
greater  if  all  be  counted,  less  if  only  the 
important  persecutions  be  enumerated. 
694 


PLAIN,  This  word  is  often  used 
alone,  leaving  the  particular  plain  in- 
tended to  be  inferred  from  the  connec- 
tion ;  as,  for  instance,  in  Deut.  1:1; 
2:8;  or  in  Gen.  13  :  12 ;  2  Kgs.  25  :  4, 
etc.,  where  the  plain  of  Jordan  is  obvi- 
ously intended.  In  other  passages  the 
name  of  the  plain  is  added,  such  as 
EsDRAELON,  Sharon,  etc.,  which  see. 

PLAIT'ING,  braiding  the  hair.  1 
Pet.  3  :  3.  The  business  of  dressing  the 
hair  is  mentioned  by  Jewish  writers  as 
an  art  by  itself,  practised  by  women. 
The  hair  was  folded  up  in  curls,  tied  up 
in  knots,  and  put  into  the  form  of  horns 
and  towers,  made  by  their  crisping-pins 
with  their  cauls  and  round  tires,  etc. 
Isa.  3  :  18-22. 

PLAN'ETS.  2  Kgs.  23  :  5.  See 
Stars. 

PLAS'TER  was  used  by  the  ancient 
Hebrews  as  a  wall-covering.  Lev.  14:  42, 
48 ;  Dan.  5:5.  It  is  also  mentioned  as 
forming  a  coat  over  the  stones  on  which 
the  Law  was  to  -be  engrossed.  Deut.  27  : 
2,4. 

PLAT'TED, woven  together.  Matt. 
27  :  29. 

PLEDGE,  that  which  is  given  as 
security  for  the  performance  of  a  con- 
tract. The  Jewish  law  contained  many 
wise  and  benevolent  provisions  on  this 
subject,  Ex.  22  :  25,  26;  Deut.  24  :  6, 
10,  12,  17,  and  anything  like  oppression 
in  respect  to  pledges  was  severely  rep- 
robated. Job  22  :  6;  24  :  3-7.  The 
hand-mill  could  not  be  taken  as  a  pledge, 
and  the  garment,  if  taken,  should  be 
rendered  back  before  sunset.  The  cred- 
itor was  not  allowed  to  enter  the  house 
of  the  debtor  in  order  to  take  the  pledge, 
but  was  compelled  to  wait  before  the 
door  until  it  was  brought  to  him. 

PLE'IADES,  a  cluster  of  stars, 
placed  by  modern  astronomers  in  the 
neck  or  near  the  shoulder  of  the  constel- 
lation Taurus.  They  appear  about  the 
middle  of  April,  and  hence  are  associated 
with  the  return  of  spring,  the  season  of 
sweet  influences.  Job  9:9;  38  :  31 ; 
Am.  5  :  8. 

PLOUGH.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  ancient  Hebrew  plough  was 
substantially  like  that  still  used  in  Syria, 
so  unchangeable  are  the  customs  of  the 
East.  It  was  very  light  and  simple, 
perhaps  merely  a  crotched  stick,  having 
a  wooden  share  shod  with  one  of  those 


PLU 


POE 


triangular  or  heart-shaped  points  of  iron 
which  the  inhabitants  of  the  Palestine 
towns  still  do  a  great  business  in  sharp- 
ening. 1  Sam.  13  :  20.  A  single  upright 
held  by  one  hand,  Luke  9  :  02,  while  the 
goad  was  carried  in  the  other,  guided 
this  primitive  instrument,  which  turned 
the  earth  equally  on  both  sides.  The 
coulter  is  not  now  used  in  Oriental 
ploughing,  and  probably  never  was,  so 
that  in  the  above  passage  of  First  Sam- 
uel some  other  implement  must  be  in- 
tended. 


Eastern  Plough. 

The  slight  scratching  which  consti- 
tutes Eastern  ploughing  never  requires 
more  than  one  pair  of  cattle,  and  often 
a  single  cow  or  ass  or  camel  was  doubt- 
less used,  as  now.  In  ignorance  or  dis- 
regard of  Deut.  22  :  10  the  modern 
Syrians  often  use  the  ox  and  ass  un- 
equally 3'oked.  Sometimes  several  teams 
work  together  and  move  in  succession 
across  the  field,  as  did  Elisha  and  his 
servants.  1  Kgs.  19  :  19.  The  writer 
has  seen  eleven  yoke  thus  ploughing  in 
the  same  Jordan  valley. 

Land  was  probably,  as  now,  often 
broken  up  before  the  rainy  season,  that 
it  might  be  rendered  absorbent.  Steep 
places  were  tilled  with  mattocks.  Isa. 
7  :  25.  Fields  were  frequently  ploughed 
twice.  It  seems  to  be,  more  than  for- 
merly, the  practice  in  Palestine  to  drop 
the  seed  in  the  furrow  just  before  a 
plough  which  covers  it. 

Ploughing  is  mentioned  as  early  as  the 
time  of  Job.  It  is  also  spoken  of  in  Gen. 
45  :  6,  for  "earing"  (akin  to  "arable") 
properly  means  "ploughing."  1  Sam.  8  : 
12.  The  prophecies  of  Isa.  2  :  4  and 
Joel  3:10  are  not  here  to  be  overlooked. 

PLUMB'-LINE,  Am.  7  :  7,  8, 
PLUM'MET,  Isa.  28:17,  a  line 
by  which  a  plummet  or  leaden  weight 
hangs,  and  by  the  application  of  which  the 
exact  perpendicular  may  be  ascertained. 


POCH'ERETH  {snarm(j),  one  of 
Solomori's  servants,  whose  children  re- 
turned with  Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  2  :  57  ; 
Neh.  7:59. 

POETRY,  HE'BREW.  The 
Jews  were  an  imaginative  people.  With 
them  poetry  and  music,  closely  connected, 
accompanied  domestic  and  social  life  in 
all  its  more  prominent  scenes,  such  as  the 
wedding,  the  harvest,  and  other  feasts. 
Am.  6:  5;  Ps.  4:7.  Victory  in  battle  was 
celebrated  by  song  ;  see,  for  instance,  the 
song  of  Moses,  Ex.  15,  and  the  song 
of  Deborah.  Jud.  5.  The  death  of  a 
beloved  person  was  deplored  in  songs ; 
see,  for  instance,  the  maidens'  song  over 
Jephthah's  daughter,  Jud.  11  :  40,  and 
David's  song  at  the  death  of  Saul  and 
Jonathan,  2  Sam,  1  :  18,  and  afterward 
at  the  death  of  Abner.  2  Sam.  3  :  33. 
It  is  therefore  quite  natural  that  so  large 
a  part  of  the  0.  T. — more  than  one-third 
- — consists  of  poetry,  but  these  Poetical 
Bookf! — Job,  the  Psalms,  the  Proverbs, 
Ecclesiastes,  and  the  Song  of  Solomon, 
to  which  may  be  further  added,  besides 
numerous  poetic  fragments  in  the  his- 
torical books,  such  as  Gen.  4:23;  Ex. 
32  :  18  ;  Num.  21 :  17,  the  Lamentations 
of  Jeremiah  and  the  Prophets  (with  the 
exception  of  Daniel),  as  most  of  these 
writings,  though  not  strictly  poetry, 
oscillate  between  poetry  and  prose — 
were  in  the  Jewish  canon  included 
among  the  Hagioyrupha,  or  Holy  Writ- 
ings. 

In  Hebrew  poetry  two  forms,  the  lyric- 
al and  the  didactic,  predominate.  To 
the  didactic  the  poetic  portions  of  the 
prophetic  writings  belong.  There  is  no 
epic  and  no  dramatic  poetry,  strictly  so 
called,  in  the  Bible.  The  book  of  Job  and 
the  Canticles  are  sometimes  called  He- 
brew dramas,  and  have  undoubtedly  a 
dramatic  drapery,  but  the  former  is  chief- 
ly didactic,  the  latter  lyrical.  The  Psalms 
are,  without  any  qualification,  the  highcf^t 
specimens  of  sacred  poetry  which  man- 
kind possesses ;  and  in  spite  of  the  very 
strong  marks  of  nationality  they  bear, 
both  in  style  and  in  imager}',  they  have 
become,  nearly  to  the  whole  world,  the 
most  striking  and  most  complete  expres- 
sion of  that  which  moves  deepest  in  the 
human  soul.  They  owe  this  pre-emi- 
nence to  their  spiritual  character.  The 
Hebrew  poetry  is  now  passionate  and 
pathetic,  as  in  the  Psalms  and  the  Proph- 

695 


POI 


POM 


ets;  now  contemplative  and  didactic,  as  ' 
in  the  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes.  But  in  | 
both  cases  the  pervading  spiritual  cha-  I 
racter  is  religious. 

The  relation  between  man  and  God, 
his  Creator  and  his  Judge — that  is,  his 
Father — is,  directly  or  indirectly,  the 
sole  theme  of  all  Hebrew  lyrics,  and 
in  the  treatment  of  this  theme,  its  aw- 
fulness  and  its  consolation,  man  has 
not  failed  to  feel  the  inspiration  from  ] 
above. 

The  power  of  Hebrew  poetry  to  strike  j 
the  imagination  and  move  the  heart — 
its  poetical  essence — has  always  been 
recognized ;  but  its  poetical  form  was 
for  a  long  time  overlooked,  and  is  hardly 
yet  fully  understood.  Hebrew  lyrics 
have  a  division  into  verses  and  strophes, 
and  employ  occasionally  alliterations 
and  rhymes,  but  they  have  no  regular 
metrical  system,  the  verses  containing 
an  unequal  number  of  syllables  and  the 
strophes  an  unequal  number  of  verses. 
They  were  destined  to  be  sung,  and 
consequently  adapted  simply  to  some 
melody.  The  principal  element  of  their 
poetical  form  is  therefore  their  rhythm, 
and,  again,  this  rhythm  depends  much 
more  on  the  ideas  than  on  the  words.  Its 
principal  feature  is  the  so-called  paral- 
lelism— a  correspondence  between  two 
or  more  sentences  of  similar  or  opposite 
meaning  by  which  the  idea  receives  its 
full  and  harmonious  expression.  The 
correspondence  may  be  one  of  harmony 
or  of  contrast  or  of  progressive  thought, 
and  accordingly  it  is  called  synonymous 
or  antithetic  or  synthetic  parallelism. 
Synonymous  parallelism  expresses  the 
same  idea  in  different  but  equivalent 
words,  as  in  the  following  examples : 

"What  is  man  that  thou  art  mindful  of 

him  ? 
And  the  son   of   man    that  thou    visitest 

him  ?"— Ps.  8  :  4. 

"  The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God : 
And    the  firmament  showeth    his    handi- 
work."—Ps.  19 : 1,  2. 

Antithetic  parallelis'm  expresses  the 
idea  through  a  contrast,  as  in  the  fol- 
lowing examples : 

"Evil-doers  shall  be  cut  otf : 
But  those  that  wait  upon  the   Lord,  they 
shall  inherit  the  earth." — Ps.  37  :  9. 

"  A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath  ; 
But  grievous  words  stir  up  anger." 

Prov.  15 : 1. 
696 


Synthetic  parallelism  expresses  the 
idea  through  a  progress  or  gradation  of 
thoughts,  as  in  the  following  example : 

"The  law  of  Jehovah  is  perfect,  converting 

the  soul. 
The  testimony  of  Jehovah  is  sure,  making 

wise  the  simple. 
The  statutes  of  Jehovah  are  right,  rejoicing 

the  heart. 
The  commandment  of  Jehovah  is  pure,  en- 
lightening the  eyes. 
The  fear  of  Jehovah  is  clean,  enduring  for 

ever. 
The  judgments  of  Jehovah  are  truth,  they 

are  righteous  altogether. 
More  to  be  desired  are  they  than  gold,  yea, 

than  much  fine  gold." — Ps.  19  :  7. 

POI'SON.  This  word  is  in  our 
translation  the  rendering  of  two  different 
Hebrew  words,  of  which  the  one,  derived 
from  a  root  signifying  "  heat,"  is  applied 
to  animal  poisons,  Deut.  32  :  24,  33  ;  Ps, 
58  :  4 ;  while  the  other,  though  its  deri- 
vation is  somewhat  doubtful,  seems  to 
have  been  applied  to  vegetable  poisons. 
The  latter  is  sometimes  translated  with 
"gall"  or  "  water  of  gall."  Jer.  8  :  14; 

9  :  15. 

POLL,  POLLED.  When  used  as 
a  noun,  "poll"  means  a  head.  Num.  3  : 
47 ;  and  when  used  as  a  verb,  it  means 
to  cut  the  hair  from  the  head.  2  Sam. 
14 :  26. 

POL'LUX.     See  Castor. 

POLYG'AMY.     See  Marriage. 

POMEGR ANNATE  (pronounce 
2nnn-<jran'nate).  This  word  designates 
a  large  bush  {Punica  granatum)  of  the 
myrtle  family,  and  its  fruit.  Our  English 
name  comes  from  the  Latin,  which  means 
"  grained  apple,"  referring  to  the  beauti- 
ful pink  pips  or  grains  which  fill  the 
interior.  The  pomegranate  has  been 
cultivated  from  early  times  in  Syria, 
Num.  13  :  23  ;  Deut.  8  :  8,  and  the  warmer 
regions  of  the  East.     It  rarely  exceeds 

10  feet  in  height,  and  has  small  lance- 
shaped,  glossy  leaves,  of  a  reddish-green 
when  young,  but  becoming  pea-green 
and  remaining  alive  through  the  winter. 
The  flowers  are  of  a  brilliant  scarlet  or 
orange,  and  in  August  or  September  the 
fruit  ripens.  This  is  of  the  size  of  an 
orange,  flattened  at  the  ends  like  an 
apple,  is  of  a  beautiful  brown-red  color, 
Cant.  4:3;  6:7,  has  a  hard  rind,  and  is 
filled  with  pulp  of  a  highly-grateful 
flavor.  The  abundant  juice  was  made 
into  wine.  Cant.  8  :  2,  and  used  for  a 
cooling   drink.      Some   cultivated   trees 


POM 


PON 


bear  sweet  fruit  and  some  sour,  while  the 
wild  pomegranates  yield  only  a  small  and 
worthless  apple. 

Jiiitniton,  the  Hebrew  word  for  this 
fruit,  gave  name,  in  whole  or  in  part,  to 
several  places  in  Palestine,  near  which 
the  pomegranate  was  doubtless  abundant. 


The  Pomegranate. 

The  bush  of  this  kind  under  which  Saul 
tarried  must  have  been  of  unusual  size. 
1  Sam.  14  :  2. 

"  The  graceful  shape  of  the  pomegran- 
ate was  selected  as  one  of  the  ornaments 
on  the  skirt  of  the  high  priest's  blue 
robe  and  ephod,  alternating  with  the  '  chieftains, 
golden  bells,  Ex.  28  :  33,  34;  39  :  24-26, 
and  hence  was  adopted  as  one  of  the 
favorite  devices  in  the  decoration  of 
Solomon's  temple,  being  carved  on  the 
capitals  of  the  pillars.  1  Kgs.  7  :  IS,  etc. 
Whether  the  design  was  taken  from  the 
fruit  or  the  flower,  it  would  form  a 
graceful  ornament.  We  have  frequently 
noticed  the  pomegranate  sculptured  on 
fragments  of  columns  among  the  ruins 
of  Oriental  temples. 

"  The  Syrian  deity  Rimmon  has  been 
supposed  by  some  to  have  been  a  per- 
sonification of  the  pomegranate,  as  the 
emblem  of  the  fructifying  principle  of 
nature,  the  fruit  being  sacred  to  Venus, 
who  was  worshipped  under  this  title. 
Hadad-rimmon  is  mentioned  in  Zech. 
12  :  11,  Hadad  being  the  Sun-god  of  the 
Syrians ;  and  when  combined  with  the 
symbol  of  the  pomegranate,  he  stands 
for  the  Sun -god,  who  ripened  the  fruits, 
and  then,  dying  with  the  departing 
summer,  is  mourned  '  with  the  mourning 
of  Hadad-rimmon.'  " — Tristram. 

POM'MELS,  convex  projections  on 
the  capitals  of  pillars.  2  Chr.  4  :  12,  13. 


In  1  Kgs.  7  :  41  the  same  ornament  is 
called  "  bowls." 

PONDS.  The  ponds  of  Egypt  were 
sheets  of  water  along  the  Nile,  left  by 
its  inundations.  Ex.  7  :  19;  8:5. 

PON'TUS  {the  sea),  the  north-east- 
ern province  of  Asia  Minor,  bordering  on 
the  Euxine  Sea.     Under  the 
Romans  the  name  comprised 
the  whole  district  from  the 
river  Halys  on  the  west,  sep- 
arating it  from  Bithynia,  to 
Colchis  and  Armenia  on  the 
east ;  it  was  separated  on  the 
south   from   Cappadocia   by 
lofty  m  oun  tain  s.     It  was 
originally  considered  a  part 
of  Cappadocia,  and  called 
"  Cappadocia   on   the  Sea." 
Pontus  rose  into  power  un- 
der   Mithridates,    who    was 
defeated    by    Pompey,    b.  c. 
66,    after    a    long    struggle, 
and  was  brought  under  the 
Roman  yoke.     The  western  portion   of 
the   empire  of  Mithridates    was  united 
partly  with   Bithynia   and   partly  with 
Galatia,  but   for  a  long  period  the  re- 
gion  properly   called   Pontus  remained 
under    the  government  of   independent 
It  was  really  made  a  prov- 
ince  under   Nero    before    Paul's  death. 
Polemo  II.,  who  married  Bernice,  great- 
granddaughter  of  Herod  the  Great  and 
sister  of  Herod  Agrippa,   Acts  25  :  13, 
was  its  last  king.     This  marriage  of  a 
Jewess  with  the  king  must  have  had  an 
influence  upon  the  Jewish  population  of 
Pontus,  of  whom  some  representatives 
were  in  Jerusalem  on  the  daj^  of  Pente- 
cost.   Acts  2  :  9.      Aquila,    a  Jew  born 
in  Pontus,  Acts  18  :  2,  was  a  very  use- 
ful helper  of  Paul,  and  Peter  addressed 
his    First    Epistle    "  to    the    strangers 
scattered    throughout    Pontus."    1    Pet. 
1:1.     It  formed  part  of  the  later  Greek 
empire;  became  the  seat  of  a  new  Chris- 
tian empire  founded    by  Alexius   Com- 
nenus   in    the   thirteenth  century ;    was 
conquered  by  the  Turks  in   A.  D.  1461, 
and    remained    under    their    dominion. 
It  corresponds  nearly  with  the  modern 
province  of  Trebizond,  which  came  into 
some    prominence    during    the    Russo- 
Turkish    war   in    1877-78.      The  coun- 
try contains  valuable  mineral  deposits, 
extensive     forests,     and      some     fertile 
districts. 

697 


POO 


POT 


POOLS.     See  Bethesda,   Siloam, 
Solomon's  Pools,  Jerusalem. 
POOLS  OF  SOLOMON.   Eccl. 

2  :  6.     See  Solomon. 

POOLS    OF  WATER.  Eccl.  2  : 

6.     See  Cisterns,  Water. 

POOR.  By  ordaining  that  land 
could  be  sold  only  for  a  term  of  jears, 
but  should  return  to  its  original  owner 
at  the  jubilee,  Lev.  25  :  23-28,  the  Mo- 
saic Law  found  an  eifective  check  to 
pauperism.  But  also  in  other  ways  it 
took  great  care  of  the  poor.  All  kinds 
of  offering  and  sacrifice  were  accommo- 
dated to  their  condition.  Lev.  5  :  7,  llj 
12  :  8.  The  gleanings  of  fields  and  vine- 
yards and  the  harvest  of  the  seventh 
year  and  part  of  the  third  tithe  belong- 
ed to  them.  Lev.  19  :  10  ;  25  :  25-41. 
Judges  were  charged  to  do  them  justice, 
but  not  unjustly  to  favor  them  for  their 
poverty.  Ex.  23  :  6 ;  Lev.  19  :  15;  Ps. 
82  :  4.  God  claimed  to  be  the  special 
protector  of  them.  Prov.  14  :  31. 

In  the  N.  T.  the  word  "  poor"  is  used 
figuratively  to  denote  those  who  are 
humble  of  heart.  Matt.  5:3;  but  also 
literally,  as  when  Jesus  said  "  The  poor 
have  the  gospel  preached  to  them,"  Matt. 
11 :  5,  and  touchingly  declared,  "  Ye  have 
the  poor  always  with  you;  but  me  ye 
have  not  always."  Matt.  26  :  11. 

POP'LAR  {wliite).  The  storax 
(see  Stacte),  being  ordinarily  only  a 
bush,  does  not  meet  the  conditions  of 
Hos.  4  :  13.  Four  or  more  species  of 
poplar  are  found  in  the  Holy  Land,  and 
this  fact,  with  the  white  appearance  of 
some  kinds — e.  g.,  Populus  alha — war- 
rants us  in  preferring  the  A.  V.  Gen. 
30  :  37. 

POR'ATHA  {favored  hy  fate),  one 
of  the  ten  sons  of  Haman  whom  the  Jews 
slew  in  Shushan.  Esth.  9  :  8. 

PORCH.  Jud.  3  :  23.  See  Dwell- 
ings. 

PORCH,  SOLOMON'S.  John 
10  :  23.     See  Temple. 

POR'CIUS  FES'TUS.  Acts  24  : 
27.     See  Festus. 

POR'TERS,  such  as  attend  the 
gate  of  a  city  or  house  to  open  and  shut 
it.  2  Sam.  18  :  26  ;  2  Kgs.  7  :  10.  The 
temple  had  4000  of  them.  1  Chr.  23  :  5. 
They  were  classified,  and  had  leaders  or 
directors.  1  Chr.  26  :  1-19;  2  Chr.  8  : 
14.  Besides  keeping  guard  at  the  tem- 
ple, they  had  also  charge  of  the  freewill 
698 


oflFerings  and  of  the  treasure-chambers  of 
their  respective  wards.  2  Chr.  31 :  14. 

POR'TION.  Among  the  Egyp- 
tians, Greeks,  and  Hebrews  of  ancient 
times  the  portion  of  food  intended  for 
every  guest  was  set  before  him  separate- 
ly. When  it  was  intended  to  confer  spe- 
cial honor  upon  any  one  a  portion  much 
greater  than  common  was  given  to  him. 
Gen.  43  :  34.  A  "  worthy  portion,"  1  Sam. 
1 :  5,  means,  literallv,  a  "double  portion." 

POSSESSED  WITH  A  DEV- 
IL.    See  Devil. 

POST  (the  Hebrew  word  means 
a  runner),  a  messenger  or  bearer  of 
tidings,  especially  of  royal  despatches. 
Esth.  3:13,  15;  8:14;  Jer.  51:31. 
That  they  were  employed  in  very  early 
times  is  proved  by  Job's  comparison.  9  : 
25.  To  convey  intelligence  quickly,  the 
Persian  kings  placed  sentinels  at  proper 
distances,  who,  by  crying  to  one  another, 
gave  notices  of  public  occurrences.  This 
method  being  impracticable  for  secret  in- 
telligence, Cyrus  established  posts  that 
rode  night  and  day.  Persians  and  Ro- 
mans impressed  men  and  beasts  into  this 
public  service,  and  to  this  fact  our  Lord 
alludes.  Matt.  5  :  41.  The  regularity 
and  swiftness  of  the  Roman  posts  were 
admirable. 

POT.     See  Pottery. 

POTaPHAR  {belou;,ing  to  the  sun), 
a  distinguished  officer  in  Pharaoh's  coui't, 
who  elevated  Joseph  to  a  place  of  trust 
and  committed  to  him  the  chai'ge  of  the 
household.  Gen.  37  :  3fi. 

POTI-PHE'RAH,  a  priest  or 
prince  of  On,  and  father-in-law  of  Jo- 
seph, Gen.  41  :  45.  The  marriage  of 
Joseph  to  Asenath  and  her  conversion 
to  faith  in  the  one  God  form  the  sub- 
ject of  an  old  romance  which  exists  in 
a  Latin,  Greek,  and  Syriac  version.  It 
is  chiefly  made  up  of  Jewish  legends, 
but  belongs,  nevertheless,  to  the  Chris- 
tian era.  The  title  is  The  Life  and 
Confession  of  Asenath,  Daughter  of  Pen- 
tephres  [Potipherah]  of  Heliopolis,  a 
narrative  [of  what  happened]  xchen 
the  beautiful  Joseph  took  her  to  loife. 
The  story  is  thus  summarized  (Schaff, 
Through  Bible  Lands,  pp.  57,  58):  Ase- 
nath was  a  proud  beauty,  living  in  great 
splendor  Avith  seven  attendants,  and  dis- 
daining all  lovers  except  Pharaoh's  old- 
est son,  who  loved  her,  but  was  forbid- 
den by  his  father  to  marry  her.     When 


POT 


PR^ 


she  saw  Joseph  from  her  window  as  he 
entered  Heliopolis  to  collect  corn  in  the 
first  year  of  plenty,  she  was  captivated 
by  his  beauty,  ran  down,  hailed  him  as 
"  My  lord,  blessed  of  the  most  high  Uod," 
and  at  her  father's  bidding  went  forward 
to  kiss  him.  Joseph  refused  to  kiss  an 
idolatrous  woman,  but,  seeing  her  tears, 
he  laid  his  hand  upon  her  head  and 
prayed  God  to  convert  her  to  the  true 
faith,  and  then  departed.  She  threw 
her  idols  out  of  the  window,  repented 
seven  days,  saw  an  angel  of  comfort,  and 
was  married  to  Joseph  by  Pharaoh  with 
great  pomp. 

POT'TAGE.  Gen.  25:29.  At  this 
day,  in  many  parts  of  the  East,  lentiles 
are  boiled  or  stewed  like  beans  with  oil 
and  garlic,  and  make  a  dish  of  a  choco- 
late color,  which  is  eaten  as  pottage. 
Other  ingredients  were  used,  as  in 
soups  of  modern  times.    2  Kgs.  4  :  39. 

POT  TER'S  FIELD,  THE. 
Matt.  27  :  7.     See  Aceldama. 

POT'TERY.  The  potter's  art  was 
one  of  the  first  kinds  of  manufacture  in 


Egyptian  Potter  and  Pottery. 

which  man  became  proficient.  The 
Israelites  worked  at  the  trade  while 
in  Egypt,  Ps.  81  :  6 ;  they  used  earthen- 
ware during  their  passage  through  the 
wilderness ;  and  from  the  earliest  time 
of  their  settlement  in  Canaan  the  trade 
was  established  among  them.  In  Jeru- 
salem there  was  a  royal  establishment 


of  potters,  1  Chr.  4  :  23,  from  which  it 
has  been  conjectured  that  the  potter's 
field  received  its  name. 

The  method  em2)loyed  by  the  Israelites 
and  often  hinted  at  by  the  prophets 
seems  to  have  been  exactly  the  same  as 
that  employed  by  the  Egyptians,  such 
as  we  find  it  minutely  illustrated  by 
Egyptian  wall-paintings.  The  clay  was 
trodden  by  the  feet  into  a  uniform  paste, 
Isa.  41  :  25  ;  Wisd.  16  :  7,  and  a  sufficient 
mass  was  then  placed  by  the  potter  on 
the  wooden  disc  of  the  wheel.  The 
wheel  was  turned  by  the  hand  or  worked 
by  a  treadle,  Isa.  45  :  9  ;  Jer.  18  :  3,  but 
generally  by  an  attendant,  and  not  by 
the  potter  himself.  When  finished  the 
vessel  was  coated  with  glaze  and  burnt 
in  a  furnace.  Such  vessels  were  used, 
however,  not  only  for  culinary  purposes, 
but  also  as  a  means  of  preservation ; 
from  Jer.  32  :  14  it  appears  that  deeds 
were  kept  in  them. 

POUND.  SeeMEASTTRES.  In  1  Kgs. 
10  : 1 7  ;  Ezra  2  :  69 ;  Neh.  7  :  71,  72  it  is  the 
translation  of  the  Hebrew  maneh  ;  in  the 
N.  T.  of  mina,  Luke  19  :  13,  etc.,  and  also 
of  litra,  John  12  :  3 ;  the  first  and  last 
words  refer  to  quantity, the  second  to  value 
as  money.     See  Appendix,  pp.  938,  939. 

PRiETO'RIUM.  The  headquar- 
ters of  the  Roman  governors ;  in  Scrip- 
ture three  such  places  are  mentioned. 

1.  At  Jerusalem.  Mark  15  :  16.  The 
same  Greek  word  is  rendered  ''common 
hall"  and,  margin,  "governor's  house," 
Matt.  27  :  27  :  ''hall  of  judgment"  and 
"judgment-hall."  John  18  :  28,  33  ;  19  :  9. 
It  occupied  a  vast  rectangular  space  and 
contained  barracks  for  the  soldiers  by 
whom  Jerusalem  was  kept  in  subjection. 
This  prsetorium  communicated  with  the 
temple,  which  was  situated  on  the  east- 
ern hill,  by  a  causeway  crossing  the  Tj'ro- 
poeon  valley.  It  was  in  this  prgetorium 
that  Jesus  was  tried  before  Pilate.  Some, 
however,  would  identify  the  pra^torium 
with  the  fortress  Antonia,  at  the  north- 
west corner  of  the  temple-area.  See 
Lange  on  Matt.  27  :  27. 

2.  At  Cajsarea,  Acts  23  :  35  ;  translated 
"  Herod's  judgment-hall."  This  was  the 
gorgeous  palace  in  which  Herod  the  Great 
resided  during  his  latter  dsiys.  It  prob- 
ably stood  on  the  commanding  eminence 
near  the  middle  of  the  city.  There  Paul 
was  kept  a  prisoner  for  two  years. 

3.  At   Rome,  Phil.  1  :  13:    translated 

699 


PEA 


PRA 


"  palace,"  and  in  the  margin  "  Caesar's 
court."  This  has  been  interpreted — (1) 
As  in  the  A.  V.,  "the  palace" — /.  e.  the 
palace  of  the  Cajsars,  on  the  Mount 
Palatine,  which  was  garrisoned  by  a 
body-guard  of  soldiers  called  Praetorians. 
(2)  As  the  general  camp  of  the  Praeto- 
rian guard,  situated  just  without  the 
city  walls,  before  reaching  the  fourth 
milestone.  It  was  established  by  the 
emperor  Tiberius. 

PRAISE.  In  the  ordinary  Scripture 
use  of  the  term,  it  denotes  an  act  of 
worship,  and  is  often  used  synonymously 
with  thanksgiving.  It  is  called  forth  by 
the  contemplation  of  the  character  and 
attributes  of  God,  however  they  are  dis- 
played; and  it  implies  a  grateful  sense  and 
acknowledgment  of  past  mercies.  Ex- 
pressions of  praise  abound  in  the  Psalms 
of  David,  in  almost  every  variety  of  force 
and  beauty.  Ps.  33  :  1  ;  138  :  1 ;  106  :  2. 

PRAY,  PRAYER,  the  most  es- 
sential act  of  private  devotion  and  pub- 
lic worship  in  all  ages  and  nations.  It  is 
rooted  and  grounded  in  man's  moral 
and  religious  constitution,  enjoined  by 
God,  and  commended  by  the  highest 
examples.  It  is  speaking  to  God  and 
offering  to  him  our  petitions  for  mercies 
needed,  and  our  thanks  for  mercies  ob- 
tained. It  embraces  invocation,  sup- 
plication, intercession,  and  thanks.  1 
Tim.  2:1.  It  may  be  either  mental  or 
vocal,  private  or  public,  in  the  closet  or 
in  the  family  or  in  the  house  of  God. 
We  are  commanded  to  pray  for  others 
as  well  as  for  ourselves,  Jas.  5  :  16;  for 
kings  and  all  that  are  in  authority,  1 
Tim.  2:2;  for  kindred,  friends,  and 
even  for  our  enemies,  persecutors,  and 
slanderers.  Matt.  5  :  44.  God  is  the 
only  object  of  prayer  and  worship. 
Matt.  4:10;  Deut.  6  :  13  ;  10  :  20.  We 
may  pray  for  all  things  needful  to  our 
body  and  soul,  for  our  daily  bread  as 
well  as  for  all  spiritual  mercies.  Prayer 
should  be  offered  to  God  the  Father,  in 
the  name  of  the  Son,  through  the  Holy 
Spirit.  But  inasmuch  as  Christ  and  the 
Holy  Spirit  are  strictly  divine  in  essence 
and  character,  they  may  also  be  directly 
addressed  in  prayer.  Comp.  Acts  7  :  59, 
60;  1  Cor.  1:2;  Phil.  2:9.  To  pray 
in  the  name  of  Christ  means  to  pray 
in  harmony  with  his  Spirit,  trusting  in 
his  all-prevailing  mediation,  with  hu- 
mility and  resignation  to  the  holy  will 
700 


of  God.  Such  prayers  will  always  be 
heard  in  God's  own  best  way  and  time 
(which,  however,  often  differs  from  our 
own  short-sighted  views),  and  will  always 
have  a  wholesome  effect  upon  the  soul  of 
him  who  prays.  Comp.  Matt.  6:6;  7  : 
7-12;  21:22;  John  16  :  23,  24,  26; 
Jas.  5  :  15.  The  Holy  Spirit  enables 
us  to  pray  aright.    Rom.  8  :  26. 

All  the  great  saints  of  God  were  fervent 
and  mighty  in  prayer — Abraham,  Gen 
20  :  17  :  Jacob,  Gen.  32  :  26-31 ;  Moses 
Num.   11  :  2  ;  Deut.   9  :  19,   20  ;    Joshua 
Josh.  10 :  12 ;  Samuel,   1  Sam.  12  :  18 
David  (all  his  Psalms);  Elijah,  1  Kgs 
17  :  1 ;  18  :  42,  45  ;  Jas.  5  :  17,  18  :  Elisha 
2  Kgs.  4  :  33,  34  ;  Hezekiah,  2  Kgs.  19 
15-20  ;    20  :  2-6 ;    Daniel,  Dan.  6  :  10 
Hannah,  1  Sam.  1  :  12;  Anna,  Luke  2 
37;  the  apostles.  Acts  1  :  14,  24;  2  :  42 
4:31;    6:4;    8  :  15  ;  12  :  8,   12;    16:25 
26 ;  20  :  36  ;  21  :  5  ;  Rom.  1:9;  12  :  12 
1   Thess.  5  :  17.      Our  Saviour   himself 
often  withdrew  into   a  solitary  place  to 
pray,  Mark  1:35;    Luke   5:16;  Matt. 
14  :  23  ;   26  :  39,  and  taught  his  disciples 
how  to  pray.  Matt.  6  :  9-13 ;  Luke  11 :  2-4. 

The  posture  of  the  body  in  prayer  is 
immaterial.  Prayer  may  be  offered  on 
the  knees  or  standing  or  prostrate,  with 
eyes  closed  or  lifted  up  to  heaven,  with 
hands  folded,  clasped,  or  stretched  out. 
The  main  thing  is  the  reverential  frame 
of  mind,  which  will  naturally  express 
itself  in  one  form  or  other,  according  to 
the  state  of  feeling  and  the  customs  of 
the  age  and  country.  The  length  of 
prayer  is  likewise  unessential.  God 
looks  to  the  heart.  Better  few  words 
and  much  devotion  than  many  words 
and  little  devotion.  See  Matt.  6  :  7. 
The  prayer  of  the  publican  in  the 
temple,  Luke  18  :  13,  and  the  petition 
of  the  jienitent  thief,  Luke  23  :  42,  were 
very  short  and  very  effective. 

The  objections  to  prayer  proceed  from 
atheistic  and  fatalistic  theories.  Praj^er 
implies  the  existence  of  God  and  the 
responsibility  of  man,  and  has  no  mean- 
ing for  those  who  deny  either.  It  is 
more  natural  that  God,  who  is  infinitely 
merciful,  should  answer  the  prayer  of 
his  children  than  that  earthly  parents 
should  grant  the  requests  of  their  chil- 
dren. See  Matt.  7:11.  Yet  our  prayers 
were  foreseen  by  him,  like  all  other 
free  acts,  and  included  in  his  eternal 
plan,     *•  In  spite  of  all  objections,  men 


PEA 


PEA 


pray  on  as  by  universal  instinct.  The 
reply  to  the  objections  is  that  we  pray 
to  a  living,  loving  Person,  near  at  hand, 


Egyptian. 
Postures  in  Prayer. 

knowing  our  thoughts,  able  to  control  all 
things — One  who  has  declared  himself  a 
hearer  of  prayer,  and  who  has  made  it  a 
condition  on  which  it  seems  good  to  him 
to  put  forth  his  power.  The  essence  of 
belief  in  prayer  is  that  the  divine  mind  is 
accessible  to  supplication,  and  that  the 
divine  will  is  capable  of  being  moved. 
Prayer  depends  on  God's  will,  but  does 
not  determine  it.  Man  applies,  God  com- 
plies ;  man  asks,  God  grants. 

"  Prayer  has  a  subjective  value.  It  is 
necessary  to  individual  piety,  produces 
solemnity,  enlightens  and  quickens  the 
conscience,    teaches   dependence,   gives 


true  views  of  God,  and  produces  such 
a  change  in  us  as  renders  it  consistent 
for  him  to  change  his  course  toward  us. 
In  the  family,  prayer  intensifies  and  ex- 
acts devotion,  secures  domestic  order, 
strengthens  parental  government,  and 
promotes  religion.  And  objectively  the 
Bible  and  Christian  history  abound  in 
examples  of  answered  prayer. 

"  The  main  arguments  for  formn  of 
prayer  are  that  they  have  been  of  almost 
universal  use  ;  that  they  guide  the  wor- 
shippers without  forcing  them  to  depend 
on  the  moods  of  the  leader;  where  they 
are  used,  all  know  what  is  to  be  said 
and  done ;  they  secure  provision  for 
unlearned  ministers  ;  secure  dignity,  de- 
cency, harmony,  and  guard  against  exces- 
sive show,  arbitrary  freedom,  improper, 
absurd,  extravagant,  confused,  and  im- 
pious utterance,  and  against  weariness 
and  inattention ;  they  vxnite  the  hearts 
and  tongues  of  all  worshippers,  so  that 
they  do  not  worship  by  proxy ;  they 
unite  different  ages  of  the  Church  and 
preserve  true  doctrine  and  discipline. 

^' Exfemjiornneous  (though  not  rash 
and  unstudied)  prayer  is  claimed  to  be 
more  particular  than  general  forms  can 
be.  It  secures  freedom,  fervor,  spon- 
taneity, and  adaptation  to  the  circum- 
stances; it  is  less  formal  and  monoto- 
nous ;  suits  itself  to  changes  in  language 
and  opinions." 

PRAY  ER,  HOURS  OF.  Prayer 
is  no  more  confined  to  a  particular  hour 
than  to  a  particular  place.  Comp.  John 
4  :  24.  We  may  pray  anywhere  and  at 
all  times,  and  should  pray  without  ceas- 
ing. 1  Thess.  6  :  17.  Nevertheless,  it  is 
good  to  observe  special  hours  of  prayer. 
The  Jews  prayed  at  9  A.  m.,  12  m.,  and  8 
p.  M.  To  these  were  added  the  beginning 
and  end  of  night  and  the  time  of  meals. 
Ps.  55  :  17  ;  Dan.  6:10;  Luke  18  :  1  ; 
Acts  3  :  1  ;  10  :  8.  9,  80. 

PRAYERS  OF  CHRIST.  There 
are  several  prayers  of  Jesus  recorded  in 
the  N.  T.  :  the  model  prayer  for  his 
disciples.  Matt.  6  :  9,  18  ;  Luke  11  :  2-4  ; 
brief  thanksgivings.  Matt.  11  :  25,  26 ; 
John  6:11;  11  :  41,  42;  the  petition  in 
Gethsemane,  Matt.  26  :  39 ;  comp.  the 
similar  petition,  John  17  :  1.  2  ;  and  the 
exclamations  on  the  cross,  "  Father,  for- 
give them,"  "Eli,  Eli,"  "  Father,  into  thy 
hands."  The  Lord's  Prayer,  so  called, 
is   intended  for  his  disciples,  who  need 

701 


PEE 


PEI 


often  to  pray  for  the  forgiveness  of  their 
sins.  See  Lord's  Prayer. 

The  most  important  prayer  of  our 
Lord  is  the  one  recorded  by  John.  Ch. 
17.  It  is  called  the  sacerdotal  or  high- 
priestly  prayer  because  in  it  he  inter- 
cedes for  his  people  and  enters  upon  his 
function  as  the  Hi^h  Priest  in  offering 
his  own  spotless  life  as  a  perfect  sacri- 
fice for  the  sins  of  the  whole  world.  It 
is  divided  into  three  parts :  first,  he 
prays  for  himself,  for  his  glorification, 
vs.  1-5  ;  then  for  the  preservation  of  his 
disciples,  vs.  6-19 ;  finally,  for  all  be- 
lievers of  future  times,  for  their  unity 
and  perfection  in  the  kingdom  of  glory. 
The  connecting  idea  of  the  three  parts 
is  the  redeeming  work  of  God  as  ac- 
complished by  Christ,  carried  on  by  the 
apostles,  and  to  be  completed  in  the 
kingdom  of  glory.  ''  This  sacerdotal 
prayer,  spoken  in  the  stillness  of  the 
night  under  the  starry  heavens,  before 
the  wondering  disciples,  in  view  of  the 
approaching  consummation  of  his  work, 
for  himself,  his  apostles,  and  his  Church 
to  the  end  of  time,  is  peculiarly  his  own, 
the  inspiration  of  his  grand  mission, 
and  could  be  uttered  only  by  Christ, 
and  even  by  Christ  only  once  in  the 
world's  history,  as  the  atonement  could 
occur  but  once ;  but  its  effect  vibrates 
through  all  ages.  It  is  not  so  much  the 
petition  of  an  inferior  or  dependent  sup- 
pliant as  the  communion  of  an  equal 
and  a  solemn  declaration  of  his  will 
concerning  those  whom  he  came  to 
save.  While  praying  to  the  Father,  he 
teaches  the  apostles.  He  prays  as  the 
mighty  Intercessor  and  Mediator,  stand- 
ing between  earth  and  heaven,  looking 
backward  and  forward,  and  comprehend- 
ing all  his  present  and  future  disciples 
in  one  holy  and  perfect  fellowship  with 
himself  and  the  eternal  Father.  The 
words  are  as  clear  and  calm  as  a  mirror, 
but  the  sentiments  are  as  deep  and  glow- 
ing as  God's  fathomless  love  to  men,  and 
all  efforts  to  exhaust  them  are  in  vain." 
—Schnff. 

PREACH'ING.  The  word  is  not 
used  in  the  Bible  in  its  present  technical 
sense,  but  means  proclamation  by  pub- 
lic authority,  as  a  herald  or  crier.  But 
ere  the  Bible  closed  the  institution  of 
preaching  sprang  up.  and  hence  in  the 
Epistles  the  Greek  word  approximates 
to  our  meaning.  In  the  ancient  Hebrew 
702 


state  there  was  no  preaching,  but  after 
the  Exile  some  instruction  in  the  Law 
was  given  to  the  people,  Neh.  8,  and  our 
Lord  improved  the  opportunities  afford- 
ed him  by  the  synagogue  discourses  to 
set  forth  the  kingdom.  See  Synagogue. 
Since  the  full  establishment  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church  preaching  has  been  regarded 
as  a  sacred  profession,  and  has,  for  the 
most  part,  been  confined  to  an  appointed 
and  specially  trained  order  of  men. 

PREPARA  TION,  or  PREP- 
ARA'TION-DAY,  is  the  term  for 
Friday,  because  on  that  day  preparation 
was  made  and  meals  cooked  for  the  Sab- 
bath. It  might  be  rendered  "  fore-Sab- 
bath "  (comp.  the  Greek  in  Mark  15  :  42) 
or  "  Sabbath  -  eve"  (comp.  the  German 
Sonnabend  for  ''Saturday").  Matt.  27: 
62;  Mark  15:  42;  Luke  23:  54;  John 
19  :  14,  31,  42. 

The  "  preparation  of  the  Passover,"  in 
John  19  :  14,  means  the  Paschal  Friday, 
or  the  Friday  occurring  during  the  week 
of  the  Passover  (as  in  vers.  31  and  42). 
On  that  Friday  (the  15th  of  Nisan) 
Christ  was  crucified. 

PRES'ENTS  played  in  old  time 
and  in  Eastern  countries  a  much  larger 
part  in  social  life  than  now,  though  in 
many  Eastern  countries  at  this  day  even 
the  common  people,  in  their  familiar 
visits,  take  a  flower  or  an  orange,  or 
some  other  token  of  respect,  to  the  per- 
son visited.  Gen.  32  :  13.  See  Gift. 
PRESS'ES,Isa.l6:10,ORPRESS'- 
FATS,  Hag.  2  :  16,  were  vessels  or  cis- 
terns placed  in  the  side  of  a  hill,  into 
which  the  juice  of  grapes  flowed  when 
i  it  was  pressed  out  by  treading  them  with 
the  feet  or  by  pressing  them  with  a  ma- 
chine. Prov.  3  :  10;  Matt.  21:  33.  Such 
are  now  used  in  Persia.  The  upper  ves- 
sel, being  8  feet  square  and  4  deep, 
is  used  to  press  out  the  juice,  which 
runs  into  another  cistern  below.  For 
an  illustration  of  the  process,  see  Wine. 

PREVE\TS  in  the  A.  V.,  uever 
means,  as  at  present,  ''  to  hinder,"  but 
"to  go  before,"  "  to  anticipate."  1  Thess. 
4  :  15. 

PRICKS,  OR  GOADS,  long,  sharp- 
pointed  sticks,  which  were  used  to  drive 
cattle,  etc.,  by  pricking  them.  The  ex- 
pression in  Acts  9:5  is  a  proverb,  and 
originated  in  this — that  restive  oxen  of- 
ten push  themselves  or  kick  back  against 
the  goads,  and  thus  wound  themselves 


PET 


PET 


the  more  deeply.  Hence  the  proverb  is 
used  to  denote  the  folly  and  madness  of 
resisting  lawful  authority.  A  great  num- 
ber of  heathen  writers  use  the  proverb 
familiarly,  and  always  to  signify  the  ab- 
surdity of  such  rebellion. 

PRIEST  (contracted  ivom  jiveshyter, 
"elder")  is  the  general  name  for  minis- 
ters of  religion  in  all  ages  and  countries. 
In  the  sacred  Scriptures  it  denotes  one 
who  offers  sacrifice.  Previous  to  the 
Mosaic  dispensation  the  of!ering  of  sac- 
rifices pertained  to  private  individuals. 
Fathers  were  the  priests  of  their  own 
families,  though  perhaps  a  more  general 
priestly  office  existed,  such  as  that  exer- 
cised by  Melchizedek.  The  patriarchs, 
Noah,  Abraham,  etc,  themselves  offic- 
iated as  priests  of  their  households. 
Gen.  8  :  20;  12  :  8,  and  it  seems  that 
the  priestl}'  dignity  descended  in  the 
family  by  birthright  to  the  first-born.  As, 
at  the  first  institution  of  the  Passover, 
the  head  of  each  family  was  ordered 
to  kill  the  paschal-lamb  it  is  probable 
that  the  household  priesthood  still  pre- 
vailed at  that  time.  But  when  the  dis- 
pensation by  Moses  was  given,  a  partic- 
ular order  of  men  was  appointed  to  that 
special  service,  Ex.  28,  with  very  solemn 
and  imposing  ceremonies  ;  and  from  that 
time  the  offering  of  sacrifices  was  chief- 
ly restricted  to  those  who  were  Au\y  in- 
vested with  the  priestly  office.  2  Chr.  26  : 
18. 

All  the  male  descendants  of  Aaron 
were  priests  by  birthright,  and  the  first- 
born, in  regular  succession,  inducted  into 
the  office  of  high  priest.  Certain  blem- 
ishes, however,  specified  in  Lev.  21  :  16- 
24,  disqualified  a  man,  not  for  the  order, 
but  for  performing  the  functions  of  the 
office  ;  and  after  having  been  consecra- 
ted and  entering  on  the  duties  of  his  of- 
fice, his  life  lay  under  a  stricter  rule  than 
that  of  the  Levite  or  the  layman.  As 
the  priesthood  was  confined  to  the  fam- 
ily of  Aaron,  the  number  of  priests  was 
at  first  very  small,  Josh.  3:6;  6:4,  but 
in  the  time  of  David  it  had  greatly  in- 
creased ;  8700  priests  joined  him  at  He- 
bron. 1  Chr.  12  :  27.  He  divided  them 
into  twenty-four  courses — sixteen  of  the 
family  of  Eleazar,  and  eight  of  the  fam- 
ily of  Ithamar  ;  and,  as  these  courses 
officiated  in  regular  succession,  chang- 
ing every  Sabbath,  2  Chr.  23  :  8,  each 
course  would   be  in  attendance  at   the 


sanctuar}^  at  least  twice  a  year.  During 
the  ])eriod  of  the  Captivity  this  division 
into  courses  seems  to  have  fallen  into 
some  confusion.  Among  the  4289  priests 
who  accompanied  Zerubbabel,  only  four 
courses  were  represented,  Ezr.  2  :  36-39  ; 
Neh.  7  :  39-42,  and  courses  are  afterward 
mentioned  which  cannot  be  identified 
with  any  of  the  original  ones. 


A  Priest. 

The  chief  duty  of  the  priests  was  to 
prepare  and  offer  the  daily,  weekly,  and 
monthly  sacrifices,  and  such  as  were 
brought  by  individuals  at  the  great  an- 
nual festivals  or  at  especial  occasions. 
But  generally  they  conducted  the  public 
service,  officiated  at  purifications,  took 
care  of  the  holy  vessels,  of  the  sacred 
fire  and  the  golden  lamp,  of  all  the  fur- 
niture of  the  sanctuary.  In  war  they 
sounded  the  holy  trumpets  and  carried 
the  ark  of  the  covenant.     In  peace  they 

703 


PET 


PRI 


Courses  of  Priests.     (From  Ayre's  Treasury  of  Bible  Knowledge.) 


In    David's    reign.    1 

In   List    in    Ezr.   2; 

In  Nehemiah's  time. 

In  Zerubbabel's  time. 

1  Chr.  24. 

Neh.  7. 

Neh.  10. 

Neh.  12. 

1.  Jehoiarib.    1   Chr. 

Jolarib. 

9:  10;  Neh.  11  :  10. 

2.  Jedaiah 

Children  of  Jedaiah. 

... 

Jedaiah. 

3.  Harim. 

Children  of  Harim. 

Harim. 

Rehum  (Harim,  15). 

4.  Seorim. 

5.  Malchijah. 

Children  of  Pashur. 
1  Chr.  9  :  12. 

Malchijah. 

6.  Mijamin. 

Mijamin. 

Miamin       (Miniamin, 

17). 

7.  Hakkoz. 

Meremoth,    son    of 
Hakkoz.  Neh.  3: 4. 

Meremoth. 

8.  Abijah. 

AbJjah. 

Abijah. 

9.  Jeshuah. 

House  of  Jeshua  (?). 
Ezr.  2  :  36 ;  Neh.  7  : 
39. 

10.  Shecaniah. 

Shebaniah. 

Sheehauiah  (Shebani- 
ah, 14). 

11.  Eliashib. 

... 

... 

12.  Jakim. 

... 

13.  Huppah. 

... 

14.  Jeshebeab. 

15.  Bilgah. 

Bilgai. 

Bilgah. 

16.  Immer. 

Children  of  Immer. 

Amariah. 

Amariah. 

17.  Hezir. 

... 

18.  Aphses. 

... 

19.  Pethahiah. 

20.  Jehezekel. 

... 

... 

21.  Jachin.    Neb.  11  : 

... 

10;  1  Chr.  9  :  10. 

22.  Gamul. 

... 

23.  Delaiah. 

24.  Maaziah. 

Maaziah. 

Maadiah       (Moadiah, 

17). 

Post-Exilian  Courses,  which  cannot  be  identified  with  original  ones. 


Neh.  10. 

Neh.  12. 

Neh.  11;  1 
Chr.  9. 

Neh.  10. 

Neh.  12. 

Neh.    11  ;    1 
Chr.  9. 

Seraiah. 

Azariah. 

Jeremiah. 

Pashur. 

Hattush. 

Malluch. 

Obadiah. 

Daniel. 

Seraiah. 

Ezra. 

Jeremiah. 

Hattush. 
IMalluch. 
Iddo. 

Seraiah  (?). 
Azariah. 

Adaiah  (?). 

Ginnethon. 
Baruch. 
Meshullam. 
Shemaiah. 

Ginnetho. 

Sheraaiah. 
Sallu. 
Amok. 
Hilkiah. 
Jedaiah  (2). 

ministered  as  judges  at  the  trial  of  jeal- 
ousy, at  the  estimation  of  the  redemp- 
tion-money for  a  vow,  etc.  They  kept 
a  kind  of  superintendence  over  the  lep- 
ers, and,  finally,  they  expounded  the 
Law  to  the  people.  It  appears,  how- 
ever, from  2  Chr.  17  :  7-10;  19  :  8-10; 
Eze.  44  :  24,  etc.  that  the  priests  often 
704 


neglected    the    judicial    and    teaching 
functions  of  their  office. 

The  consecration  of  a  priest  took 
place  with  great  solemnity.  The  cere- 
monies, which  were  minutely  prescribed 
by  Moses,  Ex.  29  :  1-37  ;  Lev.  8.  9,  last- 
ed for  seven  days,  and  consisted  in  sac- 
rifices, washings,  the  putting  on  of  the 


PHI 


PRO 


holy  garments,  the  sprinkling  of  blood 
and  anointing  with  oil.  The  garments 
of  the  priest  consisted  of  a  white  linen 
tunic,  reaching  from  the  neck  to  the 
ankles,  with  tight  sleeves,  and  held  to- 
gether around  the  waist  with  a  linen 
girdle  embroidered  with  blue,  purple, 
and  scarlet.  On  the  head  he  wore  a 
kind  of  tiara,  formed  by  the  foldings 
of  a  linen  cloth,  and  of  a  round,  turban- 
like shape.  His  feet  were  probably  naked. 
After  entering  on  the  duties  of  his  otRce 
he  was  not  allowed  to  mourn  or  defile 
himself  at  the  death  of  any,  with  the 
exception  of  his  nearest  relatives,  or  to 
practice  those  cuttings  and  shavings 
which  were  couimon  among  the  people, 
or  to  marry  a  divorced  woman,  etc. ;  as 
his  office  was  to  approach  the  Lord  on 
behalf  of  the  people,  his  duty  was  to 
remain  pure  within  and  clean  without. 
For  the  maintenance  of  the  priests 
thirteen  cities  with  pasture-grounds,  sit- 
uated in  the  tribes  of  Judah,  Simeon,  and 
Benjamin,  were  set  aside  when  the  peo- 
ple settled  in  Canaan.  Josh.  21  :  13-19. 
To  these  were  added  one-tenth  of  the 
tithes  paid  to  the  Levites,  Num.  18  :  26- 
28  ;  a  special  tithe  every  third  year.  Deut. 
14  :  28 :  26  :  12;  the  redemption-money 
paid  for  the  first-born  of  man  and  beast, 
Num.  18  :  14-19,  and  for  men  or  things 
specially  dedicated  to  the  Lord,  Lev.  27; 
the  first-fruits  of  corn,  wine,  and  oil,  Ex. 
23  :  19  ;  Lev.  2:14;  Deut.  26  :  1-10  ;  a 
part  of  the  spoil  taken  in  war.  Num.  31 : 
25-47;  and  finally,  when  they  were  of- 
ficiating, the  shew-bread  and  the  flesh 
of  the  burnt-offerings,  peace-offerings, 
and  trespass-offerings.  Num.  18:  8-14; 
Lev.  6  :  26-29  ;  7  :  6-10.  These  provis- 
ions, large  though  they  seem  to  be,  were 
nevertheless  by  no  mean?  suflficient  to 
maintain  the  priestly  order  with  that 
independence  and  dignity  which  was 
not  only  becoming,  but  necessary.  On 
the  contrary,  under  the  kings  many 
priests  fell  into  abject  poverty.  1  Sam. 
2  :  86. 

PRINCE.  Besides  in  its  ordinary 
sense,  the  word  is  used  in  the  A.  V.  of 
(1)  Local  governors  or  magistrates,  1 
Kgs.  20  :  14:  (2)  Satraps,  Dan.  6:1; 
(3)  (Iruardian  angels.  Dan.  6  :  1. 
_  PRINCIPAL'ITY,  in  the  expres- 
sion "principalities  and  powers,"  Eph, 
1  :2l;  3:6;  Col.  1  :  16;  2  :  10,  etc., 
denotes  an  order  of  angels. 
45 


PRINT'ED,  in  Job  19  :  23,  should 
be  rendered  "  inscribed." 

PRIS'CA  {ancient),  2  Tim.  4: 19,  OR 
PRISCIL'LA,  Acts  18:2,  18,  26; 
Rom.  16  :  3:  1  Cor.  16  :  19,  was  the 
wife  of  Aquila,  and  partook  with  him 
not  only  in  the  exercise  of  hospitality 
in  their  house,  but  also  in  his  labors  for 
the  Christian  Church. 

PRIS'ON.  As,  according  to  the 
Mosaic  Law,  trial  followed  immediately 
after  apprehension,  and  imprisonment 
was  not  used  as  a  punishment,  we  hear 
very  little  of  prisons  among  the  Hebrews 
until   the  times  of  the   kings.     During 


An  Ancient  Inner  Prison. 

the  passage  through  the  wilderness  two 
persons  were  put  "in  ward,"  Lev.  24  : 
12  ;  Num.  15  :  34,  and  from  Gen.  37  :  24 
and  Jer.  38  :  6-1 1  it  appears  that  the 
dry  well  or  pit  was  used  as  a  place  of 
confinement  or  detention.  Under  the 
kings  the  prison  formed  a  part  of  the 
palace,  1  Kgs.  22  :  26:  2  Chr.  16  :  10; 
Jer.  32  :  2,  and  the  same  was  the  case 
under  the  Herods.  Luke  3  :  20  ;  Acts  12  : 
4.  The  Romans  used  the  tower  of  An- 
tonia,  in  Jerusalem,  and  the  pra^torium, 
in  Caesarea,  as  prisons.  Acts  23  :  10,  35. 
Also  the  sacerdotal  authorities  had  a 
prison  in  Jerusalem.  Acts  5  :  18-23  :  8  : 
3;  26  :  10. 

PROCH'ORUS  {leniJer  of  the  cho- 
rus), one  of  the  seven  deacons.  Acts 
6  :  5. 

PROCON'SUL,  AND  PROC- 
URATOR. See  Deputy  and  Gov- 
ernor. 

PROM'ISE,  in  opposition  to 
"  threatening,"    signifies    generally    ar 

705 


vno 


PRO 


assurance  of  the  bestowal  of  some  good 
or  the  removal  of  some  evil,  but  refers 
more  especially  to  the  spiritual  gifts  of 
God — the  Messiah,  the  Holy  Spirit,  and 
the  Christian  Church.  Thus  those  who 
have  received  these  gifts  are  called 
"children  of  the  promise."  Rom.  9:8. 

PROP'ER,  in  Heb.  11  :  28,  '*  a 
proper  child,"'  means  "handsome." 

PROPH'ET  (from  a  Greek  word 
signifying  speake?-,  utterer).  The  term 
is  used  in  a  wider  sense,  signifying 
simply  "interpreter,"  in  close  corre- 
spondence with  its  etymology,  and  thus 
it  is  applied  to  every  one  who  has  re- 
ceived a  communication  from  God  which 
he  utters  or  interprets.  Abraham  is 
called  a  prophet,  Gen.  20  :  7,  in  this 
sense  of  the  word,  and  in  the  same  man- 
ner Aaron  is  called  the  prophet  of  Moses. 
Ex.  7  :  1.  As  a  communication  from 
God  is  most  likely,  however,  to  refer  to 
the  future  it  becomes  naturally  a  pre- 
diction in  the  mouth  of  the  interpreter, 
and  this  element  of  prediction,  added  to 
that  of  interpretation,  gives  a  more 
special  sense  to  the  term,  "prophet" 
signifying  a  man  who  is  authorized  by 
God  to  reveal  something  with  respect  to 
the  future. 

The  prophets  of  the  0.  T.,  at  once 
interpreters  and  predictors,  formed  a 
special  institution  in  the  Hebrew  the- 
ocracy, an  independent  link  of  the  great 
providential  scheme  which  made  the 
children  of  Israel,  the  chosen  people 
among  whom  the  Messiah  was  to  be 
born,  a  transition  between  the  old  and 
the  new  dispensations.  Resting  on 
Moses,  they  pointed  toward  Christ; 
preaching  the  Law,  they  promised  the 
Gospel.  Scattered  prophecies  occur  even 
before  Moses,  but  it  was  not  until  the 
time  of  Samuel  that  the  prophets  became 
a  regular  order  in  the  Hebrew  theocracy, 
like  the  priests,  and  afterward  the  kings. 
During  the  period  of  the-  Judges  the 
priesthood  seems  to  have  become  some- 
what degenerate,  and  its  influence  on 
the  people  was  lowered.  Under  these 
circumstances,  Samuel  undertook  to  cre- 
ate or  develop  a  new  moral  power  in  the 
nation  by  the  organization  of  the  pro- 
phetical institution,  and  so  successful 
was  he  in  this  undertaking  that  in  Holy 
Scripture  he  is  ranked  beside  Moses  as 
one  of  the  pillars  of  the  people.  Jer.  15  : 
1;  Ps.  97  :  6j  Acts  3  :  24.  Schools  or 
706 


colleges — in  fact,  the  first  theological 
seminaries — were  established  first  at 
Ramah,  1  Sam.  19  :  19;  afterward  at 
Bethel,  2  Kgs.  2  :  3,  Jericho,  2  Kgs. 
2  :  5,  Gilgal,  2  Kgs.  4  :  38,  and  in  other 
places.  2  Kgs.  6  :  1.  Under  the  leader- 
ship of  some  elderly  prophet,  who  was 
called  their  "father"  or  "master,"  1 
Sam.  10  :  12;  2  Kgs.  2  :  3,  promising 
young  men  were  gathered  into  these 
schools  and  instructed  in  the  interpre- 
tation of  the  Law,  in  music,  and  in 
poetry.  The  connection  between  proph- 
ecy and  poetry  and  music  was  old,  Ex. 
15  :  20  :  Jud.  4:4;  5:1,  and  continued 
to  the  last.  1  Sam.  10  :  5  ;  2  Kgs.  3:15; 

1  Chr.  25  :  6.  Having  gone  through 
the  school  and  completed  his  instruc- 
tion, the  prophet  entered  on  his  ofiiee 
as  an  instructor  of  the  people,  leading 
all   the  while  a  stern  and  austere  life. 

2  Kgs.  4  :  9,  38 ;    1  Kgs.  19  :  8 ;    Matt. 

3  :4. 

Although  the  prophets  formed  a  regu- 
lar order  like  that  of  the  kings  or  the 
priests,  there  was,  nevertheless,  no  un- 
interrupted succession  of  prophets.  They 
arose  only  when  specially  called  by  God. 
What  they  learnt  in  these  schools  was 
only  a  preparation  to  make  them  fitter 
instruments  in  the  hands  of  God;  the 
principal  constituent  of  their  office  was 
the  divine  authorization,  given  them  in 
the  form  of  inspiration.  But  this  the 
prophetic  gift  was  quite  independent 
of  the  prophetic  education ;  Amos  was 
not  educated  as  a  prophet  when  the 
divine  word  came  to  him.  Am.  7  :  14. 
The  question  of  the  psychological 
connection  between  the  divine  inspi- 
ration and  the  mind  of  the  prophet  in 
its  natural  state  has  been  much  debated, 
but  is  in  reality  inapproachable,  because 
one  part  of  the  combination — the  divine 
inspiration — cannot  be  made  the  subject 
of  research.  From  the  prophetic  writ- 
ings, however,  the  manner  in  which  the 
divine  inspiration  took  hold  of  the  hu- 
man mind  and  used  it  as  its  instrument 
is  very  apparent.  Sometimes  it  is 
through  dreams,  Dan.  2 ;  sometimes 
through  visions,  Isa.  6 ;  Eze.  1 ;  some- 
times through  direct  communication. 
1  Kgs.  13  :  20-22 ;  1  Sam.  3.  Of  these 
various  methods,  that  of  the  vision  is 
the  most  common,  and,  indeed,  the  writ- 
ings of  the  prophets  have  the  general 
character  of  visions,  as  if  a  curtain  had 


PRO 


PKO 


been  removed  from  before  the  eyes  of 
the  prophet,  and  he  had  been  allowed  to 
see  and  scan  the  plans  of  (xod  in  all  his 
dealings  with  his  creatures.  Thus  en- 
dowed, the  prophet  was  in  truth  within 
the  pale  of  revealed  religion  what  the 
oracle  attempted  to  be  within  the  pale 
of  natural  religion.  But  while  the 
oracle,  resulting  from  the  natural  ex- 
altation of  the  human  mind,  never 
reached  beyond  an  obscure  and  uncertain 
conjecture,  the  prophet,  inspired  by  God, 
told  the  certain  truths.  The  prophets 
saw  the  future  rather  in  space  than  in 
time,  and  as  a  picture  of  events  very 
close  together,  though  they  may  have 
been  very  far  apart.  They  described  the 
future  as  a  common  observer  would  de- 
scribe the  stars,  grouping  them  as  they 
appear  to  his  eye.  Thus  Isaiah,  chs.  10 
and  11,  connects  the  deliverance  of  the 
Jews  from  the  yoke  of  the  Assyrians 
with  the  deliverance  by  the  Messiah  ; 
Zechariah  (ch.  9)  connects  the  triumphs 
of  Alexander  with  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah,  although  the  events  were  three 
hundred  years  apart;  Joel,  ch.  2:28, 
connects  the  effusion  of  the  Spirit  on  the 
day  of  Pentecost  and  the  last  day ;  and 


so  does  Peter.  Acts  2.     Our  Lord's  great 
eschatological  discourse.  Matt.  24  and  26, 

is  a  familiar  instance  of  the  same  fact. 

Sent  by  Jehovah  to  reveal  and  enforce 
his  will,  to  reform  or  revise  the  theocratic 
constitution,  and  to  prepare  the  way  for 
Christ,  2  Kgs.  17  :  13  ;  Jcr.  25  :  4.  the 
prophet  stood  as  a  mighty  power  among 
the  peojjle,  guiding  and  rebuking  them 
and  their  rulers.  He  was  the  true  leader 
of  the  people,  not  only  in  religious,  but 
also  in  political  and  social,  movements. 
He  kept  the  theocracy  alive,  saved  it  from 
stagnation  and  degeneracy,  and  led  it  to- 
ward its  final  completion  in  Christ. 

Besides  the  prophetical  utterances 
scattered  through  the  historical  and 
poetical  books,  sixteen  of  the  Hebrew 
prophets  have  left  us  writings  which 
now  form  parts  of  the  canon.  Two  of 
the  greatest  prophets,  Elijah  and  Elisha, 
have  left  no  special  books,  but  their  acts 
are  recorded  in  the  Kings.  In  all,  the 
Jews  reckoned  fort.y-eight  prophets  and 
five  prophetesses.  The  canonical  proph- 
ets cover  a  period  of  over  four  hundred 
years,  from  about  B.  c.  850  to  420,  and 
fall,  according  to  their  chronological 
order,  into  three  groups,  as  follows : 


I.  PROPHETS  BEFORE  THE  BABYLONISH  CAPTIVITY. 

Prophet. 
Jonah. 

Probable  Dates. 

Kings  of  Judab. 

Kings  of  Israel. 

Bet.  856  and  784. 

Jeroboam  II. 

Joel. 

About  850. 

Uzziah, 

Amos. 

Bet.  810  and  785. 

Uzziah. 

Jeroboam  II. 

Hosea. 

Bet.  790  and  725. 

Jeroboam  II. 

Isaiah. 

Bet.  763  and  697. 

Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  Hezekiah. 

Micah. 

Bet.  758  and  697. 

Jothain,  Ahaz,  Hezekiah. 

Nahum. 

Bet.  720  and  698. 

Latter  part  of  Hezekiah. 

Zephaniah. 

Bet.  620  and  609. 

Beginning  of  Josiah's  reign. 

Jeremiah. 

Bet.  628  and  588. 

fJosiah,     Jehoiakin,     Jeconiah,     and 
t     Zedekiah. 

Habbaknk. 

Bet.  612  and  598. 

Jehoiakin. 

II.  PROPHETS  DURING  THE  BABYLONISH  CAPTIVITY. 


Prophet. 

Daniel. 

Obadiah.* 

Ezekiel. 

Probable  Dates. 

Kings  of  Judah. 

Kings  of  Israel. 

Bet.  606  and  534. 
Bet.  588  and  583. 
Bet.  595  and  536. 

Taken  captive  in  4th  year  of  Jehoiakin. 

Ill,  PROPHETS  AFTER  THE  RETURN  FROM  THE  CAPTIVITY. 


Prophet. 

Probable  Dates. 

Kings  of Judah. 

Kings  of  Israel. 

Haggai. 

Zechariah. 

Malachi. 

Bet.  520  and  518. 
Bet.  520  and  518. 
Bet.  436  and  420. 

Nehemiah,  governor. 

♦  Other  writers  make  Obadiah  the  earliest  among  the  prophets,  b.  c.  890-880. 


ro7 


PRO 


PRO 


PROPH'ETESS  signifies  not  only 
the  wife  of  a  prophet,  Isa.  8  :  3,  but  also 
a  woman  that  has  the  gift  of  prophecy. 
Ex.  15  :  20.  Among  these  were  Miriam, 
the  sister  of  Aaron  and  Moses,  Ex.  15  : 
20 ;  Deborah,  who  sang  with  Barak, 
Jud.  5:1;  Hannah,  the  mother  of 
Samuel,  1  Sam.  2:1;  Anna,  who  was  in 
the  temple,  Luke  2:36;  the  four  daugh- 
ters of  Philip  the  Evangelist.  Acts  21 :  9. 

PROPITIATION  denotes  the 
action  of  a  person  who  in  some  appointed 
way  averts  the  wrath  aroused  by  some 
offence,  and  brings  about  a  reconcilia- 
tion. Thus,  Christ  is  the  "propitiation 
for  our  sins."  Rom.  3  :  25  ;  1  John  2:2; 
4:10.  The  same  Greek  word  is  used  by 
the  Septuagint  to  denote  "  sin-ofi"ering," 
Eze.  44  :  27  and  45  :  19;  "  atonement," 
Num.  5:8;  the  "mercy-seat,"  Heb.  9  : 
5 ;  and  the  covering  of  the  ark  of  the 
covenant.  Lev.  16  :  14. 

PROS'ELYTE,  Matt.  23  ;  15,  a 
name  given  by  the  Jews  to  such  as  were 
converted  from  heathenism  to  the  Jewish 
faith.  According  to  the  Mosaic  Law, 
foreigners  who  resided  in  Palestine  were 
entitled  to  kind  treatment,  Deut.  10  :  18, 
19,  and  the  protection  of  the  cities  of 
refuge,  Num.  35  :  15,  on  the  condition 
that  they  kept  the  Sabbath,  Ex.  20  :  10, 
and  abstained  from  blasphemy  and  idol- 
atry. Lev.  20  :  2  ;  24  :  16.  They  might 
even  partake  in  the  celebration  of  the 
day  of  atonement,  Lev.  26  :  29,  the  feast 
of  weeks,  Deut.  16  :  11,  and  that  of 
tabernacles  ;  but  the  Passover  they  could 
not  eat  without  having  been  circumcised, 
Ex.  12  :  48  ;  Num.  9  :  14— that  is,  with- 
out having  adopted  the  Jewish  ritual 
together  with  the  Jewish  faith,  and  be- 
come Jews.  Later  on,  especially  after 
the  Captivity,  when  Jews  were  living  in 
all  countries,  it  could  not  fail  that  the 
heathens,  especially  the  women,  should 
feel  attracted  by  this  higher  type  of 
religion,  and  the  Jews  themselves  were 
very  eager  to  make  converts.  In  Da- 
mascus almost  all  the  women  were  con- 
verted to  the  Jewish  faith. 

There  were  two  classes  of  proselytes. 
1.  Full  proselj'tes,  called  "proselytes  of 
righteousness,"  who  were  circumcised 
and  in  full  communion  with  the  syna- 
gogue. They  were  usually  more  fanatical 
than  the  native  Jews.  Comp.  Matt.  23  : 
15.  2.  Half  proselytes,  called  "  pros- 
elytes of  the  gate*'  (from  Ex.  20:10, 
708 


"  Thy  stranger  that  is  within  thy  gate"), 
who  embraced  the  monotheism  and  Mes- 
sianic hopes  of  the  Jews  without  sub- 
mitting to  circumcision  and  conforming 
to  the  Jewish  ritual.  The  latter  class 
are  called  in  the  N.  T.  religious,  devout. 
God-fearing  persons.  Acts  13  :  43,  50 ; 
16:14:  17:4,17;  18:7.  They  were 
among  the  first  converts,  and  formed 
generally  the  nucleus  of  Paul's  congre- 
gations. To  these  half  proselytes  be- 
longed Cornelius,  Lydia,  Timothy,  Titus. 

PROVERBS  are  sayings  embody- 
ing some  rule  of  conduct  or  some  ob- 
servation from  life  in  a  striking  and 
catching  form.  In  modern  times  collec- 
tions of  such  proverbs  have  been  mado 
in  almost  every  country,  and  thesi3 
collections  have  attracted  much  atten- 
tion, because  they  generally  give  very 
striking  pictures  of  the  character  of  a 
nation,  its  wisdom  and  its  follies,  its 
passions  and  its  humors. 

PROVERBS  OF  SOL'OMOX, 
the  name  of  one  of  the  poetical  books  of 
the  0.  T. ;  so  called  from  the  contents 
and  the  chief  author. 

1.  Co yitents.— The  Proverbs  are  a  col- 
lection of  wise  maxims  woven  into  a 
didactic  poem,  and  making  up  a  popular 
system  of  ethics.  They  are  a  guide  of 
practical  wisdom,  the  moral  philosophy 
of  the  Hebrews.  We  have  a  similar 
collection  in  the  book  of  Jesus  Sirach  in 
the  Apocrypha.  The  following  are  the 
principal  parts  : 

(o)  The  praise  of  Wisdom,  chs.  1-9, 
a  connected  series  of  proverbs.  Brief 
introduction.  1  :  1-6.  The  fundamental 
thought  that  all  true  wisdom  comes  from 
above  and  has  its  beginning  in  the  fear 
of  God.  v.  7.  Then  short  discourses  on 
various  topics  of  religion  and  morality, 
rewards  of  those  who  seek  wisdom,  ad- 
monitions to  seek  it,  warning  against 
the  allurements  of  the  strange  woman, 
eh.  7 ;  Wisdom's  appeal  to  men,  her 
claims,  her  relation  to  Jehovah,  ch.  8, 
and  her  invitation  to  her  feasts.  Ch.  9. 

(b)  The  proverbs  of  Solomon,  chs. 
10-22  : 1 6,  a  collection  of  various  maxims 
of  an  ethical  and  practical  nature. 

(c)  A  connected  series  with  precepts 
on  justice  and  prudence.  Ch.  22  :  17- 
24 :  22. 

{d)  Unconnected  proverbs  of  various 
wise  men.   Ch.  24:23-34. 

(f)  Another  collection  of  Proverbs  of 


PKO 


PEO 


Solomon,  which  the  men  of  Ilezekiah, 
king  of  Judah,  copied  out.  Chs.  25-29. 

(/)  "The  words  of  Agur,  the  son  of 
Jakeh."  Ch.  30  :  1-33.  Ancient  inter- 
preters take  "Agur"  to  be  a  symbolic 
name  of  Solomon,  like  "  Kohelcth  ;"  but 
then  he  would  not  be  called  the  son  of 
Jakeh.  Probably  the  real  name  of  some 
Hebrew  sage. 

ig)  "  The  words  of  Lemuel  the  king, 
the  prophecy  that  his  mother  taught 
him."  Ch.  31  :  1-9.  "  Lemuel"  is  per- 
haps a  symbolical  name  for  Solomon — 
i.  e.,  he  who  is  turned  to  God. 

(h)  An  alphabetical  poem  in  praise 
of  a  virtuous  woman.  Ch.  31  :  10-31.  A 
real  gem. 

2.  Poetic  Form. — The  poetic  structure 
of  the  Proverbs  is  that  of  Hebrew  paral- 
lelism in  its  various  forms.  They  con- 
sist of  single,  double,  triple,  or  more 
couplets,  the  members  corresponding  to 
each  other  in  sense  and  diction,  either 
synonymously  or  antithetically.  De- 
litzsch  calls  them  two-liners,  four-liners, 
six-liners,  eight-liners.  The  first  sec- 
tion, chs.  10-22  :  16,  contains  exclusively 
two-liners.  Besides  these,  there  are  a 
few  three-liners,  five-liners,  and  seven- 
liners,  where  the  odd  line  is  either  a 
repetition  of  or  a  reason  for  the  idea 
expressed  in  the  first  lines.  A  few 
specimens  will  make  this  clear. 

(o)  Single  synonymous  couplets: 

*'My  son,  forget  not  my  law: 

And  let  thv  heart  "keep  my  command- 
ments.—"—Ch.  3 : 1. 

"Whom  Jehovah  loveth  he  correcteth  : 

Even  as  a  father  the  son  in  whom  he 
delighteth."— Ch.  3:12. 

"Blessed  the  man  who  finds  wisdom: 

And  the  man  who  obtains  understand- 
ing."-CH.  3:13. 

(b)  Single  antithetic  couplets: 

"A  wise  son  maketh  a  grlad  father: 

But  a  foolish   son   is  the  grief  of  his 
mother."— Ch.  10  : 1. 

"Hatred  stirreth  up  strifes: 
But  love  covereth  all  sins." 

Ch.  10 :  12. 

"The  wages  of  the  righteous  is  life: 
The  gain  of  the  wicked  is  sin." 

Ch.  10  :  16. 

3.  Author. — No  doubt  Solomon  is  the 
chief,  but  not  the  sole,  author.    He  bears 


the  same  relation  to  the  Proverbs  as 
David  does  to  the  Psalms.  He  struck 
the  keynote  of  proverbial  poetry  and 
philosophy,  as  David  did  of  Hebrew 
psalmody.  He  was  very  famous  as  a 
composer  of  proverbs.  1  Kgs.  4  :  29-34. 
Yet  many  of  his  ''three  thousand  prov- 
erbs "  were  lost,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  Proverbs  of  our  canon  contain  vari- 
ous collections  of  a  later  date.  The 
compilation  was  probably  made  at  the 
time  of  Hezekiah.  Ch.  25  :  1. 

4.  Value.  —  The  Proverbs  contain  a 
vast  amount  of  wholesome  lessons  for  all 
times.  They  have  furnished  the  richest 
contributions  to  the  proverbial  diction- 
aries of  all  Christian  nations. 

The  proverbs  of  the  Bible  are  far 
superior  to  those  of  any  other  collection 
of  the  kind,  such  as  the  Sayings  of  the 
Seven  Wise  Men  of  Greece,  the  Aurea 
Carminu,  attributed  to  Pythagoras,  the 
Remains  of  the  Poetpe  Gnomici,  the  collec- 
tion of  Arabic  proverbs.  They  bear  the 
stamp  of  divine  wisdom  and  inspiration. 
They  abound  in  polished  and  sparkling 
gems.  They  contain  the  practical  wis- 
dom (chokma)  of  Israel.  They  trace 
wisdom  to  its  true  source,  the  fear  of 
Jehovah.  Ch.  1  :  7.  Nothing  can  be 
finer  than  the  description  of  Wisdom  in 
the  eighth  chapter,  where  she  is  per- 
sonified as  the  eternal  companion  and 
delight  of  God,  and  commended  beyond 
all  earthly  treasures,  ch.  8  :  11-21,  34, 
35: 

"Wisdom  is  better  than  rubies, 

And  no  precious  things  compare  witn 
her. 

"  I,  Wisdom,  dwell  with  prudence, 

And  find  out  knowledge  of  wise  counsels. 

"The  fear  of  Jehovah  is  to  hate  evil ; 
Pride,  haughtiness,  and  an  evil  way, 
And  a  perverse  mouth,  do  I  hate. 

"  Counsel  is  mine,  and  reflection  ; 

I  am  understanding;  I  have  strength. 

"By  me  kings  reign. 

And  princes  decree  justice ; 
By  me  princes  rule, 

And  nobles,  even  all  the  judges  of  the 
earth. 

"I  love  them  that  love  me;   ' 

And  they  that  seek  me  early  shall  find 
me. 

"Riches  and  honor  are  with  me. 

Yea,  enduring  riches  and  righteousness. 

709 


PRO 


PSA 


"My  fruit  is  better  than  gold,  yea  than  re- 
fined gold; 
And  my  increase  than  choice  silver. 

"I  walk  in  the  way  of  righteousness, 

In  the  midst  of  the  path  of  rectitude  ; 

To  ensure  abundance  to  those  that  love  me, 
And  to  fill  their  storehouse.  .  .  . 

"Blessed  is  the  man  that  heareth  me, 
AVatching  daily  at  my  gates, 
Waiting  at  the  posts  of  my  doors! 

For  whosoever  findeth  me  findeth  life; 
And  shall  obtain  favor  from  Jehovah." 

The  description  of  the  model  Hebrew 
woman  in  her  domestic  and  social  rela- 
tions,   ch.    31  :  10-31    (in    the    acrostic 
form),  has  no  parallel   for  truthfulness 
and  beauty  in  all  ancient  literature,  and  j 
forms  the  appropriate  close  of  this  book  { 
of  practical  wisdom  ;  for  from  the  family,  j 
of  which  woman  is  the  presiding  genius, 
spring  private  and  public  virtue  and  na- 
tional prosperity. 

PROVINCE  is  used  in  the  sense 
of  "tribe"  in  1  Kgs.  20  :  14,  15,  17. 

PROVOKE',  literally,  to  ''call 
forth;"  hence,  "to  challenge,"  "incite." 
In  this  sense  used  in  the  A.  V.  of  1 
Chr.  21  :  1;  Rom.  10  :  19;  11  :  11,  14; 
2  Cor.  9:2:  Heb.  10  :  24. 

PSALMS,  THE  BOOK  OF. 
A  psalm,  from  a  Greek  word  signifying 
"  to  strike  the  lyre,"  "  to  play,"  "  to  sing," 
is  a  lyric  poem  of  religious  character  and 
aim — a  song  in  praise  of  God.  The 
collection,  or  rather  series  of  collections, 
of  Hebrew  Psalms  is  called  in  the  He- 
brew Bible  "  Praises,"  or  '*'  Book  of 
Praises,"  praise  of  God  being  the  pre- 
dominant character  even  of  the  Psalms 
of  repentance  and  sorrow  ;  in  the  Septu- 
agint,  "  Psalms  "  or  "  Psalter,"  a  stringed 
instrument  on  which  the  accompaniment 
was  played  ;  and  in  the  N.  T.,  "  Psalms  " 
or  "  The  Book  of  Psalms."  In  our  canon 
it  occupies  the  principal  place  among 
the  poetical  books,  preceded  by  Job  and 
followed  by  the  Solomonic  writings. 
This  collection  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
Psalms  forms  the  first  hymn-book  for 
public  worship,  and  is  even  to  this  day 
in  more  general  use  among  all  churches 
as  a  manual  of  private  devotion  and 
public  worship  than  any  Christian  hymn- 
book.  This  fact  is  the  best  vindica- 
tion of  the  Psalms  against  faultfinding 
writers. 

Divi'fiion  of  the  Psalms. — In  the  He- 
brew Bible  the  Psalms  are  divided  into 

no 


five  distinct  collections  or  books.  The 
close  of  each  is  indicated  by  a  doxology 
and  a  double  '■  Amen,"  which  were 
added,  not  by  the  authors,  but  by  the 
collectors  for  liturgical  purposes.  Book 
I.  contains  forty-one  Psalms,  of  which 
thirty-seven  are  of  David  and  four 
anonymous  —  viz.,  1,  2,  10,  and  33. 
Book  II.  contains  thirty-one  Psalms — 
from  42  to  72 — by  different  authors : 
seven  by  the  sons  of  Korah,  one  by 
Asaph,  nineteen  by  David,  three  anony- 
mous, and  one  by  Solomon  or  for  Solomon, 
after  which  the  note  is  appended,  "  The 
prayers  of  David,  the  son  of  Jesse,  are 
ended."  Ps,  72  :  20.  Book  III.  contains 
seventeen  Psalms — from  73  to  89  :  eleven 
by  Asaph,  four  by  the  sons  of  Korah,  one 
by  David  (86),  and  one  by  Ethan  the 
Ezrahite  (89).  Book  lY.  contains  seven- 
teen Psalms — from  90  to  106  :  one  by 
Moses  (90),  two  by  David  (101  and 
103),  the  rest  anonymous.  Book  V. 
contains  forty-four  Psalms — from  107 
to  150  :  fifteen  of  David,  one  of  Solomon, 
and  the  rest  anonymous,  including  the 
fifteen  Songs  of  Degrees,  or  pilgrim 
songs  (120-134),  and  closing  with  the 
Hallelujah  Psalms  (146-150). 

This  division  is  traced  back  to  the 
time  of  Nehemiah,  as  in  1  Chr.  16  :  35, 
36  there  is  a  free  quotation  from  the 
concluding  doxology  of  the  fourth  book. 
Ps.  106  :  47,  48.  It  is  marked  in  the 
Septuagint,  and  mentioned  but  rejected 
by  some  of  the  Fathers,  as  opposed  to 
the  authority  of  the  apostle,  who  speaks 
of  the  "  Book  of  Psalms."  Acts  1 :  20. 
The  principle  has  been  variously  stated 
as  an  analogy  to  the  five  Books  of 
Moses,  as  a  chronological  order,  as  an 
arrangement  by  authors,  by  contents, 
for  liturgical  purposes,  etc.  It  seems, 
however,  that  the  grouping  of  the  Psalms 
was  not  controlled  by  any  one  principle 
exclusively,  though,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  division  shows  too  much  method  to 
be  considered  arbitrary  or  accidental. 
The  collectors  probably  so  arranged  the 
Psalms  as  to  combine  historical,  dogmat- 
ic, and  liturgical  order  with  convenience 
for  public  tise — much  in  the  same  manner 
as  many  Christian  hymn-books  combine 
the  order  of  subjects  with  that  of  the 
festivals  of  the  church-year,  sacrificing 
merely  logical  consistency  to  practical 
convenience.  Minor  collections  were 
made   at  diflferent   times — such  as   the 


PSA 


PSA 


Korahite  selection,  the  "  Pilgrim  Songs," 
Songs  of  Degrees,  the  Hallelujah  Psalms 
— and  were  afterward  incorporated  in 
the  larger  divisions.  A  few  Psalms  are 
repeated  with  some  variations  in  different 
books — viz..  14  and  53;  the  latter  part 
of  40  and  70 ;  57,  60,  and  108— which 
proves  that  the  hve  books  were  originally 
separate  collections.  The  time  of  the 
final  completion  of  the  collection  cannot 
be  positively  fixed;  the  last  two  collec- 
tions must  have  been  made  after  the 
Captivity,  as  is  shown  by  the  style  and 
subject  of  liome  of  the  Psalms  included 
in  them.  The  whole  collection  was  prob- 
ably completed  at  the  time  of  Ezra.  At 
all  events,  the  present  Psalter  is  a 
gradual  work,  and  reflects  the  piety  of 
several  generations — from  the  golden 
age  of  the  theocracy  to  the  return  from 
exile. 

The  Inscriptions.  —  All  the  Psalms, 
with  the  exception  of  thirty-four,  which 
in  the  Talmud  are  called  "  Orphan 
Psalms,"  have  titles  or  superscriptions 
which  in  the  Hebrew  text  are  numbered 
as  verse  1,  while  in  the  English  Version 
they  are  more  properly  separated  from 
the  text  and  printed  in  small  type  as 
headings.  Some  also  regard  the  phrase 
"Hallelujah,  Praise  ye  the  Lord!"  at 
the  beginning  of  several  Psalms  as  a 
title,  and  thus  reduce  the  nuftiber  of 
Psalms  without  titles  to  twenty-four. 
The  origin  of  these  titles  is  unknown. 
They  were  probably  added  by  the  col- 
lectors of  the  several  books,  and  resemble 
in  this  respect  the  headings  of  the 
Gospels  and  the  subscriptions  at  the 
close  of  the  Epistles  in  the  N.  T.  They 
are,  however,  of  great  antiquity,  and 
often  of  much  value  for  the  interpreta- 
tion. They  are  found  in  all  the  Hebrew 
manuscripts,  and  embody  the  popular 
traditions  concerning  the  authorship, 
historical  occasion,  musical  character, 
etc.,  prior  to  the  Greek  translation.  In 
some  instances  their  meaning  has  been 
lost,  and  the  Septuagint  does  not  even 
attempt  a  translation  ;  but,  so  far  as  we 
are  able  to  interpret  them,  they  give  us 
valuable  information  about  the  authors 
— David,  Asaph,  the  sons  of  Korah,  etc. ; 
the  particular  kind  of  poem  ;  the  musical 
and  liturgical  character  j  the  particular 
instrument  used  for  accompaniment ; 
the  historical  and  personal  occasion,  etc. 
Notices  of  the  last  kind,  however,  occur 


only  in  the  Psalms  of  David,  and  refer 
mostly  to  events  in  his  life.  Many  of 
them  arc  copied,  word  for  word,  from 
the  historical  books.  Comp.  Ps.  52  with 
1  Sam.  22  :  y  :  Ps.  54  with  1  Sam.  23  : 
19  ;  Ps.  56  with  I  Sam.  21  :  11-15.  Much 
dispute  has  been  occasioned  by  the  term 
"  Selah,"  which  is  not  found  in  the  in- 
scriptions, but  in  the  body  of  the  Psalms  ; 
but  most  probably  it  gives  simply  a 
musical  direction. 

Character  of  the  Pxahits. — It  is  a  re- 
markable fact  that  the  Psalms,  written 
by  pious  Jews  centuries  before  Christ, 
have  been  used  in  the  Christian  Church 
down  to  this  day  for  the  highest  purposes 
of  devotion,  and  that  they  answer  this 
object  now  as  well  as  ever,  among 
Greeks,  Latins,  and  Protestants  of  all 
names.  Some  denominations  in  Scot- 
land and  the  United  States  to  this  day 
use  them  almost  exclusively  in  public 
worship.  AVe  can  ask  for  no  stronger 
proof  of  the  inspiration  of  the  Psalms. 
They  spring  from  the  deep  fountains  of 
the  human  heart  in  its  intercourse  with 
God.  They  express  the  general  religious 
feelings  of  thanks  and  praise,  of  repent- 
ance, grief,  despondency,  hope,  and  joy; 
and  they  do  this  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
find  an  echo  in  every  pious  soul  in  every 
age  and  in  every  clime.  It  is  true  we 
cannot  always  feel  the  full  force  of  every 
Psalm,  and  often  we  would  like  to  know 
more  of  the  particular  situation  out  of 
which  it  has  grown,  in  order  that  we 
may  understand  all  its  details.  The 
Psalms  are  poems,  and,  like  other  poems, 
they  require  a  corresponding  state  of 
feeling  in  order  to  open  u])  their  whole 
inner  meaning.  Some  Psalms  can  only 
be  appreciated  in  seasons  of  peculiar 
trial  and  distress;  others  only  in  times 
of  persecution  from  without:  still  others 
only  on  occasions  of  festive  joy  and 
exaltation.  But  the  more  varied  our 
religious  experience  is,  the  more  we 
wonder  at  the  fertility  and  applicability 
of  the  Psalms  to  all  conditions  of  life. 
Hence  no  books  of  the  Bible,  except  the 
Gospels,  have  taken  such  a  hold  upon 
the  heart  of  Christendom  as  have  the 
Psalms.  For  centuries  they  were  the 
only  hymn-book  and  prayer-book  of  the 
Jewish  and  Christian  Churches.  They 
have  suggested  many  of  the  noblest 
Christian  hymns.  They  are  to  this  day 
indispensable     feeders    of    public     and 

711 


PSA 


PTO 


private  devotion  in  all  parts  of  the 
world,  and  will  continue  to  be  to  the 
end  of  time.  There  is  something  exceed- 
ingly elevating  and  comforting  in  the 
idea  that  our  religious  feelings  have 
moved  the  saints  of  God  in  all  ages — 
that  Moses  and  David  and  Asaph  gave 
utterance  to  our  own  spiritual  experi- 
ences. 

Authors  of  the  Psalms. — The  composi- 
tion of  the  Psalms  embraces  a  period  of 
nearly  a  thousand  years,  from  Moses  to 
the  return  from  the  Captivity  or  the  time 
of  Ezra,  but  most  of  them  belong  to  the 
reigns  of  David  and  Solomon.  About 
two-thirds  of  them  are  ascribed  in  the 
titles  to  specific  authors,  as  follows  :  (1) 
To  David,  eighty — viz.,  1-41  (including 

1  and  2,  which  are  anonymous).  51-71, 
101-103,  108-110,  122,  124,  131-133, 
138-145.  He  is  the.  largest  contributor 
and  the  master-singer  of  Israel;  hence 
the  whole  collection  is  frequently  called 
"  The  Psalms  of  David."  The  general 
characteristics  of  these  eighty  Psalms 
are  simplicity,  freshness,  vigor,  and  a 
rare  combination  of  childlike  tenderness 
with  heroic  faith ;  and,  viewed  as  a 
whole,  they  present  a  picture  of  a  man 
severely  struggling,  through  internal 
and  external  obstacles,  toward  the  city 
of  God.  (2)  To  Asaph,  twelve  Psalms — 
73-83  and  50.  Asaph,  of  the  tribe  of 
Levi,  was  one  of  David's  musicians  and 
leader  of  the  choir,    1   Chr.  15:17,19; 

2  Chr.  29  :  30,  and  his  Psalms  have  a 
more  didactic  character.  (3)  To  the 
sons  of  Korah,  a  family  of  poetical 
priests  of  the  age  of  David,  1  Chr.  6  :  16; 
9:19;  26  :  1,  2  ;  2  Chr.  20  :  19.  fourteen 
Psalms,  corresponding  to  the  fourteen 
classes  of  singers  of  that  family — viz., 
42-49,  84,  85,  87,  88.  Seven  of  them 
belong  to  the  age  of  David  and  Solomon. 
But,  properly  speaking,  only  eleven 
Psalms  belong  to  the  sons  of  Korah. 
Psalms  42  and  43  are  reckoned  as  one, 
and  88  and  89  bear  also  the  names  of 
Heman  and  Ethan.  These  Psalms  are 
generally  distinguished  by  poetic  vivacity 
and  bold  flight  of  imagination.  (4)  To 
Solomon,  two  :  72  and  127.  (5)  To  Moses 
one:  90. 

Classification  of  the  Psalms  according  to 

their  Contents. 
I.  Psalms  of  Adoration  and  Praise  : 
Ps.  8, 19,  24,  33,  34, 36,  96, 100, 103, 
712 


107, 121,  and  the  Hallelujah  Psalms, 
146-150. 

II.  Psalms  of  Thanksgiving  for  mercies : 
To  individuals,  Ps.  9,  18,  22,  30. 

To  the  people  of  Israel,  Ps.  46,  48, 
65,  98. 

III.  Penitential  Psalms : 

Ps.  6,  25,  32,  38,  51,  102,  130,  143| 

IV.  Pilgrim  Psalms  for  festive  journeys 
to  Jerusalem  (''Songs  of  Degrees" 
— i.  e.,  steps,  ascension) : 

Ps.  120-134. 

V.  Historical   Psalms,   recording    God's 

merciful  and  righteous  dealing  with 
his  people  in  time  jjast; 
Ps.  78,  105.  106. 

VI.  Prophetic  and  Messianic  Psalms, 
based  upon  the  promise  to  David 
and  his  house  (2  Sam.  7  :  12-16)  : 

Ps.  2,  8.  16,  22,  40,  45,  68,  69,  72, 
97, 110,  118. 

VII.  Didactic  Psalms  : 

(o)  On  the  character  and  fate  of  the 
righteous  and  the  wicked  :  Ps.  1,  5, 
7,  9-12,  14,  15,  17,  24,  25. 

{b)  On  the  excellency  of  God's  law: 
Ps.  19, 119. 

(c)  On  the  vanity  of  human  life :  Ps. 
39,  49,  90. 

id)  On  the  duty  of  rulers  :  Ps.  82, 101. 

VIII.  Imprecatory  Psalms,  mostly  by 
David: 

Ps.  35,  52,  58,  59,  69,  109, 137. 

PSAL'TERY  was  a  stringed  in- 
strument with  ten  strings,  like  a  harp, 
but  its  shape  is  much  disputed.  See 
Harp,  Musical  Instruments. 

PTOLEM.E'US,  OR  PTOL'- 
EMY,  is  the  common  name  of  the 
Egyptian  kings  of  the  Greek  dvnasty. 

1.  Ptolemy  I.  Soter,  b.  c.  3"23-28"5, 
the  founder  of  the  dynasty;  probably 
an  illegitimate  son  of  Philip ;  served  as 
a  general  in  the  army  of  Alexander; 
seized  Egypt  in  323,  and  maintained 
himself  there  against  Perdiccas,  321, 
Demetrius,  312,  and  Antigonus,  301. 
When  invading  Syria,  in  320,  he  swept 
down  upon  Jerusalem  on  a  Sabbath-day, 
occupied  the  city,  and  carried  away  a 
number  of  Jews  as  prisoners  to  Egypt. 
But  he  treated  them  well,  and  founded 
a  flourishing  Jewish  colony  in  his  king- 
dom. It  is  commonly  supposed  he  is 
meant,  in  Dan.  11  :  5,  by  "  the  king  of 
the  south." 

2.  Ptolemy  XL  Philadelphus,  b.  c. 


PTO 


PUD 


285-247,  son  of  the  preceding ;  reigned 
in  peace  after  the  marriage  of  his  daugh- 
ter, Berenice,  with  Antiochus  II.  of  Syria, 
Dan.  11  :  f)  ;  founded  the  great  library 
and  museum  in  Alexandria;  attracted 
to  that  city  such  men  as  the  poet  The- 
ocritus, the  geometer  Euclid,  the  astron- 
omer Aratus,  etc.  :  is  said  to  have  given 
the  first  impulse  to  the  Septuagint  trans- 
lation of  the  0.  T. ;  and  was  prominent 
in  bringing  about  that  amalgamation  of 
East  and  Wes^t,  of  Jewish  wisdom  and 
Greek  philosophy',  which  left  so  deep 
traces  in  the  history  of  both  Judaism 
and  Christianity. 

3.  Ptolemy  III.  Euergetes,  b.  c.  247- 
222,  son  of  the  preceding  ;  invaded  Syria 
to  avenge  the  repudiation  and  murder  of 
his  sister :  conquered  the  country  as  far 
north  as  Antioch  and  as  far  east  as  Bab- 
ylon ;  offered  sacrifices  in  the  temple  of 
Jerusalem,  according  to  the  custom  of  the 
Law ;  and  brought  back  to  Egypt  the 
gods  and  their  molten  images,  which 
Cambyses  had  carried  to  Babylon.  Dan. 
11 :  7-9. 

4.  Ptolemy  IV.  Philopator,  b.  c. 
222-205,  son  of  the  preceding ;  defeated 
the  army  of  Antiochus  the  Great  at 
Raphia,  near  Gaza,  215,  Dan.  11  :  10- 
12;  offered  sacrifices  of  thanksgiving  in 
the  temple  of  Jerusalem  ;  but  when  he 
attempted  to  penetrate  into  the  sanctu- 
ary, he  was  suddenly  sti'uck  by  paraly^- 
sis. 

5.  Ptolemy  V.  Epiphanes,  b.  c.  205- 
181,  son  of  the  preceding;  was  only  five 
years  old  when  his  father  died.  During 
his  minorityAntiochus  the  Great  conquer- 
ed Coele-Sj^ria,  Phoenicia,  and  Judaea,  and 
a  great  number  of  Jews  who  remained 
true  to  the  Ptolem^an  dynasty  fled  to 
Egypt,  where  the  high  priest,  Onias, 
founded  the  temple  at  Leontopolis.  By 
the  mediation  of  the  Romans,  Ptolemy 
and  Antiochus  were  afterward  reconciled, 
but  the  Egyptian  power  was  now  rapidly 
decreasing.  Dan.  11  :  13-17. 

6.  Ptolemy  VI.  Philometor,  b.  c. 
181-140,  son  of  the  preceding;  was  a 
mere  infant  when  his  father  died.  Up 
to  her  death,  in  173,  his  mother,  Cleopatra, 
reigned  in  his  stead,  and  she  kept  peace 
with  Syria.  But,  in  171,  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes  sought  and  found  an  occasion  to 
attack  Egypt,  defeated  Ptolemy  VI.,  and 
carried  him  away  a  prisoner.  Again  it 
was  the  interference  of  the  Romans  which 


saved  Egypt,  168;  but  the  power  of  the 
country  was  now  really  broken,  and  it 
gradually  glided  into  the  position  of  a 
Roman  province.  Dan.  11  :  25-30.  Un- 
der the  reign  of  Ptolemy  VI.  the  Jewish 
temple  at  Leontopolis  was  completed; 
and  thus  there  existed  a  Judaism  inde- 
pendent of  Jerusalem  and  in  intimate 
contact  with  the  classical  civilization. 

PTOLEMA'IS  (from  one  of  the 
Ptolemies  of  Egypt),  the  city  called 
Accho  in  Jewish  annals,  and  Ptolemais 
under  Macedonian  and  Roman  rule.  It 
is  often  mentioned  in  the  Apocrypha.  1 
Mace.  5: 15,  22,  55;  2  Mace.  13:  24,  25, 
etc.  Paul,  on  returning  from  his  third 
missionary-tour,  visited  Ptolemais,  and 
abode  there  one  day.  Acts  21 :  7.  The 
place  is  now  called  Akka,  or  St.  Jean 
d'Acre,  the  name  given  to  it  by  the 
Knights  of  St.  John,  who  settled  there 
soon  after  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  by 
Saladin.  A.  d.  1187.     See  Accho. 

PU'A.     See  Phuvah. 

PU'AH  {mouth).  1.  Of  the  tribe 
of  Issachar,  who  judged  Israel  after 
Abimelech.    Jud.  10  :   1. 

2.  One  of  the  two  midwives  whom  Pha- 
raoh ordered  to  kill  all  Hebrew  male  chil- 
dren at  their  birth.  Ex.  1  :  15-21. 

PUB'LICAN,  an  inferior  collector 
of  the  Roman  tribute.  Matt.  18  :  17. 
The  principal  farmers  of  this  revenue 
were  men  of  great  credit  and  influence, 
but  the  under-farmers,  or  publicans, 
were  remarkable  for  their  rapacity  and 
extortion,  and  were  accounted  as  oppres- 
sive thieves  and  pickpockets.  Hence  it 
is  even  said  that  the  Jews  would  not 
allow  them  to  enter  the  temple  or  the 
synagogues,  to  partake  of  the  public 
praj'ers  or  offices  of  judicature,  or  to 
give  testimony  in  a  court  of  justice. 

There  were  many  publicans  in  Judaea 
in  the  time  of  our  Saviour.  Zacchaeus 
was  probably  one  of  the  principal  re- 
ceivers, since  he  is  called  "chief  among 
the  publicans,"  Luke  19  :  2  ;  but  Mat- 
thew was  only  an  inferior  publican. 
Luke  5  :  27.  The  Jews  reproached 
Jesus  with  being  a  "friend  of  publi- 
cans and  sinners  "  and  eating  with  them. 
Luke  7  :  34. 

PUB'LIUS,  the  governor  of  Melita, 
who  received  St.  Paul  when  he  was 
shipwrecked  off  that  place.  Acts  28  : 
7,8. 

PU'DENS,    a   Christian   in    Rome 

713 


PUH 


PUN 


who  sent  a  salutation  to  Timothy 
through  St.   Paul.    2   Tim.   4  :  21. 

PU'HITES,  the  name  of  a  family 
descending  from  Judah.    1   Chr.  2  :  53. 

PUIi  {lord?),  the  first  king  of  Assyria, 
who  invaded  Canaan,  and  by  a  present 
of  1000  talents  of  silver  (equivalent  to 
nearly  $2,000,000  in  our  day)  was  pre- 
vailed on  by  Menahem  to  withdraw  his 
troops  and  recognize  the  title  of  that 
wicked  usurper.  2  Kgs.  15  :  19.  This 
is  the  first  mention  of  Assyria  in  the 
sacred  history  after  the  days  of  Nimrod, 
and  Pul  was  the  first-mentioned  Assyrian 
invader  of  Judtea. 

PUIi,  a  region  mentioned  in  Isa.  66 : 
19.  The  name  is  the  same  as  that  of  Pul, 
a  king  of  Assyria,  which  signifies  "ele- 
phant "  or  "  lord."  The  country  is  named 
with  Tarshish,  Lud,  Tubal,  Javan,  and 
"  the  isles  afar  off."  Bochart,  Hender- 
son, Michaelis,  and  others  suppose  it  to 
be  the  island  of  Philse  and  the  surround- 
ing regions.  Porter,  Grove,  Poole,  and 
other  authorities  make  it  some  distant 
province  of  Africa.  It  is  identified  by 
the  Septuagint  with  Phut,  which  is  join- 
ed with  Lud  in  Eze.  27  :  10 ;  30  :  5,  and 
perhaps  therefore  denotes  Libya.  See 
Phut. 

PUL'PIT,  in  Neh.  8  :  4,  was  a  plat- 
form set  up  in  the  open  air  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  Ezra. 

PULSE  {seeds).  Our  English  word 
means  peas,  beans,  lentiles,  and  the  pro- 
duce of  similar  podded  plants,  but  in 
Dan.  1  :  12,  16  the  Hebrew  probably 
denotes  vegetable  food  in  general,  and 
in  2  Sam.  17  :  28  parched  peas,  which 
are  still  a  favorite  food  in  the  East. 

PUN'ISHMENT.  The  principle 
of  punishment  prevalent  in  all  modern 
criminal  codes  is  simply  to  protect  soci- 
ety against  crime.  In  the  penal  enact- 
ments of  the  Mosaic  Law  this  principle 
is  present,  but  only  as  a  modification  or 
qualification  of  the  supreme  principle 
of  the  Law — to  do  justice.  Both  capi- 
tal and  secondary  punishments  were  in- 
flicted chiefly  from  a  regard  to  what  jus- 
tice demanded,  but  in  cases  which  lay 
absolutely  outside  the  pale  of  human 
justice,  and  had  no  connection  with  so- 
ciety beyond  the  bad  example  set,  the 
off"ender  was  "cutoff""  from  the  people 
and  left  to  the  direct  handling  of  God. 

1.  Capital  punishment  was  executed 
in  various  ways — by  stoning,  Ex.  17  : 
714 


4 ;  Luke  20  :  6  ;  John  10  :  31  ;  Acts  14  : 
5;  hanging.  Num.  25  :  4  ,•  2  Sam.  21  :  6, 
9;  burning.  Gen.  38  :  24 ;  Lev.  21  :  9  ; 
shooting,  Ex.  19  :  13  ,•  sword,  1  Kgs.  2  :  25 ; 
19  :  1 ;  2  Chr.  21  :  4  ;  strangling  (though 
mentioned  onl}'  by  the  rabbins) ;  drown- 
ing, com  p.  Matt.  18  :  6  ;  Mark  9  :  42 ; 
sawing  asunder,  2  Sam.  12  :  31 ;  pound- 
ing in  a  mortar  (though  hardly  a  legal 
punishment),  Prov.  27  :  22  ;  2  Mace.  6  : 
28  :  precipitation,  2  Mace.  6:10;  Luke 
4:29;  and  Crucifixion,  which  see.  Of 
these,  stoning  was  the  most  common  form 
of  execution.  It  was  inflicted  not  only 
for  murder,  but  also  for  striking  or  revil- 
ing a  parent,  Ex.  21  :  15  ;  for  blasphemy, 
Lev.  24  :  14,  16,  23  ;  adultery.  Lev.  20  : 
10;  Deut.  22  :  22 ;  rape,  Deut.  22  :  25 ; 
idolatry.  Lev.  20  :  2  ;  Deut.  13  :  6,  10, 
15,17;  false  witness  in  capital  cases, 
Deut.  19  :  16,  19;  but  a  verdict  of  ston- 
ing could  only  be  given  on  the  testimony 
of  two  witnesses,  and  these  were  requir- 
ed to  cast  the  first  stones,  directly  on  the 
chest  of  the  offender.  Deut.  13  :  9 ;  17  : 
7.  Several  of  the  other  forms  of  execu- 
tion, such  as  hanging  and  burning, 
were  seldom  used  except  after  death  by 
stoning  had  taken  place. 

2.  Secondary  punishments  were  regu- 
lated chiefly  after  the  idea  of  retaliation 
— "  breach  for  breach,  eye  for  eye,  tooth 
for  tooth."  Ex.  21  :  23-25:  Deut.  19  : 
18-21.  But  there  was  on  this  point  a 
remarkable  difference  between  the  Mo- 
saic Law  and  the  old  Frankish  or  Anglo- 
Saxon  or  Scandinavian  laws.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Mosaic  Law,  the  retaliation 
was  never  given  into  the  hands  of  the 
offended,  but  took  effect  only  after  judi- 
cial procedure.  In  some  cases  retaliation 
was  simple  restitution  with  a  fine  added  ; 
thus,  he  who  stole  a  sheep  was  to  restore 
four  sheep,  and  he  who  stole  an  ox  five 
oxen.  Ex.  22  :  1.  In  other  eases  it  meant 
compensation  for  loss  of  time  or  power, 
Ex.  21  :  18-36 ;  Lev.  24  :  18-21  ;  Deut. 
19  :  21,  or  even  for  loss  caused  by  acci- 
dent. Ex.  22  :  6.  When  restitution  or 
compensation  could  not  take  place — as, 
for  instance,  in  the  case  of  slander — 
whipping,  and  even  scourging,  were 
employed.  But  the  Law  forbade  to  give 
more  than  forty  stripes,  Deut.  25  :  3,  and 
the  Jews  took  great  care  not  to  give  more 
than  thirty-nine,  the  punishment  being 
inflicted  by  means  of  a  whip  with  three 
thongs,  and  thirteen  strokes  being  dealt. 


PUN 


PUT 


Imprisonment  was  not  prescribed  by  the 
Law,  but  was  known  in  the  times  of  the 
kings.  2  Chr.  16  :  10  ;  Jer.  37  :  15. 

3.  Finally,  the  Pentateuch  mentions 
some  thirty-five  cases  in  which  the  pen- 
alty incurred  is  that  of  being  "  cut  off 
from  the  people,"  but  the  exact  meaning 
of  this  expression  is  disputed.  Some 
commentators  hold  that  it  means  death, 
while  others,  and  among  them  the  rab- 
binical writers,  explain  it  as  a  kind  of 
excommunication.  It  probably  stood  in 
some  connection  with  the  punishment  of 
banishment,  which  consisted  in  confine- 
ment to  a  certain  locality  or  exclusion 
from  the  presence  of  the  king.  2  Sam. 
14:  24;  1  Kgs.  2  :  26,  36,  37. 

PU'NITES,  THE,  the  descendants 
of  Pua,  or  Phuvah,  the  son  of  Issachar. 
Num.  26  :  23. 

PU'NON  {(iarlcDess),  one  of  the  sta- 
tions of  the  Israelites,  Num.  33  :  42,  43, 
between  Zalmonah  and  Oboth.  Accord- 
ing to  Jerome  it  is  identical  with  Phenoi}, 
celebrated  for  its  copper-mines,  in  which 
convicts  were  sentenced  to  labor,  between 
Petra  and  Zoar.  Palmer  suggests  its 
identity  with  'Auezeh,  one  of  the  three 
stations,  on  the  Darb  el-Hajj. — Desert 
of  the  Exodus,  p.  430. 

PURIFICA'TIONS  formed  a  very 
conspicuous  feature  among  the  ritual 
observances  of  the  Jews,  and  were  per- 
formed in  various  ways,  though  gener- 
ally by  means  of  water.  Besides  their 
spiritual  meaning,  referring  to  the  pur- 
ity of  the  heart,  they  had  often  also  a 
sanitarj'  purpose.  After  the  Captivity, 
however,  they  were  carried  into  ex- 
tremes, especially  by  the  Pharisees. 
Mark  7  :  3,  4. 

PU'RIM  {Jots),  a  Jewish  festival  in- 
stituted to  commemorate  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  Jewish  people,  by  means  of 
Mordecai  and  Esther,  from  the  massacre 
ordered  by  Haman,  Esth.  9  :  20-32,  re- 
ceived its  name  from  the  circumstance 
that  Haman  sought  to  ascertain  by  lots 
the  day  on  which  to  execute  the  massa- 
cre. The  festival  was  celebrated  on  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  of  the  month 
Adar  (March).  The  book  of  Esther  was 
then  read  aloud  in  the  synagogue,  and 
whenever  the  name  of  Haman  occurred 
the  whole  congregation  answered,  "Let 
his  name  be  blotted  out."  After  the 
service  on  the  fifteenth,  the  festival  gen- 
erally ended  with  great  merry-making. 


Purim  is  not  mentioned  in  the  N.  T., 
unless  it  be  the  feast  spoken  of  in  John 
6:1. 

PUR'PLE.  The  purple  dye  so  fa- 
mous among  the  Orientals  of  ancient 
days  was  produced  from  a  species  of 
shellfish  peculiar  to  the  Mediterranean 
Sea.  It  was  highly  esteemed  also  among 
the  Hebrews.  The  hangings  of  the  tem- 
ple and  some  of  the  })riests'  garments 
were  of  this  color.  Ex.  25  :  4 ;  35  :  6 ; 
39  :  29 ;  2  Chron.  3  :  14,  also  the  robes 
of  royalty  and  distinction  were  of  pur- 
ple. Judg.  8  :  26,;  Esth.  8:15.  It  would 
seem,  however,  that  the  Hebrews  used 
the  term  "purple"  with  considerable 
latitude,  applying  it  in  general  to  every 
color  into  the  composition  of  which  red 
entered. 

PURSE,  a  sort  of  girdle,  such  as  is 
often  found  at  the  present  day  in  East- 
ern countries.  One  part  of  the  girdle, 
sufficient  to  encompass  the  body,  was 
sewed  double  and  fastened  with  a 
buckle.  The  other  was  wound  around 
above  or  below  the  first  fold,  and  tucked 
under.  The  first  fold  had  an  opening, 
closed  with  a  leathern  cover  and  strap, 
through  which  the  contents  of  the  purse 
were  passed.  Matt.  10  :  9  ;  Mark  6  :  8. 

PUT.  1  Chr.  1:8;  Nah.  3:9;  else- 
where Phut,  Phud,  Libya,  which  see. 

PUTE'OLiI  {snljjhurotis  wells  or 
spriiKjs),  a  seaport  of  Campania,  in  It- 
aly, situated  upon  the  northern  shore  of 
a  small  bay  running  northward  from  the 
Bay  of  Naples,  and  now  called  Pozzuoli 
Bay.  The  town  was  originally  confined 
to  a  rocky  promontory,  but  afterward 
extended  to  a  considerable  distance  east- 
ward and  northward.  Puteoli  was  the 
great  port  of  Rome,  and  through  it 
passed  the  immense  exports  and  imports 
of  the  imperial  city.  Especially  was  it 
the  port  for  the  Alexandrian  corn-ships, 
which  were  allowed  the  peculiar  privi- 
lege of  entering  the  bay  with  all  their 
sails  set.  Its  ancient  Greek  name  was 
Dicaearchia.  It  was  a  favorite  water- 
ing-place of  the  Romans,  its  hot  springs 
being  considered  efficacious  for  the  cure 
of  various  diseases.  Puteoli  is  connect- 
ed with  many  historical  personages. 
Scipio  sailed  hence  to  Spain ;  Cicero 
had  a  villa  near  the  city ;  here  Nero 
})lanned  the  murder  of  his  mother;  Ves- 
pasian gave  to  this  city  peculiar  privi- 
leges ;    and    here    Hadrian    was    buried, 

715 


PUT 


PYT 


The  Castor  and  Pollux  landed  the  apos- 
tle Paul  there,  Acts  28  :  13,  14,  and  he 
tarried  in  the  place,  where  there  were 
Christians,  for  a  week  before  setting 
out  for  Rome,  141  miles  distant.  The 
modern  name  of  Puteoli  is  Pozzuoli. 
There  are  considerable  remains  of  an- 
cient structures,  including  an  aqueduct, 
reservoirs,  baths,  and  a  building  called 


the  temple  of  Serapis.  Thirteen  arches 
can  still  be  counted  of  the  twenty-five 
which  originally  supported  the  great 
pier,  thrown  out  for  protection  against 
the  waves  and  for  convenience  in  land- 
ing passengers  and  merchandise. 

PU'TIEL  [affiicted  of  God),  the  fa- 
ther-in-law of  Eleazar,  the  son  of  Aaron. 
Ex.  6  :  25. 


The  Addax  or  Py^arg 


PY'GARG.  Deut.  14  :  5.  This  is 
believed  to  have  been  some  species  of 
antelope,  perhaps  the  addax  {Antilojje 
addax). 

PYR'RHUS,  father  of  Sopater  of 
Berea,  mentioned  in  Acts  20  :  4 ;  a  gen- 
uine name,  found  in  the  best  Greek  texts, 
though  not  in  the  A.  V.  The  father  was 
716 


doubtless  a  Berean  as  well  as  the  son, 
but  whether  he  was  a  Christian  cannot 
be  determined. 

PY'THON,  occurring  Acts  16  :  16, 
margin,  was  a  surname  of  Apollo,  the 
god  of  divination  in  the  Greek  mythol- 
ogy, and  hence  applied  to  all  oracular 
and  divinatory  spirits.    See  Divination. 


QUA 


QUA 


Q. 


QUAILS.  Ex.  16  :  13:  Num.  11  : 
31.  After  much  criticism  of  this  trans- 
lation, the  verdict  of  etymology,  zoology, 
history,  and  of  most  of  the  important  an- 
cient versions,  is  strongly  in  favor  of  the 
above  rendering.  At  the  season  when 
the  Israelites  gathered  them,  quails 
still  migrate  from  Africa  northward  in 
immense  numbers.  Such  facts  as  that 
160,000  were  taken  in  one  season  on  the 
small  island  of  Capri,  near  Naples,  and 
100,000  in  a  single  day  near  Nettuno,  at- 
test their  present  abundance  on  the  coasts 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and  travellers  tell 
us  that  they  still  cross  Arabia  in  clouds. 

All  the  conditions  of  the  above  pas- 
sage in  Numbers  are  met  by  the  habits 
of  these  birds.  Following  up  the  Red 
Sea,  they  would  naturally  cross  the  nar- 
row  gulfs   which    enclose   the    Sinaitic 


Quail.     (Coturnix  vulgaris.) 

peninsula,  and.  being  weak  of  wing  and 
according  to  their  custom  flying  be/ore 
the  wind  and  at  night,  they  would  come 
"from  the  sea"  exhausted,  and  be  eas- 
ily taken  by  hand,  as  they  are  still  often 
caught  under  similar  circumstances.  In 
their  flight  quails  skim  along  the  ground, 
which  seems  to  be  the  meaning  of  the 
expression,  "  two  cubits  hujh."    Prudent- 


ly making  provision  for  the  future,  the 
Israelites  would  spread  out  their  flesh 
to  dry,  as  Herodotus  tells  us  the  Egyp- 
tians were  accustomed  to  do.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  the  "  homers  ''  in  Num.  11 :  32 
does  not  denote  the  measure  of  that  name, 
but  rather  "  a  heap,"  which  is  sometimes 
the  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  Avord.  It  is 
evident  that  in  the  feeding  of  the  mul- 
titudes of  Israel  for  more  than  a  month 
with  these  birds  there  was  a  miraculous 
employment  of  the  provisions  of  Na- 
ture. 

The  quail  (Coinrnix  vidr/nn'n)  abounds 
through  almost  the  entire  Old  World.  It 
resembles  the  bird  called  by  the  same 
name  in  New  England  {Ortyx  Yirgini- 
anus),  but  its  note  is  like  peek-whit -whit 
rapidly  repeated. 

QUARANTA'NA,  a  mountain 
about  7  miles  north-west  of  Jericho, 
which  tradition  points  out  as  the 
scene  of  the  temptation  of  Christ. 
It  rises  abruptly  from  the  plain  to 
the  height  of  1200  to  1500  feet,  re- 
sembling a  perpendicular  wall  of 
rock.  Upon  its  sides  are  numer- 
ous grottos  and  caverns,  where 
hermits  once  dwelt  in  numbers, 
and  which  were  also  the  retreat 
of  robbers.  On  the  top  of  the 
mountain  are  ruins  of  a  chapel. 
The  mountain  is  not  named  in  the 
Bible. 

QUARRIES,  THE.  The 
Hebrew  word  thus  translated  in 
Judg.  3  :  19,  26  is  elsewhere  ren- 
dered by  "  graven"  or  "  carved 
image." 

QUAR'TUS  ifonrfl).  a  Chris- 
tian who  lived  at  Corinth  and  sent, 
through  Paul,  his  salutations  to  the 
Christians  in  Rome.  Rom.  16  :  23. 
QUATER'NION.  When  Peter  is 
said  to  have  been  delivered  to  four  qua- 
ternions of  soldiers,  and  to  have  passed 
through  a  first  and  second  watch,  Acts 
12 :  4, 1 0.  it  is  to  be  understood  that  he  was 
guarded  by  four  men  at  a  time — viz.,  two 
in  the  prison  with  him,  and  two  before 
the  doors — and  that  they  were  relieved 
every  three   hours,  or   at  each  success- 

717 


QUE 


QUO 


QUEEN    OF    HEAVEN,   the 

title  of  the  goddess  of  the  Moon  among 
the  Assyrians,  from  whom  her  wor- 
ship spread  into  Asia  Minor.  To  the 
Shemites  she  was  generally  known 
under  the  names  of  Astarte,  Ash- 
taroth,  etc.  Cakes  having  the  image 
of  the  moon  stamped  on  them  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  presented  in  sacri- 
fice as  a  part  of  her  worship.  Jer.  7  : 
18  ;  44  :  17,  18,  19,  25. 

QUICK'SANDS    are   referred  to 

in  Acts  27  :  17,   and  were   known    as 

Bound  between  two  Soldiern.^  (From  an  old  Moman  ^^^    Greater    Syrtis    and    the    Lesser 

Syrtis,  two  sandy  gulfs  on  the  north- 


Brawing.) 


ive  watch  of  the  night,  by  four  others, 
making  in  all  sixteen  men. 

QUEEN  is  the  rendering  of  three 
different  Hebrew  words,  of  which  the 
first  is  applied  to  a  queen-regnant— as, 
for  instance,  the  queen  of  Sheba,  1  Kgs. 
10  :  1,  and  Athaliah,  who  usurped  the 
throne  of  Judah,  2  Kgs.  11 ;  the  second 
to  a  queen-consort — that  is,  to  the  wives 
of  first  rank  in  the  royal  harem,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  concubines,  Esth.  1 : 
9 ;  7:1;  Cant.  6:8;  and  the  third  to  a 
queen-mother — as,  for  instance,  Bath- 
sheba,  1  Kgs.  2  :  19 ;  Maachah,  1  Kgs. 
15  :  13;  2  Chr.  15  :  16;  Jezebel.  2  Kgs. 
10  :  13.  It  was  a  natural  result  of  the 
practice  of  polygamy  that  the  queen- 
consort  never  attained  that  dignity  which 
in  our  times  such  a  position  confers,  while 
the  queen-mother  came  to  occupy  one 
of  the  most  dignified  and  powerful  po- 
sitions in  the  state.  The  following  is  a 
list  of  queen-mothers  through  the  suc- 
cessive reigns  of  the  monarchs  of  the 
kingdom  of  Judah: 

Kings.  Qneen-moihers. 

Solomon Bathsheba. 

Rehoboam Naauiah. 

^g^J^^- 1  Maachah  or  Michaiah. 

Jelioshaphat Azubah. 

Jehoram Not  mentioned. 

Ahaziah Athaliah. 

Joash Zibiah. 

Aniaziah Jehoaddan. 

Uzziah Jeeoliah. 

Jotham Jerusha. 

Ahaz Not  mentioned. 

Hezekiah Abi  or  Abijah. 

Manasseh Hephzibah. 

Anion Meshullemeth. 

Josiah Jedidah. 

Jehoahaz Harautal. 

Jehoiakira Zebudah. 

Jehoiacliin Nehushta. 

Zedeklah Hamutal. 

718 


ern  coast  of  Africa.  The  Greater  Syrtis 
was  near  Cyrene,  and  is  the  "quick- 
sands "  probably  intended  in  the  nar- 
rative of  Paul's  voyage. 

QUIRIN'IUS.     See  Cyrenius. 

QUIT  is  used  in  1  Sam.  4  :  9  and  1 
Cor.  16  :  13  in  the  sense  of  "acquit." 

QUIVER,  the  box  or  case  for  ar- 
rows. Gen.  27  :  3.  The  word  is  often 
used  figuratively.  Isa.  49  :  2  ;  Lam.  3  : 
13.  In  Jer.  5  :  16  the  slaughter  and  des- 
olation which  should   be   brought  upon 


Egyptian  Quivers  with  Bows. 


the  Israelites  by  the  invasion  of  the 
Chaldasans  is  expressed  by  the  calling 
their  quivers  "  an  open  sepulchre,"  or 
their  arrows  certain  death.  See  Armor. 
QUOTA'TIONS  from  the  0.  T.  in 
the  N.  T.  are  very  numerous,  but  vary 
both  with  respect  to  the  method  of  quot- 
ing and  with  respect  to  the  application 
of  the  words  quoted.  The  Greek  trans- 
lation, the  Septuagint,  is  generally  used, 


QUO 


QUO 


and  how  widely  ditfused  and  how  closely 
followed  this  version  was  among  the  Jews 
of  the  time  of  our  Lord  may  be  seen 
from  the  circumstances  that,  in  cases  in 
which  no  fault  of  meaning  is  involved, 
even  its  incorrectnesses  are  retained  in 
the  quotations  such  as  Matt.  15  :  9  ;  Luke 
4  :  18  ;  Acts  13  :  41  ;  15  :  7-10  ;  Rom.  15  : 
10,  etc.  J  in  Heb.  1  :  G  is  found  a  quota- 
tion from  Deut.  32  :  43  which  is  an  inter- 
polation of  the  Septuagint.  In  cases, 
however,  in  which  the  errors  of  the  ver- 
sion involve  a  discrepancy  of  meaning, 
the  N.  T.  writers  invariably  correct  the 
Septuagint  by  the  Hebrew,  such  as  Matt. 
21 :  5  ;  1  Cor.  3:19,  etc.  Often  the  quo- 
tations are  directly  from  the  Hebrew 
without  any  reference  to  the  Septuagint, 
such  as  Matt.  4  :  15,  16;  John  19  :  37; 
1  Cor.  15  :  54.  In  Mark  12  :  30;  Luke 
10  :  27  ;  Rom.  12  :  19,  the  Septuagint 
and  the  Hebrew  are  combined.  Besides 
these  direct  quotations,  the  books  of  the 
N.  T.  are  crowded  with  allusions  to  and 
suggestions  from  the  0.  T.,  both  con- 
scious, with  appropriate  adjustment,  and 
unconscious.  To  this  difference  in  the 
method  of  quoting  corresponds  a  differ- 
ent method  of  application.  When  the 
N.  T.  writer  ascribes  something  prophet- 
ical or  typical  to  the  passage  quoted,  he 
generally  introduces  it  with  the  word 
"  fulfil,"  such  as  Matt.  2:15,  18.  23,  etc., 
and  the  application  is  authoritative.  But 
in  other  cases  the  application  may  be 
considered  optional,  referring  to  the 
generally  prophetical  and  typical  cha- 
racter of  the  0.  T.  in  its  relation  to  the 
N.  T.,  and  a  natural  result  of  the  force 


with  which  the  0.  T.  book  had  impressed 
the  minds  of  the  N.  T.  writers. 

The  precise  relation  of  the  N.  T.  quo- 
tations to  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  and  to 
the  (ireek  Scj)tuagint  is  not  yet  suffi- 
ciently cleared  up,  but  has  been  much 
investigated  of  late.  Mr.  D.  C.  Turpie, 
in  his  book,  The  Old  Testament  in  the 
Neio  (Lond.,  1868),  establishes  the  fol- 
lowing result : 

Passafres  in  which  the  Septuagint  version 
is  correctly  accepted 53 

Passages  in  which  the  Septuagint  version 
is  correctly  altered 10 

Passages  in  which  the  Septuagint  version 
is  incorrectly  accepted 37 

Passages  in  which  the  Septuagint  version 
is  incorrectly  altered 76 

Passages  in  which  the  Hebrew,  the  Sep- 
tuagint, and  the  New  Testament  all 
differ 99 

Many  of  the  differences  are,  however, 
exceedingly  minute,  and  "correct"  and 
"  incorrect  "  merely  mean  accurate  agree- 
ment or  disagreement  with  the  original 
Hebrew.  Prof.  Bohl  of  Vienna,  in  his 
books  Forschnnrien  nac.h  einer  Volksbibel 
zur  Zeit  Jesu  (Wien,  1873)  and  Die  Alt- 
test  amentlich  en  Citate  im  N.  T.  (AVien, 
1878),  maintains  that  the  N.  T.  writers 
quoted  directly  and  correctly  from  a 
current  Aramaic  version,  which  has  in- 
deed perished,  but  which  was  in  Christ's 
day  read  and  memorized  by  all  classes 
among  the  Jews  as  the  people's  Bible. 
Hence  the  N.  T.  quotations  are  incor- 
rect in  the  same  way  and  to  the  same 
degree  as  are  the  quotations  from  the 
present  A.  V. 

719 


EAA 


EAB 


R 


RA'AMAH  {trembling),  a  commer- 
cial country  which  traded  with  Tyre. 
Eze.  27  :  22.  This  land  furnished  spices, 
gems,  and  gold,  and  was  probably  named 
after  a  son  of  Cush,  whose  descendants 
are  believed  to  haVe  settled  upon  the 
south-western  shore  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 
The  Septuagint  renders  Raamah  by 
Regma,  a  place  mentioned  by  Ptolemy 
in  the  territory  of  the  Nariti,  an  Arabian 
tribe  settled  in  the  above  locality. 

RAAMI'AH  {ichom  Jehocnh  makes 
iremb/e),  Neh.  7  :  7,  OR  REELAI'AH 
[id.),  Ezr.  2  :  2.  one  of  the  chiefs  who 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel. 

RAAM'SES.  'Ex.  1:11.   See  Ram- 

ESES. 

RAB'BAH  (greatness).  1.  The 
chief  city  and  capital  of  the  Ammonites. 
Jos.  13  :  25.  Its  full  name  is  "  Rabbath 
of  the  children  of  Ammon."  Deut.  3:11. 
It  is  also  called  "  Rabbath  of  the  Ammon- 
ites." Eze.  21  :  20.  Greek  and  Roman 
writers  call  it  "  Philadelphia,"  a  name 
given  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  by 
whom  it  was  rebuilt.  Its  modern  name 
is  Amman.  Rabbath  was  situated  in  the 
valley  of  the  upper  Jabbok  and  between 
two  mountains,  about  22  miles  east  of 
the  Jordan,  14  miles  north-east  of 
Heshbon,  and  19  miles  south-east  of  Es 
Salt. 

History. — Rabbah  is  first  mentioned 
as  the  place  of  the  '*  bed,"  or  sarcophagus 
of  Og,  king  of  Bashan.  Deut.  3:11 
Joab  besieged  it,  and,  by  order  of  David 
Uriah  was  here  slain.  2  Sam.  11  :  1-17 
Joab  took  the  ''  city  of  waters  " — that  is 
probably,  the  lower  city,  through  which 
the  stream  flowed — while  the  citadel  held 
out  until  David  came  with  reinforce- 
ments. 2  Sam.  12  :  26-31 ;  1  Chr.  20  : 
1-3.  Afterward,  when  David  fled  from 
Jerusalem  to  Mahanaim,  a  citizen  of 
Rabbah  gave  him  provisions.  2  Sam. 
17  :  27-29.  At  a  later  period  the  Am- 
monites regained  their  independence, 
but  the  overthrow  of  Rabbah  was  pre- 
dicted. Jer.  49:23;  Eze.  21:20;  25:5; 
Am.  1  :  14.  Under  the  Ptolemies  it 
continued  to  be  a  city  of  importance, 
having  a  garrison  for  repelling  the  at- 
720 


tacks  of  BedouinSj  and  it  supplied  water 
for  travellers  across  the  desert.  In  N.  T. 
times  Rabbah  was  one  of  the  cities  of 
Decapolis,  under  the  name  of  "  Philadel- 
phia," and  it  continued  as  an  important 
town  until  the  fourth  century,  being  the 
seat  of  a  Christian  bishopric;  it  was  finally 
overthrown  by  the  Saracens.  Earth- 
quakes have  contributed  to  its  ruin. 

Present  Appearance. — The  ruins  of 
Rabbah  are  among  the  most  imposing 
on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan.  Among 
them  are  those  of  a  theatre — the  largest 
known  in  Syria — capable  of  holding  6000 
spectators,  a  smaller  theatre,  or  odeum, 
baths,  a  beautiful  Grecian  temple,  large 
basilicas,  or  Greek  churches,  a  vast  pub- 
lic building  with  arches  still  standing, 
and  the  citadel  on  a  hill;  the  remarkable 
ruins  are  strewn  over  a  space  of  several 
acres.  Most  of  them,  however,  belong 
to  the  GrjBco-Roman  period.  A  paved 
Roman  street  is  quite  perfect,  the  wheel- 
ruts  being  distinctly  visible.  Eight  Cor- 
inthian columns  of  the  theatre  remain. 
The  coins  of  the  city  bear  the  image  of 
Astarte  and  the  word  "  Heraeleion," 
from  "  Hercules,"  the  idol  which  followed 
Moloch.  Immense  flocks  and  herds  of 
the  Arabs  come  to  Rabbah  for  water  and 
for  shelter  from  the  noonday  heat,  giving 
to  the  place  the  appearance  and  odor  of 
a  farm-yard,  strikingly  fulfilling  the 
prophecy,  "  I  will  make  Rabbah  a  stable 
for  camels,  and  the  Ammonites  a  couch- 
ing-place  for  flocks."  Eze.  25  :  4,  5. 

2.  A  town  of  Judah  in  the  hill-country, 
noticed  with  Kirjath-jearim.  Jos.  15  : 
60.  Conder  suggests  that  it  may  be 
identified  with  the  present  ruin  Jiabba, 
in  the  hills  near  Beit  Jibriu. 

RABBATH -AM'JUON.  Deut. 
3:11.     See  Rabbah. 

RAB'BATH-MO'AB.     See  Ar. 

RAB'BI,  a  title  of  dignity,  literally 
signifying  "  my  master."  It  was  given 
by  the  Jews  to  distinguish  teachers  of 
their  Law,  and  frequently  applied  to  our 
Lord  by  the  disciples  and  the  people. 
Matt.  23  :  7,  8 :  26  :  25,  49  ;  Mark  9:5; 
11  :  21 ;  14  :  45 ;  John  1  :  38,  49 ;  3  :  2, 
26,  etc.      The  usual  Greek  word  in  the 


RAB 


RAC 


Gospels  as  the  title  of  Christ  is  "  teacher." 
Matt.  8  :  19;  9  :  11,  etc.  The  Jews 
distinguished  between  Rah,  "master," 
Bahhi,  ''my  master,"  and  liabboni,  "my 
great  master."  The  last  was  the  most 
honorable  title  of  all. 

RAB'BITH  [multUude),  a  town  of 
Issachar,  apparently  in  the  southern  lim- 
it of  the  tribe,  Jos.  19  :  20.  Drake  would 
identify  it  with  Arrabeh,  but  Conder 
locates  it  at  the  present  village  liaba, 
on  the  watershed  south  of  (xilboa. 

RABBO'NI.  John  20  :  IG.  See 
Rabbi. 

RAB'-MAG  (perhaps  the  master  of 
the  magi)  signified  an  officer  of  great 
power  and  dignity  at  the  Babylonian 
court.  Jer.  39  :  3,  13. 

RAB'SARIS     {chief   eunuch),    the 


title  of  a  high  Assyrian  or  Babylonian 
officer.  2  Kgs.  18  :  17  ;  Jer.  39  :  3,  13. 

RAB'SHAKEII  seems  to  be  the 
name,  not  of  a  person,  but  of  an  officer — 
the  chief  butler  or  cupbearer — who  was 
sent  with  Rab-saris,  the  chief  of  tlie 
eunuchs,  and  Tartan,  messengers  of  the 
king  of  Assyria,  to  Hezekiah,  summon- 
ing him,  in  the  most  indecent  and  blas- 
phemous manner,  to  surrender  his  capi- 
tal. 2  Kgs.  18  :  17-37. 

RA'CA  {irorlhless),  a  term  of  con- 
tempt. Matt.  5  :  22. 

RACE.  Ileb.  12  :  1.     See  Games. 

RA'CHAB,  the  Greek  form  of  "Ra- 
hab."   Matt.  1  :  5. 

RA'CHAL  {traffic),  a  place  in  Judah 
to  which  David  sent  some  of  his  spoils. 
1  Sam.  30  :  29.     Its  site  is  unknown. 


Tomb  of  Rachel,  near  Bethlehem.     {After  a  Fhotograph.) 


RA'CHEL  (a  ewe),  the  daughter  of 
Laban,  the  wife  of  the  patriarch  Jacob, 
and  the  mother  of  Joseph  and  Benjamin. 
Her  history  is  given  in  Gen.  29-35.  The 
incidents  of  her  life — her  beauty,  the 
passion  with  which  she  was  loved,  etc. — 
are  of  a  charming  impressiveness,  but 
46 


her  character — her  theft  of  Laban's  idols, 
her  shrewdness  in  concealing  the  fact 
— does  not  command  our  respect.  She 
died  after  giving  birth  to  Benjamin,  and 
on  her  grave,  near  the  road  from  Beth- 
lehem to  Jerusalem,  Jacob  set  up  a 
pillar.    Gen.    35  :  19.     At    the    time    of 

721 


EAC 


RAI 


Samuel  and  Saul  the  pillar  was  still 
standing.  1  Sam.  10  :  2.  At  present  a 
small  white  mosque,  erected  by  the  Mo- 
hammedans, indicates  the  place.  Jere- 
miah, 31  :  15-17,  represents  Kachel  as 
weeping  in  her  grave  when  her  children 
pass  by  on  their  way  to  Babylon,  and 
Matthew,  2:17,  18,  applies  this  to  the 
massacre  of  the  innocents. 

RACHEL'S  TOMB.  Gen.  35  . 
19,  20.  The  traditional  site  of  the  tomb 
of  Rachel  is  on  the  road  from  Jerusalem 
to  Bethlehem,  about  half  a  mile  from  the 
latter  place.  An  insignificant  building 
with  a  dome  in  the  Muslim  style  marks 
the  spot.  The  building  has  been  repeat- 
edly restored,  and  is  not  older  than  the 
fifteenth  century.  The  tomb  is  revered 
by  Muslims,  Christians,  and  Jews  and 
visited  by  pilgrims.     (See  cut,  p.  721.) 

RAD'DAI  {treading  down),  a  brother 
of  David,  the  fifth  son  of  Jesse.  1  Chr. 

2  :  14. 

RA'GAU,  the  same  person  as  Reu, 
one  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord.  Luke 

3  :  35  ;   Gen.  11  :  20,  21. 
RAGU'EL     (friend    of    God),    the 

father  of  Jethro,  Num.  10  :  29;  called 
Reuel  in  Ex.  2  :  18. 

RA'HAB,  a  woman  of  Jericho  who 
kept  a  public-house,  and.  as  most  sup- 
pose, was  of  depraved  character.  She 
had  heard  of  the  Israelites  and  of  the 
favor  of  God  toward  them.  Josh.  2  :  8- 
11 ;  and  when  the  two  spies  sent  out  by 
Joshua  came  to  Jericho  to  explore  the 
land  of  promise,  she  concealed  them  from 
the  officers  who  were  sent  in  search  of 
them,  and  at  a  convenient  time  let  them 
down  by  a  cord  upon  the  outside  of  the 
city  wall,  to  which  her  house  joined.  It 
was  agreed  between  her  and  the  spies 
that  she  should  take  a  scarlet  thread  and 
fasten  it  in  the  window  or  aperture 
through  which  they  had  escaped,  and 
when  the  city  was  destroyed  her  house 
and  all  that  were  in  it  should  be  protected. 
Josh.  2  :  17-23.  When  the  city  was  taken 
and  burnt,  Rahab  and  her  family  were 
preserved.  Josh.  6  :  17-25,  and  it  is  sup- 
posed she  married  into  a  noble  family 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  She  is  called 
Rachab,  Matt.  1  :  5,  and  her  faith  is 
commended  among  the  worthies  in  Heb. 
11  :31. 

RA'HAB  (violence),  a  symbolical 
term  for  Egypt.  Isa.  51 :  9,  1 0,  1 5.  It  may 
also  apply  to  its  king.  Eze.  29  :  3  :  32  :  2. 
722 


In  Job  26  :  12  the  same  word  is  trans- 
lated ''  the  proud,"  and  there  is  a  similar 
reference  in  Isa.  30  :  7,  translated 
"  strength,"  but  rendered  by  Gesenius 
"  violence." 

RAIN.  The  force  of  the  various 
allusions  to  this  subject  cannot  be  ap- 
prehended without  some  knowledge  of 
the  natural  conditions  of  Palestine. 
Rain  falls  very  frequently  during  what 
we  call  the  cold  months,  from  November 
to  April.  Sometimes  it  rains  powerfully 
for  several  days,  with  thunder  and  light- 
ning and  a  strong  wind.  In  the  summer 
season,  from  May  to  October,  the  earth 
is  parched,  verdure  is  destroyed,  and 
vegetation  languishes.  The  first  rain 
after  the  summer  drought  usually  falls 
in  October,  and  is  called  the  former  or 
autumnal  rain,  because  it  precedes  seed- 
time and  prepares  the  earth  for  cultiva- 
tion. The  latter  rain  falls  in  April,  just 
before  harvest,  and  perfects  the  fruits  of 
the  earth.  Deut.  11 :  14  ;  Hos.  6:3;  Joel 
2  :  23.  Storms  after  this  time  were  re- 
garded by  the  Jews  as  unseasonable,  and 
even  miraculous.  Prov.  26  :  1  ;  1  Sam. 
12  :  16-19.  The  average  present  rain- 
fall at  Jerusalem  is  61.6  inches,  which  is 
greater  than  that  of  almost  any  part  of 
the  United  States.     See  Palestine. 

RAIN'BOW,  a  seven-colored  semi- 
circle produced  by  the  reflection  of  the 
sun's  rays  from  the  drops  of  falling 
water,  and  appearing  in  its  greatest 
brilliancy  when  the  spectator  is  placed 
between  the  shining  sun  on  the  one  side 
and  a  raining  cloud  on  the  other.  It 
may  be  formed  in  waterfalls,  fountains, 
etc.,  but  when  formed  in  the  atmosphere 
it  always  shows  that  the  rain  has  passed 
away.  The  same  laws  by  which  this 
effect  is  produced  were  probably  in 
operation  before  the  Deluge.  The  rain- 
bow, which  had  hitherto  been  a  beautiful 
object  in  the  heavens,  was  appointed  as 
a  sign  of  the  covenant  that  the  earth 
should  not  be  again  destroyed  by  a 
flood.  The  meaning  of  the  covenant 
would  be  in  substance,  "  As  surely  as 
that  bow  is  the  result  of  established  laws 
which  must  continue  as  long  as  the  sun 
and  atmosphere  endure,  so  surely  shall 
the  world  be  preserved  from  destruction 
by  a  deluge."  Gen.  9  :  12-17. 

RAI'SINS,  or  grapes  dried  in 
bunches,  are  mentioned  1  Sam.  25  :  18; 
30  :  12;  2  Sam,  16  :  1;  1   Chr.  12  :  40. 


RAK 


RAM 


RA'KEM  {Jlower-gardening),  a  de- 
scendant of  Manasseh.    1  Chr.  7:16. 

RAK'KATH  {xlwre),  a  fortified  city 
of  Naphtali.  Josh.  19  :  35.  According 
to  the  Rabbins,  it  stood  where  Tiberias 
afterward  stood,  but  there  seems  little 
authority  for  this  statement,  and  no 
trace  of  that  name  has  been  found  in 
the  neighborhood.    See  Tiberias. 

RAK'KON  {thinness),  a  city  of  Dan, 
probably  not  far  from  Joppa.  Josh.  19  : 
46.  Conder  claims  to  have  recovered 
the  site  of  Rakkon  at  Tell.  er-Rakkeit, 
on  the  shore  north  of  Joppa.  It  is  a 
high  point  covered  by  an  accumulation 
of  blown  sand,  and  situated  near  the 
mouth  of  the  turbid  river  Anjeh,  or 
"  yellow  water." 

RAM  {high,  exalted).  1.  A  descend- 
ant of  Judah,  and  son  of  Hezron,  1  Chr. 
2:9,  10  ;  called  Aram  in  Matt.  1  :  3, 
4;  Luke  3  :  33. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Judah,  and  son 
of  Jerahmeel.  1  Chr.  2  :  25,  27. 

3.  One  to  whose  kindred  Eliphaz  be- 
longed. Job  32  :  2 :  identified  by  some 
with  Aram.   Gen.  22  :  21. 

RA'MA,  a  Greek  form  of  "  Ramah." 
Matt.  2  :  18. 

RA'MAH  (high  place),  the  name  of 
several  towns  in  Palestine. 

1.  A  city  of  Benjamin  near  to  Gibeah, 
and  occupied  once  by  Saul.  Josh.  18  :  25  ; 
Jud.  19  :  13  ;  1  Sam".  22  :  6.  It  was  on 
a  site  naturally  strong  ;  was  fortified  by 
Baasha,  but  the  king  of  Judah  stopped 
the  work  through  the  co-operation  of  the 
Syrians.  1  Kgs.  15  :  17-22  ;  2  Chr.  16  : 
1-6.  At  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  the  captives  were 
placed  under  guard  at  Ramah  ;  among 
•  them  was  the  prophet  Jeremiah.  Jer. 
39:8-12;  40:1.  It  was  here  his 
prophecy  was  fulfilled,  "  A  voice  was 
heard  in  Ramah,  lamentation  and 
bitter  weeping."  Jer.  31  :  15.  This 
prophecy  was  again  illustrated  and 
fulfilled  by  the  slaughter  of  the  inno- 
cents at  Bethlehem  when  Jesus  was 
born.  Matt.  2:17,  18.  Ramah  was  re- 
occupied  after  the  Captivity.  Ezr.  2  : 
26  :  Neh.  7  :  30.  The  town  has  been 
identified  with  er-Knni,  about  5  miles 
north  of  Jerusalem,  where  broken 
columns,  many  large  hewn  stones  in 
the  houses,  and  other  ancient  remains 
are  to  be  found.  The  village  is  a  small 
and  miserable  one,  having   only  about 


fifteen  families,  but  the  view  from  it  is 
very  extensive. 

2.  The  birthplace,  home,  and  burial- 
place  of  the  prophet  Samuel,  the  word 
being  a  contraction  of  "  Ramathaim- 
zophim."  1  Sam.  1:1;  2  :  11  ;  7  :  17  ; 
8:4:  15  :  34;  16:  13;    19  :  18;  25  :  1 ; 

28.  Stanley  says  that  the  position  of 
this  Ramah  is  the  most  complicated  and 
disputed  problem  of  sacred  topography. 
The  place  was  on  an  eminence  south  of 
Gibeah,  the  birthplace  of  Saul,  and  is 
also  said  to  be  *'  of  Mount  Ephraim,"  a 
district,  however,  without  defined  boun- 
daries. 1  Sam.  1  :  1,  19.  The  following 
sites  for  Ramah  have  been  proposed : 
(1)  Nehy-Samvnl,  4  miles  north-west  of 
Jerusalem,  where  it  is  placed  by  the 
common  tradition  of  Muslims,  Jews, 
and  Christians,  and  Grove  is  inclined 
to  favor  it;  (2)  Er-Ram,  which  is  the 
same  as  Ramah,  No.  1  ;  (3)  Ramleh,  2 
miles  south-west  of  Lydda ;  (4)  Ramah,  a 
short  distance  above  Bethlehem  ;  (5)  the 
"  Frank  mountain,"  3  miles  south-east 
of  Bethlehem,  a  site  favored  by  Ge- 
senius ;  (6)  Ramet  el-Khalil,  a  group  of 
ruins  a  little  north  of  Hebron,  favored 
by  Walcott  and  Van  de  Velde;  (7)  Rama, 
a  village  3^  miles  west  of  Sanur,  favored 
by  Schwarze:  (8)  Ram-allah,  5  miles 
north  of  Nehy-Samwil,  favored  bj'  Ewald; 
(9)  Seba,  6  miles  west  of  Jerusalem,  pro- 
posed by  Robinson.  In  the  seventeenth 
century  Nehy  Samioil  was  pointed  out  as 
the  site  of  Ramathaim-zophim,  which 
would  connect  it  with  this  Ramah,  but 
in  the  fourteenth  century  Ramathaim- 
zophim  was  shown  at  Ramleh. 

3.  A  place  on  the  border  of  Asher, 
probably   not   far  from  Tyre.   Josh.  19  : 

29.  Robinson  places  this  Ramah  at  the 
modern  village  Rameh,  about  13  miles 
south-east  of  Tyre,  which  the  Pal.  Me- 
moirs call  Rdmin,  and  accept  it  as  the 
site  of  Ramah. 

4.  A  fortified  place  of  Naphtali.  Josh. 
19  :  36.  It  may  be  identical  with  the 
modern  village  of  Rameh,  10  miles 
north-west  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  and 
on  the  road  to  Akka. 

5.  A  name  for  Ramoth-Gilead,  which 
see.  2  Kgs.  8  :  28,  29. 

6.  A  place  mentioned  in  Neh.  11  :  33 
as  reinhabited  by  Benjamites  after  their 
return  from  exile. 

RAMATHAaM-ZO'PHIM 
{double  height  of  the  watchers),  the  full 

723 


EAM 


RAP 


name  for  Ramah,  No.  2,  which  see.  1 
Sam.  1:1. 

RA'MATHITE,  a  native  of  Ra- 
mah.  ]  Chr.  27  :  27. 

RA^^IATH-LF/HI  {hm  of  Lehi), 
the  place  where  Samson  slew  a  thousand 
Philistines  with  a  jaw-bone.  Jud.15  :  17. 
Probably  ' Ai/un  Kara.     8ee  Lehi. 

RA'MATH-MIZ'PEH  {height  of 
the  watch-tower),  a  frontier-town  in  Gad. 
Jos.  13  :  26.  Dr.  Merrill  identifies  it 
with  Knlat  er  Rabad,  a  ruin  on  Wady 
' Ajldn,  about  10  miles  east  of  the  Jordan 
and  between  the  two  seas. 

RA'MATH  OF  THE  SOUTH, 
a  place  in  the  southern  border  of  Simeon. 
Josh.  19  :  8  ;  1  Sam.  30  :  27.  In  the  latter 
passage  it  is  called  "  South  Ramoth  "  to 
distinguish  it  from  Ramoth  beyond  Jor- 
dan. It  has  been  identified  with  Jehel 
Bnruhir,  a  hill  45  miles  south-west  of 
Beer-sheba,  and  also  with  Kiirmul,  20 
miles  south-east  of  Beer-sheba;  and 
lastly,  with   Tell  el-Lekitjeh,  near  Beer- 

RAM,  BATTERING.  Eze.  4:2; 
21  :  22.     See  Battering-ram. 

RAME'SES  {Hon  of  the  sun),  a  prov- 
ince and  citv  in  Egvpt ;  called  also 
RAAM'SES.  Gen.  47: 11;  Ex.  12:  37; 
Num.  33  :  3,  5.  It  was  without  doubt 
identical  with  Goshen  as  a  district.  If 
a  city,  Rameses  was  in  the  valley  which 
extends  from  the  Pelusiac  branch  of  the 
Nile  to  the  Red  Sea  or  the  Bitter  Lakes 
of  Suez,  and  was  probably  the  capital 
of  Goshen.  See  Gen.  45  :  10.  Its  precise 
location  has  not  been  determined.  It 
has  been  proposed  to  identify  it  with — 
(1)  Letopolis,  now  Baboul,  a  few  miles 
south  of  On;  (2)  with  On;  (3)  with 
Heroopolis,  about  20  miles  north-west 
of  the  Bitter  Lakes  ;  (4)  at  Zoan,  or 
the  modern  Saii,  a  theory  maintained 
by  Dr.  Brugsch ;  (5)  with  a  ruin  near 
Ahhafi((h. 

RAMI'AH  {Jehovah  exalted),  one 
who  had  married  a  foreign  wife.  Ezr. 
10  :  25. 

RA^TIOTH  {heights),  one  who  had 
married  a  foreign  wife.  Ezr.  10  :  29. 

RA'MOTH.  1  Sam.  30  :  27.  See 
Ramath  and  Remeth. 

RA'IVIOTH-GIL'EAD  {height  of 
Gilead),  a  city  of  the  Amorites,  and 
afterward  a  chief  city  of  Gad,  east  of 
the  Jordan,  and  given  to  the  Levites, 
and  also  made  a  city  of  refuge.  Deut.  4  : 
724 


43 ;  Josh.  20  :  8.  It  was  also  called 
Ramah.  2  Kgs.  8  :  29  ;  2  Chr.  22  :  fi.  It 
was  the  headquarters  of  one  of  Solomon's 
commissariat-ofiicers.  1  Kgs.  4  :  13.  It 
came  into  possession  of  the  Syrians,  and 
Ahab  and  Jehoshaphat  formed  an  alli- 
ance to  recover  it,  but  Ahab  was  mortally 
wounded.  1  Kgs.  22  :  2-36 :  2  Chr.  18. 
Later,  Joram  was  wounded  at  the  same 
place,  and  the  city  was  taken.  Jehu  was 
ip  command,  and  anointed  king  of  Israel 
by  order  of  Elisha.  2  Kgs.  8  :  28;  2  Chr. 

22  :  5,  6.  Ramoth-gilead  has  been 
identified  by  many  travellers  with  Es- 
Sdlt,  though  this  has  been  questioned. 
Es-Salt  is  situated  about  25  miles  east 
of  the  Jordan,  and  13  miles  south  of  the 
Jabbok.  It  is  now  the  most  important 
and  populous  place  in  that  district,  and 
is  the  capital  of  Belka  and  the  residence 
of  a  Turkish  governor  of  the  third  rank. 
The  place  lies  2740  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  has  a  healthy  climate,  and 
a  large  population,  given  chiefly  to  agri- 
culture, among  which  are  300  to  400  Arab 
families  and  a  few  nominal  Christians. 
There  are  some  ruins  of  the  Roman 
period,  and  a  castle  on  the  top  of  a  hill. 
The  hills  around  it  bear  many  traces  of 
ancient  rock-tombs.  Three  miles  to  the 
north-west  is  Jehel  Jilad,  3650  feet  in 
height,  and  said  to  be  the  highest  emi- 
nence in  Gilead.  Dr.  Merrill,  however, 
identifies  Ramoth  Gilead  with  Gerosh, 
about  25  miles  north-east  of  Es  Salt. 

RAMS'  HORNS.     See  Trumpet. 
RANG'ES,  2  Kgs.  11 :  8.  15  :  2  Chr. 

23  :  14,  means  "  ranks  of  soldiers." 
RAN'SOM,  the  price  paid  to  pur- 
chase the  freedom  of  a  captive  or  slave. 
Matt.  20  :  28 ;  Mark  10  :  45  ;  1  Cor.  6:19, 
20  ;  1  Tim.  2  :  6.  Under  the  Levitieal  law, 
an  offering  was  required  of  every  Israelite 
over  twenty  years  of  age  at  the  time  the 
census  was  taken.  This  offering  is  called 
a  ransom  or  atonement-money.  Ex.  30  : 
12-16.  It  amounted  to  half  a  shekel,  or 
about  twenty-five  cents.  It  was  to  be 
made  upon  penalty  of  the  plague ;  and 
every  person,  rich  or  poor,  was  required 
to  give  that  sum,  and  neither  more  nor 
less.  1  Pet.l:  18,  19. 

RA'PHA  {tall).  I.  A  descendant 
of  Benjamin.  1  Chr.  8  :  2. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Saul.  1  Chr.  8  :  37. 

RA'PHAEL  {the  divine  healer)  is, 
according  to  Jewish  tradition,  one  of 
the  four    angels  who  stand  around  the 


EAP 


KEA 


throne  of  God  (Michael,  Uriel,  Gabriel, 
Raphael).    The  name  is  not  in  the  Bible. 

RA'PHU  (healed),  father  of  the 
Benjamite  spv.  Num.  13  :  9. 

RA'VEiV  (black).  Cant.  6  :  11. 
Under  this  term  are  evidently  included 
the  various  birds  of  the  crow  family, 
some  eight  or  more  species  of  which  are 
found  in  Palestine. 

The  raven,  like  most  of  its  congeners, 
feeds  principally  on  carrion.  It  resembles 
our  crow  in  size,  shape,  and  color,  and 


is  ceremonially  unclean.  Lev.  11  :  15. 
When  about  to  feed  upon  a  dead  body, 
it  is  said  to  seize  first  upon  the  eyes. 
Hence  the  allusion,  Prov.  30  :  17,  im- 
plying the  ex])0sure  of  the  body  in  the 
open  field,  than  which  nothing  was  re- 
garded as  more  disgraceful.  See  Burial. 
Ravens  live  in  desolate  regions,  Isa. 
34:  11,  and  it  is  only  by  restless  flight 
over  large  areas  that  they  are  able  to 
obtain  even  an  uncertain  living.  Job 
38  :  41 :  Ps.  147  :  9  ;   Luke  12  :  24.     But 


Eaveu.     (Corvus  Corax 


they  do  not,  as  has  been  believed,  turn 
their  young  from  the  nest  before  they 
are  able  to  supply  themselves  with  food. 

Whether  the  raven  sent  out  of  the  ark 
by  Noah  ever  returned  to  him  is  not 
agreed  :  according  to  the  literal  reading 
of  the  Hebrew,  also  of  the  Samaritan 
text,  and  the  Chaldee,  it  did ;  but  a 
different  opinion  is  supported  by  the 
LXX.,  the  Syriac,  the  Latin,  and  most 
of  the  Fathers.   Gen.  8  :  7. 

There  is  no  reason  for  questioning  the 
simple  statenients  of  1  Kgs.  17  :  4-7  con- 
cerning the  miraculous  feeding  of  Elijah 
at  the  brook  Cherith  by  these  birds. 

RA'ZOR.  The  usage  of  shaving  the 
head  after  completing  a  vow  must  hav'e 


After  Houghton.) 

established  the  barber's  trade  quite  early 
among  the  Hebrews.  The  instruments 
used  were  exactly  the  same  as  in  our 
days — the  razor,  the  scissors,  the  basin, 
and  the  mirror.  Razors  are  mentioned 
in  Num.  6:5;  Jud.  13  :  5;  16  :  17;  1 
Sam.  1:11:  Eze.  5  :  1,  and  figuratively 
in  Ps.  52  :  2  ;   Isa.  7  :  20.     See  Hair. 

REAI'A  (ivhom  Jehovah  cares  for), 
a  descendant  of  Reuben,  and  son  of 
Micah.  1  Chr.  5  :  5.  The  name  is  iden- 
tical with — 

REAI'AH.  1.  A  descendant  of 
Judah  through  his  son  Shobal.  1  Chr. 
4:2. 

2.  One  whose  children  returned  with 
Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  2  :  47 ;  Neh.  7  :  50. 

725 


REA 


EED 


REAP'ING,     See  Agriculture. 

RE'BA  {the  fourth),  one  of  the  five 
Midianite  kings  whom  the  Israelites 
slew.    Num.  31  :  8  ;  Josh.  13  :  21. 

REBECCA.  Rom.  9: 10.    See  Re- 

BEKAH. 

REBEK'AH  («  cord  with  a  noose, 
enchainiiti]),  the  daughter  of  Bethuel, 
sister  of  Laban,  and  wife  of  Isaac.  The 
circumstances  of  her  marriage  with  Isaac 
constitute  one  of  the  most  charming  and 
beautiful  passages  of  the  sacred  history. 
Gen.  24.  After  she  had  been  married 
twenty  years  without  children,  she  be- 
came the  mother  of  Jacob  and  Esau. 
When  they  grew  up  Jacob  became  the 
favorite  of  his  mother,  and  this  undue 
partiality  was  the  source  of  much  mis- 
chief. She  persuaded  him  to  obtain  his 
father's  blessing  by  practising  a  deceit, 
and  he  had  to  flee  for  fear  of  his  brother's 
revenge.  She  died  before  Isaac,  and  was 
buried  in  Abraham's  tomb.  Gen.  49  :  31. 

RECEIPT  OF  CUS'TOM. 
Matt.  9  :  9.     See  Publican. 

RE'CHAB  {horseman).  1.  The 
father  or  ancestor  of  Jehonadab.  2  Kgs. 
10  :  15,  23  ;  1  Chr.  2  :  55  ;  Jer.  35  :  6-19. 

2.  One  of  the  captains  who  conspired 
to  murder  Ish-bosheth.  2  Sam.  4  :  2. 

3.  One  who  assisted  in  repairing  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem.  Neh,  3  :  14. 

RE'CHABITES,  THE,  were  a 
tribe  of  Kenites  or  Midianites,  1  Chr. 
2  :  55,  descended  from  Jonadab,  or  Jeho- 
nadab, the  son  or  descendant  of  Rechab, 
2  Kgs.  10  :  15,  from  whom  they  derive 
their  name.  They  were  worshippers  of 
the  true  God,  practised  circumcision,  and 
stood  within  the  covenant  of  Abraham, 
but  they  were  not  reckoned  as  children 
of  Israel,  and  perhaps  they  did  not  feel 
themselves  bound  by  the  Mosaic  Law 
and  ritual.  The  introduction  of  the 
worship  of  Baal  by  Jezebel  and  Ahab 
was  a  horror  to  them. 

Jonadab  appears  to  have  been  very 
zealous  for  the  pure  worship  of  God,  and 
was  associated  with  Jehu  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  idolatrous  house  of  Ahab. 
He  established  a  rule  for  his  posterity 
that  they  should  possess  neither  land 
nor  houses,  but  should  live  in  tents,  and 
should  drink  no  wine  or  strong  drink. 
In  obedience  to  this  rule,  the  Rechab- 
ites  continued  a  separate  but  peaceable 
people,  living  in  tents  and  removing 
from  place  to  place  as  circumstances  re- 
726 


quired.  When  Judsea  was  first  invaded 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  they  fled  to  Jerusa- 
lem for  safet}',  where  it  pleased  God, 
through  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  to  exhibit 
them  to  the  wicked  inhabitants  of  Jeru- 
salem as  an  example  of  constancy  in 
their  obedience  to  the  mandates  of  an 
earthly  father.  Jer.  35  :  2-19. 

Some  highly -interesting  facts  are 
known  respecting  the  present  condition 
of  the  Rechabites.  They  still  dwell  in 
the  mountainous  tropical  country  to  the 
north-east  of  Medina.  They  are  called 
Beni  Khaihr,  "  sons  of  Heber,"  and 
their  land  is  called  Khaibr.  They  have 
no  intercourse  with  their  brethren,  the 
Jews,  who  are  dispersed  over  Asia,  and 
are  esteemed  as  ''false  brethren  "  because 
they  observe  not  the  Law. 

RE^CHAH  {utmost  part),  a  place, 
apparently  in  Judah.  1  Chr.  4  :  12. 

RECONCILE,  Eph.  2  :  16, 
RECONCILIATION.  Heb.  2  :  17. 
These  terms  imply  the  restoration  of 
man  to  the  favor  and  grace  of  God 
through  the  atonement  made  by  Jesus 
Christ.  Reconciliation  is  a  change  of 
relation  of  two  parties  from  enmity  to 
peace.  It  is  twofold — man-ward  and 
God-ward.  God  is  reconciled  to  man 
by  the  satisfaction  of  his  justice  through 
the  atoning  sacrifice  of  Christ;  man 
is  reconciled  to  God  as  his  loving 
Father,  as  exhibited  in  the  sacrifice 
of  his  Son,  which  removes  distrust  and 
creates  gratitude  and  love.  Both  sides 
are  combined  in  2  Cor.  5  :  18-20  ;  comp. 
Rom.  5  :  11,  where  the  English  Version 
renders  the  Greek  word  by  "  atonement" 
(which  is  etymologically  correct,  but 
not  according  to  modern  theological 
usage). 

RECORD'ER,  the  annalist  of  the 
king,  and  also  his  councillor,  and  an 
ofiicer  who  stood  thus  very  high  in  the 
kingdom,  as  is  manifest  from  the 
commissions  entrusted  to  him,  such 
as  representing  the  king  and  super- 
intending temple-repairs.  Compare  2 
Sam.  8  :  16;  20  :  24;  1  Kgs.  4  :  3;  2 
Kgs.  18  :  18,37;  2  Chr.  34:  8. 

RED  HEIF'ER.     See  Offering. 

RED  SEA,  a  long,  narrow  arm  of 
the  ocean  separating  Asia  from  Africa. 
It  was  called  by  the  Hebrews  "  the  sea," 
Ex.  14  :  2,  9,  16,  21,  28;  15  :  1,  4,  8,  10, 
19 ;  Josh.  24  :  6,  7,  etc. ;  the  "  Egyptian 
Sea,"  Isa.  11 :  15,  but  especially  the  "  Sea 


RED 


RED 


of  Snph,"  apparently  so  named  from  the 
wool-like  weeds  growing  in  it.  Ex.  10  : 
19  ;  13  :  18  ;  15  :  4,  22  :  23  :  HI  ;  Num. 
15  :  25 ;  21  :  4,  etc.  The  Greeks  applied 
"  Enithra  ThalaHsa"  or  "Red  Sea"  to 
it  in  common  with  the  Persian  Gulf  and 
the  Indian  Ocean;  in  the  N.  T.  it  is  ap- 
plied to  the  western  gulf,  now  known  as 
the  "  Red  Sea."  Acts  7  :  86  ;  Heb.  11 :  29. 
This  name  is  derived,  perhaps,  from  the 
red  coral  or  zoophytes  in  the  sea,  or,  as 
some  conjecture,  from  Edom,  which  sig- 
nifies "  red."  The  Egyptians  called  it 
the  "Sea  of  Punt"  or  Arabia,  and  the 
Arabs  "  Bahr  el  Hejaz,"  or  "  El-bahr  el- 
Ahmar."  See  Map  of  Sinai,  at  the  end 
of  this  volume. 

Physical  Features. — The  Red  Sea  con- 
sists of  a  long,  narrow  arm  of  the  Indian 
Ocean,  projecting  north-west  inland  a 
distance  of  1450  miles.  It  is  connected 
with  the  ocean  by  the  narrow  strait  of 
Bab-el-Mandeb,  only  18  miles  wide.  The 
sea,  at  its  greatest  breadth,  is  221  miles; 
toward  its  northern  end  it  gradually 
contracts,  and  then  divides  into  two 
arms — the  Gulf  of  Akabah  on  the  east, 
and  the  Gulf  of  Suez  on  the  west,  the 
latter  extending  to  within  70  miles  of 
the  Mediterranean.  Between  these  two 
arms  is  the  Sinaitic  peninsula.  The  Red 
Sea  covers  an  area  of  about  180,000 
square  miles,  and  is  at  some  places 
1000  fathoms  deep,  but  its  average 
depth  is  from  400  to  600  fathoms.  The 
shores  are  flanked  by  a  network  of 
submerged  coral-reefs  and  islands  ex- 
tending a  long  way  from  the  coast 
and  rendering  the  navigation  of  the 
sea  perilous,  especially  in  its  narrower 
parts.  The  western  of  the  two  arms, 
now  called  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  is  150 
miles  long,  and  about  20  miles  in 
average  breadth.  An  ancient  canal 
once  connected  the  Nile  with  this  arm 
of  the  Red  Sea.  It  was  built,  as  some 
suppose,  by  the  Pharaohs,  and  is  cer- 
tainly known  to  have  been  in  use  for 
navigation  in  the  fourteenth  century 
before  Christ.  It  was  about  62  Roman 
miles  in  length,  54  feet  wide,  and  about 
7  feet  deep.  It  has  been  recently  utilized 
in  the  construction  of  a  modern  canal. 
A  greater  ship-canal,  opened  in  1869, 
now  connects  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
with  the  Red  Sea  at  Suez.  The  eastern 
arm,  called  the  Gulf  of  Akabah,  is  105 
miles  long  and  about  15  miles  wide. 


No  rivers  fall  into  the  Red  Sea,  but  a 
large  number  of  rain-torrents  run  into 
it.  The  water  is  a  blue  color,  remark- 
ably clear,  and  changing  to  green  near 
the  shoals  or  reefs.  Notwithstanding 
assertions  to  the  contrary,  the  sea  has 
been  shown  to  be  subject  to  the  tides, 
the  diiference  between  high  and  low  tide 
being  from  3  to  7  feet.  The  north 
wind  prevails  in  summer  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  sea;  the  south-east  wind  in 
winter,  especially  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  sea  ;  but  the  north-west  is  mot^t 
prevalent  in  this  part  of  it  in  winter. 

The  coasts  of  the  Red  Sea  are  chiefly 
barren  rock  or  sand,  and  therefore  gen- 
erally destitute  of  inhabitants.  A  short 
distance  inland  the  mountains  are  from 
4000  to  7600  feet  high.  There  are  only 
two  or  three  towns  of  consequence  in 
the  entire  1400  miles  of  its  African  side. 
Suez,  a  town  of  14,000  inhabitants, 
Koser,  the  harbor  of  Upper  Egypt,  with 
1200,  Sanakim,  a  seaport  of  Soudan, 
with  10,000,  and  Masau'a,  a  port  of 
Abyssinia,  with  5000,  are  the  only  towns 
of  any  size  on  the  African  shore.  There 
are  few  also  on  the  Arabian  side,  the 
most  important  being  Jedda,  where  the 
Muslims  point  out  a  stone  structure 
called  "  Eve's  Tomb,"  a  building  of 
comparatively  recent  times.  The  mother- 
of-pearl  shells  were  once  very  abundant, 
but  have  diminished  of  late,  from  the 
eagerness  of  fishermen  in  prosecuting 
their  trade.  Many  curiously-colored 
shells  are  also  gathered  and  sold  as 
curiosities  to  travellers — among  them 
the  mnrex,  the  "jDorcelain  shell,"  the 
pink  icardam — and  black,  purple,  and 
white  coral  is  very  abundant. 

One  of  the  most  important  questions  in 
regard  to  the  physical  features  of  the  Red 
Sea  is  the  extent  of  its  northern  extrem- 
ity. Formerly  it  was  maintained  that 
the  land  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez 
had  gradually  risen  and  the  sea  retired. 
How  much  farther  north  it  extended 
in  historic  times  was  not  definitely 
determined,  but  it  was  estimated  at 
not  less  than  50  miles,  which  would 
narrow  the  land  at  the  isthmus  to  about 
20  or  25  miles  in  width.  The  repeated 
explorations  of  the  isthmus  seemed 
to  show  that  in  the  times  of  Moses 
the  sea  included  the  "  Lake  of  the 
Crocodile  "  and  the  more  southern  of  the 
"Bitter  Lakes,"    as    then  the   northern 

727 


RED 


RED 


end  of  the  Red  Sea,  but  this  is  now 
sharply  disputed. 

Scripture  lief erencen. — The  grand  event 
associated  with  the  Red  Sea  is-  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Israelites  and  the  overthrow 
of  the  Egyptians.  Ex.  14,  15.  This 
miraculous  event  is  frequently  referred 
to  in  the  Scriptures.  Num.  33  :  8  ;  Deut. 
11 :  4;  Josh.  2:10;  Judg.  11  :  16  ;  2  Sam. 
22  :  16  ;  Neh.  9  : 9-1 1  ;  Ps.  66  :  6  ;  Isa.  10  : 
26  ;  Acts  7  :  36  :  1  Cor.  10  : 1,  2  ;  Heb.  11  : 
29,  etc.  The  place  of  the  crossing  has  been 
a  matter  of  much  controversy.  It  should 
be  remarked,  as  preliminary  to  this  dis- 
cussion, that  the  head  of  the  gulf  is 
probably  at  least  50  miles  farther  south 
than  it  was  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus. 
If  the  Red  Sea  then  included  the  Bitter 
Lakes  of  Suez  and  the  Birket  el-  Timsnh 
("Lake  of  the  Crocodile"),  the  cross- 
ing may  have  been  farther  north  than 
would  now  appear  possible.  Thus  the 
predictions  of  Isaiah,  11  :  15  ;  19  :  5, 
"  The  Lord  shall  utterly  destroy  the 
tongue  of  the  Egyptian  Sea,"  "  The 
waters  shall  fail  from  the  sea,"  are 
fulfilled. 

Stanley  says  that  the  place  of  passage 
has  been  extended  by  Arab  tradition 
down   the  whole  Gulf  of  Suez. 

The  following  are  the  principal  theories 
respecting  the  place  of  crossing  of  the 
Red  Sea : 

1.  The  modern  theory  of  Schleiden, 
revived  by  Brugsch,  that  the  Israelites 
did  not  cross  the  Red  Sea,  but  the  Ser- 
bonian  bog.  This  conflicts  with  the 
plain  narrative  of  Scripture,  which  says 
they  crossed  the  Red  Sea.  And  it  also 
requires  that  Rameses  be  transferred  to 
Zoan,  about  40  miles  farther  north  than 
Brugsch  had  positively  fixed  it  from  the 
inscriptions,  in  his  earlier  works. 

2.  The  tradition  of  the  peninsular 
Arabs,  which  places  the  crossing  south 
of  Jebel  Atnkah.  But  the  physical 
features  of  the  country  are  against  this 
place,  for  the  mountains  shut  down  to  the 
sea,  leaving  only  a  foot-path  impractica- 
ble for  such  a  host  to  pass,  and  this  moun- 
tain extends  for  about  12  miles. 

3.  M.  de  Lesseps  puts  the  passage  be- 
tween the  Crocodile  Lake  and  the  Bitter 
Lakes,  while  M.  Ritt  finds  it  along  the 
dike  at  Chaloof.  If  the  Red  Sea  extended 
to  these  points,  its  depth  and  breadth 
then  have  not  been  proved  sufficient  to 
meet  the  scriptural  conditions, 

728 


4.  Others,  as  Niebuhr,  Laborde,  Well- 
sted,  Robinson,  Hengstenberg,  Tischen- 
dorf,  Ewald,  Kurtz,  Keil,  Schaff,  Bartlett, 
place  the  crossing  in  the  neighljorhood  of 
Suez.  This  general  locality  seems  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  narrative.  Rob- 
inson made  a  thorough  investigation, 
and  concluded  that  the  place  of  passage 
was  near  the  small  arm  of  the  sea  which 
runs  up  from  Suez.  A  strong  north-east 
wind,  acting  upon  the  ebb-tide,  would 
drive  out  the  water  from  the  shallower 
part,  while  the  deeper  portions  would 
still  remain  covered,  thus  constituting 
a  wall  (or  defence)  to  the  Israelites  on 
the  right  hand  and  on  the  left.  Others 
insist  upon  the  likelihood  of  the  cross- 
ing from  Wudy  Tawdrik,  farther  south, 
since  it  is  argued  that  a  sea  at  least 
12  miles  broad  would  have  been  needed 
to  overwhelm  the  whole  army  of  the 
Egyptians. 

But  so  many  have  been  the  changes 
of  this  region  in  the  lapse  of  ages  that 
it  will  not  probably  be  possible  to  de- 
cide with  certainty  upon  the  exact  spot. 
Either  of  the  two  points  last  suggested, 
in  Robinson's  opinion,  "  satisfies  the  con- 
ditions of  the  case;  in  either  the  deliver- 
ance of  the  Israelites  was  equally  great 
and  the  arm  of  Jehovah  alike  gloriously 
revealed." 

After  crossing,  the  Israelites  marched 
down  and  encamped  on  the  east  side  of 
the  Red  Sea  (Gulf  of  Suez).  Num.  33  : 
10.  From  the  way  of  the  Red  Sea  came 
locusts,  Ex.  10  :  12-19,  and  the  quails 
which  supplied  them  with  food  came 
from  the  same  source.  Num.  11  :  31. 
They  journeyed  by  the  way  of  the  Red 
Sea  (the  eastern  arm  or  Gulf  of  Akabah) 
to  compass  Edom.  Num.  21  :  4.  In  the 
prosperous  reign  of  Solomon  he  "made 
a  navy  of  ships"  at  Ezion-geber  and 
Elath,  which  were  ports  at  the  head  of 
the  Gulf  of  Akabah.  1  Kgs.  9  :  26;  10  : 
22:  2  Chr.  8  :  17,  18. 

RED  SEA,  PASSAGE  OF. 
See  Exonrs,  Route  of,  and  Red  Sra. 

REDEEMS  REDEEMER, 
REDEMP'TION.  In  the  0.  T.  these 
terms  are  specially  applied  to  the  repur- 
chase of  an  estate,  a  field,  which  had  come 
into  some  stranger's  possession.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Mosaic  Law,  the  original 
owner  of  such  an  estate  or  his  descend- 
ants, or  even  his  nearest  kinsmen,  still 
retained  a  right  of  proprietorship,  which 


JE\iil/£i 


KEG 


they  could  enforce  after  ransoming  the 
estate — that  is,  by  paying  back  the  sum 
for  which  it  had  been  sold.  Hence  arose 
a  number  of  metaphorical  a])plications 
of  the  terms  referring  to  this  relation 
between  God  and  his  people,  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel,  whom  he  redeemed  from 
the  bondage  of  Egypt.  Ex.  6:0;  Isa. 
43  :  1  ;  44  :  22  ;  48 ':  20. 

In  the  N.  T.  the  terms  generally  refer 
to  the  repurchase  of  the  freedom  of  a 
person.  To  purchase  a  person's  liberty 
for  him  is  to  redeem  him,  and  the  price 
paid  is  called  the  ransom.  Siuners  are  in 
bondage  to  sin,  but  Christ,  having  given 
bis  blood  or  his  life  as  a  ransom  for  them, 
redeems  them,  and  is  therefore  called  their 
Redeemer.  Matt.  20  :  28 ;  1  Pet.  1  :  18. 
This  ransom  has  an  infinite  value,  being 
the  work  of  the  God-man,  and  is  sufficient 
to  redeem  all  men  from  captivity;  but  it 
is  efficient  and  available  only  for  the  re- 
demption of  such  as  accept  and  appro- 
priate it  by  a  living  faith  in  Christ  Jesus, 
and  walk  not  after  the  flesh,  but  after  the 
Spirit. 

REED,  used  generically  for  various 
tall  plants  of  the  grass  or  sedge  order. 
See  Bulrush,  Flag,  Rush.  Fishpoles, 
canes,  and  rods,  Matt.  27  :  29,  are  formed 
of  it.  These  plants  flourish  in  marshes 
or  in  the  vicinity  of  water-courses ;  hence 
the  allusion,  Job  40 :  21.  It  is  often  used 
by  the  sacred  writers  to  illustrate  weak- 
ness and  fragility.  2  Kgs.  18  :  21 ;  Isa. 
36  :  6;  42  :  3;  Eze.  29  :  6 ;  Matt.  12  : 
20. 

Reeds  were  also  used  to  make  pens  of 
(see  Pen),  and  also  as  measuring-rods. 
Eze.  40  :  5.  See  Measures.  From  their 
height  and  slender  shape,  plants  of  this 
kind  are  moved  by  the  slightest  breath 
of  wind,  1  Kgs.  14  :  15,  and  hence  noth- 
ing could  be  more  unimportant  in  itself 
than  such  a  motion,  and  nothing  more 
strikingly  illustrative  of  fickleness  and 
instability.  Comp.  Matt.  11  :  7  and  Eph. 
4  :  14. 

The  true  reed  of  Egypt  and  Palestine 
{Aniudo  donnx)  has  a  slender  jointed 
stalk  like  bamboo,  about  12  feet  in  height, 
with  a  fine  large  brush  of  bloom  at  the 
top.  This  flexible  stalk  often  lies  pros- 
trate before  the  wind,  ready  to  rise  again 
at  the  first  lull.  About  the  perennial 
waters  of  the  Holy  Land  there  are  often 
dense  canebrakes  of  this  plant,  in  the 
midst  of  which  wild   beasts   find   their 


lairs.  With  one  or  more  hollow  tubes 
of  reed,  musical  instruments  are  con- 
structed by  the  youth  of  the  country, 
and  it  is  likely  that  David  first  learned 
to  plav  on  a  similar  primitive  reed-organ. 

REED,  MEASURING.  Eze.  40: 
5.     See  Measures. 

REELiA'IAH  {whom  Jehovah  makes 
tremble),  one  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel,  Ezr.  2:2:  identical  with  Raamiah, 
in  Neh.  7  :  7. 

REFIN'ER.  This  word  is  often 
used  figuratively  by  the  sacred  writers. 
Its  peculiar  force  in  the  passage  Mai. 
3  :  3  will  be  seen  when  it  is  remembered 
that  refiners  of  silver  sit  with  their  eyes 
steadily  fixed  on  the  furnace  that  they 
may  watch  the  process,  and  that  the  pro- 
cess is  complete  and  perfected  only  when 
the  refiner  sees  his  own  image  in  the 
melted  mass.  Similar  passages  occur. 
Isa.  1  :  25  :   Zech.  13  :  9  ;  Jer.  6  :  29,  etc. 

REFUGE,  CIT  lES  OF.  Num. 
35.     See  City. 

RE'GEM  (friend),  a  descendant  of 
Judah,  and  son  of  Jahdai.  1  Chr.  2  :  47. 

RE'GEM-ME'LECII  {friend  of 
the  king),  one  of  the  persons  who  were 
sent  by  those  in  captivity  to  make  in- 
quiries at  the  temple.  Zech.  7  :  2. 

REGENERA'TION.  This  term 
occurs  only  in  Matt.  19  :  28  and  Tit.  3  : 
5.  As  used  by  Matthew,  it  refers  to  the 
renovation  or  consummation  of  all  things 
at  Christ's  second  advent,  when  there 
shall  be  "new  heavens  and  a  new  earth." 
"  The  washing  of  regeneration,"  in  the 
latter  passage,  signifies  the  new  birth 
from  above  or  from  the  Holy  S])irit, 
who  makes  us  new  creatures  in  Christ 
Jesus.  Other  words  conveying  precisely 
the  same  idea  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 
Our  Saviour  says  to  Nicodemus,  "  Ex- 
cept a  man  be  born  again"  (or  rather, 
"  from  above,"  "  from  God  "),  "  he  cannot 
see  the  kingdom  of  God."  John  3  :  3. 
Christians  are  described  as  born  of  God, 
John  1  :  12,  13;  1  John  2  :  29 ;  5  :  1,  4. 
They  are  also  represented  as  begotten 
of  God  or  by  the  word  of  God.  Jas.  1  : 
18;  IPet.  1:3,  23.  And  the  same  thing, 
in  substance,  is  presented  under  the  idea 
of  a  new  creation,  2  Cor.  5  :  17;  a  re- 
newing of  the  mind,  Rom.  12  :  2 ;  a  re- 
newing of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Tit.  3  :  5 ;  a 
resurrection  from  the  dead,  Eph.  2:6; 
a  being  quickened,  etc.  Eph.  2  :  1,  5. 
Regeneration,  then,  may  be  regarded  as 

729 


KEH 


REH 


the  communicatiou  of  spiritual  life  to  a 
soul  previously  dead  in  trespasses  and 
sins  by  the  almighty  energy  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  making  use  of  the  word  of  truth 
as  an  instrument;  in  consequence  of 
which  divine  operation,  the  soul  begins 
to  apprehend  spiritual  things  in  a  new 
light,  to  believe  them  in  a  new  manner, 
to  love  them  with  an  affection  not  before 
felt,  and  to  act  henceforth  from  new  mo- 
tives and  for  new  ends. 

REHABI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  en- 
larges), a  descendant  of  Moses.  1  Chr. 
23  :  17. 

RE'HOB  (street,  broad  place).  1. 
The  father  of  Hadadezer,  king  of  Zobah. 
2  Sam.  8  :  3,  12. 

2.  A  Levite  who  sealed  the  covenant 
with  Nehemiah.  Neh.  10  :  11. 

RE'HOB  {broad  j^^ace),  the  name 
of  three  towns. 

1.  The  extreme  place  reached  by  the 
spies.  Num.  13  :  21.  It  is  named  also 
Beth-rehob.  2  Sam.  10  :  6,  8.  Accord- 
ing to  Eobinson,  it  was  near  Tell  el- 
Kady,  at  the  castle  of  Hunin,  in  the 
mountains  west  of  the  marsh  of  the 
Huleh,  and  in  the  upper  Jordan  valley. 
Thomson  suggests  that  it  was  at  Banias. 

2.  A  place  in  Asher.  Josh.  19  :  28.  It 
was  probably  near  to  Sidon. 

3.  Another  town  of  Asher,  given  to 
the  Gershonite  Levites.  Josh.  19  :  30 ; 
21:31. 

REHOBO'AM  {enlarger  of  the  peo- 
ple), a  son  of  Solomon  by  the  Ammonite 
princess  Naamah,  1  Kgs.  14:  21 ;  ascend- 
ed the  throne  after  the  death  of  his  fa- 
ther, at  the  age  of  forty-one,  and  reigned 
seventeen  years,  b.  c.  975-957.  It  ap- 
pears that  the  taxes  which  Solomon  had 
laid  on  the  people  had  become  an  oner- 
ous burden  ;  and  when  Rehoboam  went 
down  to  Shechem  to  be  anointed  and 
crowned,  the  representatives  of  the  ten 
tribes  met  him  with  a  unanimous  de- 
mand for  relief  in  the  taxation.  It  is 
also  probable  that  this  proceeding  of  the 
ten  tribes  was  influenced  by  the  strong 
jealousy  which  reigned  between  Eph- 
raim  and  Judah.  The  accession  of  Da- 
vid to  the  throne,  and  the  transference 
of  the  ark  and  the  royal  residence  to 
Jerusalem,  had  given  the  tribes  of  Ju- 
dah and  Benjamin  a  decided  promi- 
nence, and  Ephraim  felt  verj'  sore.  The 
situation  was  critical,  and  Rehoboam 
showed  himself  utterly  incapable  of 
730 


managing  it.  Following  the  advice  of 
his  younger  courtiers,  he  gave  a  most 
insolent  answer,  the  effect  of  which 
was  that  the  ten  tribes  revolted,  leaving 
Judah  and  Benjamin  alone  in  their  al- 
legiance to  him.  He  at  once  proposed 
to  employ  force  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
ducing the  rebels,  but  was  admonished 


Kehoboam.    {From  Sculptures  at  Kamak.) 

The    inscription    has    been    read,    "  Kingdom    of 
Judah." 

by  the  prophet  Shemaiah  to  forbear.  1 
Kgs.  12  :  24.  Continual  wars,  however, 
prevailed  between  the  two  parties,  and 
a  still  greater  calamity  soon  fell  on  the 
head  of  the  unhappy  king.  Allured  by 
the  enormous  riches  which  Solomon  had 
accumulated  in  Jerusalem,  and  prob- 
ably also  instigated  by  Jeroboam,  the 
Egyptian  king  Shishak,  the  founder  of 
the  twenty-second  dynasty,  invaded  Ju- 
dah. Jerusalem  was  taken,  and  Reho- 
boam had  to  buy  an  ignominious  peace 
bj  surrendering  all  the  royal  treasures. 
This  victory  of  Shishak  is  found  com- 
memorated by  artistic  representations 
on  the  side  of  the  great  temple  of  Kar- 
nak. 

RE  HO 'BOTH  {ivide  places),  a 
name  for  three  places. 

1.  A  well  belonging  to  Isaac,  and  the 
third  dug  by  him.  Gen.  26  :  22.  It  has 
lately  been  identified,  16  miles  south  of 
Beersheba,  at  the  head  of  the  great  Wddy 
Refah,  and  is  now  known  as  er-Rnheibeh. 
Near  some  stone  ruins  is  an  ancient  well, 
the  troughs  and  other  masonry  which  still 


EEH 


EEN 


remain  being  of  immense  proportions, 
and  apparently  of  very  great  antiquity. 
One  of  the  troughs  is  round  and  the  other 
circular,  and  cut  in  solid  blocks  (i  feet  by 
5  feet  and  5  feet  high.  Palmer  states  that 
the  appearance  of  the  masonry,  which  is 
more  massive  and  antique  than  any  other 
in  the  neighborhood,  renders  it  probable 
that  it  is  the  well  which  Isaac  dug. 
Though  Robinson  could  not  find  it, 
Stewart  and  Rowlands  each  found  it,  as 
an  ancient  well  and  12  feet  in  circumfer- 
ence ;  but  it  was  so  built  over  and  filled 
with  rubbish  that  neither  Palmer  nor 
Drake  could  at  first  discover  it. 

2.  ''  Rehoboth  b;/  the  river,"  mentioned 
as  the  home  of  Saul  or  Shaul,  an  early 
king  of  the  Edomites.  Gen.  36  :  .37 ;  1 
Chr.  1:48.  The  "river"  is  supposed 
to  be  the  Euphrates.  The  name  is 
represented  by  liahahah,  attached  to  two 
places  on  the  Euphrates,  one  28  miles 
below  the  junction  of  the  Khabour  and 
3  miles  from  the  western  bank ;  the 
other  lower  down,  on  the  eastern  side. 
The  former  is  perhaps  the  true  site  of 
ancient  Rehoboth. 

3.  The  "  city  Rehoboth,"  one  of  the 
four  founded  by  Asher  or  Nimrod.  Gen. 
10  :  11,  12.  The  text  has  been  variously 
explained.  Some  regard  it  as  denoting, 
not  a  separate  city,  but  the  "  streets  of 
the  city" — that  is,  of  Nineveh;  others 
prefer  to  regard  it  as  a  distinct  city. 
Rawlinson  would  identify  it  with  Sele- 
miynh,  near  Kalah,  which  has  extensive 
ruins. 

RE'HUM  {compassionate).  1.  One 
who  returned  with  Zerubbabel,  Ezr.  2:2,- 
called  Nehum  in  Neh.  7  :  7. 

2.  The  chancellor  who  wrote  to  Arta- 
xerxes  in  order  to  prevent  the  rebuilding 
of  the  walls  and  temple  of  Jerusalem. 
Ezr.  4  :  8,  9,  17,  23. 

3.  A  Levite  who  assisted  in  repairing 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem.  Neh.  3:17. 

4.  One  who  signed  the  covenant  with 
Nehemiah.  Neh.  10  :  25. 

5.  A  priest  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel, Neh.  12  :  3 ;  called  Harim  in  v. 
15. 

RE'I  ifriendljf),  one  who  remained 
true  to  David  when  Adonijah  rebelled. 
1  Kgs.  1  :  8. 

REINS.  The  reins  or  kidneys  were 
considered  by  the  Hebrews  to  be  the 
seat  of  certain  affections  and  emotions 
which  we  attribute  to  the  heart.     Hence 


a  number  of  peculiarly  Hebrew  expres- 
sions. Ps.  7  :  9  5  16  :  7  ;  Jer.  17  :  10  ;  20  : 
12. 

RE'KEM  {variegation,  Jiower-qar- 
den).  1.  One  of  the  Midianite  kings 
who  were  slain  by  the  Israelites.  Num. 
31  :  8;  Josh.  13  :  21. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Judah,  and  son  of 
Hebron.   1  Chr.  2  :  43. 

RE'KEM  { Jiower-fjardening),  a  city 
of  Benjamin.  Josh.  18  :  27.  Its  site  is 
unknown. 

RE  MALI 'AH  {tvhom  Jehovah 
adores),  father  of  Pekab.  2  Kgs.  15  :  25, 
27,  30,  32,  37:  16  :  1,  5;  2  Chr.  28  :  6; 
Isa.  7  :  1,  4,  5,  9  ;  8:6. 

RE'METH  {height),  a  town  of  Issa- 
char,  Josh.  19  :  21  ;  possibly  the  same 
with  Ramoth,  1  Chr,  6  :  73,  and  the 
Jarmuth  of  Josh.  21  :  29,  where  it  is 
named  as  a  Levitical  city.  The  Pal.  Me- 
moirs suggest  Er  Bduteh,  a  conspicuous 
village  on  a  hill,  5  miles  north-west  of  Sa- 
maria, as  its  site.  The  village  is  of  mode- 
rate size,  with  olives  below  near  the  plain. 

REM'MON  {pomegranate),  a  city 
of  Simeon.  Josh.  19  :  7.  See  Rimmon, 
No.  1. 

REM'MON-METH'OAR,  a 
landmark  of  Zebulun.  Josh.  19  :  13. 
"Methoar"  is  not  a  part  of  the  proper 
name,  and  the  clause  should  read, 
*'  Remmon  which  reaches  to  Neah."  See 
Rimmon.  No.  2. 

REM'PHAN,  occurring  only  in 
Acts  7  :  43,  which  is  a  quotation  from 
Am.  5  :  26,  where  the  corresponding 
word  in  the  Hebrew  is  "  Chiun."  It  is 
probable,  therefore,  that  they  are  in- 
terchangeable names  for  a  god  wor- 
shipped secretly  by  the  Israelites  in 
Egypt  and  in  the  wilderness,  answer- 
ing, probably,  to  Saturn  or  Moloch,  the 
star-god.  Some  refer  this  worship  to 
the  time  of  Amos. 

REND.  To  rend  the  garments,  or 
"tare"  them,  2  Sam.  13  :  31,  was  from 
the  earliest  period  a  sign  of  grief  or 
penitence.  Jacob  and  David  did  it  on 
various  occasions,  and  so  did  Joshua, 
Josh.  7  :  6,  and  Hezekiah.  2  Kgs.  19  : 1. 
The  high  priest  was  forbidden  to  rend 
his  clothes,  Lev.  10  :  6 ;  21  :  10,  prob- 
ably meaning  his  sacred  garments.  Per- 
haps those  referred  to  in  Matt.  26  :  65 
were  such  as  were  ordinarily  worn,  or 
merely  judicial  and  not  pontifical  gar- 
ments.     Sometimes  "  rending  "  denoted 

731 


REP 


EEP 


anger     or    indignation     mingled    with 
sorrow. 
REPENTS     REPENT'ANCE. 

The  Greek  word  so  translated  means 
literally  "  to  perceive  afterward,"  hence 
"to  change  one's  mind."  In  the  Bible 
it  designates  the  turning  from  sin  to 
God,  or  conversion.  It  is  the  beginning 
of  the  preaching  of  John  the  Baptist  and 
of  Christ.  Matt.  3  :  2  ;  4  :  17  ;  Mark  1 :  15. 
It  implies,  1.  A  knowledge  of  sin  and 
guilt;  2.  A  deep  sorrow  for  it;  and  3.  A 
determination  to  break  with  it  and  to 
begin  a  new  life  of  obedience  and  holi- 
ness. This  is  "  repentance  unto  life." 
Acts  11:  18;  26  :  20. 

Dr.  A.  A.  Hodge  thus  distinguishes 
between  repentance  and  conversion : 
"  1.  Conversion  is  the  more  general 
term,  and  is  used  to  include  the  first 
exercises  of  faith,  as  well  as  all  those 
experiences  of  love  of  holiness  and 
hatred  of  sin,  etc.,  which  are  consequent 
upon  it.  Repentance  is  more  specific, 
and  expresses  that  hatred  and  renuncia- 
tion of  sin  and  that  turning  unto  God 
which  accompanies  faith  as  its  conse- 
quent. 2.  Conversion  is  generally  used 
to  designate  only  the  first  actings  of  the 
new  nature  at  the  commencement  of  a 
religious  life,  or  at  most  the  first  steps 
of  a  return  to  God  after  a  notable  back- 
sliding, Luke  22  :  32,  while  repentance 
is  applied  to  that  constant  bearing  of  the 
cross  which  is  one  main  characteristic 
of  the  believer's  life  on  earth.  Ps.  19  : 
12,  13  ;  Luke  9  :  23  ;  Gal.  6  :  14  ;  5  :  24." 
—  Outlines  of  Theology,  enlarged  ed.,  p. 
489. 

God  is  said  to  repent.  Gen.  6:6;  Jon. 
3  :  9,  10.  This,  however,  is  merely 
attributing  to  God  human  ideas.  He 
cannot  truly  repent,  since  he  never  does 
wrong  and  is  unerring  wisdom.  But 
God's  actions,  looked  at  from  earth,  may 
appear  to  indicate  a  change  of  purpose. 

The  "  repentance "  of  Judas,  Matt. 
27  :  3,  shows  that  one  may  sorrow  over 
sin  and  its  terrible  consequences  without 
thereby  gaining  spiritual  life.  This  is 
the  sorrow  which  leads  to  despair. 

RE'PHAEL  {whom  God  heals),  a 
Levite  porter.   1  Chr.  26  :  7. 

RE'PHAH  (riches),  a  descen-flant 
of  Ephraira.    1  Chr.  7  :  25. 

REPHAI'AH     [whom    Jehovah 
healed).     1.  A  descendant  of   David.    1 
Chr.  3  :  21. 
732 


2.  A  Simeonite  chieftain  in  the  reign 
of  Hezekiah.  1  Chr.  4  :  42. 

3.  A  descendant  of  Issachar.  1  Chr. 
7:2. 

4.  A  descendant  of  Saul,  1  Chr.  9  :  43 ; 
called  Kapha  in  1  Chr.  8  :  37. 

5.  The  son  of  Hur,  and  ruler  of  the 
half  part  of  Jerusalem.  Neh.  3  :  9. 

REPH'AIM  if/iauts),  the  name  of  a 
race  of  giants  who  lived  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan. Chedorlaomer  defeated  them.  Gen. 
14  ;  5.  Their  land  was  promised  to  Abra- 
ham's seed.  15  :  20.  At  some  time  before 
Israel's  coming  they  were  driven  out  of 
their  possessions.  Dent.  2: 10  (Heb.),  and 
lived  in  the  West  of  Palestine,  where 
they  had  possessions.  Josh.  15  :  8.  See 
below. 

REPH'AIM,  VAL'LEY  OF.  It 
is  first  mentioned  in  Josh.  15  :  8 ;  18  :  16, 
and  there  translated  '*  the  valley  of  the 
giants."  It  was  one  of  the  landmarks 
of  the  land  of  Judah :  named  after  the 
Rephaim,  or  "  giants,"  who  at  an  early 
period  were  found  on  both  sides  of  the 
Jordan.  Comp.  Gen.  14  :  5  ;  Deut.  3  : 
11-13;  Josh.  13  :  12;  17  :  15.  David 
twice  defeated  the  Philistines  in  this 
valley.  2  Sam.  5  :  17-25  ;  23  :  13  ;  1  Chr. 
11  :  15,  16;  14  :  9-16.  The  valley  was 
noted  for  its  fertility.  Isa.  17  :  5.  Its 
position  as  a  boundary  of  Judah  would 
indicate  it  to  have  been  south  of  the 
valley  of  Hinnom.  On  the  road  to  Beth- 
lehem there  is  a  cultivated  plain  about 
a  mile  long,  bordered  on  both  sides  by 
hills,  and  gradually  sloping  into  a  deep 
valley  at  the  south-west,  called  Wddi/  el- 
Werd,  or  ''  the  valley  of  roses."  This 
plain  is  called  Beka'a  by  the  Arabs,  and 
since  the  sixteenth  century  an  attempt 
has  been  made  to  identify  it  with  the 
valley  of  Rephaim.  Tobler  proposed  to 
identify  Rephaim  with  the  Wddy  der 
Yasiii,  to  the  west-north-west  of  Jeru- 
salem, but  this  would  contradict  the 
account  of  Josephus,  and  the  other 
location  is  quite  generally  accepted. 

REPH'IDIM  (rests,  refreshments), 
the  last  station  of  the  Israelites  before 
reaching  Sinai,  and  where  Moses  smote 
the  rock  and  the  Amalekites  were  de- 
feated. Ex.  17  :  1,  8-16.  The  location 
of  this  station  and  of  the  battle-field  has 
been  a  difficult  problem  in  biblical  geog- 
raphy. The  members  of  the  British 
Ordnance  party,  after  a  thorough  scien- 
tific survey  of  the    whole  region,   con- 


EES 


RES 


eluded  that  the  battle  of  Rephidim  must 
have  been  fought  in  one  of  two  places. 

1.  In  the.  Wddij  Feiran. — This  place 
was  approved  as  the  site  of  Rephidim 
by  all  of  the  party  except  the  Rev.  F. 
W.  Holland,  and  this  has  been  the  pre- 
valent view  ever  since  the  fifth  century. 
Feiran  is  rather  a  broad  valley,  and 
would  furnish  a  practicable  route  for  a 
large  body  like  the  Israelites,  going  from 
the  wilderness  of  Sin  into  the  mountain- 
region,  where  they  received  the  Law. 
The  Amalekites  would  regard  themselves 
as  threatened  by  such  a  company,  and 
would  attempt  to  defend  their  country. 
The  Feiran  would  be  a  strong  military 
position.  In  this  deep  valley  they  might 
defend  themselves  from  invasion,  secure 
from  the  danger  of  a  flank  attack.  Pal- 
mer discovered  an  Arab  tradition  point- 
ing to  the  rock  from  which  Moses 
brought  the  water,  Ex.  17  :  1,  8,  at  a 
place  called  Hesij  el-K/i(ttfnfin.  Bedouins 
say  of  this  rock,  which  is  found  a  few 
miles  before  the  fertile  part  of  the  valley 
commences,  *' Our  lord  Moses  smote  it, 
and  water  miraculously  flowed  from  the 
stone.''  Nearly  opposite  Wddi/  Aleyat, 
which  comes  into  Feiran  from  the  south, 
is  a  mountain,  Jehel  'fahinidh,  which  the 
British  party  consider  to  be  the  hill  on 
■which  Moses  sat  and  surveyed  the  battle, 
while  Aaron  and  Hur  held  up  his  hands. 
There  are  churches  and  chapels  on  this 
hill,  which  mark  it  as  a  very  sacred 
spot  in  the  e3"es  of  the  old  inhabitants 
of  Paran,  and  Antoninus  Martyr,  in 
the  seventh  century,  mentions  a  chapel 
built  there  in  honor  of  Moses.  This  spot 
is  25  miles  from  Sinai  {Jehel  Musa), 
which  would  be  more  than  a  day's 
journey;  but  Palmer  thinks  there  was 
a  break  in  the  march,  Ex.  19  :  2,  and 
that  the  operations  of  "  pitching  in  the 
wilderness"  and  "encamping  before  the 
mount"  were  separate  and  distinct. 
Rephidim  has  been  located  in  Feiran  by 
Stanley,  Ritter,  Stewart,  Lepsius,  and 
others.     See  SixAi. 

2.  In  Wddy  es-Sheikh. — This  is  an 
easterly  continuation  of  Wady  Feiran, 
and  is  the  site  advocated  for  the  battle 
of  Rephidim  by  Rev.  F.  W.  Holland.  It 
includes  the  pass  oi  el-  Wafit/eJi,  a  narrow 
defile  300  yards  long  and  from  40  to  60 
yards  wide,  having  a  level  bed,  but  en- 
closed on  either  side  by  perpendicular 
rocks.     A  conspicuous  hill  on  the  north 


side  of  the  defile  is  observed,  at  the  foot 
of  which  the  Arabs  point  out  a  rock  that 
they  call  "  the  seat  of  the  prophet 
Moses."  This  is  about  12  miles  from 
Sinai  {Jehel  Miixa),  and  hence  within  a 
day's  journey.  Ex.  19:2;  Num.  33  :  15. 
Robinson,  Keil,  Delitzsch,  Porter,  and 
others  locate  Pv,ephidim  in  some  part  of 
this  vallev  en-Sheikh, 

RE'SEBf  {hrUlle),  a  noted  Assyrian 
city  between  Nineveh  and  Calah.  Gen. 
10  :  12.  Rawlinson,  who  places  Calah 
at  Nimrud  and  Nineveh  immediately 
opposite  Mosul,  would  locate  Resen  be- 
tween the  two,  near  the  village  of  Sela- 
mii/eh,  about  3  miles  north  of  Nimrud, 
where  are  Assyrian  ruins.  Fergusson 
identifies  Calah  with  Knlah  Sherghat, 
and  Resen  with  Niijirud.  Some  have 
conjectured  that  the  four  cities  of  Gen. 
10  :  12  were  all  afterward  combined 
under  the  one  name  "Nineveh,"  and 
that  "  the  great  city "  refen-ed  to  this 
united  whole.  Instances  of  such  con- 
solidation have  been  numerous  enough 
to  render  this  theory  plausible. 

RE'SHEPH  {flame,  lightning),  a 
descendant  of  Ephraim.  1  Chr.  7  :  25. 

RESTITU'TION,  an  act  of  justice 
by  which  a  wrong  done  is  repaired,  and 
that  which  has  been  unjustly  taken  from 
a  person  restored  to  him.  The  Mosaic 
Law  demanded  that,  in  case  of  theft,  the 
restitution  should  be  fourfold,  and  in 
cases  of  carelessness  the  amount  was 
graduated  according  to  guiltiness.  Ex. 
22:1-15. 

RESURRECTION.  The  resur 
rection  of  the  dead,  both  of  the  just  and 
unjust,  is  a  fundamental  doctrine  of  the 
Christian  faith,  and  is  most  fully  set 
forth  by  St.  Paul.  1  Cor.  15.  It  is  in- 
separable from  the  doctrine  of  the 
immortality  of  the  soul,  and  gives  it  its 
necessary  completion.  If  the  dead  rise 
not,  then  is  not  Christ  raised;  and  if 
Christ  is  not  raised,  then  is  our  faith 
vain  :  we  are  yet  in  our  sins. 

No  truth  is  more  clearly  and  forcibly 
presented  in  the  Scriptures,  and  no  fact 
is  better  and  more  decisively  proved  in 
history,  than  is  the  resurrection  of  Jesus 
Christ.  1.  It  was  prophesied.  Ps.  16: 
10,  11 ;  Acts  2  :  25-32.  2.  Christ  him- 
self repeatedly  and  distinctly  foretold 
it.  Matt.  16  :  21 ;  20  :  19.  3.  The  pre- 
cautions of  his  enemies  to  prevent  it, 
the  failure  of  all  these  precautions,  and 

733 


REU 


REU 


the  measures  taken  to  disprove  the  event, 
prove  it.  4.  The  abundant,  decided,  and 
consistent  testimony  of  witnesses  who 
could  not  be  deceived,  and  who  had  no 
inducement  to  deceive  others,  and  all 
this  in  the  face  of  every  danger.  5.  The 
change  which  took  place  in  the  minds 
and  conduct  of  the  apostles  between  the 
crucifixion  and  the  first  Pentecost,  and 
which  would  be  wholly  inexplicable  if 
the  resurrection  had  not  taken  place. 
6.  The  supernatural  evidences  arising 
from  the  fultilment  of  the  promise  that 
the  Holy  Spirit  should  be  poured  out  on 
them  all  attest  the  same  truth.  7.  The 
Christian  Church  could  never  have  been 
founded  without  the  fact  of  Christ's 
resurrection,  and  is  a  constant  living 
proof  of  it. 

Thus  the  resurrection  of  Christ  from 
the  dead  is  clearly  proved  ;  and,  being 
proved,  it  ratifies  and  confirms  in  the 
fullest  manner  the  truth  and  divinity  of 
his  character  and  mission,  shows  the 
eflBcacy  of  his  atonement,  is  an  evidence, 
earnest,  and  example  of  the  resurrection 
of  his  people,  John  14  :  19,  and  imports 
that  all  judgment  is  committed  into  his 
hand.  Acts  17  :  30,  31. 

Among  the  Jews,  at  the  time  of  our 
Lord,  the  Sadducees  altogether  rejected 
the  doctrine  of  the  immortality  of  the 
soul  and  the  resurrection  of  the  dead, 
but  the  Pharisees  and  the  great  mass 
of  the  people  had  accepted  it ;  and 
traces  of  this  doctrine,  more  or  less 
vague,  we  find  not  only  among  the  peo- 
ple of  the  covenant,  but  also  among 
the  heathen,  and  from  the  very  earliest 
times.  Indeed,  so  deep-rooted  is  the 
natural  conviction  of  the  human  mind 
on  this  point  that  no  nation,  people,  or 
tribe  have  ever  yet  been  found  who  do 
not,  in  some  form,  recognize  the  doc- 
trine of  a  state  of  existence  after  the 
death  of  the  body;  and  this  conviction 
is  satisfactorily  met  only  by  the  simple 
and  sublime  doctrine  of  our  holy  relig- 
ion, which  brings  life  and  immortality 
to  light. 

REU  (friend),  a  patriarch  in  the  line 
of  Abraham's  ancestors.  Gen.  11 :  18-21 ; 
1  Chr.  1  :  25. 

REU'BEN  (behold  a  son  .')  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah.  Gen.  29  : 
32.  He  lost  the  privileges  of  birthright 
in  consequence  of  a  grievous  sin.  Gen. 
35  :  22  ;  49  :  3,  4.  In  spite  of  his  im- 
734 


pulsiveness,  however,  he  was  kind  of 
heart,  as  shows  his  relation  to  the  con- 
spiracy against  Joseph.  Gen.  37  :  18-30  ; 
42  :  37.  It  was  said  of  Reuben  by  his 
father  Jacob,  "  Unstable  as  water,"  Gen. 
49  :  4,  and  Deborah  and  Sisera  sang  in 
reproach  of  Reuben,  Jud.  5  :  15,  16;  the 
tribe,  at  times,  showed  military  prowess 
and  extended  its  boundaries.  1  Chr.  5  : 
1-10,  18-22.  At  the  first  census  in  the 
wilderness  his  descendants,  the  Reuben- 
ites.  or  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  numbered 
46,500,  Num.  1  :  20,  21,  but  at  the  sec- 
ond census  they  had  decreased  to  43,730. 
The  Reubenites  soon  became  wealthy 
herdsmen,  but  they  were  averse  to  war, 
Jud.  5  :  15,  16,  and  were  the  first  who 
were  carried  awav  into  captivity. 

REUBEN,  TERRITORY  OF. 
The  region  allotted  to  this  tribe  in  the 
Promised  Land  lay  on  the  east  side  of 
the  Jordan  and  the  Salt  Sea.  It  ex- 
tended from  the  river  Arnon  on  the 
south,  beyond  the  Wddi/  Heshhan  on 
the  north,  reaching  to  the  possessions 
of  the  tribe  of  Gad,  and  from  the  Jor- 
dan valley  it  stretched  eastward  indefi- 
nitely to  the  desert.  The  allotment  is 
described  in  Josh.  13  :  15-21 ;  comp. 
Num.  32  :  37,  38.  This  region  had  been 
held  by  the  Moabites,  who  were  driven 
out  by  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites,  and 
he  in  turn  was  dispossessed  by  the  Is- 
raelites, Num.  21  :  24;  Deut.  3  :  16,  17; 
Josh.  13  :  15-28.  This  district  consist- 
ed of  three  parts — the  low  region  along 
the  sea  and  the  river,  the  mountains,  and 
beyond  them,  to  the  east,  an  extensive 
rolling  plateau  known  as  the  Belkah, 
well  watered  and  abounding  with  forest 
and  pasture-land  well  adapted  for  herds- 
men. It  included  the  fertile  plains  of 
Medeba,  fourteen  important  towns,  be- 
sides the  "  cities  of  the  plain,"  and  the 
entire  kingdom  of  the  Amorites.  It  was 
excellent  for  grazing,  having  fine  pasture- 
land.  Among  its  prominent  towns  were 
Medeba,  Heshbon,  Dibon,  Baal-meon, 
Beth-peor,  Bezer,  Jahazah,  and  Kede- 
moth.  A  notice  of  these  cities  will  be 
found  under  their  respective  titles. 

The  people  of  this  territory  were  aid- 
ed in  conquering  it  by  the  entire  body 
of  the  Israelites,  and  they  in  turn  aided 
their  brethren  in  conquering  Western 
Palestine  when  they  returned  to  their 
own  counti'y,  erecting  a  stone  memorial, 
in    connection    with    other    tribes    east 


EEU 


BEV 


of  the  Jordan,  to  note  the  common  in- 
heritance. Josh.  22:  10-34.  For  an 
account  of  the  tribal  history,  see  pre- 
vious article.  Their  territory'  has  only 
been  partially  ex}»lore(l,  but  the  findinj^ 
of  the  "  Moabite  Stone"  at  Dibon,  and 
the  many  ruins  with  which  the  surface 
of  the  whole  region  is  strewn,  give  jjrom- 
ise  of  rich  results  when  carefully  and  sci- 
entifically explored. 

REU'BENITES,  descendants  of 
Reuben.  Num.  26  :  7 ;  Josh.  1  :  12  and 
elsewhere. 

REU'EL  {friend  of  God).  1.  One 
of  the  sons  of  Esau  by  his  wife  Bashe- 
math.  Gen.  36  :  4,  10,  13,  17;  1  Chr.  1  : 
35,  37. 

2.  Ex.  2  :  18.     See  Jethro. 

3.  Num.  2  :  14.     See  Deuel. 

4.  A  Benjaniite  chief.  1  Chr.  9  :  8. 
REU'MAH  [exalted),  the  concubine 

of  Nahor,  Abraham's  brother.  Gen.  22  : 
24. 

REVELA'TION.  God  has  re- 
vealed himself  in  the  works  of  creation, 
Ps.  19  :  2;  comp.  Rom.  1  :  19,  20;  Acts 
14  :  17;  17  :  26-28;  in  the  conscience 
of  man,  Rom.  2  :  14,  15;  comp.  John 
1:9;  8:9;  and  in  the  histor}'  of  nations 
and  of  the  world.  Acts  14  :  17;  comp. 
John  1  :  5,  10.  But  this  triple  revela- 
tion, though  a  most  precious  guidance 
intellectually  and  morally,  never  leav- 
ing man  wholly  without  testimony,  of 
God,  is,  nevertheless,-  only  an  indirect 
revelation,  requiring  the  interpretation 
of  human  reason  and  liable  to  its  mis- 
takes. The  full  revelation  of  God  is 
found  only  in  his  holy  word,  Ps.  119  : 
105  ;  comp.  Ps.  19  :  8,  9,  and  in  the  per- 
son of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ, 
2  Pet.  1 :  19  ;  2  Tim.  3  :  15-17  ;  Heb.  1 :  1, 
2  :  4  :  12, 13,  a  direct  revelation  breaking 
miraculously  through  nature  and  his- 
tory, and  laying  hold  miraculously  in 
the  conscience  of  man  on  a  new  life. 
This  revelation  is  the  foundation  of  our 
religion,  which  is  therefore  of  divine 
origin  and  authority.  All  religions 
claim  to  be  founded  on  revelation,  but 
only  the  Jewish  religion  of  the  old  cov- 
enant and  the  Christian  religion  are 
really  revealed  by  God.  All  heathen 
religions  are  religions  of  Nature,  the 
outgrowth  of  the  human  mind  groping 
in  the  dark   after  the  unknown   (xod. 

REVELATION  OF  ST.  JOHN. 
1.  Contents. — This  is   the   last   and   the 


most  mysterious  book  of  the  Bible.  It 
is  the  divine  seal  of  the  whole.  It  is 
for  the  N.  T.  what  Daniel  is  for  the  0. 
T.  It  gathers  up  all  the  former  proph- 
ecies and  extends  them  to  the  remotest 
future.  It  represents  the  Church  in 
conflict  with  the  great  secular  powers. 
It  unrolls  a  sublime  ])anorania  of  Christ's 
victorious  march  through  the  world's 
history  till  the  appearance  of  the  new 
heaven  and  the  new  earth,  when  the 
aim  of  creation  and  redemption  shall 
be  fully  realized.  The  theme  is  the  di- 
vine promise  "  I  come  quickly,"  with  the 
corresponding  human  prayer,  ''Even  so, 
come,  Lord  Jesus."  It  gives  us  the  as- 
surance that  the  Lord  is  coming  in  every 
great  event,  and  overrules  all  things  tor 
his  glory  and  the  ultimate  triumph  of 
his   kingdom. 

2.  Character  and  Aim. — The  beginning 
and  the  end  of  Revelation  are  as  clear 
and  dazzling  as  the  sunlight,  but  the 
middle  is  dark  and  mysterious  as  mid- 
night, yet  with  the  stars  and  the  full 
moon  shining  from  the  firmament.  The 
book  reminds  one  of  the  chiaroscuro  of 
the  great  j^ainters,  and  of  a  mantle  of 
the  richest  black  broidered  all  over  with 
brilliant  jewels.  The  epistles  to  the  seven 
churches,  chs.  1-3,  the  description  of  the 
heavenly  Jerusalem,  chs.  20,  21,  and  the 
interspersed  lyric  anthems  and  doxolo- 
gies,  4  : 1 1  ;  5  J  12-14 ;  7  :  12  ;  14  :  13,  etc., 
are  as  sublime,  inspiring,  beautiful,  and 
familiar  as  are  any  portions  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. They  are  sufficient  to  prove  the 
divine  inspiration  of  the  whole.  But 
the  bulk  of  the  book  is  full  of  puzzling 
enigmas  which  Avill  not  be  satisfactorily 
solved  before  the  millennium.  In  the 
light  of  fulfilment  we  shall  understand 
this  prophetic  panorama  of  Church  his- 
tory, but  not  before.  Nevertheless,  the 
Revelation  answers  an  important  prac- 
tical purpose,  just  as  the  prophecies  of 
the  0.  T.  (notwithstanding  their  obscu- 
rities, which  gave  rise  to  all  sorts  of 
conflicting  interpretations),  did  to  the 
Jews,  before  Christ's  first  coming,  man- 
na in  the  wilderness  and  a  light  shining 
in  darkness.  The  history  of  exegesis 
shows  that  the  situation  of  the  Church 
materially  influenced  the  interpretation 
and  application  of  this  wonderful  book, 
and  that  it  is  in  every  age  of  the 
Church,  especially  in  periods  of  perse- 
cution, a  book  of  hope  and  comfort  to 

735 


REV 


REZ 


all  who  are  waiting  for  the  coming  of 
our  blessed  Lord. 

3.  Authorship.— The  ecclesiastical  tra- 
dition (Papias,  Justin  Martyr,  Melito  of 
Sardes,  Irenaeus,  Tertullian,  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Origen)  ascribes  the  Reve- 
lation to  John  the  beloved  disciple. 
This  is  confirmed  by  the  testimony  of 
the  book  itself.  1:4,  9 ;  21  :  2 ;  22  :  8. 
It  is  true  he  does  not  call  himself  an 
apostle,  but  simply  a  servant  of  Christ, 
but  he  appears  as  the  superintendent  of 
the  churches  in  Asia  Minor,  banished, 
for  the  testimony  of  Jesus,  to  Patmos, 
and  entrusted  with  the  most  important 
visions  of  the  future  ;  all  of  which  is  only 
applicable  to  John  the  apostle,  and  not 
to  some  obscure  "  Presbyter  John."  It 
is  true  there  are  internal  difficulties,  espe- 
cially the  discrepancy  between  the  style 
of  the  Apocalypse — which  is  strongly 
Hebraistic — and  the  style  of  the  fourth 
Gospel,  which  is  purer  Greek.  But  we 
must  remember  the  difference  of  the 
subject,  the  intimate  connection  of  the 
Apocalj'pse  with  the  Hebrew  prophecies 
of  Daniel  and  Ezekiel,  and  the  fact  that 
John  was  "in  the  spirit"  when  the  Rev- 
elation was  dictated  to  him.  Moreover, 
there  are,  on  the  other  hand,  some  strik- 
ing resemblances  between  the  style  of 
the  Apocalypse  and  that  of  the  Johan- 
nean  writings — e.  g.,  the  name  "  Word  " 
{Logos),  as  applied  to  Christ. 

4.  Place  and  Time  of  Composition. — 
The  visions  were  received  on  the  island 
of  Patmos,  in  the  ^gean  Sea,  about  24 
miles  west  of  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor. 
See  Patmos.  The  time  of  composition 
was,  according  to  the  testimony  of  Ire- 
naeus  (about  170),  Eusebius  and  Jerome, 
the  end  of  the  reign  of  Domitian,  about 
A.  D.  95,  who  banished  several  Chris- 
tians to  inhospitable  climes.  This  date 
answers  the  character  of  the  book,  which 
treats  of  the  last  things  as  if  intended  for 
the  conclusion  of  the  N.  T.,  but  strong 
internal  evidence  has  led  some  modern 
scholars  to  the  conclusion  that  it  must 
be  assigned  to  a  much  earlier  date — viz. 
to  the  year  68  or  69  a.  d.,  before  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  (a.  d.  70),  but 
they  differ  as  to  the  particular  emperor 
under  whom  it  was  written,  whether  it 
was  Nero  (the  supposed  Antichrist)  or 
Galba  or  Vespasianus,  and  they  regard 
the  book  simply  as  a  prophetic  descrip- 
tion of  the  approaching  downfall  of  an- 

736 


cient  Judaism  (Jerusalem)  and  heathen- 
ism (Rome),  and  the  succeeding  reign 
of  Christianity  on  earth  as  the  true  mil- 
lennium. John,  no  doubt,  like  all  the 
Jewish  prophets,  took  his  starting-point 
from  his  age  and  surroundings,  but  his 
vision  extended  to  the  most  distant  fu- 
ture of  the  new  heavens  and  the  new  earth. 

REVENGE'  is  the  most  primitive 
mode  in  which  crime  is  dealt  with  in 
society,  and  the  whole  tendency  and 
spirit  of  the  Mosaic  Law  goes  to  dis- 
courage and  check  it.  This  law  per- 
mitted a  man  to  execute  punishment 
upon  the  slayer  of  any  of  his  relatives, 
but  for  the  purpose  of  restraining  the 
blood-feuds  common  in  the  East  at  that 
day.  In  the  N.  T.  the  feeling  of  re- 
venge is  strongly  condemned.  Matt. 
5  :  39. 

REVENUE.  In  its  first  days,  up 
to  the  time  of  the  kings,  the  Hebrew 
commonwealth  knew  of  no  public  reve- 
nues. Imposts  were  made  for  religious 
purposes,  but  all  public  works,  properly 
speaking,  such  as  fortifications,  or  even 
the  erection  of  the  tabernacle,  were  made 
by  free-will  contributions.  With  the 
kings  came  the  revenues.  The  revenues 
of  Saul  and  David  seem,  however,  to 
have  consisted  principally  in  war-spoils 
and  presents,  but  Solomon  introduced  a 
regular  system  of  taxation,  which  was 
continued  under  Persian  and  Roman 
rule.   Ezr.  4  :  13. 

RE'ZEPH  {stone  heated  for  baking), 
a  city  which  Sennacherib  boasted  to  the 
Jews  that  he  had  subdued.  2  Kgs.  19  : 
12;  Isa.  37  :  12.  Its  site  is  perhaps  at 
Rasapha,  a  day's  march  west  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, on  the  road  from  Raca  to  Hums. 

REZI'A  {ddi(fht),  a  chieftain  of 
Asher.   1  Chr.  7  :  39. 

^^"I.VS  {stable, firm).  1.  King  of  Da- 
mascus ;  allied  himself  with  Pekah  and 
defeated  Ahaz,  but  was  himself  defeated 
by  Tiglath-pileser  II.,  his  capital  de- 
stroyed, and  his  people  carried  away 
into  captivity.  2  Kgs.  15  :  37 ;  16  :  5-9  ; 
Isa.  7  :  1-8:' 8  :  6;  9  :  11. 

2.  One  whose  descendants  returned 
with  Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  2  :  48 ;  Neh.  t : 
50. 

RE'ZON  {2)rinee),  son  of  Eliadah, 
revolted  from  Hadadezer,  and,  having 
enlisted  a  company  of  adventurers  and 
made  several  incursions  into  the  coun- 
try around  Damascus,  finally  succeeded 


RHE 


RIG 


in  obtaining  the  crown,  and  became  a 
sore  vexation  to  Israel  in  the  days  of 
David  and  Solomon.   1  Kgs.  11  :  2'.l. 

RHE'GIUM  {breach),  a  city  on  the 
coast  near  the  south-western  end  of 
Italy,  and  opposite  Messina,  on  the 
north-eastern  point  of  Sicily,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  a  strait  6  miles  wide. 
The  emperor  Caligula  proposed  to  make 
a  port  there  for  the  Alexandrian  corn- 
ships,  but  died  before  completing  it. 
Paul  was  detained  at  this  place  for  a 
day  when  on  his  voyage  to  Rome.  Acts 
28  :  13.  It  is  now  called  Rheyyio,  and 
is  a  flourishing  commercial  town  and  the 
capital  of  Calabria,  having  about  10,000 
inhabitants. 

RHE'SA  {head),  a  name  occurring 
in  the  genealogy  of  Jesus  in  Luke  3  :  27  ; 
probably  not  a  proper  name,  but  only  a 
title. 

RHO'DA  {rose,  rose  tree),  a  maid  in 
the  house  of  Mary,  mother  of  John  Mark. 
Acts  12  :  12-15. 

RHODES  (a  rose),  a  noted  island 
in  the  Mediterranean,  13  miles  from  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor.  It  is  46  miles  long, 
18  miles  wide,  and  has  an  area  of  about 
420  square  miles.  The  island  is  fertile, 
and  carries  on  an  extensive  commerce. 
The  city  of  Rhodes,  at  the  western  end 
of  the  island,  was  celebrated  in  the  clas- 
sic age.  It  was  founded  about  b.  c.  400 
by  the  Dorians,  and  was  very  prosper- 
ous in  the  reign  of  Alexander.  Jews 
were  among  its  inhabitants  during  the 
Maccabfean  period.  Paul  visited  it  on 
his  return  from  his  third  missionary 
journey.  Acts  21  :  1.  He  might  have 
there  seen  fragments  of  the  greatest  of 
the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  world — the 
famous  Colossus  of  Rhodes.  This  was 
made  of  brass,  and  was  105  feet  high. 
It  stood  at  the  right  of  the  port  as  vessels 
entered,  and  not  astride  the  channel,  as 
so  generally  represented  in  pictures.  It 
was  erected  B.C.  290,  and  overthrown  by 
an  earthquake  b.  c.  224.  The  city  had 
also  a  beautiful  temple  of  Apollo,  built 
by  Herod  the  Great.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  the  city  was  held  by  the  Knights 
of  St.  John  ;  it  was  captured  by  the 
Turks  in  1522,  and  is  now  under  their 
rule.  The  modern  city  is  a  place  of 
considerable  trade,  and  the  island  has  a 
population  of  about  30,000,  of  which 
21.000  are  Turks. 

RI''RAI  {/or  v)hom  Jehovah  pleads), 
47 


the  father  of  Ittai  the  Benjamite.  2  Sam. 
23  :  29;   1  Chr.  11  :  31. 

RIB'LAH  (/er/(7*^_y),  an  ancient  city 
in  the  north-eastern  frontier  of  Canaan. 
Num.  34  :  10,  11.  Some  regard  it  as 
being  the  same  as  Diblath,  Eze.  6  :  14, 
but  Condcr  places  Diblath  at  the  mod- 
ern village  of  Dihl,  while  Riblah  is 
identified  with  the  modern  town  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Orontes  35  miles  north- 
east of  Baalbek.  The  ancient  town  was 
upon  the  great  road  from  Palestine  to 
Babylon,  and  was  a  convenient  military 
headquarters  for  the  Babylonian  kings 
and  others  invading  the  country.  Here 
the  Egyptian  king  Pharaoh-nechoh  put 
Jehoahaz  in  chains  and  made  Eliakim 
king,  and  here  Nebuchadnezzar  brought 
Zedekiah,  murdered  his  sons  before  his 
eyes,  then  put  out  his  eyes  and  bound 
him  in  chains  to  be  carried  to  Babylon. 
2  Kgs.  23  :  29-35 ;  25  :  1-7  ;  Jer.  39  : 
5-7.  Riblah  is  now  a  mean  and  poor 
village  in  the  midst  of  a  plain  of 
great  fertility,  and  its  position  shows 
that  it  commanded  the  roads  to  Nineveh, 
Babylon,  Phoenicia,  and  Palestine,  mak- 
ing it  of  great  strategic  importance. 
About  10  miles  west  of  Riblah  is  the 
great  fountain  of  the  Orontes.  still  called 
el-Ain,  or  "the  fountain,"  which  is  sup- 
posed to  be  indicated  bj'  "  on  the  east 
side  of  Ain."  Num.  34  :  11.  Grove 
thinks  the  Riblah  which  marked  the 
boundary  of  the  Promised  Land  could 
not  have  been  as  far  north  as  Riblah  in 
the  land  of  Hamath,  and  he  would  look 
for  the  former  near  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Banias.  No  such 
place  has  been  found  in  that  region, 
and  most  authorities  agree  that  there 
was  but  one  Riblah,  and  hence  that  it 
was  on  the  Orontes,  as  stated  above. 

RID'DLE.  The  Orientals  have 
always  been  fond  of  such  exercises  of 
ingenuity  as  were  requisite  to  answer 
riddles.  Hence  it  was  quite  in  the  order 
of  things  that  Samson  should  propose 
one.  See  Samson's  riddle.  Jud.  14  : 
12-19.  Ezekiel's  riddle,  17  :  2,  was 
rather  an   allegory. 

RIGHT'EOUSNESS,  Isa.  45  :  23, 
is  an  essential  attribute  of  the  divine 
nature,  and  as  it  is  frequently  used  is 
nearly  allied  to,  if  not  the  same  with, 
justice,  holiness,  and  faithfulness.  Ps. 
119  :  142 ;  Isa.  46  :  13  ;  51  :  5,  6,  8  ;  56  : 
1.      The    "  righteousness    which    is    of 

737 


RIG 


RIN 


faith,"  Rom.  10  :  6,  is  the  righteousness 
which  is  obtained  by  the  grace  of  God 
through  faith  in  Jesus  Christ.  Rom.  3  : 
21-26;  10:4,  10;  2  Cor.  5:21;  Gal. 
2  :  21.  The  word  is  also  used  to  denote 
the  perfect  obedience  of  the  Son  of  God. 
Rom.  5  :  IS.  "Righteousness"  is  very 
commonly  used  for  uprightness  and  just 
dealing  between  man  and  man,  as  in  Isa. 
60:17.  and  for  holiness  of  life,  as  in  Dan. 
4:27;  Luke  1:6:  Rom.  14 :  17;  Eph.  5  :  9. 

RIGHT  HAND.  Ps.  21  :  8.  The 
right  hand  is  the  symbol  of  power  and 
strength,  whence  the  effects  of  the  divine 
omnipotence  are  often  ascribed  to  the 
"right  hand  of  the  Most  High."  Ex. 
15  :  6 ;  Ps.  77:10.  The  right  hand  com- 
monly denotes  the  south,  as  the  left  hand 
denotes  the  north.  Gen.  14  :  15.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  the  custom  among  the 
Jews  to  swear  by  the  right  hand,  and 
that  this  is  implied  in  Isa.  62  :  8.  It  was 
certainly  common  to  swear  by  the  hand. 
Gen.  14^22;  Deut.  32  :  40.  To  give  the 
right  hand  was  a  mark  of  friendship. 
Gal.  2  :  9.  Hence  the  force  of  the  ex- 
pression, Ps.  144:  8:  ''Their  right  hand 
is  a  right  hand  of  falsehood."  The  right 
hand  being  a  most  useful  member  of  the 
body,  especially  to  laboring-men,  to  cut 
it  off  implies  the  greatest  sacrifice. 
Matt.  5  :  30.  To  be  seated  at  the  right 
hand  is  a  token  of  peculiar  honor,  1  Kgs. 
2  :  19 ;  and  when  the  expression  is  used 
respecting  Christ,  Acts  7  :  55,  it  implies 
his  unequalled  dignity  and  exaltation. 

RIII'MON  {jiomegranate).  1.  The 
name  of  an  idol  worshipped  in  Damas- 
cus. 2  Kgs.  5  :  18.  Naaman,  who  was 
in  the  habit  of  attending  the  king  in  his 
idolatrous  services  in  the  temple  of  Rim- 
mon,  seems  to  have  been  perplexed  about 
a  question  of  duty  as  to  continuing  this 
practice.     See  Naaman. 

2.  A  Benjamite,  father  of  the  two  men 
who  slew  Ish-bosheth.  2  Sam.  4  :  2,  5,  9. 

RIll'MON  {pomegranate),  a  name 
of  not  less  than  three  places. 

1.  A  town  in  Judah,  afterward  given 
to  Simeon.  Josh.  15  :  21,  32  ;  19:7:  1 
Chr.  4:32:  Neh.  11:29;  Zech.  14:10. 
Some  have  identified  this  with  the  ruin 
Umm  er-Rumdmtn.  13  miles  south-west 
of  Hebron,  and  nearly  the  same  distance 
north-east  of  Beer-sheba.  On  the  top  of 
the  hill  are  foundations  of  important 
buildings,  and  also  rock-cut  cisterns. 
Two  miles  south  are  two  other  hills, 
738 


containing  ruins  and  a  fine  spring  with 
a  reservoir. 

2.  A  Levitical  city  in  Zebulun.  1  Chr. 
6  :  77.  It  is  also  called  Remmon-meth- 
oar.  Josh.  19  :  13.  It  is  identified  with 
the  present  village  Rummaneh,  about  6 
miles  north  of  ^sazareth. 

3.  A  rock  whither  the  600  surviving 
Benjamites  retreated  after  the  slaughter 
of  their  tribe.  Jud.  20  :  45,  47  ;  21  :  13. 
Its  site  is  at  the  modern  village  Runimon, 
about  10  or  15  miles  north  of  Jerusalem, 
on  a  limestone  hill  visible  in  all  direc- 
tions, having  rugged  sides  difficult  of 
ascent  and  deep  valleys  around  it.  The 
houses  cling  to  the  sides  as  huge  steps. 
Tiie  view  from  the  top  of  the  hill  is  ex- 
tensive. 

RIM'MON-PA'REZ  (ijomegran- 
ate  of  the  breach),  an  encampment  of  the 
Israelites  in  the  wilderness.  Num.  33  : 
19,  20.  The  phrase  probably  refers  to 
some  special  breaking  forth  of  the  wrath 
of  God,  as  at  Korah's  rebellion.  Re- 
land  suggests  that  it  may  be  found  at 
Jebel  Ikhrimm,  75  miles  south-south- 
west of  Beer-sheba. 


Rings  and  Signets. 

1,  2.  Assyrian  Rings  in  the  Briti^h  Museum.  3.  i. 
Porcelain  Rings.  5,  6,  7.  Egyptian  Rings,  with  ini' 
pressions  from  them. 

RINGS  were  used  for  ornaments  and 


RIN 


ROD 


as  seals.  "When  used  for  ornament,  they 
were  worn  not  only  on  the  lingers  and 
in  the  ears,  but  also  around  the  wrists 
and  ankles  and  in  the  nostrils.  Isa.  3  : 
20,  21  ;  Luke  15  :  22:  Jas.  2:2.  As  a 
seal  the  ring  became  a  token  of  authority, 
and  the  giving  of  a  ring  the  sign  of  im- 
parting authority,  (xen.  41  :  42 ;  Esth. 
3  :  10,   12;  Dan.  6  :  17.     See  Clothes. 

RIN'NAH  (.shout),  a  descendant  of 
Judah.   1  Chr.  4  :  20. 

RI'PHATH  {a  crusher),  a  son  of 
Gomer.  Gen.  10  :  3.  His  descendants 
have  by  some  been  identified  with  the 
Ripheans,  the  old  name  of  the  Paphla- 
gonians  ;  by  others  they  have  been  located 
in  the  Rhiepean  Mountains,  north  of  the 
Caspian  Sea. 

RIS'SAH  (a  ruin,  a  worm),  a  station 
of  Israel.  Num.  33  :  21,  22.  It  has  been 
identified  with  the  Roman  Rasa,  30 
miles  from  Elath,  near  the  hill  now 
named  Has  el-Kan,  or  ''head  of  the 
plain,"  north-west  of  Ezion-geber.  Wil- 
ton would  place  it  Sit'Ain  el-Jughamileh, 
125  miles  south-south-west  of  Beer- 
sheba ;  Reland  locates  it  at  el-Kusahy, 
bb  miles  south-west  of  Beer-sheba. 

RITH'MAH  [broom),  a  station  of 
Israel,  Num.  33  :  IS,  19,  named  from 
retem  or  rethem,  "  the  broom,"  a  species 
of  low  bush  growing  in  the  wilderness. 
Some  regard  it  as  being  the  same  as 
"  Kadesh  "  of  Num.  13  :  26  ;  Rowlands 
suggests  that  it  is  at  Sahel  er-Retmah, 
west  of  ' Ain  Kadesh,  which  he  makes 
Kadesh. 

RIVER  OF  EGYPT.  This 
phrase  is  found  five  times  in  the  English 
Bible,  and  is  the  translation  of  two 
Hebrew  terms. 

1.  Nahar  Mizraim,  rendered  "river" 
in  Gen.  15  :  18,  and  usually  denoting  a 
perennial  stream  ;  hence  it  perhaps  re- 
fers to  the  Nile,  and  to  the  Pelusiac 
branch  of  the  Nile,  as  the  eastern  limit 
of  the  territory  promised  to  Abraham, 
but  which  his  posterity  never  occupied, 
possibly  because  of  its  desert  character. 

2.  Nahal  Mizraim.  Num.  34  :  o  ;  Josh. 
15  :  3,  4,  47 ;  1  Kgs.  8  :  65  :  2  Kgs.  24  :  7. 
This  phrase  does  not  denote  a  perennial 
stream,  but  usually  a  torrent  bed,  either 
partially  or  totally  dry  in  summer,  and 
having  a  running  stream  only  in  the 
rainy  season.  Nahal,  therefore,  exactly 
corresponds  with  the  Arabic  word  icddy, 
for  which  we  have  no  English  equivalent. 


Hence  ''  Nahal  Mizraim,"  or  ''torrent  of 
Egypt,"  is  generally  used  in  Scripture 
to  designate  the  old  boundary  between 
Palestine  and  Egyjtt,  and  is  identified 
with  the  modern  Wddy  el-Arish,  which 
drains  the  great  central  basin  of  the 
desert,  between  the  passes  oiJehel  et-Tih 
and  Sinai.  The  various  ii'ddies  of  this 
region  unite  in  one,  but  without  forming 
a  perennial  stream,  and  the  torrent-bed 
reaches  the  Mediterranean  about  40  miles 
south-west  of  (xaza,  and  nearly  midway 
between  the  Red  Sea  and  the  eastern 
branch  of  the  Nile. 

RIZ'PAH,  a  concubine  of  Saul  who 
watched  day  and  night  for  many  months 
(probably  from  March  to  October)  over 
the  bodies  of  her  two  sons,  who  had  been 
put  to  a  violent  death  by  the  Gibeonites. 
2  Sam.  21  :  10,  11. 

ROAD  means  "  raid  "  in  1  Sam.  27  : 
10.  Our  "  road  "  is,  in  the  A.  V.,  always 
"path"  or  "way." 

ROBBERS  OF  CHURCHES. 
See  Chuhches,  Robbers  of. 

ROB'BERY  is  one  of  the  chronic 
troubles  in  Palestine,  where  the  Bedouin 
of  to-day  are  robbers.  The  0.  T.  reveals 
.a  similar  state  of  things  during  the  pe- 
riod of  the  Judges,  when  might  was 
right.  Some  of  the  inhabitants  were 
"  liers  in  wait,"  who  robbed  "  all  that 
came  along  that  way."  Jud.  9  :  25. 
Hosea  and  Micah,  by  a  few  touches, 
paint  a  sad  picture  of  pillage  and  rob- 
bery in  the  northern  kingdom  in  their 
day.  The  Romans  did  not  improve 
matters,  but  rather  made  them  worse; 
and  incidental  notices  in  the  N.  T. 
prove  the  insecurity  of  person  and 
property  in  Palestine  in  the  first  cen- 
tury. Luke  10  :  30;  John  18  :  40;  Acts 
5  :  36,  37  ;  21  :  38 ;  2  Cor.  11  :  26.  The 
"thieves"  between  whom  our  Lord  was 
crucified  were  highway  robbers.  Matt. 
27  :  38. 

One  of  the  usual  camping-places,  a 
day's  journey  north  of  Jerusalem,  is 
called  the  '•  Fountain  of  the  Robbers." 

ROBE.  1  Sam.  24  :  4.    See  Mantle. 

ROB'OAM,  the  Greek  form  of 
"  Rehoboam."    Matt.  1  :  7. 

ROD  means  a  shoot  or  branch  of  a 
tree,  and  in  this  sense  it  is  applied  figu- 
ratively to  Christ,  Isa.  11  : 1,  and  to  the 
tribes  of  Israel  as  springing  from  one 
root.  Ps.  74  :  2  :  Jer.  10  :  16.  Meaning 
also  a  staff",  it  is  used  as  a  symbolical 

739 


HOD 


ROM 


expression  for  that  which  supports  and 
strengthens,  Ps.  23  :  4;  Isa.  3:1;  Eze. 
29  :  6  :  lor  power  and  authority,  Ps.  2  : 
9  :  110  :  2;  125  :  3;  Jer.  48  :  17;  Eze. 
19  :  14 ;  1  Cor.  4:21:  Rev.  2:27;  and 
for  the  afflictions  with  which  God  disci- 
plines his  people.  Job  9  :  34 ;  comp.  Heb. 
12  :  6,  7.  The  phrase  "passing  under 
the  rod,"  Eze.  20  :  37,  originated  from 
the  manner  in  which  the  Jews  used  to 
select  the  tenth  of  their  sheep.  Lev.  27  : 
32.  The  lambs  were  separated  from  the 
dams,  and  enclosed  in  a  sheepcote  with 


only  one  narrow  way  out ;  the  dams  were 
at  the  entrance.  On  opening  the  gate 
the  lambs  hastened  to  join  their  dams, 
and  a  man  placed  at  the  entrance 
touched  every  tenth  lamb  with  a  rod 
dipped  in  ochre,  and  so  marked  it  with 
his  rod,  saying,  "  Let  this  be  holy  in  the 
name  of  the  tenth." 

ROD'ANIM  occurs  in  some  copies, 

1  Chr.  1  :  7,  instead  of  '*  Dodanim." 
ROE,  ROE'BUCK    {beauty),   an 

animal   especially  fleet  of  foot,  2  Sam. 

2  :  18  :  1  Chr.  12  :  8,  and  elegant  in  form. 


Roe,  or  Gazelle.     (Gazella  Dorcas.     After  Wood.) 


Cant.  2  :  9,  17  ;  8  :  14.  The  gazelle  ( Ga- 
zella dorcas)  satisfies  these  and  all  other 
requirements,  and  is  still  very  abundant 
in  Palestine  and  adjacent  regions.  The 
Jews  might  use  the  roe  as  food,  Deut. 
12  :  15,  22  ;  it  was  hunted,  Isa.  13  :  14  : 
"  it  is  amiable,  affectionate,  and  loving, 
by  universal  testimony,"  Prov.  5:19; 
and  it  has  ever  been  admired  for  its 
beauty,  which  is  the  meaning  of  its  He- 
brew name.  "  Tabitha  "  or  "  Dorcas  " 
means  "  a  gazelle."    Acts  9  :  36. 

RO'GELj  (a  f idler)  occurs  in  the 
margin  to  1  Kgs.  1  :  9  instead  of  "  En- 
rogel." 

ROGE'LIM,  a  town  of  Gilead, 
the  home  of  Barzillai.  2  Sam.  17  :  27 ; 
19  :  31. 

740 


ROH'GAH  (outcry),  an  Asherite 
chieftain.   1  Chr.  7  :  34. 

ROLL.  Jer.  36:2.     See  Books. 

ROLLS,  HOUSE  OF.  See  House. 

RO  MAN  CITIZENSHIP.  See 
Citizenship. 

RO'MANEM'PIRE.  The  empire 
of  Rome  arose  from  the  republic,  or 
commonwealth,  and  succeeded  the  Mace- 
donian empire,  which  was  founded  by 
Philip  and  Alexander,  in  extending  its 
sway  over  the  greater  part  of  the  then 
known  world.  The  references  to  the 
Roman  dominion  in  the  Bible  chiefly 
allude  to  the  empire  in  its  earlier  his- 
tory, including  the  reigns  of  Augustus, 
Tiberius,  Claudius,  and  Nero. 

The  extent  and  power  of  the  empire 


KOM 


ROM 


during  this  period  were  greater  than  at 
any  earlier,  and  possibly  than  at  any 
later,  time.  It  reached  to  the  Atlantic 
on  the  west,  the  Eu2)hrates  on  the  east, 
the  African  desert,  the  Nile  cataracts, 
and  the  Arabian  deserts  on  the  south, 
the  Rhine,  the  Danube,  and  the  Black 
Sea  on  the  north.  Jt  also  conquered 
Great  Britain,  leaving  Germania  on  the 
north  and  Parthia  on  the  east  as  semi- 
independent  powers.  Gibbon  estimates 
the  population  of  the  empire  in  the  reign 
of  the  emperor  Claudius  at  120,000,000. 
When  a  country'  was  conquered  by  Rome 
it  became  a  subject  province,  governed 
by  officers  appointed  by  the  authorities 
at  Rome.  Occasionally,  however,  the 
local  rulers  were  left  in  possession  of 
their  territory,  subject  to  the  Roman 
power.  Augustus  divided  the  provinces 
into  two  classes — 1.  Imperial  j  2.  Sena- 
torial. He  retained  in  his  own  hand 
provinces  requiring  a  large  military 
force,  giving  the  more  peaceful  prov- 
inces to  the  control  of  the  Roman  sen- 
ate. Among  the  provinces  of  the  impe- 
rial class  were  Gaul,  Lusitania,  Syria, 
Phoenicia,  Cilicia,  Cyprus,  and  Egypt. 
Among  the  senatorial  provinces  were 
Africa,  Numidia,  Asia,  Achaia  and  Epi- 
rus,  Dalmatia.  Macedonia,  Sicily,  Crete 
and  Cyrene,  Bithynia  and  Pontus,  Sar- 
dinia and  Boeotia.  Many  changes,  how- 
ever, were  made  in  these  provinces  at 
various  periods  ;  as,  for  example,  Cyprus 
and  Gallia  ceased  to  be  imperial  and 
became  senatorial  provinces,  while  Dal- 
matia ceased  to  be  a  senatorial  and  be- 
came an  imperial  province.  These  divis- 
ions of  the  country  are  referred  to  by 
the  iST.  T.  writers,  who  speak  of  the  rulers 
of  senatorial  provinces  as  anthirpdtoi,  or 
''proconsuls;"  the  ruler  of  an  imperial 
province  is  styled  hyemon,  or  ''governor." 
Cyrenius  is  called  "  governor  of  Syria," 
Luke  2:2;  Pilate,  Felix,  and  Festus  are 
spoken  of  as  "governors" — that  is,  pro- 
curators— of  Juda?a.  Matt.  27:2;  Acts 
23  :  24;  24  :  27.  Three  Roman  emperors 
are  named  in  Scripture,  Augustus,  Ti- 
berius, and  Claudius.  Luke  2:1;  3:1; 
Acts  11  :  28  ;  18  :  2.  The  emperor  Nero 
is  also  alluded  to  as  "Augustus"  and 
"Ca?sar."  Acts  25  :  10,  11,  21,  25,  26; 
Phil.  4  :  22.  When  Christ  was  born  at 
Bethlehem,  a  general  peace  prevailed 
throughout  the  Roman  dominions.  The 
changes  eflFected  by  that  power  largely 


contributed  toward  giving  increased 
facilities  for  the  spread  of  Christianity. 
Piracy  and  robbery  had  been  suppressed, 
military  roads  constructed,  efficient  gov- 
ernments capable  of  executing  the  laws 
instituted,  commerce  had  increased,  the 
Latin  language  had  spread  in  the  West, 
as  the  Greek  had  already  done  in  the 
East,  and  the  condition  of  the  people  in 
all  the  civilized  countries  offered  facilities 
never  before  known  for  the  spread  of  a 
new  religion.  Under  the  preaching  of 
the  apostles,  Christianity  was  made 
known  in  most  of  the  Roman  provinces 
of  Asia  Minor,  in  the  south-eastern 
provinces  of  Europe,  and  as  far  west  as 
Rome,  and  possibly  even  to  Spain.  It 
was  likewise  proclaimed  in  Africa,  and 
eastward  as  far  as  Babylon.  Thus  the 
gospel  was  preached  in  apostolic  days 
throughout  the  entire  extent  of  the 
Roman  empire.     See  Rome. 

RODMANS,  EPISTLE  OF 
PAUL  TO  THE,  is  the  sixth  in 
order  of  the  books  of  the  N.  T.  It  was 
written  at  Corinth,  a.  d.  58,  just  as  Paul 
was  leaving  that  city  for  Jerusalem, 
and  transmitted  through  Phoebe.  Rom. 
15:25;  comp.  Acts  20:2,3,16;  Rom. 
16  :  1,  23  ;  1  Cor.  1:14;  2  Tim.  4  :  20. 

It  is  the  most  important  and  most 
systematic  of  all  the  apostolic  Epistles. 
It  is  the  fullest  exposition  of  the  great 
truth  that  the  gospel  is  a  power  of 
universal  salvation  on  the  sole  condition 
of  faith.  In  Rome,  the  mistress  of  the 
world,  he  proclaimed  the  gospel  as  the 
power  of  God.  which  alone  can  save;  in 
Corinth,  the  city  of  philosophy  and  art,  as 
the  icisdoDi  of  God,  which  is  wiser  than  all 
the  wisdom  of  men.  Ch.  1 :  16, 1 7  contains 
the  theme.  Chs.  1:18  to  3  :  20  is  the  nega- 
tive part,  showing  the  need  of  salvation 
or  the  general  de])ravity  of  both  Jews 
and  Gentiles.  Ch.  3  :  20  to  the  close  of 
ch.  8  presents  the  positive  part,  and  ex- 
hibits the  saving  grace  of  God  in  Christ, 
by  which  the  believer  is  justified,  sancti- 
fied, and  glorified.  Chs.  9-11  treat  of  the 
historical  progress  of  Christianity  from 
Jews  to  Gentiles,  the  rejection  of  the 
Jews  in  consequence  of  their  unbelief, 
and  their  ultimate  repentance  and  ac- 
ceptance after  the  fulness  of  the  Gentiles 
has  come  in.  The  last  five  chapters 
contain  practical  exhortations  of  the 
greatest  spiritual  power  and  unction. 
The  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  the  bul- 

741 


ROM 


EOM 


wark  of  the  evangelical  doctrine  of 
justification  by  faith. 

The  origin  of  the  Roman  congregation 
is  involved  in  obscurity.  Its  first  mem- 
bers may  have  been  converted  on  the 
day  of  Pentecost,  since  Jews  from  Rome 
were  among  the  witnesses  of  the  pente- 
costal  miracle  in  Jerusalem.  Acts  2  :  10. 
At  all  events,  it  was  already  a  large  and 
flourishing  congregation  when  Paul 
wrote  his  Epistle.  He  had  not  been 
there,  but  intended  to  visit  the  metrop- 
olis of  the  world,  and  wrote  this  letter 
to  prepare  the  way  for  his  coming.  He 
did  visit  Rome  afterward,  but  as  a 
prisoner  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  sealed  his 
testimony  with  his  blood. 

The  genuineness  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans  is  beyond  all  reasonable  doubt. 
No  man  could  have  written  it  but  Paul, 
and  he  could  have  written  it  only  by 
inspiration.  Luther  called  it  ''the  chief 
part  of  the  N.  T.  and  the  purest  Gospel ;" 
Coleridge,  "  the  most  profound  work  in 
existence/'  Meyer,  "the  grandest,  bold- 
est, and  most  complete  composition  of 
Paul."  The  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth 
century  was  inspired  by  the  Epistles  to 
the  Romans  and  Ualatians. 

RO'MANTI-E'ZER  (/  ham  ex- 
alted his  help),  son  of  Heman  and  head 
of  the  twenty-fourth  course  of  singers  in 
the  reign  of"David.  1  Chr.  25  :  4,  31. 

ROME,  the  celebrated  city  and  capi- 
tal of  the  Roman  republic  and  empire, 
and  once  the  proud  mistress  of  the  world. 
It  is  situated  on  the  river  Tiber,  about 
15  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  ancient 
city  was  built  upon  seven  hills.  It  was 
founded  about  754  years  before  the 
Christian  era ;  legendary  history  ascribes 
its  founding  to  Romulus.  The  principal 
interest  to  the  Bible-reader  in  the  history 
of  Rome  relates  to  the  N.  T.  period. 

Rome,  in  the  N.  T.  times,  was 
the  capital  of  the  empire  in  its  greatest 
prosperity,  and  the  residence  of  its  em- 
perors. Among  its  inhabitants  were 
many  Jews.  Acts  28  :  17.  They  had 
received  the  liberty  of  worship  and 
other  privileges  from  Caesar,  and  lived 
in  the  district  across  the  Tiber,  near 
the  Porta  Portese.  At  the  time  of 
Paul's  visit  the  city  had  outgrown 
the  old  Servian  wall,  and  consisted  of 
an  extensive  and  irregular  mass  of 
buildings  unprotected  by  any  outer  city 
wall.  This  was  a  period  between  two 
742 


noted  epochs  in  its  history — the  restora- 
tion by  Augustus  and  that  effected  by 
Nero.  It  was  the  boast  of  Augustus 
that  he  found  a  city  of  brick  and  left 
one  of  marble.  The  streets  are  de- 
scribed as  being  at  that  time  generally 
narrow  and  crooked,  flanked  by  crowded 
lodging-houses  of  great  height — so  great 
that  Augustus  made  a  law  limiting  them 
to  70  feet.  Gibbon  estimates  the  popu- 
lation of  the  city  at  this  time  as  nearly 
1,200,000,  of  which  probably  one-half 
were  slaves,  and  the  larger  part  of  the 
remainder  were  paupers  supported  in 
idleness  by  an  unwise  system  of  public 
gratuities.  Paul  was  kept  at  Rome  two 
whole  years,  dwelling  in  his  own  hired 
house  with  a  soldier  who  had  charge  of 
him.  Acts  28  :  16,  30.  In  accordance 
with  the  usual  Roman  custom  of  treat- 
ing prisoners,  he  appears  to  have  been 
bound  to  the  soldier  with  a  chain.  Acts 
28  :  20  ,•  Eph.  6  :  20  ;  Phil.  1  :  16.  To 
those  coming  to  visit  him  he  preached 
the  gospel,  no  one  forbidding  him.  Acts 
28 :  30,  31.  An  old  legend  declares  that 
the  Mamertine  prison  was  the  place  where 
Paul  and  Peter  were  confined  together 
as  fellow-prisoners,  though  there  is  no 
historic  proof  of  this  supposition.  This 
prison  still  exists  under  the  church  of  St. 
Giuseppe;  while  a  chapel  on  the  Ostian 
road  is  pointed  out  by  tradition  as  the 
place  where  the  two  parted  when  on  their 
way  to  martyrdom.  Some  historians  deny 
that  Peter  ever  visited  Rome,  and  it  is 
quite  certain,  from  the  silence  of  the  N.  T., 
that  he  could  not  have  been  there  till  the 
latter  part  of  his  life,  but  tradition  unani- 
mously affirms  that  he  suffered  martyrdom 
in  Rome  under  Nero.  It  is  the  prevailing 
opinion  that  Paul  was  acquitted  on  his 
appeal  to  Caesar,  but  that  he  was  after 
a  time  again  imprisoned  at  Rome.  Sev- 
eral of  his  Epistles  are  believed  to  have 
been  written  from  this  city,  as  those  to 
the  Colossians,  Ephesians,  Philippians, 
Philemon,  and  the  Second  Epistle  to 
Timothy,  the  latter  shortly  before  his 
death.  2  Tim.  4:6,  On  Paul's  approach 
to  Rome  he  was  met  by  brethren,  who 
came  out  on  the  Appian  Way  as  far  as 
the  little  town  of  Appii  Forum.  Acts  28  : 
15.  In  his  letter  to  the  Philippians  he 
also  refers  to  the  "palace"  or  Cfesar's 
court.  Phil.  1  :  13.  This  probably  does 
not  refer  to  the  imperial  palace,  but  to 
the  residence  of  the  Praetorian  guards 


ROM 


ROM 


or  to  a  miltary  barrack  attached  to  the 
imperial  house.  There  were  Christians 
also  belonging  to  the  imperial  household, 
even  during  the  reign  of  the  cruel  Nero. 
Phil.  4  :  22. 

Gardens,  Colosseum,  and  Catacombs. 
— There  are  many  traditions  connect- 
ing various  other  localities  in  Rome  with 
the  visit  and  residence  of  Paul,  but  most 
of  them  have  very  little  real  historical 
support.  Among  the  sites  which  may 
unquestionably  be  connected  with  the 
Roman  Christians  at  or  near  the  apos- 
tolic age  ai'e  : 

1.  The  Gardens  of  Nero,  in  theVatican, 
near  St.  Peter's.  Within  these,  in  the 
Neronian  persecution,  A.  D.  64,  after  the 
great  conflagration.  Christians,  wrapped 
in  skins  of  beasts,  were  torn  by  dogs,  or, 
clothed  in  inflammable  stufis,  were  burnt 
as  torches  during  the  midnight  games ; 
others  were  crucified. 

2.  The  Colosseum. — In  this  vast  theatre 
games  of  various  sorts  and  gladiatorial 
shows  were  held,  and  within  its  arena 
many  Christians,  during  the  ages  of 
persecution,  fought  with  wild  beasts, 
and  many  were  slain    for  their  faith. 

3.  The  Catacombs. — These  are  vast 
subterranean  galleries  (whether  orig- 
inally sand-pits  or  excavations  is  un- 
certain). Their  usual  height  is  from  8 
to  10  feet  and  their  width  from  4  to  6 
feet,  and  they  extend  for  miles,  especi- 
ally in  the  region  of  the  Appian  and 
Nomentane  Ways.  The  Catacombs  were 
early  used  by  the  Christians  as  places 
of  refuge,  worship,  and  burial.  More 
than  four  thousand  inscriptions  have 
been  found  in  these  subterranean  pas- 
sages, which  are  considered  as  belong- 
ing to  the  period  between  the  reign  of 
Tiberius  and  that  of  the  emperor  Con- 
stantine.  Among  the  oldest  of  the  in- 
scriptions in  the  Catacombs  is  one  dated 
A.  D.  71.  The  names  of  twenty-four 
Christians  at  Rome  are  given  in  the  salu- 
tations contained  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans.  The  house  of  Clement  of  Rome, 
where  the  early  Christians  probably  met 
for  worship,  has  recently  been  discovered 
beneath  the  church  of  St.  Clement. 

Rome,  as  a  persecuting  power,  is  re- 
ferred to  by  the  "seven  heads"  and 
*'  seven  mountains"  in  Rev.  17  :  9,  and 
described  under  the  name  of  "  Babylon  " 
elsewhere  in  the  same  book.  Rev.  14  :  8; 
16  :  19;  17:  5;  18:2,21. 
744 


Post-Biblical  History. — The  Chris- 
tian church  at  Rome,  which  appears  to 
have  been  founded  before  the  visit  of  the 
apostle,  probably  by  Roman  Jews  who 
had  heard  the  gospel  in  Jerusalem  on 
the  day  of  Pentecost,  Acts  2:10,  was 
strengthened  by  Paul,  and  the  metro- 
politan character  of  the  city  gave  the 
church  a  position  of  importance  and 
gradually  increasing  power,  until  it  be- 
came the  seat  of  a  metropolitan  bishopric, 
and  then  of  the  papal  see.  The  earli- 
est religious  centres  under  Christianity 
were,  Ephesus,  Antioch,  Alexandria, 
and  Rome.  Each  of  these  gradually 
claimed  superior  powers  in  the  Church, 
and  their  decrees  were  accepted  as  law. 
Soon  the  bishop  at  Rome,  from  his  posi- 
tion in  the  capital  of  the  world,  and  from 
an  assumption  that  he  was  the  spiritual 
successor  of  Peter,  claimed  supreme 
power  in  the  Church,  and,  after  long 
regarding  themselves  as  his  equals  in 
rank  and  authority,  the  patriarchs  of 
Antioch,  Alexandria,  and  Constantinople 
were  led  to  acknowledge  the  claim  of 
the  Roman  bishop  to  a  primacy  of 
honor,  but  not  to  a  supremacy  of  juris- 
diction (about  A.  D. 451-604).  Since  the 
ninth  century  the  great  schism  divided 
Christendom  into  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  and  the  Greek  Church,  inde- 
pendent of  the  papal  power  of  Rome. 
The  popes  ruled  Europe  with  vary- 
ing degrees  of  power  and  ability  un- 
til the  Reformation  broke  out,  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  since  which  era  the 
papal  power  has  gradually  declined  at 
Rome.  The  French  army  entered  Italy 
in  1796,  and  later  the  pope  became  a 
prisoner,  first  at  Rome,  then  in  France, 
and  Rome  was  formally  governed  by 
France  (1806).  In  1814  the  pope  return- 
ed to  his  palace,  but  in  1848  the  people 
rebelled,  and  established  a  republic. 
France  again  interfered;  the  republic 
ended.  The  pope  returned,  but  when 
the  French  troops  were  withdrawn  in 
1870,  Italy  became  united  under  Victor 
Emmanuel,  Rome  was  made  the  political 
capital  of  the  nation  (1871),  and  the 
temporal  power  of  the  holy  see  was 
abolished.  The  pope  still  occupies  the 
Vatican,  and  is  supported  by  contribu- 
tions of  Roman  Catholics  of  France, 
Austria,  Belgium,  England,  the  United 
States,  and  other  countrie.^,  Pius  IX. 
indignantly    refused     th«     government 


KOO 


RUE 


pension,  and  called  himself  a  prisoner 
in  the  Vatican.  Leo  XIII.,  though  firm 
in  maintaining  his  claim  to  the  "  patri- 
mony of  Peter,"  is  more  peaceable  and 
conciliatory, 

ROOF.     See  Dwellings. 

ROOM,  in  the  phrases  "  uppermost 
room"  or  *•  chief  room,"  Matt.  23  :  6  ; 
Mark  12  :  39  ;  Luke  14  :  7,  8,  9  ;  20  :  46 ; 
denotes  the  seat  of  honor  at  the  table, 
the  first  place  on  the  first  couch.  See 
Eating. 

ROPES,  1  Kgs.  20:31,  and 
CORDS.  Josh.  2  :  15.  The  putting 
ropes  upon  the  neck  was  significant  of 
great  earnestness  and  distress.  The 
"cords  of  his  sin,"  Prov.  5  :  22,  probably 
denotes  the  power  of  sinful  habits.  And 
in  Isa.  33  :  20  and  Jer.  10  :  20  allusion 
is  made  to  the  construction  of  a  tent. 
The  "  silver  cord,"  Eccl.  12  :  6,  is  beau- 
tifully interpreted  by  Delitzsch  as  the 
soul,  which  holds  the  body  in  life,  the 
"bowl"  is  the  body,  and  the  golden  oil 
within  it  is  the  spirit.   Zech.  4  :  12. 

ROSE  (acrid  bulb).  The  mean- 
ing of  the  original  excludes  from  our 
consideration  the  true  rose  and  several 
other  plants  suggested.  It  is  the  opin- 
ion of  some  of  the  best  authorities  that 
the  polyanthus  narcissus  {Narcifn^us  ta- 
zetta)  is  intended  in  Cant.  2  :  1  and  Isa. 
35  : 1,  where  alone  the  rose  is  mentioned. 
This  beautiful  and  fragrant  narcissus 
grows  in  the  plain  of  Sharon,  as  is  re- 
quired by  these  references,  and  during 
its  season  of  bloom  is  sold  in  the  ba- 
zaars of  the  East  and  carried  by  every- 
body as  a  specially  favorite  flower. 

The  "  rose  of  Sharon  "  of  modern  writ- 
ers is  a  rose-like  species  of  cistus,  while 
the  "  rose  of  Jericho  "  is  a  small  woody 
plant  with  minute  cruciferous  flowers. 
True  wild  roses  are  rarely  seen  except 
in  the  extreme  North  of  Palestine. 

ROSH  (hem/,  ehief).  1.  A  son  of 
Benjamin.  Gen.  46  :  21. 

2.  As  occurring  in  Eze.  38  :  2,  3  ;  39  : 
1,  the  word  has  been  translated  in  our 
version,  but  is  probably  a  proper  name, 
denoting  one  of  the  three  great  Scythian 
tribes  of  which  Magog  was  the  head. 

ROS'IN.  Eze.  27  :  17,  margin.  The 
text  correctlv  reads  "balm." 

ROWERS.  Eze.  27:2(5.    See  Ship. 

RU'BIES.  There  is  much  uncer- 
tainty concerning  this  translation.  Some 
would  render  the  word  "  red  coral,"  and 


others  "pearl"  or  "mother-of-pearl," 
both  of  which  latter  are  often  of  a 
ruddy  hue.  The  word  occurs  in  Job 
28  :  18;  Prov.  3  :  15  :  8  :  11  ;  20  :  15; 
31  :  10  ;  Lam.  4  :  7,  but  seems  never 
associated  with  the  name  of  any  pre- 
cious stone. 

True  rubies  are  of  a  red  color.  They 
are  next  to  the  diamond  in  hardness, 
beauty,  and  value,  and  once  command- 
ed even  a  higher  price.  See  Stones, 
Precious. 

RUDDER-BANDS.     See  Ship. 

RU'DIMENTS,  the  first  and  sim- 
plest principles  of  a  science  or  literature. 
The  word  is  translated  "  rudiments  "  or 
"  elements  "  without  distinction,  as  both 
mean  the  same  thing.  Gal.  4  :  3,  9  :  Col. 
2  :  20. 

RUE,  a  well-known  herb  {Ruta 
rjraveotens)  which  often  grows  wild  in 
Palestine,   and   was   also   cultivated  for 


Kue.     {Ruta  Graveolens.     After  Carruthers.) 


its  disinfectant  and  other  medicinal 
properties.  It  was  among  the  things 
which  the  hypocritical  and  inconsistent 
Pharisees  tithed,  though  uncommanded, 

745 


RUF 


RYE 


while  they  neglected  to  obey  the  import- 
ant and  positive  precepts  of  the  Law. 
Luke  11  :  42. 

RU'FUS  (red),  a  Christian  to  whom 
Paul  sent  his  salutation,  Rom.  16  :  13 ; 
probably  identical  with  Rufus,  the  son 
of  Simon  the  Cyrenian.  Mark  15  :  2L 

RU'HAMAH  {compassionated,  hav- 
ing obtained  mercy),  a  symbolical  name 
applied  bv  Hosea.  2  :  1. 

RU'MAH.  2  Kgs.  23:36.  See 
Arumah. 

RU'MAH  {lofty),  the  home  of  Pe- 
daiah,  the  father  of  Jehoiakim's  mother. 
2  Kgs.  23  :  36.  Conder  proposes  to  iden- 
tify it  with  a  ruined  village,  Rumeh,  north 
of  Nazareth.  Others  have  supposed  that 
it  was  the  same  as  Dumah,  near  Hebron. 
See  Josh.  15  :  52. 

RUSH.  The  proverbial  expression 
"branch  and  rush"  occurs  in  Isa.  9  : 
14  and  19  :  15  in  the  sense  of  "top" 
and  "  bottom  "  or  "  utterly."  Another 
word  thus  translated  in  Job  8:11  refers 
to  the  famous  papyrus  or  paper-reed,  de- 
scribed under  Bulrush. 

RUTH  {a  friend,  or,  according  to 
others,  beauty),  aMoabitish  woman,  Ruth 
1  :  4,  who  married  a  son  of  Naomi  and 
showed  her  strong  attachment  to  her 
mother-in-law  by  leaving  her  own  coun- 
try and  following  her  mother-in-law  into 
Judaea.  Her  kindness  was  abundantly  \ 
rewarded,  as  she  soon  found  favor  in  the  , 
eyes  of  akinsman,  who  afterward  married 
her,  through  which  event  she  became  the 
ancestor  of  the  royal  familv  of  David. 

RUTH,  THE  BOOK  OF,  so 
called,  not  from  the  author,  but  from 
the  chief  person,  Ruth  the  Moabitess,  is 
properlj'  inserted  between  Judges  and 
Samuel,  as  it  is  an  appendix  to  the 
former  and  an  introduction  to  the  latter. 
The  history  relates  to  the  time  of  the 
Judges,  1  :  1,  perhaps  during  the  judi- 
cature of  Gideon,  about  B.  c.  1241  or 
later,  and  forms  a  bright  contrast  to  the 
dark  and  chaotic  state  of  society  at  that 
time.  It  is  a  beautiful  episode  of  domes- 
tic life,  showing  how  domestic  virtues 
may  be  practised  and  domestic  happi- 
ness enjoyed  even  in  periods  of  revolu- 
tion and  anarchy. 

By  the  urgency  of  famine,  Elimelech 
was  obliged  to  emigrate  with  his  famfly 
from  Canaan  to  Moab.  where  he  died, 
leaving  a  widow,  Naomi  or  Noami,  and 
two  sons,  who  married  women  of  Moab 
746 


by  the  names  of  Orpah  and  Ruth.  Oi. 
the  death  of  the  sons  the  widowed  moth- 
er resolved  to  return  to  her  country,  and 
thereby  she  put  the  filial  affection  of  her 
daughters-in-law  to  a  severe  test.  But 
Ruth  accompanied  her  with  a  devotion 
that  was  prepared  for  every  sacrifice : 
"  Whither  thou  goest,  I  will  go,  and 
where  thou  lodgest,  I  shall  lodge,"  etc. 
1  :  16,  17.  They  arrived  at  Bethlehem 
in  extreme  poverty,  and  Ruth  went  out 
to  glean  after  the  reapers  in  the  harvest- 
field  of  Boaz,  a  wealthy  kinsman  of  her 
deceased  father-in-law.  Attracted  by  her 
personal  appearance  and  filial  devotion, 
he  encouraged  her  return  from  day  to 
day,  and,  after  redeeming  the  patrimony 
of  Elimelech,  married  her.  From  this 
union  sprang  Obed,  the  father  of  Jesse, 
the  father  of  David,  and  through  him  our 
Saviour  according  to  the  flesh.  Matt.  1 :  6. 

The  age  and  authorship  of  this  book 
cannot  be  definitely  ascertained,  but  it 
cannot  have  been  written  before  the  time 
of  David,  since  he  is  mentioned  as  the 
last  in  the  genealogy.  4  :  18-22.  It  has 
been  variously  ascribed  to  Samuel,  Heze- 
kiah,  and  Ezra. 

The  practical  lessons  of  the  book  are 
manifold  and  impressive — the  sure  re- 
ward of  filial  devotion  and  trust  in  God  ; 
the  true  use  of  the  calamities  of  life; 
the  overruling  providence  of  God  in 
the  private  attairs  of  a  humble  family 
as  well  as  in  the  palace  of  princes  and 
the  public  events  of  nations.  It  also 
shows  that  God  had  children  outside  of 
Canaan  and  the  Jewish  theocracy,  and 
the  incorporation  of  Ruth  into  the 
Church  of  the  0.  T.  may  be  regarded 
as  an  intimation  of  the  future  call  of  the 
Gentiles  to  the  gospel  salvation. 

RYE.  This  word  occurs  in  Ex.  9  : 
32  and  Isa.  28  :  25.  The  same  Hebrew 
noun  is  translated  ''fitches"  in  Eze.  4  : 
9.  Rye  being  a  northern  grain  and 
rarely  cultivated  in  the  East  even  in 
our  day,  Celsius'  view  is  universally  ac- 
cepted— that  in  all  these  passages  the 
reference  is  to  spelt  {Triticum  sjyelta),  a 
grass  closely  resembling  wheat  and  long 
cultivated  in  the  Levant.  Though  the 
flour  of  its  grain  is  inferior  to  that  of 
the  latter,  it  is  mixed  with  it  for  bread. 
Spelt  seems  to  have  been  sown  later  than 
wheat,  on  the  border  or  headland  of  the 
field,  to  which  there  is  reference  in  the 
word  "place"  of  Isa.  28  :  25. 


SAB 


SAB 


S. 


SABACHTHA'NI  {thou  hast  for- 
saken me),  one  of  the  words  uttered  by 
Christ  on  the  cross.  Matt.  27  :  46  ;  Mark 
15  :  34.  It  is  part  of  the  jjhrase  in  Syro- 
Chaldee. 

SAB'AOTH,  OR  SABA'OTH 
{hoHts).  The  phrase  "  Lord  of  Sabaoth  " 
occurs  twice  in  the  N.  T. — in  Rom.  9  : 
29  and  Jas.  5:4.  It  is  a  common  blunder 
to  understand  it  as  referring  to  the  Sab- 
bath or  as  implying  rest.  But  it  is  the 
Greek  transliteration  of  the  Hebrew  Tse- 
baoth,  "hosts"  or  "armies,"  so  often  re- 
curring in  the  0.  T.,  "  the  Lord  of  hosts," 
Isa.  1  :  9,  "the  Lord  God  of  hosts" — i.  e., 
the  heavenly  bodies,  the  angels,  or  the 
people  of  God.  Sometimes  it  means 
nothing  more  than  that  God  will  guide 
Israel  to  victory. 

SAB'BATH  (rest).  The  word  first 
occurs  in  Ex.  16  :  23.  but  the  institution 
of  a  day  of  rest  is  much  older — is  founded, 
indeed,  in  man's  nature,  and,  like  mar- 
riage, was  instituted  in  Paradise.  Gen. 
2  :  2,  3.  The  word  usually  indicates  the 
seventh  day  of  the  week,  which  bj'  God's 
appointment  was  set  apart  for  his  service, 
•but  it  is  used  also  of  other  days  or  times 
separated  and  sanctified  in  a  similar  way. 
Lev.  19  :  3,  30  ;  25  :  4,  and  in  the  orig- 
inal text  of  the  N.  T.  for  a  whole  week. 
Matt.  28  :  1 ;  Mark  16  :  2 ;  Luke  24  :  1  : 
John  20  :  1 :  Acts  20  :  7 ,-  1  Cor.  16  : 
2.  In  a  spiritual  sense  it  designates 
the  eternal  rest  in  heaven.  Heb.  4  :  9 
(marg.  and  Greek).  In  the  Christian 
Church  the  first  day  of  the  week  has 
been  substituted  for  the  last.  There  is 
no  explicit  command  on  the  subject,  but 
the  Church  naturally  commemorated  the 
great  event  which  was  in  a  sense  her 
birth,  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  By 
changing  the  day  the  Church  threw  off 
the  Jewish  regulations  which  had  load- 
ed down  the  Sabbath,  and  turned  it  into 
a  day  of  ecclesiastical  bondage.  The 
Jews  were  not  peculiar  in  their  day  of 
rest.  It  is  a  natural  institution,  and  was 
observed  also  by  some  pagan  nations 
quite  independent  of  Judaism.  Origi- 
nally it  was  devoted  to  simple  rest  from 
worldly  toil.    The  fourth  commandment, 


Ex.  20  :  8-11;  Deut.  5  :  12-15,  enjoins 
no  specific  religious  service,  except  in 
the  general  direction  to  keep  it  holy. 
But  the  opportunity  thus  given  was  im- 
proved. Subsequent  legislation  made  it 
a  day  of  holy  convocation.  The  sacri- 
fices of  the  temple  were  doubled;  the 
shew-bread  was  changed  ;  the  inner  court 
of  the  temple  was  opened  for  solemn  ser- 
vices ;  the  prophets  and  the  Levites  took 
the  occasion  for  imparting  religious  in- 
struction to  the  people.  It  was  a  day 
of  holy  joy.  There  was  freedom  for  so 
much  social  enjoyment.  Indeed,  the 
fear  was  that  the  day  would  be  "'  wasted 
by  idleness  and  degraded  by  sensuality 
and  drunkenness  "  because  it  was  so  joy- 
ous.   Neh.  8  :  9-12;   Hos.  2  :  11. 

But  after  the  Captivity  arose  the 
school  of  the  Pharisees,  and  by  them 
the  attractive  character  of  the  Sabbatic 
observances  was  destroyed.  In  place 
thereof  they  imposed  upon  the  people 
the  yoke  of  a  pedantic,  scrupulous, 
slavish  Sabbatarianism  which  made  the 
Sabbath  an  end  instead  of  a  means, 
hampered  the  spirit  of  true  worship, 
and  laid  greater  stress  upon  a  punc- 
tilious obedience  to  mere  human  reg- 
ulations than  upon  the  commands  of 
the  Law.  Some  of  their  ridiculous 
prohibitions  are  the  following :  Walk- 
ing in  the  grass  on  the  Sabbath,  be- 
cause the  bruising  would  be  a  kind  of 
threshing  ;  wearing  nailed  shoes,  be- 
cause they  would  be  a  sort  of  burden; 
mounting  a  tree,  lest  a  twig  should  be 
broken. 

It  was  against  this  perversion  of  the 
commandment  that  our  Lord  protested. 
He  refused  his  sanction  to  Pharisaic 
legalism.  Much  to  the  consternation 
of  the  religious  party  of  the  day,  he 
vigorously  defended  his  Sabbath  mira- 
cles. The  example  of  Christ  represents 
the  Sabbath,  not  as  a  day  of  gloom,  but 
as  a  pleasant  and  healthful  day  of  rest, 
quiet  religious  service,  and  Christian 
benevolence. 

He  kept  the  Sabbath  in  the  highest 
sense  of  the  term.  He  observed  every  jot 
and  tittle  of  the  Mosaic  Law  in  the  free- 

747 


SAB 


SAB 


dom  of  the  spirit.  From  him  we  learn 
that  religion  is  the  uppermost  business 
of  the  day,  that  acts  of  necessity  and 
mercy  are  to  be  performed,  that  worldly 
occupations  are  to  be  put  as  far  as  pos- 
sible out  of  our  thoughts.  It  is  true  we 
transfer  the  fourth  commandment  to  the 
first  day  of  the  week,  but  we  do  not 
thereby  violate  the  spirit  of  the  divine 
law:  for  what  God  asked  for  was  the 
entire  seventh  of  our  time.  We  may 
therefore  claim  the  blessing  which  God 
has  pronounced  upon  those  who  keep 
the  day  holy. 

It  is  a  matter  of  secondary  importance, 
and  yet  it  shows  the  natural  basis  of  the 
fourth  commandment,  that  this  division 
of  time  is  scientifically  correct.  The 
night's  sleep  does  not  restore  all  the 
waste  of  the  day  ;  additional  rest,  there- 
fore, is  demanded  for  health.  It  is  an 
interesting  fact  that  the  blasphemous 
abolition  of  Sunday  by  the  French  Revo- 
lutionists and  the  substitution  of  a  day 
of  rest  every  ten  days  was  found  poor 
policy,  as  the  rest  was  insufficient. 

The  Christian  Church  keeps  the  first 
day  of  the  week,  which  celebrates  the 
close  of  the  spiritual  creation,  just  as 
the  last  day  celebrated  the  close  of  the 
physical  creation.  We  have  the  fullest 
warrant  for  this  change.  Upon  the  first 
day  of  the  week  Christ  arose  from  the 
dead.  We  find  the  disciples,  before  the 
Ascension,  assembled  on  that  day,  and 
Jesus  appeared  to  them.  John  20  :  26. 
According  to  tradition,  which  is  con- 
firmed by  every  probabilitj^,  the  outpour- 
ing of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost  was  on  Sunday.  Paul  preached 
at  Troas  on  the  first  day  of  the  week — evi- 
dently, among  those  Christians,  the  day 
of  religious  service.  Acts  20  :  7.  Paul 
tells  the  Corinthians  that  every  one  is  to 
lay  by  him  in  store  upon  the  first  day 
of  the  week  as  he  is  prospered.  1  Cor. 
16  :  2.  It  was  upon  the  Lord's  day — 
and  by  this  name  he  calls  it — that  John 
on  Patmos  saw  through  the  opened  door 
into  heaven.   Rev.  1  :  10. 

The  first  day  of  the  week  is  therefore 
the  Christian  Sabbath,  the  day  of  rest 
and  worship.  And  God  has  further  con- 
firmed the  change  by  giving  it  his  bless- 
ing, as  he  blessed  the  Sabbath  of  crea- 
tion-week. 

Around  the  Lord's  day  we  do  well  to 
throw  safeguards.     It  is,  in  a  sense,  the 
748 


palladium  of  Christian  liberty.  The 
various  states  and  cities  have  good  laws 
for  the  protection  of  the  civil  Sabbath 
and  against  its  open  desecration.  The 
positive  observance  of  the  religious  Sab- 
bath can,  of  course,  not  be  enforced  by 
law,  and  must  be  left  to  the  individual 
conscience.  The  American  churches  are 
unanimously  in  favor  of  a  quiet  Sabbath, 
in  opposition  to  the  evils  of  the  so-called 
'•continental  Sunday,"  and  earnest eff"orts 
havebeen  made  to  protectus  against  them. 
Our  Lord  states  the  case  most  con- 
cisely:  "The  Sabbath  was  made  for 
man."  Mark  2  :  27.  It  is  the  divine 
gift,  which,  when  accepted  and  properly 
used,contributes  to  man's  physical, moral, 
and  spiritual  happiness  and  welfare,  and 
gives  a  foretaste  of  the  saint's  everlast- 
ing rest  in  heaven. 

The  following  are  among  the  leading 
passages  of  the  Bible  respecting  the 
Sabbath  and  its  proper  observance  : 

The  divine  institution  of  the  Jewish 
Sabbath.  Gen.  2  :  2,  3  ;  Ex.  20  :  8-11  ; 
Deut.  5  :  12,  15  ;  Eze.  20  :  12;  44  :  24. 
Servile  labor  forbidden.  Ex.  16  :  23, 
29  ;  20  :  10,  11  ;  23  :  12  ;  34  :  21  ;  35  : 
2,  3;  Deut.  5  :  14,  15;  Jer.  17  :  21,  22; 
Mark  16  :  42  ;  16  :  1,  2  ;  John  19  :  14, 
31,  42. 

The  profanation  of  the  Sabbath  the 
cause  of  national  judgments.  Neh.  13  : 
15-18  ;  Eze.  20  :  15,  16  ;  23  :  38,  47. 

The  Jewish  Sabbath  re-established 
under  the  gospel  dispensation.  Matt.  5  : 
17;  12  :  12;   Mark  2  :  27. 

The  change  of  the  Sabbath  from  the 
seventh  to  the  first  day  of  the  week. 
Gen.  2:2;  Ex.  20  :  11  :  Luke  23  :  56  ; 
John  20  :  19  ;  Acts  20  :  7  ;  1  Cor.  16  : 
2;   Rev.  1  :  10. 

The  duties  of  the  Sabbath  enjoined. 
Lev.  19  :  30  :  26  :  2  :  Eze.  46  :  3 ;  Mark 
6:2;  Luke  4  :  16,  31  ;  Acts  13  :  14-16, 
27,  42,  44  ;  17  :  2,  3. 

Works  of  necessity  and  mercy  to  be 
done  on  this  day.  Matt.  12  :  1,  3,  5,  7, 
12,  13  ;  Mark  2  :  23,  27  ;  3  :  2,  4 ;  Luke 
6  :  9 ;  13  :  15,  16 :  14  :  3,  5  ;  John  5  : 
8-10,  18;  7  :  22;  9  :  14. 

Blessings  promised  to  those  who  keep 
the  Sabbath.  Isa.  56  :  2,  4,  5,  7  ;  58  :  13, 
14. 

Threatenings   against  Sabbath-break- 
ers. Ex.  31  :  14,  15;  35  :   2  ;  Num.   15  : 
32-36  :  Jer.  17  :  27  :  Eze.  20  :  13,  16,  23, 
[24;  22  :  8,  14,  26,31;  23  :  38,46. 


SAB 


SAD 


Sabbath  privileges  taken  away.  Isa. 
1  :  13;  Lara.  1:7;  2  :  (> ;  llos.  '2  :  11: 
Am.  8  :  10.  11.     See  Lord's  Day. 

SABBATH  DAY'S  JOUR- 
NEY.    See  Mkasikios. 

SABBATICAL  YEAR.  Ex.23: 
11.     See  Yp:ar,  Sabbatical. 

SABE'ANS.  Two  tribes  of  this 
name  are  mentioned  in  the  A.  V. 

1.  Descendants  of  Seba,  Isa.  45  :  14; 
it  should  be  simply  "  people  of  Seba/' 
son  of  Cash. 

2.  In  Joel  3  :  8  the  descendants  of 
Sheba,  son  of  Joktan,  are  meant.  Pos- 
sibly a  third  tribe  is  spoken  of  in  Job 
1:  15.  The  translation  "  Sabeans  "  in 
Eze.  23  :  42  is  incorrect;  read,  as  in  the 
margin,  "drunkards." 

SAB'TA,  S AB'T AH  (strikhig),  the 
third  son  of  Cush.  Gen.  10  :  7  ;  1  Chr.  1 :  9. 

SAB'TECHA,  SAB'TECHAH 
{striking  ?),  the  youngest  son  of  Cush. 
Gen.  10  :  7  ;  1  Chr.  1  :  9. 

SA'CAR  [hire).  1.  The  father  of 
Ahiam,  a  warrior  of  David's,  1  Chr,  11 : 
35;  called  Sharar  in  2  Sam.  23  :  33. 

2.  A  Levite  porter,  and  the  fourth  son 
of  Obed-edom.   1  Chr.  26  :  4. 

SACK'BUT.  A  sackbut  is  a  wind 
instrument,  but  that  meant  in  the  orig- 
inal of  Dan.  3  :  5,  etc.,  was  a  stringed 
instrument  of  a  triangular  shape,  played 
with  the  fingers.  It  had  four  strings, 
and  had  a  very  penetrating  sound.  In 
process  of  time  the  strings  were  in- 
creased to  twenty.     See  Music. 

SACK'CL.OTH.    This  was  a  coarse 


Sitting  in  Sackclotii. 


fabric,    as    the    Hebrew    word    ''  sack " 
means,  made  of  black  goats'  hair  and 


other  materials,  and  worn  either  as  a 
sign  of  repentance.  Matt.  11  :  21,  or  as 
a  token  of  mourning.  Gen.  37  :  34  ;  2 
Sam.  3  :  31 ;  Esth.  4  :  1,  2  ;  Job  16  :  15  ; 
Ps.  30  :  11;  Isa.  20  :  2;  Rev.  6  :  12. 
Hence  the  frequent  occurrence  in  Scrip- 
ture of  figurative  language  connecting 
sackcloth  with  mourning  and  darkness. 
Isa.  3  :  24;  Eze.  7  :  18;  27  :  31 ;  Am, 
8  :  10. 

SACRIFICE.  Gen.  31  :  54.  Sacri- 
fices were  in  use  from  the  earliest  periods 
of  the  world,  and  among  all  nations. 
The  universality  of  sacrificial  rites  is  a 
powerful  argument  on  behalf  of  their 
naturalness  ;  they  meet  the  demand  of 
the  sinner  for  some  way  of  appeasing 
the  oifended  divinity.  But  Christians 
have  no  need  of  them,  simply  because 
of  the  one  perfect  Sacrifice  once  offered 
on  the  cross.     See  Offerings. 

SACRILEGE,  the  crime  of  vio- 
lating or  profaning  sacred  things.  Rom. 
2  :  22.  The  Jews  at  some  periods  were 
eminently  guilty  in  this  particular,  inas- 
much as  they  withheld  the  tithes  and 
offerings  which  God  required  of  them, 
Mai.  3  :  8-10,  and  converted  his  holy 
temple  into  a  market.   Matt.  21  :  12,  13. 

SAD'DLE.  Lev.  15  :  9.  Among 
the  ancients  saddles  were  very  simple 
— merely  a  mat  or  quilted  cloth ;  such 
is  the  present  Oriental   saddle. 

S  AD'DUCEES,  a  Jewish  sect  often 
mentioned  in  the  N.  T.  The  origin  of 
the  term  and  its  meaning  are  involved 
in  obscurity,  but  the  most  satisfactory 
theory  is  that  the  sect  was  derived  from 
Zadok  and  constituted  a  kind  of  "  sacer- 
dotal aristocracy."  This  explains  Acts 
5  :  17.  The  Zadok  spoken  of  is  the 
famous  high  priest  of  that  name  whom 
Solomon  appointed  to  succeed  the  de- 
posed Abiathar.  1  Kgs.  2  :  35.  The 
Sadducees  were  a  small  party,  of  limited 
influence  among  the  people,  and  of  a 
rationalistic  turn  of  mind.  From  their 
connection  with  the  high  priests,  they 
were  men  of  position,  and  probably  of 
more  or  less  wealth.  They  were  world- 
ly-minded and  had  only  a  superficial 
interest  in  religion.  They  are  the  fore- 
runners of  the  modern  reform  Jews. 

Their  theology  was  in  direct  contra- 
diction to  the  Pharisaic,  and,  from  its 
nature,  could  not  be  popular.  It  em- 
braced four  principal  tenets:  (1)  A 
denial   of  the   divinity  and   consequent 

749 


SAD 


SAL 


authority  of  the  oral  Law,  the  body  of 
commentary  on  the  written  Law  which 
the  Pharisees,  without  any  historic  evi- 
dence, maintained  was  handed  down  by 
tradition  from  the  lawgiver  himself. 
(2)  The  Sadducees  accepted  the  teaching 
of  Moses  onl}',  and  seem  to  have  rejected 
the  later  books  of  the  0.  T.  (3)  The 
denial  of  man's  resurrection — the  soul 
dies  with  the  body.  Matt.  22  :  23.  Of 
course  the  doctrine  of  future  rewards 
and  punishments  fell  with  it :  likewise 
belief  in  angel  or  spirit.  Acts  23  :  8  (4) 
Their  fourth  principal  tenet  was  that 
man  had  the  most  absolute  moral  free- 
dom, for  upon  this  freedom  was  depend- 
ent the  moral  quality  of  his  actions. 
This  tenet  was,  however,  so  far  "pushed 
as  almost  entirely  to  exclude  the  divine 
government  of  the  world." 

In  the  N.  T,  they  are  not  spoken  of 
with  the  same  bitterness  as  the  Phari- 
sees ;  yet  they  Avere  determined  foes  to 
our  Lord,  and  made  common  cause  with 
them  in  condemning  him  to  the  cross. 
Annas  and  Caiaphas  were  Sadducees. 
The  sect  disappears  from  history  after 
the  first  Christian  century.  They  have 
their  successors  in  the  worldly  Jews  and 
Christians  of  the  present  day. 

SA'DOC  {just),  one  of  our  Lord's 
ancestors.  Matt.  1  :  14. 

SAF'FROIV.  Cant.  4: 14.  Undoubt- 
edly this  is  the  saffron  crocus  ( Crocus 
sativns),  which,  with  other  species  of 
this  plant,  abounds  in  Palestine.  This 
kind  is  in  high  repute  as  a  perfume; 
hence  its  mention  among  spices.  The 
pistils  of  its  blossoms,  gathered,  dried, 
and  pressed  into  cakes  or  ground,  be- 
came the  saffron  of  commerce,  which  is 
used  as  an  orange  dye  and  is  also 
employed  in  medicine  in  the  East. 
This  substance  is  also  valued  for 
adding  flavor  and  aroma  to  food  and 
drink. 

SAINTS,  the  title  given  by  the  sa- 
cred writers  to  believers  in  Christ,  Heb. 
6  :  10,  or  the  people  of  God.  Ps.  16  :  3; 
Rom.  1:7;  8  ;  27.  A  saint  is  one  who 
is  separated  from  the  world  and  conse- 
crated to  the  service  of  God.  It  does 
not  necessarily  imply  entire  personal 
holiness,  but  that  believers  are  called  to 
holiness  and  are  to  strive  after  it.  The 
special  application  of  the  term  to  apos- 
tles and  evangelists  and  a  select  number 
of  men  who  constitute  as  it  were  a  spirit- 
750 


ual  nobility  is  not  biblical,  but  dates  from 
the  fourth  centurv. 

SA'LA,  SA'LAH  {sprout),  a  de- 
scendant of  Shem,  Gen.  10  :  24 :  11  : 
12-15  ;  Luke  3  :  35  ;  in  1  Chr.  1  :  18,  24 
the  name  is  given  as  Shelah. 

SAL'AMIS  {peaceful,  or  beaten),  a 
seaport-town  with  a  good  harbor,  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Cyprus.  It  was  visited 
by  Paul  and  Barnabas  on  their  first 
missionary  journey.  Acts  13  :  5.  The 
city  was  once  the  capital  of  Cyprus,  and 
stood  on  the  north  side  of  the  river  Pe- 
diaeus.  The  land  is  low  in  this  region, 
and  this  river  is  the  only  true  one  in  the 
island,  the  other  streams  being  merely 
winter-torrents.  We  read  of  "  syna- 
gogues," from  which  it  is  evident  that 
the  Jewish  population  in  the  city  was 
numerous.  The  island  was  productive, 
and  its  trade  in  fruit,  wine,  flax,  and 
honey,  and  the  farming  out  of  the  cop- 
per-mines by  Augustus  to  Herod,  would 
naturally  attract  many  Jews  to  this  city. 
In  the  time  of  Trajan  and  Hadrian,  there 
were  great  insurrections  of  the  Jews; 
Salamis  was  partially  destroyed,  and  its 
demolition  completed  by  an  earthquake, 
but  it  was  rebuilt  by  a  Christian  empe- 
ror and  named  Constantia.  Its  site  is 
now  traced  bA^  broken  cisterns  and  col- 
umns and  the  foundations  of  ancient 
buildings.  The  ruins  are  known  as  Old 
Famur/usta. 

SALA'THIEL  {I  have  asked  God), 
a  descendant  of  David,  1  Chr.  3  :  17; 
most  often  called  Shealtiel. 

SAL'CAH,  AND  SAL'CHAH 
{pilgri»iar/e  ?),  a  city  on  the  eastern 
frontier  of  Bashan  ;  captured  by  the 
Israelites  and  assigned  to  the  half 
tribe  of  Manasseh,  but  close  to  the 
border  of  Gad.  Deut.  3  :  10;  Josh. 
12  :  5  ;  13  :  11  ;  1  Chr.  5  :  11.  Salcah 
is  identical  with  modern  Salkhad,  56 
miles  east  of  the  Jordan,  at  the  southern 
end  of  Jebel  Hauran.  Near  it  begins  the 
great  desert,  which  stretches  to  the  Eu- 
phrates. The  city  occupies  a  command- 
ing position  ;  on  the  summit  of  a  hill  is 
a  castle  dating  back  to  a  period  as  early 
as  the  Romans,  and  surrounded  by  a  deep 
moat  now  partially  filled  with  stone. 
On  several  of  the  portals  there  are  Roman 
eagles  and  Arabic  and  Greek  inscriptions. 
Some  of  the  latter  have  been  found  bear- 
ing the  dates  A.  d.  196  and  A.  d  246. 
There  are  about    eight    hundred   stone 


SAL 


SAL 


houses,  many  of  them  in  a  good  state  of 
preservation,  but  occupied  by  only  a  few 
families.  Tho  view  from  this  site  em- 
braces the  ruins  of  many  other  cities. 

SA'LEM  {peace),  the  ])hicc  of  which 
Melchizedek  was  king.  Ucn.  14  :  18 ; 
Heb.  7:1,  2.  This  word  is  only  used 
elsewhere  in  Ps.  76  :  2.  Some  would 
interpret  it,  in  tlie  first  two  passages, 
not  as  signifying  a  place,  but  that  Mel- 
chizedek was  "  king  of  peace."  The 
majority  understand  it  to  mean  a  place, 
and  it  is  usually  interpreted  as  referring 
to  Jerusalem.  Thus  Josephus  under- 
stood it.  The  name  '' Jireh,"  from  Gen, 
22  :  14,  was  supposed  to  have  been  added 
to  "  Salem  "  to  form  "  Jerusalem,"  but  this 
is  uncertain.  Jerome  made  the  Salem 
of  Gen.  14  :  IS  and  the  Shalem  of  Gen. 
33  :  18  identical,  and  fixed  it  6  miles 
from  Scythopolis,  while  Van  de  Velde 
discovered  the  name  in  that  neighbor- 
hood; but  if  such  a  Salem  existed,  it 
cannot  be  proved  to  be  the  town  of  Mel- 
chizedek. There  might  be  an  identity 
between  Salem  and  Salim.     See  Salim. 

SA'LiIM  {peace,  or  fountains  f),  a 
place  named  to  mark  the  locality  of 
w^non,  where  John  baptized.  John  3  : 
23.  Some  identify  it  with  Salem.  Eu- 
sebius  and  Jerome  mention  Salim  as 
near  the  Jordan,  8  Roman  miles  south 
of  Scythopolis.  Robinson  suggested 
that  it  was  identical  with  the  village  of 
Salim,  3  miles  east  of  Nablus.  Bar- 
clay proposed  to  identify  it  with  Wddy 
Selim,  5  miles  north-east  of  Jerusalem, 
a  wild  ravine  running  down  from  Ana- 
thoth,  but  Conder  appears  to  adopt  the 
location  suggested  by  Robinson.  See 
E.voy. 

SAL'LAI  {basket-maker).  1.  A  Ben- 
i  a  mite  who  returned  to  Jerusalem.  Neh. 
11:8. 

2.  A  priest  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel.  Neh.  12  :  20. 

SAL'LU  {weighed).  1,  2.  A  Benjam- 
ite  and  a  priest.  Neh.  11  :  7  :  12  :  7  :  1 
Chr.  9:7. 

SAL'MA,  OR  S  AL'MON  {clothed,  a 
garment).  The  son  of  Nashon,  prince  of 
Judah,  and  father  or  ancestor  of  Boaz, 
the  husband  of  Ruth.  Ruth  4  :  20  and 
marg. ;  1  Chr.  2:11;  Matt.  1 :  4,  5.  He 
is  conjectured  to  be  the  same  with  the 
son  of  Caleb,  the  son  of  Hur,  1  Chr. 
2  :  51,  since  it  is  possible  that  Caleb 
adoptoihvhim. 


SALMANA'SAR.     2    Kgs.  17  :  3. 

See  Shalmankzioh. 

SALOMON  {shadii),  Ps.  68  :  14,  or 
Z AL'MON,   Jud.   9  :  48,   was   one  oi 

the  high  hills  which  environed  the 
ancient  Shechem  and  afforded  pastur- 
age for  Jacob's  flocks.     See  Zalmon. 

SALMO'NE  {clothed),  a  promontory 
forming  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
island  of  Crete,  and  noticed  in  the  ac- 
count of  Paul's  voyage  to  Rome.  Acts 
27  :  7.  It  is  a  bold  headland,  visible  at 
a  considerable  distance,  and  usually  iden- 
tified with  Cape  Sidero.  One  writer  has 
suggested  a  promontory  several  miles 
south  of  this  point,  known  to  the  natives 
as  Plaka,  and  to  sailors  as  Cape  Salmone. 

SALO'ME.  1.  The  wife  of  Zebedee, 
and  the  mother  of  James  the  elder  and 
John  the  Evangelist,  and  probably  the 
sister  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  John  19  :  25; 
was  one  of  the  followers  of  Christ,  Matt. 
27  :  56  ;  Mark  15 :  40  ;  16  :  1,  though  she 
seems,  like  many  others,  to  have  at  first 
mistaken  the  true  nature  of  his  king- 
dom.  Matt.  20  :  21. 

2.  The  name  of  ''  the  daughter  of  Her- 
odias  "  who  danced  before  Herod.  Matt. 
14  :  6  ;  Mark  6  :  22.  She  is  not  named  in 
the  N.  T.,  but  by  Josephus  {Antiq.  18,  c.  5, 
^  4).  The  graphic  account  of  Herod's 
feast  may  be  traced  to  Chusa,  the  wife 
of  Herod's  steward,  Luke  8  : 3,  who  was 
probably  present.  Salome  married  her 
uncle  Philip,  tetrarch  of  Trachonitis,  and 
next  Aristobulus,  king  of  Chalcis. 

SALT  is  abundant  in  Palestine.  The 
famous  Jehel  Usdnm  is  substantially  a 
mountain  of  rock-salt  about  7  miles  long, 
from  li  to  3  miles  wide,  and  several  hun- 
dred feet  high.  This  ridge,, almost  en- 
tirely composed  of  this  mineral,  extends 
to  the  south  from  the  south-west  corner 
of  the  Dead  Sea.  Besides  the  rock-salt 
to  be  obtained  from  this  ridge  and  its 
vicinity,  the  Jews  used,  and  preferred 
for  domestic  purposes,  salt  obtained  by 
evaporation  from  the  waters  of  the  Med- 
iterranean and  Dead  Seas.  On  the  east- 
ern shore  of  the  latter  it  is  found  in  lumps 
often  more  than  a  foot  thick,  in  places 
which  the  lake  had  overflowed  in  the 
rainy  season.  The  stones  on  the  shore 
are  covered  with  an  incrustation  of  lime 
or  gypsum.  Branches  and  twigs  which 
fall  into  the  water  from  the  bushes  be- 
come encased  in  salt;  and  if  a  piece  of 
wood  is  thrown   in,  it  soon   acquires  a 

751 


SAL 


SAL 


bark  or  rind  of  salt.  From  this  fact 
some  have  attempted  to  explain  the 
transformation  of  Lot's  wife  into  a  pil- 
lar of  salt.  Gen.  19  :  26  ;  while  others 
suppose  that  the  expression  is  figura- 
tive, denoting  that  she  was  made  an 
everlasting  monument  of  divine  dis- 
pleasure (salt  being  an  emblem  of  per- 
petuity), and  others  still  think  that  she 
was  miraculously  transformed  into  a  solid 
column  of  salt. 

At  the  south-western  extremity  of  the 
Dead  Sea  there  is  a  plain  of  consider- 
able extent  east  of  Jebel  Usdum,  the  soil 
of  which  is  entirely  covered  with  salt, 
without  the  slightest  trace  of  vegetation. 
This  is  believed  by  Robinson  to  be  the 
"valley"  (or  plain)  "of  salt,"  where 
David's  army  vanquished  the  Edomites, 
2  Sam.  8: 13;  IChr.  18:12:  2Chr.  25:11. 

By  the  "  salt-pits,"  Zeph.  2  :  9,  we  are 
not  to  understand  quarries  from  which 
rock-salt  is  extracted,  but  such  pits  as 
the  Arabs,  even  at  this  day,  make  upon 
the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  in  order  that 
they  may  be  filled  when  the  spring  fresh- 
ets raise  the  waters  of  the  lake.  When 
the  water  evaporates,  it  leaves  in  the  pits 
a  salt  crust  about  an  inch  thick,  which 
furnishes  the  salt  used  throughout  the 
country.  Pits  of  this  sort  seem  to  be 
alluded  to  in  Eze.  47  :  11.  In  Josh,  15 : 
62  a  "city  of  salt  "  is  mentioned,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

The  uses  of  salt  are  suflSciently  known. 
Most  food  would  be  insipid  without  it. 
Job  6  :  6.  Salt  being  thus  essential  to 
the  enjoyment  of  food,  the  word  was 
used  to  denote  the  subsistence  which  a 
person  obtained  in  the  service  of  another. 
Thus,  in  Ezr.  4  :  14,  the  words  trans- 
lated "we  have  maintenance  from  the 
king's  palace"  are  in  the  original  "we 
salt"  (or  are  salted)  "with  the  salt  of 
the  palace."  And  even  now,  among  the 
Persians  and  East  Indians,  to  "eat  the 
salt "  of  any  one  is  to  be  in  his  employ- 
ment. Salt  was  also  used  in  sacrifices. 
Lev.  2  :  1.3 ;  Mark  9  :  49.  In  the  last 
passage  reference  is  had  to  the  perpetuity 
of  suffering. 

New-born  children  were  rubbed  with 
salt.  Eze.  16  :  4. 

Salt,  as  a  preservative  from  corrup- 
tion, symbolized  durability,  fidelity,  and 
purity.  Hence  an  indissoluble  and  per- 
petual covenant  is  called  a  "  covenant 
of  salt."  Num.  18  :  19;  Lev.  2  :  13;  2 
752 


Chr.  13  :  5.  The  idea  of  sacred  obligation 
to  the  king  is  involvet  in  the  above  quota- 
tion from  Ezra.  Among  the  modern  Arabs, 
to  "  eat  salt "  with  any  one  is  a  pledge 
of  perpetual  and  mutual  friendship. 

No  plants  can  germinate  in  a  soil  cov- 
ered with  salt.  Hence  a  "salt  land"  is 
an  unfruitful,  desert  land.  Jer.  17  :  6. 
Salt  was  also  used  as  a  visible  emblem 
of  sterility.  When  Abimelech  took 
Shechem,  Jud.  9  :  45,  he  "  beat  down 
the  city  and  sowed  it  with  salt,"  as  a 
token  that  it  should  continue  desolate. 
In  like  manner,  the  emperor  Frederick 
Barbarossa,  when  he  destroyed  Milan, 
in  the  year  1162,  caused  the  ground  to 
be  ploughed  and  strewed  with  salt. 

On  the  other  hand,  as  salt  renders  food 
savoi'v,  it  is  employed  as  an  emblem  of 
holy  life  and  conversation.  Mark  9  :  50 ; 
Col'.  4  :  6.  In  Matt.  5  :  13,  Christ  calls 
his  disciples  "  the  salt  of  the  earth  " — 
?'.  e.,  of  mankind,  because  the  latter  was 
to  be  enlightened  and  purified  by  their 
agency  and  preserved  for  their  sake. 
There  is  reference  in  the  remainder  of 
the  verse  to  the  fact  that,  as  Oriental 
salt  often  contains  mineral  impurities, 
by  exposure  to  rain  or  dampness  this 
material  may  lose  its  savor  or  valu- 
able part,  and  become  "  good  for  nothing 
but  to  be  cast  out,  and  to  be  trodden  un- 
der foot  of  men." 

SALT,  CIT'Y  OF,  the  fifth  of 
the  six  cities  possessed  by  the  children 
of  Judah,  and  situated  in  the  wilderness 
of  Judah.  It  is  mentioned  between  Nib- 
shan  and  En-gedi.  Josh.  15  :  62.  Several 
sites  have  been  suggested  for  this  city. 

1.  Van  de  Yelde  found  a  Nahr  Malch 
("salt"),  one  of  four  ravines  forming 
the  Wddy  el- Bedim,  and  would  locate 
the  city  of  salt  in  that  vicinity. 

2.  Others  propose  to  place  it  at  the 
ruin  Um-hnghek,  or  Em-berhek,  lying  a 
short  distance  north  of  the  salt  moun- 
tain of  Jebel    Usdum. 

3.  Conder  suggests  that  it  is  identical 
with  the  present  large  ruin,  Tell  el- Milk, 
15  miles  east  of  Beersheba. 

SALT  SEA,  OR  DEAD  SEA. 
Names. — This  sea  is  called  in  the  Scrip- 
tures the  "sea  of  the  plain,"  Deut.  4  : 
49  ;  2  Kgs.  14  :  25  ;  the  "  salt  sea," 
Deut.  3:17;  Josh.  3:16;  12  :  3  ;  the 
"east  sea,"  Joel  2  :  20 ;  Eze.  47  :  18; 
Zech.  14  :  8;  and  "the  sea."  Eze.  47  : 
8.     It  also  appears  as  the  "  vale  of  Sid- 


Beit^I-Iarau  .^ 
p  (Beth  Ilaran)^^  M  •  Nelao 

Beth  JesliirrLOtn 


48 


The  Salt  or  Dead  Sea.     (After  Sketch  by  ilajo^  Wilson.) 
The  figures  denote  the  depression  below  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 


SAL 


SAL 


dim."  Gen.  14  :  3.  In  2  Esd.  5  :  7  it  ap- 
pears as  the  "Sodomitish  sea;"  in  the 
Talmud  as  the  "sea  of  Sodom  "  and  the 
"sea  of  salt;"  in  Josephus  asthe"as- 
phaltic"  and  **  Sodomitic  lake."  The  ti- 
tle "Dead  Sea"  was  not  found  in  Jew- 
ish writers,  but  was  introduced  at  an 
early  period  by  the  Greek  authors.  The 
Arabs  give  it  the  same  name,  but  more 
commonly  call  it  the  Bahr  LCit,  or  "Lake 
of  Lot." 

Situation  and  Extent. — The  Salt  or 
Dead  Sea  is  situated  only  16  miles  from 
Jerusalem,  in  a  straight  line,  and  is 
plainly  visible  from  the  Mount  of  Olives. 
It  occupies  the  deepest  portion  of  the 
great  depression  which  extends  from 
the  range  of  Lebanon  on  the  north  to 
the  Gulf  of  Akabah  on  the  south.  It 
lies  between  31°  6'  and  31°  46'  N.  lat., 
and  35°  24'  and  35°  37'  E.  long.  The 
sea  is  46  miles  long,  lOJ  miles  in  its 
greatest  width,  and  covers  an  area  of 
nearly  300  square  miles,  varying  some- 
what with  the  season  of  the  year,  as  the 
flats  are  submerged  by  the  rise  of  water 
from  the  winter  floods  and  laid  bare  by 
the  excessive  evaporation  of  the  summer. 

Physical  Features. — The  sea  is  of  an 
oblong  shape,  and  fills  the  lower  end  of 
an  oblong  depression.  The  enclosing 
mountains  on  each  side  run  due  north 
and  south  in  parallel  lines,  and  over- 
hang the  sea  at  a  height  of  more  than 
1500  feet,  coming  on  the  east  side  close 
to  the  water's  edge.  At  the  southern 
end  the  shore,  for  some  2  or  3  miles,  is 
flat  as  far  as  the  base  of  Jebel  Usdum, 
"the  salt  mountain."  The  oval  contour 
is  interrupted  by  the  Lisan  Peninsula, 
or  "the  tongue,"  a  broad  promontory 
extending  northward  from  the  south- 
east corner  for  a  distance  of  10  miles, 
and  having  a  breadth  of  from  5  to  6 
miles.  It  was  visited  by  Lynch,  but  to 
Palmer  and  Drake  is  ascribed  the  credit 
of  being  the  first  thoroughly  to  explore 
this  curious  spot.  It  is  described  by 
Palmer  as  a  plateau  of  soft  chalk  marl, 
encrusted  with  salt,  and  containing  large 
quantities  of  sulphur  in  a  very  pure 
form.  The  surface  is  for  the  most  part 
perfectly  flat,  but  a  few  plateaus  rise  up 
here  and  there  upon  it.  The  strip  of 
land  which  connects  it  with  the  shore  is 
low,  and  the  promontory  appears  to  have 
been  an  island  at  some  period  when  the 
level  of  the  sea  was  higher  than  it  is  at 
764 


present.  The  ruins  of  a  tower  built  of 
solid  masonry  and  of  a  small  reservoir 
were  discovered.  On  the  site  were  some 
broken  columns  of  considerable  architec- 
tural pretensions,  and  many  pieces  of 
glass  and  pottery  lying  in  the  ash-heap 
contiguous  to  the  ruins,  but  nothing 
could  be  found  to  indicate  the  date. 

Depth  and  Level. —  The  soundings  of 
Lynch  showed  that  the  bottom  of  the 
lake  was  a  comparatively  level  plain  of 
blue  mud  and  sand,  with  crystals  of  salt. 
The  greatest  depth  is  1310  feet;  the  mean 
depth  north  of  the  Lisan  Peninsula,  1080 
feet ;  the  greatest  depth  south  of  the 
peninsula,  11  feet.  The  level  of  the 
surface  varies  from  10  to  15  feet,  accord- 
ing to  the  season  of  the  3'ear :  the  mean 
level  below  the  Mediterranean  Sea  is 
1293  feet  (Lynch  made  it  1316  feet); 
below  Jerusalem,  3697  feet.  Tristram 
found  the  height  of  the  crest  of  the 
beach  to  be  18^  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  water,  and  the  line  of  driftwood  some- 
what less.  A  French  geologist,  M.  Lar- 
tet,  found  the  ancient  deposits  of  the 
Dead  Sea  at  least  300  feet  above  the 
present  surface  of  the  lake,  so  that  the 
water  must  once  have  stood  at  that  level. 
The  bottom  is  still  subsiding,  as  is  shown 
by  a  curious  fact.  Drake  says:  "At  the 
southern  end  the  fords  between  the  Lisan 
and  the  western  shore  are  now  impassable, 
owing  to  the  depth  of  the  water,  though  I 
have  been  told  by  men  who  used  them 
that  they  were  in  no  places  more  than  3 
feet  deep  some  fifteen  or  twenty  years 
ago.  Again,  the  causeway  which  con- 
nects the  Rijm  el- Bahr  with  the  main- 
land has,  according  to  the  Arabs,  been 
submerged  for  twelve  or  fifteen  years, 
though  before  that  time  it  was  frequent- 
ly dry."  Earthquakes,  as  in  1834  and 
1837,  throw  up  large  quantities  of  bitu- 
men from  the  bottom  of  the  lake  at  its 
southern  end.  It  was  formerly  supposed 
that  the  lake  was  at  some  early  historic 
period  connected  with  the  Red  Sea.  but 
recent  geological  researches  have  shown 
any  such  connection  very  improbable, 
since  a  hill  of  cretaceous  formation,  781 
feet  above  the  sea,  separates  the  waters 
of  the  Dead  Sea  from  those  of  the  Gulf 
of  Akabah,  and  the  streams  north  of  the 
hill  flow  northward  into  the  Dead  Sea. 

Tributaries. — The  river  Jordan  emp- 
ties into  the  Dead  Sea  at  its  northern 
end.     There  are  numerous  icddies  upon 


The  Dead  Sea  at  'Ain  Feshkah  :  North-west  Side.     (After  Tritlmm.) 


The  Dead  Sea  from  Jebel  Usdum  i.JMouiuain  ol'  Saitj :  South  end.    (After  Tnntram.) 


SAL 


SAL 


the  east,  south,  and  west  sides,  the  most 
of  which  are  winter-torrents,  completely 
dry  in  summer.  The  principal  streams, 
mostly  perennial,  are,  beginning  at  the 
north-east  and  following  southward:  the 
Zerka  Main  (the  ancient  Callirrhoe,  and 
Grove  suggests  possibly  the  more  ancient 
En-eglaim),  the  Mojih  (Arnon  of  the  Bi- 
ble), Kerak,  S'idfliji/eh  (brook  Zered),  Sn- 
Jieh,  and,  on  the  west,  the  ' Ain  Jidy  (En- 
gedi). 

The  icater  has  a  clearness  and  purity — 
in  color,  at  least — unequalled.  The  tur- 
bid flood  of  the  Jordan  in  times  of  fresh- 
et can  be  distinctly  traced  by  its  coffee- 
brown  color  for  a  mile  and  a  half  into  the 
lake.  It  has  been  estimated  that  6,000,000 
tons  of  water  fall  into  the  Dead  Sea  dai- 
ly, the  whole  of  which  enormous  quantity 
must  be  carried  off  by  evaporation,  as 
the  lake  has  no  outlet.  Hence  the  water 
is  impregnated  with  mineral  substances 
containing  on  an  average  twenty-five 
per  cent,  of  solid  substances,  one-half 
of  which  is  chloride  of  nodiiim  (common 
salt).  Among  the  other  substances  are 
chloride  of  magnesium,  which  gives  the 
water  its  bitter  taste,  and  chloride  of  cal- 
cium, which  makes  it  smooth  and  oily 
to  the  touch.  There  is  also  a  large  amount 
of  bromine,  and  many  other  mineral  sub- 
stances exist  in  smaller  quantities.  The 
quantity  of  solid  matter  is  more  than 
eight  times  as  great  as  in  sea-water. 
The  specific  gravity  varies  from  1.021 
to  1.256 — that  is,  if  a  gallon  of  distill- 
ed water  weighs  10  pounds,  a  gallon  of 
water  from  the  Dead  Sea  would  some- 
times weigh  12^  pounds. 

From  its  density  it  seemed,  in  the 
storm  encountered  by  the  boats  of 
Lynch's  party,  "  as  if  their  bows  were 
encountering  the  sledge-hammers  of  the 
Titans  instead  of  the  opposing  waves  of 
an  angry  sea."  But  when  the  wind 
abated  the  sea  as  rapidly  fell.  "  AVithin 
twenty  minutes  from  the  time  we  bore 
away  from  a  sea  which  threatened  to 
engulf  us,  we  were  pulling  away  at  a 
rapid  rate  over  a  placid  sheet  of  water 
that  scarcely  rippled  beneath  us."  Tris- 
tram also  noted  the  rapid  subsidence  of 
the  surface  after  a  storm  :  "  Such  a  mass 
of  water,  so  absolutely  stagnant,  I  never 
saw  before.  In  the  morning  it  had  been 
lashed  by  the  gale ;  now  it  at  once  sug- 
gested, as  its  appropriate  description, '  a 
sea  of  molten  lead.'" 
Y66 


The  spray  leaves  incrustations  of  salt 
upon  clothes,  hands,  and  faces,  convey- 
ing a  prickly  sensation  wherever  it 
touches  the  skin,  and  exceedingly  pain- 
ful to  the  eyes,  lips,  and  nostrils,  which 
smart  excessively. 

Bathing. — Most  visitors  try  a  bath  in 
the  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Bathers  can 
float  with  equal  ease  upon  their  backs 
or  breasts,  sit  upon  the  water  as  one 
would  upon  a  feather-bed,  and  place 
themselves  in  any  attitude  they  please 
without  fear  of  sinking.  Swimming  is 
made  difficult  by  the  tendency  of  the  feet 
to  rise  to  the  surface  with  a  suddenness 
that  produces  an  unpleasant  and  some- 
times painful  eff'ect  upon  the  back,  and 
there  is  a  constant  tendency  to  roll  over. 

Josephus  says  that  when  Vespasian 
went  to  see  the  Dead  Sea,  "  he  com- 
manded that  some  who  could  not  swim 
I  should  have  their  hands  tied  behind 
j  them  and  be  thrown  into  the  deep : 
when  it  so  happened  that  they  all  swam 
as  if  wind  had  forced  them  upward."  A 
salt  crust  is  soon  formed  over  the  body 
j  by  the  rapid  evaporation,  and  the  water 
I  leaves  a  greasy  feeling  on  the  skin. 
Asphalt  lies  in  large  masses  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  sea,  and  sometimes  large 
fragments,  loosened  by  storms  and  earth- 
quakes, rise  to  the  surface. 

Animal  and  Vegetable  Life. — Tristram 
observed  that  among  the  rounded  peb- 
bles of  the  beach  dead  land-shells  were 
thickly  strewn.  Quantities  of  very  small 
dead  fish  lay  on  the  gravel,  killed  by  the 
salt  water  and  thrown  up  by  the  flood, 
and  on  these  various  birds  were  feeding. 

Among  the  birds  noticed  were  the 
partridge,  raven,  thrush,  bulbul,  spar- 
row, wild  duck,  brown-necked  raven, 
kingfisher,  gull,  dunlin,  teal,  redshank, 
wagtail,  pochard,  duck,  cormorant, 
heron,  golden  eagle,  plover,  stork,  crane, 
grakle,  snipe,  catbird,  hawk,  and  quail, 
and  Lynch  saw  a  duck  upon  the  water 
about  a  mile  from  the  shore.  So  the  re- 
port that  a  bird  trying  to  fly  over  the  sea 
would  fall  dead,  is  without  foundation. 

Among  the  wild  beasts  are  the  jackal, 
fox,  coney,  hare,  ibex,  porcupine,  leop- 
ard, wild  boar,  and  hygena.  These  facts 
are  enough  to  show  how  absurd  are  the 
stories  about  the  shores  of  this  sea  being 
destitute  of  birds  and  animals.  At  the 
same  time,  it  is  quite  certain  that  no 
form  of  either  vertebrate  or  molluscous 


SAL 


SAL 


life  can  exist  for  more  than  a  very  short 
time  in  the  sea  itself,  and  that  all  that 
enter  it  from  the  Jordan  are  almost  im- 
mediately poisoned. 

Various  experiments  have  been  made 
by  putting  sea-tish  into  the  waters,  and 
it  was  found  that  they  invariably  died 
vei'y  speedily. 

Plants. — Among  the  trees  and  plants 
are  the  pistachio  (the  terebinth  of  Scrip- 
ture), spina  Christi  (Christ  thorn),  tama- 
risk, osher,  oleander,  lily,  yellow  hen- 
bane, nightshade,  mallow,  mignonette, 
and  a  species  of  kale  resembling  that  on 
the  shores  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake  in 
Utah.  About  the  springs  are  clumps  of 
tamarisk  trees,  canebrakes  20  feet  high, 
and  dense  bushes,  through  which  the 
wild  boar  beats  paths.  Wherever  there 
is  fresh  water  the  climate  stimulates  a 
luxuriant  vegetation. 

Warm  springs  are  numerous.  The 
'Ain  Ghuweir  shows  a  temperature  of 
96°  in  January.  Another  sulphur  spring, 
within  6  inches  of  the  sea,  had  a  tem- 
perature of  95°,  and  its  heated  water 
extended  out  for  200  yards  into  the  lake. 

Climate. — The  climate,  owing  to  the 
great  depression  of  the  valley,  is  semi- 
tropical.  On  the  IJrth  of  January,  Tris- 
tram noted  that  the  thermometer  reached 
84°  during  the  day,  and  at  1  A.  m.  stood  at 
62°  Fahrenheit.  Warren  found  the  heat 
at  'Ain  Jidy  (En-gedi),  in  July,  to  be 
110°  after  sunset.  See  Climate,  under 
Palestine. 

Present  Appearance. — Lynch  describes 
the  scene  near  Eds  es-Fenhka  as  "one 
of  unmixed  desolation.  Except  the  cane- 
brakes  clustering  along  the  marshy 
stream,  .  .  .  there  was  no  vegetation 
whatever;  barren  mountains,  fragments 
of  rocks  blackened  by  sulphureous  de- 
posits, and  an  unnatural  sea,  with  low 
dead  trees  upon  its  margin,  all  within 
the  scope  of  vision,  bore  a  sad  and  som- 
bre aspect.  We  had  never  before  beheld 
such  desolate  hills,  such  calcined  barren- 
ness." When  the  members  of  the  Brit- 
ish Ordnance  Survey  found  themselves 
on  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea,  "  the  sky 
was  overcast  with  clouds,  and  a  dense 
haze,  obscuring  the  mountains,  made  the 
landscape  as  dreary  and  monotonous  as 
it  could  be.  In  an  aspect  such  as  this 
the  Dead  Sea  seemed  more  than  ever  to 
deserve  its  name.  Not  a  sign  of  life  was 
there — not  even  any  motion  save  a  dull 


mechanical  surging  of  the  water.  The 
barren  shore  was  covered  with  a  thick 
incrustation  of  salt,  relieved  only  by 
occasional  patches  of  black,  rotting  mud 
or  by  stagnant  pools  of  brine.  All  along 
the  dismal  beach  large  quantities  of 
driftwood  are  thickly  strewn,  and  amongst 
them  might  be  detected  the  blackened 
trunks  of  palms.''     See  Deut  34  :  3. 

Tristram  describes  the  appearance  at 
the  north  end  of  the  sea  as  follows : 
"  The  beach  is  composed  of  a  pebble 
gravel,  rising  steeply  and  covered  for  a 
breadth  of  160  yards  from  the  shore  with 
driftwood.  Trunks  of  trees  lay  tossed 
about  in  every  possible  position,  utterly 
devoid  of  bark,  grim  and  gaunt,  a  long 
and  disorderly  array  of  skeleton  forms. 
There  was  a  great  variety  in  the  species 
of  timber,  but  a  very  large  proportion  of 
the  trees  were  palms,  many  with  their 
roots  entire.  These  must  have  been 
tossed  for  many  years  before  they  were 
washed  up  along  this  north  shore.  The 
whole  of  the  timber  is  indeed  so  satura- 
ted with  brine  that  it  will  scarcely  burn, 
and  when  it  is  ignited  emits  only  a  pale 
blue  flame.  It  is  difficult  to  conceive 
whence  such  vast  numbers  of  palms  can 
have  been  brought,  unless  we  imagine 
them  to  be  the  collected  wrecks  of  many 
centuries,  .  .  .  accumulating  here  from 
the  days  when  the  city  of  palm  trees  ex- 
tended its  groves  to  the  edge  of  the  river." 
— Land  of  hrnel,  p.  247. 

Below  'Ain  Feshkah,  on  the  west  shore, 
the  lake  is  fringed  with  canebrake,  sep- 
arated from  the  water  by  a  narrow  strip 
of  shingle  and  conglomerate.  Farther 
south  are  huge  boulders,  rolled  down  on 
the  narrowing  beach  from  the  hills  above. 
The  coast-line  shows  many  indentations 
and  irregularities. 

Bible  History. — The  earliest  mention 
of  this  body  of  water  is  in  Gen.  14  :  3, 
where  we  read  that  the  confederate  kings 
were  joined  together  in  "the  vale  of  Sid- 
dim,  which  is  the  Salt  Sea."  Most 
writers  have  identified  this  vale  of  Sid- 
dim  with  the  portion  of  the  Dead  Sea 
south  of  the  Lisan  Peninsula,  which  is 
very  shallow,  but  some  recent  explorers 
incline  to  a  northern  location,  in  the  Ghor 
of  the  Jordan.  The  Salt  Sea  is  mentioned 
as  one  of  the  boundaries  of  the  land  of 
Canaan  and  of  the  tribes.  Num.  34  :  3, 
12;  Deut.  3  :  17  :  4:49;  .Tosh.  15:2,  5; 
18  :  19  J  2  Kgs.  14  :  25.     In  Eze.  47  :  18 

757 


SAL 


SAM 


and  Joel  2  :  20  it  is  mentioned  as  '^the 
east  sea,"  in  distinction  from  "  the  west 
sea,"  which  was  the  Mediterranean. 

The  cities  of  the  plain,  which  were 
destroyed  by  ''  brimstone  and  fire  from 
the  Lord  out  of  heaven,"  were  near  the 
Dead  Sea.  Gen.  19  :  24.  The  suppo- 
sition formerly  most  common  was  that 
these  cities  were  submerged  by  the  wa- 
ters of  the  sea  at  the  time  of  the  great 
catastrophe — a  theory  which  appears 
to  be  inconsistent  with  the  geological 
and  physical  character  of  the  region. 

For  the  disputed  question  respect- 
ing the  sites  of  the  cities  of  the  plain, 
see  Sodom  and  Gomorrah. 

The  Salt  or  Dead  Sea  is  not  men- 
tioned in  the  N.  T. 

SALT,  VAL  LEY  OF,  more 
accurately  a  ''  ravine,"  and  the  bat- 
tlefield   between    Judah    and    Edom, 
It  is  five  times  mentioned  in  Scripture 
in  connection  with  two  remarkable  vic- 
tories of  the  Israelites. 

1.  That  of  David  over  the  Edomites 
when  18,000  of  them  were  slain.  2  Sam. 
8  :  13:  1  Chr.  13  :  12;  and  compare  the 
title  to  Ps.  60. 

2.  The  victory  of  Amaziah,  who  slew 
10,000  Edomites  and  hurled  10,000  more 
over  the  "rock"  (Petra).  2  Kgs.  14  :  7 ; 
2  Chr.  25  :  11.  It  has  been  proposed  to 
locate  this  valley  near  the  salt  mountain 
Jebel  Usdinn,  in  the  plains  south  of  the 
Salt  Sea:  but  Grove  objects  to  this,  and 
holds  that  '*  salt "  is  not  necessarily 
the  right  translation  of  the  Hebrew 
melach,  a,nd  infers  that  Amaziah  brought 
his  prisoners  to  Selah  (margin,  "the 
rock,"  or  Petra)  ;  hence  that  he  would 
scarcely  carry  so  many  prisoners  for  50 
miles  through  a  hostile  country.  It 
would  seem  more  likely,  therefore,  that 
the  Valley  of  Salt  was  in  Edom,  near  to 
Petra. 

SA'LCJ  (weighed),  a  Simeonite  chief. 
Num.  25:14. 

SALUTES  Matt.  10  :  12.  SALU- 
TA'TION.  Luke  1  :  41.  The  saluta- 
tions of  the  Jews  were  usually  of  a  re- 
ligious character — at  least,  in  form — 
and  were  attended  with  much  ceremony, 
as  they  are  to  this  day  among  the  Ori- 
entals, even  the  Bedouins  of  the  desert. 
Sometimes  there  was  nothing  but  the 
simple  exclamation,  "The  Lord  be  with 
you  !"  or  "  Peace  be  with  you  !"  To 
this  last  and  most  common  form  strik- 
758 


ing  allusion  is  made  by  our  Saviour. 
John  14  :  27 ;  20  :  19,  26.  It  passed  into 
the  epistolary  salutation.  Rom.  1  :  7,  etc. 
The  time  occupied  in  the  ceremonies  of 
salutation,  repeatedly  bowing,  kissing 
the  beard,  etc.,  was  often  ver}'  consider- 


Modes  of  Salutation  in  the  East. 

able,  Gen.  33  :  3,  4,  and  hence  the  caution 
in  2  Kgs.  4  :  29 :  Luke  10  :  4  against 
saluting. 

SAL  V ACTION,  or  deliverance,  sup- 
poses evil  or  danger.  Ex.  14  :  13 ;  comp. 
Ps.  106  :  8-10  with  Isa.  63  :  8,  9.  But 
in  its  ordinary  use,  in  the  N.  T.  especi- 
ally, the  term  denotes  the  deliverance 
of  sinners  from  sin  and  death  through 
faith  in  Christ.  "  The  day  of  salvation," 
2  Cor.  6  :  2.  "  the  gospel  of  j'our  salva- 
tion," Eph.  1  :  13,  and  other  like  phrases, 
are  employed  in  this  sense.  They  all 
suppose  mankind  to  be  lost  and  ruined  by 
sin,  and  hence  to  be  in  a  state  of  guilt 
and  deplorable  misery  and  exposed  to 
the  just  penalty  of  the  divine  law.  The 
salvation  which  the  gospel  oflTers  in- 
cludes in  it  the  pardon  of  sin  and  de- 
liverance from  its  power,  pollution,  and 
consequences,  and  also  sanctification  of 
the  soul  and  the  jovs  of  the  eternal 
world.  Matt.  1:21;"  Gal.  3  :  13  ;  1  Thess. 
1:10;  Heb.  5  :  9.  Hence  it  is  justly 
called  a  fp-ent  salvation.  Heb.  2  :  3. 

SAMA'RIA  (watch-post),  a  noted 
city  of  Central  Palestine,  founded  by 
Omri,  king  of  Israel. 

Situation. — The  city  of  Samaria  was 
30  miles  north  of  Jerusalem  and  6  miles 
north-west  of  Shechem,  and  situated 
near  the  centre  of  a  beautiful  basin 
about  6  miles  in  diameter  and  sur- 
rounded by  hills.  The  hill  of  Samaria 
was  to  the  east  of  the  centre  of  this 
basin,  and  about  1542  feet  in  height 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.     It  was  of 


SAM 


SAM 


an  oblong  fonn,  with  steep  and  terraced 
sides.  The  whole  region  about  it  is 
fertile,  the  site  being  a  strong  one  for 
defence  and  the  view  from  the  summit 
very  beautiful.  From  its  top  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  can  be  plainly  seen. 

Historif. — Shemer  sold  the  ground  upon 
which  Samaria  was  built  to  Omri,  the 
king  of  Israel,  for  two  silver  talents,  and 
the  latter  built  a  city,  calling  it  Samaria, 
B.  c.  925.  1  Kgs.  16  :  23,  24.  It  appears 
that  previous  to  this  Shechem  had  been 
the  capital,  and  Tirzah  the  court-resi- 
dence in  summer.  1  Kgs.  15:21,  33; 
16  :  1-18.  But  Omri  now  made  Samaria 
the  capital  of  Israel — a  position  which 
it  continued  to  hold 
years,  until  the  fall 
kingdom,  b.  c.  721. 
of  many  idolatrous 
erected  a  great  temple  to  Baal ;  Jehu 
destroyed  it,  and  massacred  the  priests. 
1  Kgs.'  16  :  32,  33;  2  Kgs.  10  :  18,  28. 
Twice  the  city  was  besieged  by  the 
Syrians — in  the  reign  of  Ahab,  b.  c. 
901,  and  in  the  reign  of  Joram,  b.  c. 
892.  1  Kgs.  20  :  1.  At  the  latter  siege 
the  people  were  reduced  to  the  most  ter- 
rible distress  by  famine,  but  were  won- 
derfully delivered,  in   accordance   with 


for  two   hundred 

of    the    northern 

It  was   the    seat 

practices.      Ahab 


the  prophecy  of  Elisha.  2  Kgs.  6  :  24-33  ; 
7  :  1-20.  About  one  hundred  and  seventy 
years  later  the  city  was  captured  by  the 
king  of  Assyria,  after  a  siege  of  nearly 
three  years  :  the  northern  kingdom  was 
destroyed,  and  the  ten  tribes  carried  into 
captivity.  2  Kgs.  18  :  9-12.  Colonists 
from  Assyria  were  sent  to  repeople  the 
country. '2  Kgs.  17:24;  Ezr.  4:9,10. 
The  city  of  Samaria  continued  to  be  a 
place  of  some  importance.  It  was  cap- 
tured by  Alexander  the  Great,  who  peo- 
pled it  with  Syro-Macedonians  ;  it  was 
again  taken  by  John  Hyrcanus,  after  a 
year's  siege,  and  razed  to  the  ground, 
B.  c.  1 09.  It  was  rebuilt  and  adorned  by 
Herod  the  Great,  who  named  it  Sebaste 
in  honor  of  Augustus,  who  gave  it  to 
him,  and  settled  a  colony  of  six  thou- 
sand persons  there,  composed  of  veteran 
soldiers  and  peasants.  He  enlarged  the 
city,  and  surrounded  it  with  a  wall  and 
colonnade. 

In  N.  T.  times,  Philip  preached  the 
gospel  in  Samaria,  Acts  8:5,  9,  and 
the  place  became  an  episcopal  see. 
Septimius  Severus  planted  a  Roman 
colony  there  in  the  third  century  of 
the  Christian  era,  but  politically  it  was 
secondary  to   Caesarea.      The   city  was 


Euius  of  the  Colonnade  of  Samaria. 


also  surpassed  in  prosperity  by  Ne- 
apolis  (Sichem).  During  the  siege  of 
Jerusalem,  Samaria  fell  into  the  hands 


of  the  Muslims,  but  the  Crusaders  estab- 
lished a  Latin  bishop  there,  thus  reviv- 
ing the  old  episcopal  see.    In  a.  d.  1184, 

759 


SAM 


SAM 


Saladin  marched  through  the  city  ;  and 
notices  of  the  place  occur  in  the  accounts 
of  travellers  from  the  fourteenth  to  the 
seventeenth  centuries.. 

Present  Condition. — The  ancient  city 
of  Samaria  is  now  represented  by 
the  modern  village  Stbmtieh  (from 
"Sebaste"),  situated  upon  the  slope  of 
the  hill,  having  houses  built  of  stones 
taken  from  the  ancient  remains.  In  and 
among  the  houses  are  scattered  many 
fragments  of  ancient  buildings,  such  as 
hewn  blocks,  shafts  of  columns,  capitals, 
and  portions  of  entablatures.  Vines  grow 
luxuriantly  around  the  bases  of  broken 
shafts,  grain  is  planted  amid  shattered 
columns,  sculptured  blocks  of  limestone 
are  embedded  in  the  rude  terraces  of  tbe 
vineyards.  The  most  imposing  ancient 
building  is  the  half-ruined  church  of  John 
the  Baptist,  now  turned  into  a  mosque. 
Tradition  states  that  John  the  Baptist 
was  buried  here.  The  church  stands  in 
a  conspicuous  position  on  the  brow  of  a 
hill,  the  present  edifice  being  the  work 
of  the  Crusaders  of  the  twelfth  century. 
On  the  round  hill  above  the  village, 
to  the  west,  are  the  remains  of  the 
palace  erected  by  Herod  the  Great  in 
honor  of  Augustus.  On  the  terrace  to 
the  south  runs  the  famous  colonnade, 
about  2000  feet  in  length,  of  which  one 
hundred  columns  still  remain,  some 
standing,  some  overthrown  or  buried 
beneath  the  soil.  Besides  the  tomb 
of  John  the  Baptist,  tradition  points 
out  the  resting-place  of  Obadiah  and 
Elisha  under  a  stone  slab  near  the 
ruined  church.  The  prophet  declares, 
**  I  will  make  Samaria  as  an  heap  of 
the  field,  and  as  plantings  of  a  vine- 
yard :  and  I  will  pour  down  the  stones 
thereof  into  the  valley,  and  I  will  dis- 
cover the  foundations  thereof."  Mic. 
1 :  6.  This  prophecy  has  been  literally 
fulfilled. 

SAMA'RIA,  KINGDOM  AND 
COUNTRY  OF,  a  territory  which 
lay  north  of  Judah,  and,  in  N.  T.  times, 
between  that  country  and  the  region 
known  as  Galilee. 

Situation  and  Extent. — The  kingdom 
of  Samaria,  as  referred  to  in  the  0.  T., 
was  synonymous  with  the  kingdom  of 
Israel.  This  varied  in  extent  at  dif- 
ferent times,  at  one  period  embracing  all 
the  territory  allotted  to  the  ton  tribes, 
at  others  covering  a  more  limited  region. 
760 


In  the  days  of  Jeroboam  it  extended  on 
both  sides  of  the  Jordan  ;  but  this  terri- 
tory was  much  reduced,  first  by  the  in- 
vasion of  Pul,  and  later  by  that  of 
Tiglath-pileser,  when  the  Israelites  on 
the  east  side  were  taken  captive.  The 
extent  of  the  kingdom  was  then  con- 
fined to  the  region  between  the  Jordan 
and  the  Mediterranean,  and  to  that 
portion  north  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 
it  being,  in  fact,  only  a  subject  province 
of  Assyria.     See  Israel,  Kingdom  of. 

In  N.  T.  times  Samaria  was  the  region 
between  Galilee  on  the  north  and  Judaea 
on  the  south.  Its  boundaries  have  been 
traced  by  the  British  Ordnance  Survey 
in  accordance  with  the  description  by 
Josephus.  The  northern  limit  is  de- 
fined by  the  towns  of  Beth-shan  (Beisan), 
En-gannim  {Jenin),  and  Caphar-out- 
heni  {Kefr  Adhnn),  being  properly  com- 
mensurate with  the  northern  boundary 
of  Manasseh.  Beth-shan  and  the  valley 
of  Jezreel  at  one  time  belonged  to 
Samaria,  but  were  subsequently  taken 
by  the  Jews.  The  southern  boundary, 
as  noted  by  Josephus,  appears  to  have 
been  the  great  valley  called  Wddt/  Deir 
Ballut,  which  rises  near  the  Libben  (the 
ancient  Lebonah),  and  leaves  Shiloh  in 
the  territory  of  Judah.  Antipatris  {Raa 
el-Ain),  Annath  {Aina),  and  Borceas 
(Brukin)  are  found  on  the  frontier-line. 
According  to  Josephus,  Samaria  had  no 
sea-coast,  since  the  whole  plain  of  Sharon 
up  to  Ptolemais  belonged  to  Judah.  It 
is  doubtful,  also,  what  portion  of  the 
west  Jordan  valley  belonged  to  Samaria, 
but  it  probably  did  not  extend  south  of 
the  Wddy  Far'ah.  The  Roman  high- 
way from  Galilee  to  Jerusalem  ran 
along  the  Jordan  by  way  of  Jericho, 
and  was  the  one  commonly  used  by 
pilgrims.  It  is  important  to  note  this 
position  of  Samaria  as  throwing  light 
upon  the  route  pursued  by  Jesus  and 
other  Galileans  in  going  up  to  Jerusalem, 
for  they  would  avoid,  as  far  as  possible, 
passing  through  the  territory  of  their 
neighbors,  the  Samaritans. 

History. — The  history  of  the  country 
of  Samaria  to  b.  c.  720  belongs  to  the 
kingdom  of  Israel.  After  Israel  was 
carried  into  captivity  the  history  of  the 
Samaritans,  as  such,  begins.  AYho  were 
these  Samaritans?  The  word  occurs 
only  once  in  the  0.  T.,  2  Kgs.  17  :  29, 
and  then  it  seems  to  be  used  rather  of 


SAM 


SAM 


the  Israelites.  But  after  they  were 
carried  away,  men  from  Assyria  were 
brought  as  colonists  into  the  cities  of 
Samaria,  2  Kgs.  17  :  24,  and  these  were 
the  ancestors  of  the  Samaritans  men- 
tioned in  N.  T.  times.  A  much-debated 
question  has  been  whether  those  Samar- 
itans were  of  purely  foreign  extraction 
or  were  of  mixed  Jewish  blood.  The 
latter  opinion  seems  most  reasonable. 
It  is  hardly  to  be  supposed  that  all 
the  Jews  could  have  been  carried  away 
out  of  the  land,  and  this  opinion  is 
supported  by  the  fact  that  money  was 
contributed  from  the  cities  of  Manasseh 
and  Ephraim  to  repair  the  temple  in  Jo- 
siah's  time,  2  Chr.  34  :  9,  and  idols  were 
destroyed  in  the  same  region.  2  Chr.  34  : 
6,  7.  The  Assyrian  colonists  obtained  a 
priest  to  teach  them  "  the  manner  of  the 
God  of  the  land,"  and  combined  some 
forms  of  Jehovah-worship  with  their 
idolatry.    2  Kgs.  17  :  25-41. 

When  the  Jews  returned  from  the 
Captivity  with  a  spirit  more  exclusive 
than  ever,  the  contrast  between  Jew  and 
Samaritan  was  very  strongly  marked. 
The  Samaritans  wished  to  have  a  share 
in  rebuilding  the  temple,  but  the  Jews 
refused  to  allow  them  to  co-operate.  The 
breach  widened,  and  the  Samaritans  suc- 
ceeded in  hindering  the  work  at  Jeru- 
salem by  misrepresentations  to  the  Per- 
sian kings.  Ezr.  4;  Neh.  4,  6. 

At  length  the  opposition  culminated 
in  the  setting  up  of  a  rival  temple  by 
the  Samaritans  on  Mount  Gerizim.  The 
occasion  of  this  seems  to  have  been  the 
expulsion  from  Jerusalem  by  Nehemiah 
of  a  son  of  the  high  priest,  who  was  a 
son-in-law  of  Sanballat.  Neh.  13  :  28. 
According  to  Josephus,  the  person  ex- 
pelled was  Manasseh,  whose  father-in- 
law,  Sanballat,  obtained  from  Alexander 
the  Great  permission  to  erect  the  temple. 
But  the  temple  was  probably  erected  at 
an  eai-lier  date.  After  this  time  the  city 
of  Samaria  declined,  and  Shechem  in- 
creased in  importance.  This  temple 
was  destroyed  by  John  Hyrcanus  after 
standing  for  two  hundred  years. 

Conflicts  between  the  Jews  and  the 
Samaritans  were  frequent.  A  party 
of  Samaritans  defiled  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem  with  bones  of  the  dead. 
There  was  a  general  insurrection  among 
them  in  the  time  of  Pilate,  whose  severity 
resulted  in  his  removal  from  office.     A 


crowd  arrayed  themselves  against  Ves- 
pasian, and  he  slew  11,600  of  them. 
The  bitter  animosity  between  the  two 
races  must  be  understood  in  order  to 
comprehend  many  facts  in  the  N.  T. 
history.  Thus  the  Galileans  avoided 
going  through  Samaria,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, in  their  journeys  to  Jerusalem, 
since  they  were  exposed  to  insult,  as- 
sault, and  even  danger  of  death.  The 
Seventy  were  not  to  go  among  the 
Samaritans,  Matt.  10  :  5,  and  the  in- 
hospitality  of  that  people  excited  the 
blazing  indignation  of  James  and  John. 
Luke  9  :  52-5(5.  Yet  Jesus  showed 
himself  to  be  far  superior  to  the  narrow 
feeling  of  race  by  his  parable  of  the 
Good  Samaritan,  Luke  10  :  30,  37  ;  his 
commendation  of  the  healed  Samaritan, 
Luke  17  :  11-19;  and  his  conversation 
with  the  woman  of  Samaria.  John  4  : 
1-42.  This  interview  throws  light  upon 
the  Samaritan  character  and  claims. 
The  woman  asserts  for  them  Abrahamic 
descent — ''our  father  Jacob" — but  this 
the  Jews  would  not  allow.  It  was  prob- 
able that  the  people  had  become  more 
and  more  of  a  mixed  blood,  since,  ac- 
cording to  .Tosephus,  many  renegade, 
apostate,  and  law-breaking  Jews  sought 
refuge  among  the  Samaritans.  The 
gospel  gained  some  success  there.  Acts 
1:8;  8  :  5-26.  But  most  of  the  Sa- 
maritans adhered  to  their  old  religion, 
and  therefore  frequently  came  into  col- 
lision with  Christianity  and  with  the 
Roman  emperors,  particularly  in  A.  D. 
529.  About  this  time  they  martyred 
Christians  and  destroyed  churches. 
Justinian  subdued  them  and  slew  many 
of  the  insurgents.  During  the  Crusades 
they  are  not  mentioned.  In  the  twelfth 
century  Benjamin  of  Tudela  found  about 
a  thousand  adherents  of  the  sect  of  the 
Samaritans  at  Nabltis,  and  a  few  also 
at  Ascalon,  Ctesarea,  and  Damascus. 
During  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  various  letters  passed  between 
the  Samaritans  and  Western  scholars  in 
regard  to  their  Pentateuch. 

Present  CnvrJiiion. — The  only  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Samaritans  are  found 
in  a  community  living  at  Nablds 
(Shechem).  and  consisting  of  some  forty 
to  fifty  families.  They  possess  the  Pen- 
tateuch, in  the  old  Hebrew  or  Samaritan 
writing,  which  has  attracted  great  at- 
tention from  scholars  as  a  very  ancient 

761 


SAM 


SAM 


version.  Three  times  a  year,  at  the  feast 
of  unleavened  bread,  the  feast  of  weeks, 
and  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  they  make  a 


Cylinder  enclosine  tlie  Samaritan  Pentateuch 
at  Nablus. 

pilgrimage  to  the  sacred  Mount  Gerizim. 
They  celebrate  all  the  Mosaic  festivals, 
and  at  the  Passover  they  offer  sacrifices. 
SAMAR'ITANS,  the  inhabitants 
of  Samaria,  2  Kgs.  17  :  29,  but  in  the 
N.  T.  the  term  is  applied  to  the  people 
762 


that  were  planted  in  Samaria,  in  the 
place  of  the  exiled  Israelites,  by  the 
Assyrian  king.  2  Kgs.  17  :  24.  This 
defiled  origin,  Ezr.  4:1,  the  course 
pursued  by  the  Samaritans  before  the 
Persian  kings,  Neh.  4  :  1,  connected 
with  their  construction  of  the  Mosaic 
Law,  Deut.  27  :  11-13,  and  their  sepa- 
ration from  the  Jews  in  their  place  of 
worship,  Luke  9  :  52,  63 ;  John  4  :  20, 
21,  rendered  the  animosity  between  them 
very  bitter.  Matt.  10  :  5  ;  John  4:9;  and 
hence  the  very  name  ''  Samaritan  "  was, 
with  the  Jew,  a  term  of  reproach  and  con- 
tempt. John  8  :  48.  The  Samaritans  ex- 
pected a  Messiah.  John  4 :  25.  and  many 
of  them  followed  Christ.  Acts  8:1:  9': 
31  ;  15  :  3.  See  Samaria.  Kingdom  of. 
SAM'GAR-NE'BO  (su-ord  of 
Nebo),  a  Babylonish  prince.  Jer.  39  :  3. 
SAM'LAH  (garment),  an  ancient 
Edomite  king.  Gen.  36  :  36,  37  ;  1  Chr. 
1  :  47,  48. 

SA'MOS  (a  height),  an  island  in  the 
^gean  Sea,  a  few  miles  from  the  main 
land,  and  42  miles  south-west  of  Smyrna, 
The  island  is  27  miles  long,  1 0  miles  wide, 
and  has  an  area  of  165  square  miles.  It 
was  the  seat  of  Juno-worship,  the  birth- 
place of  Pythagoras,  and  noted  for  its 
valuable  pottery.  Paul  visited  the  island 
on  his  third  missionary  journey.  Acts 
20  :  16.  Samos  was  then  the  capital  of 
the  island.  Two  miles  to  the  west  was 
the  temple  of  Juno  :  there  was  a  sacred 
way,  which  can  still  be  traced,  from  the 
city  to  the  temple.  The  modern  name 
of  the  port  at  which  Paul  landed  is  Ti- 
qaiii.  The  island  now  contains  about 
60,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its 
productions  of  oil,  wine,  oranges,  grapes, 
raisins,  and  silk. 

SAMOTHRA'CIA  (Thracian  Sa- 
mos), an  island  in  the  north-eastern  part 
of  the  J-lgean  Sea,  and  a  conspicuous 
landmark  to  sailors.  It  is  8  miles  long 
and  6  miles  broad.  Homer  says  that 
from  its  lofty  ridges  the  battlefield  of 
Troy  might  be  seen,  and  one  of  its 
mountains  has  an  elevation  of  6248  feet, 
affording  a  wide  vieAV.  Paul  visited  it 
on  his  first  missionary  journey.  Acts  16  : 
11.  The  island  is  still  called  Samoihraki, 
and  contains  from  1000  to  2000  inhabit- 
ants, subieet  to  Turkey. 

SAM'SON  isunlihe),  son  of  Manoah, 
of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  and  for  twenty  years 
a  judge  of  Israel.    The  circumstances  at- 


SAM 


SAM 


tending  the  annunciation  of  his  birth 
are  remarkable.  Jiul.  13  :  3-23.  See 
Manoah.  He  was  distinguished  for  his 
gigantic  strength,  and  is  the  Hercules 
of  the  Hebrews.  Contrary  to  the  wishes 
of  his  parents,  who  were  observers  of 
the  Law,  Ex.  34  :  16:  Deut.  7  :  3,  he 
married  a  woman  of  Timnath.  a  Philis- 
tine city.  On  his  way  to  that  city  he 
slew  a  lion,  Jud.  14  :  5-9,  and  afterward 
found  in  the  carcass  of  the  beast  a  swarna 
of  bees,  and  he  ate  of  the  honey  himself 
and  took  some  to  his  parents.  This  oc- 
currence gave  rise  to  an  enigma,  which 
he  propounded  at  his  marriage-feast, 
promising  a  valuable  present  to  any  who 
would  solve  it  within  seven  daj^s,  pro- 
vided they  would  make  a  like  present  to 
him  if  they  failed.  Unable  to  solve  the 
riddle  themselves,  they  resorted  to  Sam- 
son's wife,  who,  by  the  most  urgent  en- 
treaties, had  obtained  from  him  a  solu- 
tion of  it.  By  cruel  threats  they  extort- 
ed from  her  the  secret,  and  told  it  to  him. 
But  he  knew  their  treachery  ;  and,  though 
he  kept  his  word  and  made  them  the 
present,  it  was  at  the  expense  of  the 
lives  of  thirty  of  their  countrymen. 
He  also  forsook  his  wife,  who  had  been 
thus  false  to  him.      See  Riddle. 

On  returning  to  Timnath  with  a  view 
to  a  reconciliation  with  his  wife,  he  found 
she  had  married  again,  and  he  was  not 
permitted  to  see  her.  He  immediately 
caught  three  hundred  foxes,  and,  fasten- 
ing a  firebrand  to  every  pair  of  them, 
let  them  loose  upon  the  fields  and  vine- 
yards of  the  Philistines,  and  spread  fire 
and  desolation  over  the  country.  The 
Philistines,  to  be  avenged,  set  fire  to  the 
house  where  Samson's  wife  lived,  and  she 
and  her  father  were  burnt  in  it.  This 
wanton  barbarity  again  drew  upon  them 
the  vengeance  of  Samson,  who  came  upon 
them  and  routed  them  with  immense 
slaughter.  Jud.  15  :  1-8. 

He  then  took  up  his  abode  on  the  rock 
Etam,  in  the  territory  of  Judah,  whither 
the  Philistines  came  to  revenge  them- 
selves, laying  waste  the  country  on  every 
side.  Three  thousand  of  the  men  of  Ju- 
dah remonstrated  with  Samson  for  thus 
exciting  the  resentment  of  the  Philis- 
tines, and  he  consented  that  they  should 
bind  him  and  deliver  him  into  their 
hands.  This  they  did ;  but  in  the 
midst  of  their  exultations  he  burst  his 
bands  and  fell  upon  his  enemies,  put- 


ting a  thousand  of  them  to  death  and 
the  residue  to  flight.  Jud.  15  :  9-19.  It 
was  on  this  occasion  that  he  was  mirac- 
ulously su])plied  with  water  from  a  foun- 
tain oj)ened  on  the  spot — not  in  the  jaw- 
bone with  which  he  had  slain  the  Philis- 
tines, but  in  the  place  where  the  bone  was 
found  and  used.  Jud.  15:  17,  margin. 

His  sensual  nature  betrayed  him  into 
an  illicit  connection  with  a  woman  in 
Gaza.  His  enemies  meanwhile  sur- 
rounded the  place,  expecting  to  kill 
him  in  the  morning,  but  at  midnight  he 
arose  and  carried  off"  the  gates  of  the 
city.  Jud.  16  :  3.  After  this,  Samson 
went  to  the  valley  of  Sorek,  where  he 
attached  himself  to  Delilah,  a  mercenary 
woman,  by  whom,  after  a  variety  of  arts 
and  stratagems,  the  secret  of  his  great 
strength  was  discovered  to  lie  in  the 
preservation  of  his  hair,  for  he  was  a 
Nazarite.  Jud.  16  :  17.  The  Philistines 
came  upon  him  "while  he  was  asleep,  re- 
moved his  hair,  bound  him  with  fetters 
of  brass,  put  out  his  eyes,  carried  him 
to  Gaza,  and  threw  him  into  prison. 
Having  thus  secured  their  formidable 
foe,  the  Philistine  nobles  assembled  for 
a  feast  of  joy,  and,  to  add  to  their  mer- 
riment, they  proposed  to  have  Samson 
brought.  So  a  lad  led  him  in  and  sat 
him  down  between  the  two  main  pillars 
of  the  house  where  the  nobles  and  a 
multitude  of  people,  both  men  and 
women,  were  assembled,  besides  three 
thousand  persons  upon  the  roofs  of  the 
cloisters  around,  beholding  the  cruel 
sport.  Samson  requested  the  lad  who 
had  charge  of  him  to  let  him  rest  him- 
self against  the  pillars  on  either  side  of 
him.  This  being  granted,  he  prayed  for 
strength,  and,  laying  hold  of  the  pillars, 
he  bowed  with  all  his  might,  carrying 
the  pillars  and  the  whole  structure  with 
him,  and  burying  himself  and  the  vast 
multitude  within  and  around  the  courts 
in  one  common  destruction.  Samson  is 
ranked  with  the  heroes  of  the  faithful. 
Heb.  11 :  32,  33.  But  we  must,  of  course, 
not  judge  him  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
N.  T.  He  lived  in  the  wild  anarchical  pe- 
riod of  the  Judges,  when  might  was  right, 
and  he  was  just  the  man  for  that  time. 

SAM'UEL  {heard  of  God),  the  son 
of  Elkanah  and  Hannah,  was  a  celebra- 
ted Hebrew  prophet,  and  the  last  of  their 
judges.  He  is  one  of  the  purest  and 
noblest  characters  in  the  0.  T.  history. 

763 


SAN 


SAN 


While  he  was  a  child  he  officiated  in  some 
form  in  the  temple,  and  was  favored  with 
revelations  of  the  divine  will  respecting 
the  famil}'  of  Eli,  the  high  priest,  under 
whose  care  and  training  his  mother  had 
placed  him.  1  Sam.  3  :  4-14.     See  Eli. 

After  the  death  of  Eli,  Samuel  was  ac- 
knowledged as  a  prophet,  and  soon  com- 
menced a  work  of  reformation.  Idolatry 
was  banished,  the  worship  of  the  true 
God  was  restored,  and  Samuel  was  pub- 
licly recognized  as  a  judge  in  Israel. 
Residing  on  his  patrimonial  estate  in 
Ramah,  he  made  annual  circuits  through 
the  country  to  administer  justice  until  his 
infirmities  forbade  it,  and  then  he  de- 
puted his  sons  to  execute  this  duty. 
They  proved  themselves  unworthy  of 
the  trust,  and  so  general  was  the  dissat- 
isfaction of  the  people  that  they  deter- 
mined on  a  change  of  government.  To 
this  end  they  applied  to  Samuel,  who, 
under  the  divine  direction,  anointed 
Saul  to  be  their  king,  and  Samuel  re- 
signed his  authority  to  him.  1  Sam.  12. 
After  Saul  was  rejected  for  his  disobe- 
dience in  the  matter  of  Agag,  Samuel 
was  instructed  to  anoint  David  as  king, 
after  which  he  returned  to  Ramah,  where 
he  died.  1  Sam.  25  :  1.     See  Saul. 

First  and  Second  Books  of,  are  called 
also  the  First  and  Second  Books  of  Kings. 
They  bear  Samuel's  name,  perhaps  be- 
cause he  wrote  the  history  of  his  own 
times  as  given  in  the  First  Book,  and 
therefore  the  entire  work  went  under  his 
name.  But  it  is  more  probable  that  the 
name  was  in  consequence  of  Samuel  be- 
ing the  hero  of  the  first  part  of  the  his- 
tory, and  that  the  author  belonged  to  a 
later  period.  The  Hebrew  is  singularly 
clear  and  pure  from  Aramaisms. 

The  two  books  are  thus  analyzed  in 
Lange's  Chmnieutarj/ :  1st  part:  Sam- 
uel's life  and  work  as  judge  and  proph- 
et. 1  Sam.  1  :  1-7.  2d  part:  Saul,  chs. 
8-31 :  (1)  Founding  of  kingdom,  his  ap- 
pointment, chs.  8-15  ;  (2)  His  fall.  Chs. 
16-31.  3d  part :  David.  2  Samuel : 
1st  part :  David  king  over  Judah  only, 
2  Sam.  1-5  :  5.  2d  part :  David  king 
over  all  Israel.   Chs.  5  :  6-24. 

These  books  formed  only  one  in  the 
Hebrew  canon.  They  are  the  antece- 
dents to  the  books  of  the  Kings,  but  are 
not  from  the  same  hand.  ''In  Kings 
are  many  express  references  to  the  Law  ; 
in  Samuel,  none.  In  Kings  the  Exile  is 
764 


often  alluded  to ;  it  is  not  so  in  Samuel. 
The  plans  of  the  two  works  vary.  Sam- 
uel has  more  of  a  biographical  cast; 
Kings  more  the  character  of  annals." 

SANBAL'LAT  (a  hero/),  a  native 
of  Horonaim,  in  Moab,  who  sadly  im- 
peded the  efforts  of  the  Jews  to  rebuild 
the  walls  of  the  city  by  inciting  a  move- 
ment on  the  j)art  of  the  Arabians  and 
others  who  comprised  the  "  army  of  Sa- 
maria," which  apparently  Sanballat  com- 
manded. Neh.  4  :  2.  After  Nehemiah's 
departure  he  insinuated  himself  suffi- 
ciently with  the  high  priest  to  be  able 
to  marry  his  daughter  to  the  high  priest's 
grandson.  But  Nehemiah,  returning, 
promptly  deposed  the  latter.  13  :  28. 
We  have  no  further  biblical  information 
about  him. 

SANCTIFY  is  to  prepare  or  set 
apart  persons  or  things  to  a  holy  use. 
Ex.  13  :  2.  The  term  '' sanctification," 
when  applied  to  men,  denotes  the  effect 
of  God's  Spirit  upon  the  soul.  It  com- 
prehends all  the  graces  of  knowledge, 
faith,  love,  repentance,  humility,  etc., 
and  the  exercise  of  them  toward  God 
and  man.  2  Thess.  2:13;  1  Pet.  1  :  2. 
It  is  a  process  by  which  the  soul  is 
cleansed  from  the  pollution  and  deliv- 
ered from  the  power  of  sin,  and  at  the 
same  time  endued  with  those  spiritual 
graces  above  named,  without  which  there 
could  be  no  taste  or  fitness  for  the  joys 
or  employments  of  the  heavenly  world. 
Heb.  12  :  14.  Sanctifieation  is  the  fruit 
of  union  to  Christ  by  faith,  and  it  is  in 
the  knowledge  and  belief  of  the  truth 
as  it  is  in  Jesus  that  the  soul  becomes 
the  subject  of  the  sanctifying  influences 
of  the  Spirit.  John  17  :  17.  From  this 
inward  sanctifieation  proceeds  every  good 
wordandwork.  Tit. 2:11-14.  WhenChrist 
speaks  of  sanctifying  himself,  John  17  : 
19,  it  is  in  allusion  to  the  law  which  re- 
quired the  sacrifice  to  be.  set  apart  to  a 
holy  use.  He  separates  or  dedicates  him- 
self as  a  sacrifice  to  God  for  them. 

SANCTUARY,  a  holy  or  sanctified 
place.  Ps.  20  :  2.  By  this  name  that  part 
of  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  was  called 
which  was  the  most  secret  and  most  re- 
tired, in  which  was  the  ark  of  the  cove- 
nant, and  where  none  but  the  high  priest 
might  enter,  and  he  only  once  a  year,  on 
the  day  of  solemn  expiation.  Lev.  4  :  6. 
It  is  also  applied  to  the  furniture  of  this 
holy  place.  Num.  10  :  21,  the  apartment 


RAN 


SAN 


where  the  golden  candlestick,  table  of 
8hew-bread,  altar  of  incense,  etc.,  stood, 
2  Chr.  26  :  18,  and  to  the  whole  taber- 
nacle or  temple.  Josh.  24 :  26 ;  2  Chr. 
20  :  8.  It  is  called  the  "  sanctuary  of 
strength,"  because  it  was  a  strong  place 
and  easily  fortified,  and  it  belonged  to 
God,  the  Strength  of  Israel,  Dan.  11  :  31 ; 
a  **  worldly  sanctuary,"  as  it  was  of  a 
carnal  and  earthly  typical  nature.  Heb. 
9:1.  It  is  also  applied  to  any  place 
appointed  for  the  public  worship  of  Grod, 
Ps.  73  :  17;  to  heaven,  where  God  and 
his  holy  angels  and  saints  for  ever  dwell, 
Ps,  102:  19;  and,  in  allusion  to  the 
Jewish  sanctuary,  whose  brazen  altar 
protected  petty  criminals,  a  place  of  ref- 
uge and  shelter  is  called  a  "  sanctuary," 
Isa.  8  :  14;  Eze.  11  :  16.  The  land  of 
Israel  was  called  God's  sanctuary.  Ex. 
15  :  17  ;  comp.  Ps.  78  :  54 ;  114  :  2. 

SAND  (from  a  root  meaning  to  lohirl). 
The  wastes  of  Palestine  consist  mainly 
of  parched  soil  and  gravel.  Sand  oc- 
curs only  along  the  shores  of  the  seas 
and  rivers.  It  is  found  in  some  parts 
of  the  desert  of  Sinai,  and  abundantly 
in  Egypt.  On  the  west  especially  the 
Nile  valley  is  ever  menaced  by  "  the 
sands  of  the  African  desert — sands  and 
sand-drifts  which  in  purity,  in  bright- 
ness, in  firmness,  in  destructiveness,  are 
the  snows  and  glaciers  of  the  south." — 
Stanley.  The  pyramids  and  most  of  the 
ancient  remains  of  Egypt  stand  upon  the 
edge  of  the  whirling  sand-wastes,  and 
therefore  are  liable  to  be  covered  up, 
as  indeed  many  have  been.  Here  all 
stirring  of  the  surface  is  quickly  and 
utterly  obliterated.  Ex.  2  :  12.  God  has 
placed  the  sand  for  a  bound  of  the  sea 
by  a  perpetual  decree.  Jer.  5  :  22. 

Sand  is  also  figuratively  used  to  de- 
note an  innumerable  multitude  or  great 
abundance.  Gen.  32  :  12  ;  41  :  49,  and 
also  that  which  is  heavy.  Job  6:3; 
Prov.  27  :  3.  Issachar  was  to  "  suck 
of  the  abundance  of  the  seas  and  of 
treasures  hid  in  the  sand."  Deut.  33  : 
19.  Some  authorities  find  here  an 
allusion  to  the  great  value  of  the 
sand  of  the  river  Belus,  near  Acre,  for 
the  manufacture  of  glass.  But  in  this 
sand  the  mollusk  (Mnrex  triincnliis)  used 
for  the  purple  dye  is  abundant,  and  vast 
quantities  of  crushed  shells  attest  the 
ancient  productiveness  of  this  industry 
at    Acre.      Lieut.    Conder    understands 


these  to  be  the  ''treasures  hid  in  the 
sand,"  and  claims  this  to  be  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  Jewish  rabbis. 

SAN'D  ALS.  Mark  6  :  9.  SeeCLOTHES. 

SAN'HKDRIIV,  incorrectly  but  com- 
monly SAN'HEDRIM.  The  word  is 
a  Hebrew  transliteration  from  the  Greek 
word  syiieclriou,  which  means  "council." 
The  Sanhedrin  was  the  highest  council 
of  the  Jews.  When  it  was  founded  is 
uncertain.  The  Jews  trace  back  to  the 
time  of  Moses,  and  see  its  beginning  in 
the  elders.  Others  see  the  germ  in  the 
tribunal  established  by  Jehoshaphat.  2 
Chr.  19  :  8-11.  But  much  more  likely 
the  Sanhedrin  dates  from  the  extinction 
of  the  Great  Synagogue,  and  therefore  is 
after  the  Captivity  and  Return ;  some  put 
it  down  so  low  as  B.  c.  107.  We  must 
distinguish  between  two  kinds  of  San- 
hedrin— the  provincial,  which  was  com- 
posed of  twenty-three  members  in  every 
town  of  120,  and  of  three  where  there 
was  a  smaller,  population,  and  the  Great 
Sanhedrin,  which  numbered  seventy-one 
and  was  governed  by  a  nasi,  or  president, 
and  two  vice-presidents ;  besides,  there 
were  secretaries  and  other  officers.  It 
met  in  a  room  adjoining  the  temple,  and 
the  seats  were  arranged  in  the  form  of  a 
semicircle.  After  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem it  removed  to  Tabneh,  and  finally 
to  Tiberias,  where  it  became  extinct,  A.  d. 
425.  It  had  greatly  changed  its  cha- 
racter before  it  ended.  It  appears,  from 
the  statements  in  the  Talmud,  that  Her- 
od put  all  the  Great  Sanhedrin  to  death 
except  one.  But,  although  this  be  false, 
the  complexion  of  the  body  was  altered 
for  the  worse.  Indeed,  some  say  that  the 
Sanhedrin  really  did  not  exist  in  Christ's 
day,  but  the  council  which  arrogated  to 
itself  this  name  was  "  an  arbitrary,  in- 
competent, and  special  gathering."  But 
in  its  glory  it  was  the  supreme  privy 
council  of  the  Jews — not  only  their 
court  of  final  appeal  and  last  resort,  but 
also  an  executive  and  legislative  assem- 
bly, shaping  the  general  polity  of  the 
nation.  Its  power  in  matters  civil  and 
religious  was  practically  unlimited.  It 
decided  all  cases  brought  upon  appeal 
from  the  lower  courts ;  it  had  authority 
over  kings  and  high  priests  ;  in  it  was 
vested  the  trial  of  heresy,  idolatry,  false 
prophets;  and  it  alone  had  power  to 
pronounce  the  sentence  of  death.  When 
the  Jews  came  under  the  Roman  govern- 

765 


SAN 


SAR 


ment  the  range  of  its  jurisdiction  was 
decreased.  Tlie  death  power,  according 
to  Talmiidic  tradition,  was  taken  from 
it  three  3'ears  before  the  death  of  Christ. 
Owing  to  its  altered  character,  it  declined 
in  influence  until  its  extinction  was  no 
loss.  The  Sanhedrin  consisted  of  the  three 
classes,  the  priests,  the  elders,  and  the 
scribes.  The  confirmation  and  execution 
of  a  capital  sentence  rested  with  the 
Roman  procurator.  The  Gospels  truth- 
fully, therefore,  relate  that,  while  Christ 
was  condemned  by  the  Sanhedrin  for 
blasphemy,  he  was  accused  by  the  Jews 
of  treason,  and  thus  brought  under  Ro- 
man judgment.  Cf.  Matt.  26  :  65,  66; 
John  '19  :  12 ;  also  18  :  31  :  "  It  is  not 
lawful  for  us  to  put  any  man  to  death." 
The  stoning  of  Stephen,  Acts  7  :  57-59,  was 
either  tumultuous  or  else,  if  ordered  by 
the  Sanhedrin,  illegal,  as  Josephus  {Ant. 
XX.  9^1)  expressly  declares  was  the  exe- 
cution of  James,  ''  the  Lord's  brother," 
A.  D.  62,  during  the  absence  of  Albinus, 
the  Roman  procurator.     See  Council. 

SANSAN'NAH  {palm-branch),  a 
place  in  the  Negeb,  or  "  south  country," 
Josh.  15  :  31 ;  also  called  "  Hazar-susah  " 
or  "  Susim,"  "horse-court" — that  is, 
"depot  of  horses."  Josh.  19  :  5  :  comp. 
1  Chr.  4  :  31.  Wilton  locates  it  in  the 
modern  Wddi/ es  Snny  ;  Conder,  at  i?e!7 
Shain,  15  miles  west  of  Jerusalem,  but 
this  seems  too  far  north. 

SAPH  {tall),  a  Philistine  giant,  2 
Sam.  21  :  18;    called    Sippai   in    1   Chr. 

20  :  4. 

SAPH'IR  {fair),  a  town  addressed 
by  the  prophet  Micah.  Mic.  1:11.  Ac- 
cording to  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  it  was 
in  the  mountain-district  between  Eleu- 
theropolis  and  Ascalon.  The  Pal.  Me- 
moirs suggest  es  Stidfir,  some  mud  vil- 
lages 5  miles  south-east  of  Eadud  (Ash- 
dod),  as  its  possible  site,  but  say  a  site 
in  the  hills  would  suit  better,  though  in 
other  respects  it  agrees  with  the  state- 
ments of  Eusebius  and  Jerome. 

SAPPHI'RA  {beautiful),  the  wife 
of  Ananias,  and  partner  in  his  guilt  and 
punishment.  Acts  5  :  1-11. 

SAP'PHIRE.  This  was  one  of 
the  precious  stones  of  the  high  priest's 
breastplate,  and  of  the  foundations  of 
the  Apocalyptic  city,  Ex.  28  :  18;  Rev. 

21  :  19,  and  is  often  mentioned  in  the  0. 
T.  It  was  certainly  of  a  blue  color.  Ex. 
24  :  10;  Eze.   1  :  26;    10  :  1.     But  it  is 

766 


generally  agreed  that  the  ordinary  sap- 
phire of  the  ancients  was  our  lapis-lazuli, 
an  opaque  mineral  of  a  dark  azure  hue. 

Some  scholars  still  hold  that  the  Bible 
references  require  a  transparent,  hard, 
and  valuable  gem  like  the  true  sapphire. 
This  stone  is  next  to  the  diamond  in  lus- 
tre, beauty,  and  hardness.  It  differs  only 
in  color  from  the  Oriental  ruby,  varying 
from  the  deepest  to  the  lightest  blue,  and 
even  to  ]Hire  white.  See  Stones,  Precious. 

SA'RA,  same  as  Sarah.  Heb.  11 :  11 ; 
1  Pet.  3  :  6. 

SA'RAH  {jyrinceso).  1.  The  half 
sister  and  wife  of  Abraham,  called 
"  Sarai  "  down  to  Gen.  17:  15,  when  God 
changed  her  name  from  "my  princess," 
as  for  Abraham,  to  "princess,"  for  all 
the  race.  In  addition  to  the  notice  of  her 
in  the  article  Abraham,  it  may  be  proper 
to  say  that  she  as  well  as  Abraham  was 
the  subject  of  special  promises.  Gen.  17  : 
16.  Her  conduct  in  Egypt,  Gen.  12  :  15, 
and  toward  Hagar,  Gen.  16  :  6  ;  21  :  10, 
and  also  when  Isaac  was  promised.  Gen. 
18  :  15,  evinced  great  weakness,  but  her 
exemplarv  faith  is  commended  by  the 
apostles.  Heb.  11 :  11  :  1  Pet.  3  :  6.  She 
lived  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
years  of  age,  or  upward  of  thirty-six 
3ears  after  the  birth  of  Isaac,  and  was 
buried  in  a  field  of  Machpelah,  which 
Abraham  bought  for  the  purpose. 

2.  A  woman  mentioned  in  Num.  26 : 
46.     See  Serah. 

SA'RAI  {my  princess),  the  original 
name  of  Abraham's  wife,  Sarah,  which 
see.   Gen.  11:29. 

SA'RAPH  {hnrning),  a  descendant 
of  Judah.  1  Chr.  4  :  22. 

SAR'DINE,  Rev.  4  :  3,  or  SAR'- 
DIUS,  Ex.  28  :  17,  a  gem  of  a  blood- 
red  or  flesh  color,  susceptible  of  a  high 
polish,  and  also  called  "  sard  "  or  "  car- 
nelian."  Its  former  name  it  obtains 
from  Sardis,  in  Asia  Minor,  where  it 
was  first  found.  This  stone  has  long 
been  a  favorite  for  the  engraver's  art. 
"  On  this  stone  all  the  finest  works  of 
the  most  celebrated  artists  are  to  be 
found ;  and  this  not  without  good  cause, 
such  is  its  toughness,  facility  of  work- 
ing, beauty  of  color,  and  the  high  polish 
of  which  it  is  susceptible,  and  which 
Pliny  states  that  it  retains  longer  than 
any  other  gem." — King:   Antique  Gems. 

SAR'DIS,  a  city  in  Asia  Minor,  and 
the  capital  of  Lydia.     Sardis  was  situ- 


SAR 


SAR 


ated  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tuiolus,  about 
50  miles  north-east  of  Smyrna  and  30 
miles  south-east  of  Thyatira.  It  was 
on  the  river  Pactolus,  celebrated  for  its 
"  golden  sands,"  and  some  2  miles  from 
the  river  Hermes.  The  site  was  one  of 
great  beauty. 

Ilisfori/. — Sardis  had  great  celebrity  as 
the  residence  of  the  famous  Croesus,  whose 
name  is  the  synonym  for  riches.  AVhen 
Cyrus  conquered  him,  B.C.  548,  he  is  said 
to  have  taken  treasure  of  the  value  of 
$600,000,000.  The  Persians  kept  a  gar- 
rison in  the  citadel.  Alexander  gained 
possession  of  the  city  after  the  battle  of 
Uranieus,  and  garrisoned  it.  Antiochus 
the  Great  sacked  the  city,  b.  c.  214  :  af- 
terward it  was  subject  to  the  kings  of 
Pergamos.  An  earthquake  destroyed  it 
in  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  a.  d.  17,  but  it 
was  rebuilt,  the  emperor  remitting  the 
tribute  for  five  years  and  granting  the 
money  to  assist  in  reconstructing  the 
city.  The  prosperity  of  Sardis  arose 
from  its  convenience  as  a  commercial 
mart  and  prosperous  manufactures.  The 
art  of  dyeing  wool  was  discovered  there. 
Sardis  was  the  seat  of  one  of  the  seven 
churches  of  Asia,  and  the  Christians 
seem  to  have  been  so  corrupted  by  the 
prevailing  worldliness  that  they  receiv- 
ed a  severe  rebuke.  Rev.  3  :  1-5. 

Present  Condition. — The  ruins  of  Sar- 
dis are  now  called  Se.rt-Kalessi.  Among 
the  remains  are  two  massive  columns 
over  6  feet  in  diameter,  standing  up- 
right, and  supposed  to  have  belonged  to 
the  massive  temple  of  Cybele;  the  sen- 
ate-house, called  the  house  of  Croesus, 
having  one  hall  156  feet  long  by  43 
broad,  with  walls  10  feet  thick.  A 
Roman  sarcophagus  has  lately  been 
discovered,  a  famous  tomb  of  Alyattes 
— one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world — a 
gigantic  mound,  several  tumuli,  and  Ro- 
man walls  in  ruins.  The  place  was  also 
famed  in  classic  story  for  the  '"golden 
sands "  of  Pactolus.  The  site  is  now 
very  unhealthy,  and  few,  if  any,  people 
inhabit  it. 

SAR'DITES,  the  descendants  of 
Sered,  son  of  Zebulun.   Num.  26  :  26. 

SAR'DIUS.  Ex.  28  :  17.  See  Sar- 
dine. 

SAR'DONYX,  only  mentioned  in 
Rev.  21 :  20.  Like  the  sardine,  this  stone 
is  a  variety  of  chalcedony.  The  sar- 
donyx combines  the  qualities  of  the  sard 


and  onyx,  whence  its  name.  In  this  gem 
as  used,  a  white  opaque  layer  rests  upon 
a  transparent  red  stratum,  as  King  states, 
or  the  reverse,  according  to  Pliny.  The 
sard  and  sardonyx  are  found  in  Judaia. 

SAUEP'TA  {iimeltin(j-hoiixe),  the 
Zarephath  of  the  0.  T.,  a  Phoenician 
town  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea  between 
Tyre  and  Sidon.  Luke  4  :  26.  It  is  now 
called  Sdrafend,  south  of  Sidon. 

SAR'GON  (in  Assyrian  Sarvukin, 
"established  is  the  king"),  the  suc- 
cessor of  Shalmaneser  and  father  of 
Sennicherib,  king  of  Assyria  by  usur- 
pation, B.  c.  722-705.  Of  his  existence 
nothing  was  known  for  many  centuries 
save  the  single  fact,  incidentally  stated 
by  Isaiah  as  the  mere  date  of  one  of  his 
prophecies,  that  Tartan  took  Ashdod  by 
command  of  Sargon.  Isa.  20  :  1.  The 
name  was  a  stumbling-block.  But  Isaiah 
was  correct,  and  to-day  the  buried  ruins 
of  the  Khorsabad  palace  attest  the  ac- 
curacy of  the  prophet.  From  excava- 
tions made  at  the  latter  place,  we  are 
able  to  form  a  chronology,  defective, 
however,  of  sixteen  of  the  seventeen 
years  of  his  reign.  These  ruins  prove 
him,  says  Prof.  Schrader,  the  distin- 
guished Assyriologisl-,  who  is  the  au- 
thority for  these  statements,  "to  have 
made  a  quite  unmistakable  progress  in 
originality  and  fineness  of  design,  in 
neatness  of  execution  and  variety  of 
pattern."  The  colored  enamelling  of 
bi'icks  was  carried  to  a  finish  unat- 
tained  in  later  Assyrian  history.  The 
reign  was  an  almost  unbroken  series  of 
military  triumphs;  all  the  nations  round 
felt  the  power  of  his  arm.  His  annals 
describe  his  expeditions  against  Babylon 
and  Susiana  on  the  south;  Media  on  the 
east:  Armenia  and  Cappadocia  on  the 
north ;  Syria,  Palestine,  Arabia,  and 
Egypt  on  the  west  and  south-west.  He 
had,  indeed,  very  able  generals,  of  whom 
Tartan  was  the  chief;  but  this  fiict  does 
not  detract  from  his  personal  glory. 

The  expedition  against  Philistia  in 
which  the  city  of  Ashdod  was  taken,  as 
Isaiah  mentions,  20  :  1,  took  place  in 
B.  c.  711.  But  this  was  not  the  first 
time  Sargon  was  near  Judah,  for  in  B.  c. 
720  he  conducted  an  expedition  against 
Egypt,  and  in  the  year  before  he  took 
Samaria,  carrj'ing  away  part  of  the  in- 
habitants. 2 'Kgs.  17:  6;  18  :  9-11. 
"  The  king  of  Assyria"  referred  to  is  not 

767 


SAR 


SAU 


Shalmaneser,  but  Sargon,  who  claims  it, 
and  the  indefiniteness  about  18  :  10: — 
•'  they  took  it  " — agrees  with  the  inscrip- 
tions, and  shows  that  during  the  siege 
Sargon  became  king.  The  inscriptions 
show  further  that  Judah  was  already  a 
vassal  of  Sargon  at  the  time  of  the  siege 
of  Ashdod.  For  the  interesting  account 
of  this  event  given  by  the  conqueror  him- 
self see  Smith  ( George ),  Assi/rian  Discov- 
eries, pp.  289-292.  The  next  year  after 
this  important  capture  Sargon  turned  his 
arms  against  Merodach- baladan,  king 
of  Babylon,  and  reduced  him  to  vas- 
salage. In  B.  c.  707  he  completed  the 
building  of  the  palace  of  Khorsabad, 
which  was  near  Nineveh,  and  in  this 
magnificent  building,  in  B.  c.  705,  he 
was  murdered. 

SA'RID  (o  siirrivor),  a  landmark  in 
the  boundary  of  Zebulun.  Josh.  19  : 
10,  12.  The  Syriac  version  reads  "  As- 
dod,"  and  the  Septuagint  reads  "  Sed- 
douk."  Conder  suggests  that  Sarid  may 
be  identical  with  7'ell  Shaditd,  on  the 
north  side  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon, 
south-west  of  Nazareth. 

SA'RON.  Acts  9  :  35.     See  Sharon. 

SARSE'CHIM,  the  chief  of  the 
eunuchs  in  Nebuchadnezzar's  army  at 
the  taking  of  Jerusalem.  Jer.  39  :  3. 

SA'RUCH.  Luke  3:  35.  SeeSERUc. 

SA'TAN  [adversary),  the  adversary 
of  God  and  man,  the  foe  to  goodness,  and 
the  author  of  evil.  The  references  in 
Scripture  to  Satan,  but  not  commonly  by 
this  name,  are  numerous.  The  proper 
name  appears  five  times  in  the  0.  T. — 1 
Chr.  21  :  1  :  Job  1  :  6,  12 ;  2:1,-  Zech. 
3:1;  in  the  N.  T.  twenty-five  times ; 
the  word  "devil"  occurs  twenty-five 
times;  "the  prince  of  this  world,"  three 
times;  "the  wicked  one,"  six  times; 
"  the  tempter,"  twice.  In  one  remark- 
able verse  several  epithets  are  combined 
— the  old  serpent,  the  devil,  and  Satan, 
who  deceiveth  the  whole  world.  Rev. 
12  :  9.  The  most  striking  mention  of 
Satan  is  in  Job,  where  he  appears 
among  "  the  sons  of  God."  This  is  in 
itself  sufficient  to  prove  the  subordina- 
tion of  the  powers  of  evil  unto  God  and 
the  permissive  nature  of  sin,  and  Satan 
has  no  authority  to  vex  save  as  God 
grants  it.  The  existence  of  Satan  is  a 
perpetual  menace  to  godliness,  but  by 
resisting  him  we  put  him  to  flight  and 
deepen  our  moral  nature. 
768 


SA'TYR,  a  fabled  creature  of  Greek 
mythology,  compounded  of  a  man  and  a 
goat,  and  supposed  to  be  the  deity  of 
forests  and  rural  places.  Isa.  13  :  21  ;  34: 
14.  The  expression  "satyrs  shall  dance 
there,"  etc.,  denotes  that  the  place  shall 
become  as  a  rude,  wild,  uncultivated 
waste.  It  is  possible  that  after  the  des- 
olation of  Babylon  some  species  of  ape 
or  baboon  may  have  been  found  in  that 
region,  and  may  be  meant  by  this  word. 

SAUL  [desired).  1.  A  king  of  Edom. 
Gen.  36  :  37,  38;  called  Shaul  in  1  Chr. 
1 :  48,  49. 

2.  The  first  king  of  Israel,  the  son  of 
Kish,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  His 
personal  appearance  was  so  remarkably 
fine  and  noble  as  to  be  particularly  men- 
tioned by  the  sacred  historian.  His 
search  for  his  father's  asses  was  the  oc- 
casion of  his  visit  to  Samuel,  whom  he 
consulted  as  a  "seer,"  on  the  advice  of 
his  servant.  Samuel,  having  been  divine- 
ly admonished  of  the  approach  of  Saul 
and  instructed  what  to  do,  invited  him 
to  his  house  and  treated  him  with  marked 
distinction.  The  next  day  Samuel  made 
known  to  him  privately  that  he  was  to 
have  the  rule  over  Israel,  and  while  they 
were  in  the  way  he  took  a  vial  of  oil, 
and,  pouring  it  on  his  head,  anointed 
him  for  the  regal  office.  To  convince  Saul 
that  this  thing  was  of  the  Lord,  Samuel 
predicted  three  signs,  the  last  Saul's 
power  to  "  prophesy,"  which  would  be 
fulfilled  on  his  home-journey.  The  events 
happened  as  Samuel  had  foretold  and 
Saul  prophesied.  By  prophecy  we  are  to 
here  understand  excited  proclaiming  or 
singing,  an  d  n  ot  a  foretellin  g  of  the  future. 
1  Sam.  9;  10  :  1-16.  At  this  point  we 
are  obliged  to  depart  from  the  order  in 
First  Samuel.  The  brutal  insult  of  Na- 
hash  was  avenged  by  Israel  under  the 
leadership  of  Saul,  who  from  his  home 
at  Gibeah,  whither  he  had  gone  after  his 
secret  anointing,  sends  an  urgent  order 
upon  every  man  in  the  nation  to  follow 
him.  Some  330,000  assembled  under  his 
leadership,  and  a  great  victory  was 
gained.  Ch.  11.  Thus  the  Lord  pre- 
pared the  way  for  Saul's  acceptance  by 
the  people  as  their  king.  Ch.  10  :  17-25. 
At  first,  Saul  lived  unpretendingly,  al- 
most as  a  private  citizen — indeed,  his 
sway  seems  to  have  been  limited.  But 
after  a  little  while  (comp.  10  :  26,  27 :  13  : 
2)  he  lived  in  more  regal  fashion.     It  is 


SAU 


SCH 


impossible  to  say  how  old  he  was  at  this 
time,  but  perhaps  about  forty  years.  He 
was  emphatically  a  military  king,  and  so 
successful  was  he  that  the  borders  of 
Israel  must  have  been  considerably  en- 
larged and  the  fear  of  Israel  very  wide- 
spread. His  reign  opened  favorably. 
But  he  soon  proved  he  was  no  ideal 
prince.  So  impatient  was  he  that  he 
could  not  wait  at  (iilgal  for  Samuel  to 
come,  as  he  had  appointed,  and  so  he 
offered  sacrifice;  for  doing  which  he  was 
reproved  by  the  old  prophet,  13  :  14, 
yet  the  divine  favor  was  not  withdrawn. 
Very  strange,  if  not  the  result  of  madness, 
was  his  insisting  that  Jonathan  should 
die,  though  the  army  interfered  in  time. 
The  declaration  of  Samuel  that  the  Lord 
would  not  establish  his  house  preyed 
upon  his  mind,  and  he  was  a  changed 
man  from  this  time  forth.  He  treated 
God's  command  carelessly,  ch.  15,  and 
was  again  severely  rebuked  by  Samuel; 
nor  did  he  show  any  real  repentance.  He 
looked  upon  his  attendants  with  sus- 
picion. He  played  the  coward  before  the 
Philistines.  Music  relieved  him,  but  his 
malady  was  no  ordinary  lunacy.  His 
treatment  of  David,  his  first  love  for  him, 
his  failure  to  remember  him,  the  return  of 
his  affection,  and  then  the  complete  turn 
against  him,  indicated  the  state  of  his 
mind.  He  pursued  David,  though  twice 
he  was  momentarily  softened  by  David's 
words  and  deeds.  Ch.  24  :  16:  26  :  21.  We 
can  understand  how  jealousy,  nourished, 
became  madness  at  last.  Then,  too,  we 
see  the  hand  of  God.  Saul  breaks  down 
completely.  On  the  eve  of  a  battle, 
which  his  unsettled  mind  forebodes  will 
be  decisive,  he  seeks  a  witch,  and  of 
her  demands  an  interview  with  Samuel. 
The  woman  performs  her  incantations, 
but,  to  her  horror,  she  herself  sees  an 
apparition  and  hears  the  voice  of  the 
dead.  Samuel  charged  Saul  with  his 
disobedience  to  the  divine  command  in 
the  matter  of  Amalek,  assured  him  that 
all  his  efforts  to  obtain  aid  elsewhere 
were  vain  if  God  had  become  his  enemy, 
and  admonished  him  that  defeat  and 
ruin  were  at  hand,  and  that  he  and  his 
sons  should  the  next  day  be  inhabitants 
of  the  world  of  spirits.   Ch.  28. 

The  last  flicker  of  the  old  fire  of  cour- 
age sufficed  to  enable  Saul  to  man  him- 
self for  the  conflict,  notwithstanding  this 
crushing    intelligence.       He    gave    the 
49 


Philistines  battle,  but  was  routed  with 
dreadful  slaughter.  Among  the  killed 
were  Saul's  three  sons.  Saul,  finding 
himself  wounded  and  likely  to  fall  into 
the  hands  of  the  enemy,  threw  himself 
upon  the  point  of  his  own  sword.  When 
the  Philistines  found  the  body  of  Saul 
they  severed  the  head  from  it  and  fas- 
tened the  body  on  the  city  wail,  from 
which  it  was  afterward  taken  in  the  night 
by  some  of  his  friends  from  a  distance, 
and  carried  to  Jabesh-gilead  and  buried. 
1  Sam.  31. 

SAUL.  OF  TAR'SUS.    See  Paul. 

SAVIOUR.  Luke  2  :  11.  See 
Christ. 

SAW.  This  tool,  among  the  He- 
brews, probably  resembled  that  so  often 
depicted  upon  the  Egyptian  monuments. 
It  was  only  single-handled  ;  the  teeth  ran 
in  the  opposite  direction  to  ours,  therefore 
the  workman  pushed  the  saw  from  him, 
as  is  the  custom  now  in  the  East.  Be- 
sides a  saw  for  wood,  Isa.  10  :  15,  there 
is  mention  of  a  kind  for  stone.  1  Kgs. 
7  :  9.  Saws  were  used  likewise  as  instru- 
ments of  torture.  2  Sam.  12  :  31  ;  cf.  1 
Chr.  20  :  3  ;  Heb.  11  :  37.  Tradition 
asserts  that  in  this  manner  the  prophet 
Isaiah  was  killed,  and  history  recounts 
instances  of  this  use  of  the  saw  among 
the  Egyptians,  Persians,  and  Romans. 

SCAPEGOAT.  Lev.  16  :  20.  See 
Goat. 

SCAR'LET.  Gen.  38  :  28.  See 
Colors. 

SCEP'TRE,awooden  staff  or  wand, 
5  or  6  feet  long,  usually  overlaid  with 
gold  or  decorated  with  golden  rings, 
with  an  ornamented  point.  It  was 
borne  in  the  hands  of  kings  and  others 
in  authorit}'  as  a  token  of  power.  Gen. 
49  :  10  ;  Num.  24  :  17.  When  the  scep- 
tre was  held  out  to  be  touched  by  an  in- 
dividual approaching  the  throne,  it  was 
a  sign  of  the  royal  acceptance  and  favor. 

There  is  no  bil)]ieal  instance  of  a 
"  sceptre  being  actually  handled  by  a 
Jewish  king.  The  term  is  used  meta- 
phorically. The  use  of  a  staff  as  a 
symbol  of  authority  was  not  confined  to 
kings;  it  might  be  used  by  any  leader." 
—Smith. 

SCE'VA  {Jilted),  an  Ephesian  Jew- 
ish priest  whose  seven  sons  practised  ex- 
orcism.  Acts  19  :  14. 

SCHISm  means  a  rupture  or  separa- 
tion, I  Cor.  12  :  25,  but  it  is  supposed  to 

769 


fiCH 


SCO 


denote  in  this  passage  any  such  aliena- 
tion of  feeling  among  Christians  as  vio- 
lates the  spiritual  union  which  ought 
to  exist  among  them,  though  there  be 
no  doctrinal  error  or  separate  commu- 
nions. 

SCHOOL,  Acts  19:  9.  SCHOL'- 
AR,  1  Chr.  25  :  8,  SCHOOL'MAS- 
TER.  Gal.  3  :  24.  Schools  existed 
among  the  Jews  from  a  very  early  pe- 
riod. They  were  established  under  the 
supervision  of  the  prophets  to  train 
young  men  to  become  expounders  of 
the  Law,  and  so  fit  them  for  the  priestly 
and  prophetical  offices.  1  Sam.  19  :  18-24; 
2  Kgs.  2  :  3,  5,  7,  12,  15.  The  children 
were  taught  to  read  by  their  parents 
and  in  common  schools,  and  in  higher 
seminaries  were  instructed  by  doctors  in 
the  Law  and  traditions.  The  system  of 
education  in  religious  matters  was  quite 
advanced  and  very  popular.  It  was  set- 
tled just  at  what  age  a  child  should  be- 
gin, how  many  scholars  a  teacher  should 
have,  and  by  whom  he  should  be  paid. 
See  Education'. 

The  schoolmaster,  in  Paul's  use  of 
the  term,  was  a  person  to  whom  was 
committed  the  care  of  children,  to 
lead  them,  to  observe  them,  and  to  in- 
struct them  in  their  first  rudiments. 
Thus  the  office  nearly  answered  to 
that  of  a  governor  or  tutor.  Gal.  4 :  2, 
3,  who  constantly  attends  his  pupil, 
teaches  him,  and  forms  his  manners.  It 
is  said.  Gal.  3 :  24,  25,  ''  The  law  was  our 
schoolmaster  to  hrinff  »sunto  Christ."  It 
pointed  out  Christ  in  the  Scriptures,  es- 
pecially in  the  figures  and  the  prophecies 
of  the  0.  T. ;  but,  since  we  are  supposed 
to  be  advanced  to  superior  learning,  and 
a  e  committed  to  the  tuition  of  the  faith 
which  we  have  embraced,  we  have  no  i 
longer  need  of  a  schoolmaster,  as  such  I 
is  of  no  further  use  to  young  persons  I 
when  advanced  to  years  of  maturity.      | 

SCHOOLS  OF  THE  PROPH'- 
ETS.   1  Sam.  10  :  5.     See  Prophets. 

SCOR'PIOIV,  a  venomous  creature 
allied  to  the  spider,  but  resembling  the 
lobster  so  much  that  the  latter  is  called 
the  sea-scorpion  by  the  Arabs.  Its  shape 
and  general  appearance  are  seen  in  the 
cut.  Its  usual  length  is  1  or  2  inches, 
but  in  tropical  climates  it  is  sometimes 
found  6  or  8  inches  in  length,  and  its 
sting  is  attended  with  excruciating  pain,  I 
Kev.  9  :  3-6,  terminating  often  in  violent  I 
770 


[  convulsions  and  death.  The  malignity  of 
I  the  venom  is  according  to  the  size  and 
I  complexion  of  the  different  species. 
1       Scorpions  are  found  in  all  warm  cli- 
mates,  and  are  abundant  in    Palestine, 
where  eight  species  are  known,  and  are 
especially  common   about  Mount  Sinai. 
Deut.  8:15.     They  remain  dormant  dur- 
ing the  cold  season,  but  through  the  rest 
of  the  year  swarm  under  stones  and  in 
all  the  crannies  and  crevices  of  walls  and 
houses.     Their  food  consists  of  beetles, 
locusts,  and  other  insects.     The  sting  is 
a  curved  claw  at  the  end  of  the  tail,  and 


Scorpioi 


this  latter  the  animal,  in  running,  car- 
ries over  its  back  in  a  threatening  atti- 
tude. Luke  11  :  12  seems  to  mean  merely 
the  bestowal  of  a  dangerous  and  unwel- 
come gift  rather  than  a  good  one,  and 
may  refer  to  the  Greek  proverb:  "A 
scorpion  instead  of  a  perch." 

An  instrument  resembling  a  whip,  but 
so  formed  with  knots  or  small  stones  as 
that  each  blow  should  inflict  a  sharp 
stinging  pain,  is  perhaps  alluded  to  in 
1  Kgs.  12  :  11.     See  Scourge. 

"  Maaleh-akrabbim,"  Josh.  15  :  3  :  Jud. 
1  :  36,  is  literally  "the  ascent  of  scor- 
pions," and  derives  its  name  from  the 
multitude  of  scorpions  which  infest  it. 

SCOURGE.  After  the  Babylonish 
Captivity  the  scourge  was  formed  of 
three  lashes  or  thongs  made  of  leather 
or  small  cords,  thirteen  strokes  of  which 
were  equal  to  thirty-nine  lashes,  and  not 
more  than  fortv  could  be  given  under  the 
Law.  Deut.  25  :  1-3  :  2  Cor.  11 :  24.  The 
sufferer  was  tied  by  his  arms  to  a  low 
pillar,  his  back  laid  oare  and  his  body 
bent  forward,  and  the  blows  so  applied. 
Sometimes  sharp  iron  points  or  sharp- 


SCB 


SCE 


cornered  pieces  of  metal  were  fastened  to 
the  end  of  the  thonj^s,  to  render  the  suf- 
fering still  more  extreme.  It  is  debated 
whether  the  whip  was  used   before  the 


Flagellum  or  Scourge. 

Captivity.  Certainly  the  rod  was,  as  is 
the  case  to-day  in  the  East.  The  pun- 
ishment was  inflicted  in  the  synagogue. 
Matt.  10  :  17  ;  23  :  34  ;  Acts  5  :  40.  The 
Romans  used  to  beat  with  rods  and  whips ; 
the  number  of  blows  was  unlimited.  But 
so  degrading  was  this  punishment  in  its 
nature  and  effects  that  no  citizen  of  the 
Roman  empire  could  be  subjected  to  it. 
Acts  22  :  25,  26.  Many  were  known  to 
die  under  the  cruel  infliction.  Some- 
times it  took  place  on  the  way  to  execu- 
tion, and  sometimes  it  was  itself  the 
only  punishment.  The  punishment  with 
rods  or  twigs  seems  to  have  been  a  sepa- 
rate infliction.  2  Cor.  11  :  2.'). 

In  our  Lord's  scourging,  Matt.  27  :  26  ; 
Mark  15  :  15;  John  19  :  1,  we  see  a  literal 
fulfilment  of  Isaiah's  prophecy.  53  :  5. 

SCREECH-OWL.     See  Owi.. 

SCRIBE.  There  are  two  Hebrew 
words  which  mean  "  a  writer,"  but  one 


is  usually  translated  in  the  A.  V.  by 
Offickr,  which  see.  The  other  is  cor^ 
rectly  rendered  "  scribe."  The  art  of 
writing  may  well,  among  the  Hebrews, 
have  been  in  early  times  a  rare  accom- 
plishment, and  therefore  a  class  of  men 
would  arise  who  earned  their  living  by 
carrying  on  correspondence  orconducting 
accounts.  But  the  first  one  of  the  class 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  is  Sheva,  the 
scribe  of  David,  2  Sam.  20  :  25,  and  that 
it  was  an  honorable  post  is  proven  by  the 
mention  of  him  by  name.  The  duty  of 
the  king's  scribe  was  to  record  the  edicts, 
and  on  one  occasion  at  least  to  act  as  a 
kind  of  treasurer.  2  Kgs.  12  :  10.  Scribes 
also  officiated  in  the  army.  Jer.  52  :  25. 
It  is,  however,  the  N.  T.  usage  which 
is  most  familiar  to  us.  Scribes  and  Phar- 
isees are  inseparably  linked.  But  these 
"scribes"  are  wholly  diff'erent.  They 
were  the  copyists  of  the  Law,  and  be- 
cause such  a  minute  acquaintance  with 
it  as  their  business  implied  led  them  to 
become  authorities  upon  the  details  of 
Mosaism,  it  came  to  pass  that  they  were 
popularly  regarded  as  the  teachers  of 
the  Law.  This  class  of  men  originated, 
it  would  seem,  during  the  Exile.  Ezra 
was  their  leader  and  pattern.  Ezr.  7  :  6. 
They  were  held  in  great  respect,  but  in 
many  cases  they  were  unworthy  of  it. 
As  the  distance  from  the  close  of  the 
canon  increased,  these  privileged  and 
learned  expounders  of  the  Law  took 
greater  liberties  with  the  text  and  made 
it  void  through  their  traditions.  Mark 
7  :  13.  But  the  position  some  of  the 
class  occupied  as  members  of  the  San- 
hedrin,  Matt.  26  :  3,  the  associates  of 
the  priests  in  the  most  important  mat- 
ters. Matt.  21  :  15,  their  numbers,  and 
the  popular  awe  of  them,  increase  our 
estimate  of  the  courage  evinced  by  Jesus 
in  attacking  them,  as  he  did  repeatedly 
and  in  the  most  unmeasured  terms. 
Matt.  23  :  1-33.  They  were  his  de- 
termined and  wily  foes.  Luke  5  :  30  :  6  : 
7  ;  10  :  25.  That  there  were  exceptions 
is  manifest,  for  Jesus  speaks  of  scribes 
being  sent  of  God,  Matt.  23  :  34,  and  one 
of  his  parables  relates  to  a  scribe  "in- 
structed unto  the  kingdom  of  heaven." 
Matt.  13  :  52.  The  scribes  formed  a 
regularly  organized  college,  into  which 
members  were  admitted  by  special  ex- 
amination. The  scribes  and  lawyers 
were  one  class.     See  Lawyers. 

771 


SCR 


SEA 


A  Jewisli  Scribe. 


SCRIP,  in  1  Sam.  17  :  40,  means  a 

shepherd's  bag.  In  the  N.  T.  "  scrip  " 
means  a  wallet  suspended  from  the 
shoulder  for  carrying  food.  Matt.  10  : 
10;  Luke  10:  4. 

SCRIP^TURE.     See  Bible. 

SCUR'VY.  Lev.  21  :  20  and  22  :  22. 
The  disease  known  by  this  name,  in 
modern  times,  is  usually  caused  by  long 
confinement  in  cold  and  damp  climates, 
without  fresh  provisions.  In  the  progress 
of  it,  the  skin  becomes  dry  and  scaly 
and  livid  spots  appear.  Probably  this 
appearance  of  the  skin  is  all  that  is 
denoted  by  the  word  "scurvy"  in  the 
passages  cited. 

SCYTH'IAN,  a  name  used  in- 
definitely by  ancient  writers,  sometimes 
to  denote  all  the  nomadic  tribes  that 
roamed  over  the  countries  north  of  the 
Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  and  sometimes 
for  a  particular  people  remarkable  for 
their  rude  and  barbarous  condition. 
Col.  3  :  n. 

SCYTHOP'OLIS  {citi,  of  the 
Sci/fhians-),  a  city  in  Palestine,  and  iden- 
tical with  ancient  Beth-shean.  It  is  no- 
ticed by  this  name  in  the  Apocryphal 
book  of  Judith.     See  Beth-shean. 

SEA.  The  Hebrew  word  i/nm,  or 
"sea,"  is  used  in  Scripture:  (1)  for  the 
"gathering  of  waters,"  or  the  ocean, 
Gen.  1  :  2,  10  ;  Deut.  30  :  13  ;  (2)  as  re- 
ferring to  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  under 
772 


the  title  of  the  "  hinder,"  the  "  western," 
the  "  utmost,"  sea,  or  the  *'  sea  of  the 
Philistines,"  the  "great  sea,"  or  simply 
"  the  sea,"  Deut.  11 :  24 ;  34  :  2  :  Joel  2  : 
20;  Ex.  23:31  :  Num.  34:6,7;  Josh. 
15  :  47 ;  Gen.  49  :  13  .:  Ps.  80  :  11 :  107  : 
23  ;  1  Kgs.  4  :  20 ;  (3)  as  referring  to  the 
Red  Sea,  Ex.  15  :  4;  (4)  as  referring  to 
inland  lakes,  like  the  Salt,  or  Dead,  Sea; 
(5)  to  any  great  collection  of  waters,  as 
the  Nile  or  the  Euphrates  in  time  of  a 
flood  or  high  water.  Isa.  19  :  5  ;  Am.  8  : 
8,  A.  V.  "flood;"  Nah.  3:8;  Eze.  32  : 
2  :  Jer.  51  :  3fi. 

SEA  OF  CHIN  NERETH.  Num. 
34:  11.     See  Galilee.  Sea  of. 

SEA  OF  JA  ZER.  Jer.  48  :  32. 
See  Jazer. 

SEA  OF  TIBE  RIAS.  John  21 : 
1.     See  Galilee,  Sea  of. 

SEA,  THE  DEAD.  See  Salt 
Sea. 

SEA,  THE  MEDITERRA'- 
NEAN".     See  Sea;  Great  Sea. 

SEA,  THE  MOLTEN,  or 
BRA'ZEN,  the  name  of  the  large 
copper  or  bronze  laver  made  hj  Solo- 
mon for  the  temple,  and  which  stood 
upon  twelve  metal  oxen  in  the  south- 
east corner  of  the  court  of  the  priests. 
It  is  described  in  1  Kgs.  7  :  23-26.  It 
was  74  feet  high,  15  feet  in  diameter, 
and  45  feet  in  circumference,  and  con- 
tained 16,000  gallons  (2  Chr.  4  :  5  says 


SEA 


SEA   . 


Phcenician  Seal. 


24,000).  The  Gibeonitcs,  it  is  said, 
were  at  first  employed  to  bring  the 
water  requisite  to  fill  it,  but  at  a  later 
day  it  was  supplied  by  a  conduit  from 
the  pools  of  Bethlehem.  Solomon  made 
it  of  the  copper  ca|itured  from  Tibhatli 
and  Chun,  cities  of  Iladarezer,  king  of 
Zobah.  1  Chr.  18  :  8.  Ahaz  took  down 
the  sea  from  otf  the  brazen  oxen  and 
put  it  upon  a  pavement  of  stones.  2 
Kgs.  16  :  17.  The  Assyrians  brolie  it 
in  pieces.  2  Kgs.  25  :  13.     See  Layer. 

SEA,  THE  RED.     See  Red  Sea. 

SEA,  THE  SALT.  Gen.  14  :  3. 
See  Salt  Sea. 

SEAL.  1  Kgs.  21 :  8.  This  was  usu- 
ally employed  to  authenticate  public  or 
private  papers.  Jer.  32  :  10.  If  a  door  j 
or  box  was  to  be  sealed,  it  was  first  fas- 
tened  with  some  ligament,  upon  which  1 
clay  or  wax  was  spread  anci  then  im- 
pressed with  a  seal  or  signet.  Frequent- 
ly a  ring  with  some  inscription  on  it  was 
used  as  a  seal,  by  the 
delivery  or  transfer  of 
which  the  highest  of- 
fices of  the  kingdom 
were  bestowed.  Gen. 
41  :  42;  Esth.  3  :  10. 
In  sealing  the  sepul- 
chre. Matt.  27  :  6().  it 
is  probable  that  the 
fastening  of  the  stone 
which  secured  the  en- 
trance was  covered 
with  clay  or  wax,  and  so  impressed  with 
a  public  or  private  seal  that  any  viola- 
tion of  it  could  be  discovered  at  once. 
Sec  Rings,  Letters. 

Modern  travellers  describe  the  seal 
used  in  the  East,  at  the  present  day,  as 
made  of  cornelian,  or  agate,  with  the 
name  or  title  of  the  writer,  or  some  verse 
of  the  Koran  or  other  motto,  engraved 
upon  it.  2  Tim.  2  :  19.  It  is  fastened 
into  a  ring  and  worn  on  the  hand.  Cant. 
8  :  6.  When  used  it  is  either  applied  to 
the  wax,  or  is  covered  with  some  sub- 
stance which,  being  stamped  on  the 
paper,  leaves  the  desired  impression. 

The  word  "  seal  "  is  used  figuratively 
in  the  Bible  to  denote  an  act  or  token  or 
process  of  confirmation.  Rom.  4:11: 
Eph.  4  :  30. 

SEA'SOXS.  In  Palestine  the  year 
is  very  nearly  divided  by  the  equinoxes 
into  two  seasons — the  dry  nnd  the  rain  v. 
In  the  promise  made  to  Noah,  Gen.  8  : 


22,  this  division  seems  to  be  indicated, 
and  the  two  portions  of  the  year  are 
designated  as  "  seed-time  and  harvest," 
''cold  and  heat,"  "summer  and  winter." 

More  ])articularly,  (jraiu-harveHt  con- 
tinues from  the  middle  of  April  until 
near  the  middle  of  June.  During  this 
period  the  sky  is  clear,  the  air  warm,  and 
even  hot  in  the  valleys  and  on  the  coast, 
very  much  like  the  beginning  of  summer 
with  us.  As  it  }»roceeds  the  heat  in  the 
plains  is  great.  For  the  next  two 
months  the  heat  increases,  and  the 
nights  are  so  warm  that  the  people 
sleep  in  the  open  air  upon  the  roofs  of 
their  houses.  The  Arabs  call  this  the 
vernal  summer. 

The  season  of  fruits  lasts  from  about 
the  middle  of  August  to  the  middle  of 
November.  The  intensity  of  the  heat 
is  greater  by  day,  but  toward  the  end 
of  summer  the  nights  begin  to  be  cool. 

During  these  three  periods,  up  to  the 
beginning  or  middle  of  September,  there 
are  no  showers,  rain  being  as  scarce  in 
summer  as  snow,  1  Sam.  12:17.  Hence 
the  proverb,  Prov.  26  :  1.  From  the  end 
of  April  until  September  a  cloud  rarely  is 
to  be  seen  upon  the  face  of  the  heavens. 
During  all  this  time  the  earth  is  moist- 
ened by  the  dew,  which  is,  therefore,  a 
frequent  emblem  of  divine  grace  and 
goodness.  Sometimes  a  cloud  appears 
in  the  morning,  but  it  disappears  with 
the  dew  as  soon  as  the  sun  exerts  its 
power.  Hos.  6  :  4.  The  dry  grass  of  the 
fields  sometimes  takes  fire  and  produces 
desolating  conflagration,  and  the  parched 
earth  is  cleft  and  broken  into  chasms. 
This  is  more  particularly  the  case  when 
the  east  wind  blows,  (ilen.  41  :  fi  ;  Hos. 
13  :  15.  Between  the  middle  of  Septem- 
ber and  the  middle  of  October  there  are 
two  or  three  days  of  rain,  which  suffices 
to  refresh  all  nature,  so  that  the  whole 
land  is  clad  in  verdure. 

This  prepares  the  earth  for  seed- 
time, which  continues  from  early  in 
October  until  early  in  December,  im- 
mediately following  the  former  or  "early 
rain."  which  is  so  needful  for  the  sower. 
In  the  early  part  of  this  period  it  is  still 
quite  hot,  so  that  all  journeys  are  made 
by  night,  as  the  temperature  is  then 
agreeable  and  the  sky  is  clear.  As  the 
year  .advances,  however,  there  are  alter- 
nations of  heat  and  cold,  as  with  us  in 
autumn.     The  weather  becomes  unset- 

773 


SEA 


SEA 


tied,  and  there  are  fogs  and  clouds  even 
when  there  is  no  rain.  In  the  moun- 
tains snow  sometimes  falls  toward  the 
middle  of  December.  The  streams  are 
still  small,  and  many  of  their  channels 
altogether  dry.  In  the  latter  part  of 
November  the  trees  lose  their  foliage,  and 
fires  are  made  toward  the  last  days  of 
seed-time. 

Wiitter  strictly  includes  the  period 
from  the  middle  of  December  till  the 
middle  of  February.  Snow  occasionally 
falls  on  the  highlands,  but  seldom  re- 
mains more  than  a  few  hours,  except 
upon  the  mountains.  Ps.  147  :  16, 17.  Ice 
is  rare,  and  vegetable  life  is  seldom  in- 
jured by  frost  and  does  not  require  pro- 
tection. During  the  winter  months  the 
roads  are  very  bad.  Matt.  24  :  20.  The 
greatest  cold  lasts  about  forty  days,  from 
the  12th  of  December  to  the  20th  of  Janu- 
ary. The  north  wind  is  now  exceeding- 
ly penetrating.  Gen.  31  :  40.  Yet  in  the 
level  country,  when  the  sun  shines,  it  is 
quite  warm.  Josephus  says  that  in  his 
day  it  was  as  warm  in  winter  at  Caisarea, 
on  the  coast,  as  at  other  places  in  sum- 
mer. In  this  season  hail-  and  thunder- 
storms are  common;  the  brooks  rise,  and 
all  the  streams  fill  their  channels.  To- 
ward the  end  of  January  the  fields  be- 
come green,  and  there  is  every  appear- 
ance of  approaching  spring.  In  the 
early  part  of  February  the  trees  are  in 
leaf,  and  before  the  middle  of  the  month 
some  fruit  trees  are  in  blossom — first 
the  almond,  then  the  apricot,  peach,  and 
plum.     Other  trees  blossom  in  March. 

From  February  until  April  it  is  still 
cold,  but  less  so,  and  the  spriiir/  may  be 
said  to  have  arrived.  The  heats  of  noon 
are  greater  and  greater,  especially  in  the 
flat  country.  The  rains  continue,  but 
in  smaller  and  smaller  quantities.  Thun- 
der and  hail  are  more  frequent.  Toward 
the  close  of  this  period  the  rains  cease, 
and  the  last  falls  in  the  early  part  of 
April,  and  is  called  the  "latter  rain." 
which  seems  to  give  strength  to  the  fill- 
ing grain.  The  crops  of  grain  are  as 
much  advanced  in  February  as  with  us 
in  May  and  June.  The  wheat  and  bar- 
ley have  at  this  time  nearly  attained 
their  height.  The  grain  has  fully  ripened 
in  the  sruthern  part  of  Palestine  by  the 
middle  of  April,  and  in  the  northern  and 
mountainous  parts  three  weeks  later; 
but  sometimes,  when  the  sowing  has 
774 


been  in  January,  the  grain  does  not 
come  to  maturity  before  July  or  August. 

Upon  the  sixteenth  day  after  the  first 
new  moon  in  April,  there  was  a  solemn 
presentation  made  to  the  Lord  of  the 
first  sheaf  of  ripe  barley.  The  grain, 
however,  as  we  may  readily  suppose,  was 
mature  sometimes  earlier  and  sometimes 
later.  It  was  common  to  reckon  four 
months  from  seed-time  to  harvest.  The 
cutting  and  securing  the  grain  was  car- 
ried on  for  about  seven  weeks — that  is, 
from  the  Passover  until  Pentecost,  which 
last  is  therefore  called  the  "feast  of 
weeks.''  This  was  a  season  of  very 
great  enjoyment  and  festivit}'  when  the 
harvest  had  been  plentiful.  The  reap- 
ers— that  is  to  say,  the  children,  slaves, 
and  other  domestics — indulged  in  mirth 
and  joined  in  songs  suitable  to  the  occa- 
sion, and  in  congratulations  to  the  mas- 
ter of  the  harvest.  Ps.  126  :  6  ;  Isa.  9  :  3. 
The  grain  was  then  gathered  and  bound 
into  sheaves,  as  with  us.  See  Hail, 
Rain.  Palestine. 

SEAT,  MO'SES',  Matt.  23  :  2,  is 
a  figurative  expression,  denoting  the  as- 
sumption of  the  same  authority  or  ofiice 
as  belonged  to  Moses. 

SEATS.  Matt.  21 :  12.  The  nations 
of  the  East  seat  themselves  upon  the 
mats  or  carpets  with  which  their  floors 
are  covered.  In  the  houses  of  the  rich 
there  are  spread  pillows  or  cushions 
stufi'ed  with  cotton,  or,  in  some  cases,  a 
broad  but  very  low  sofa  or  divan  with 
arms,  stuffed  cushions,  and  costly  orna- 
ments. Upon  these  divans,  as  well  as 
upon  the  floor  or  ground,  they  sit,  with 
the  legs  bent  under  and  crossed,  in  a 
half-kneeling  posture. 

The  ancient  Hebrews  used  the  posture 
which  has  just  been  described.  After 
the  Captivity,  however,  the  rich  and 
noble  adopted  the  Persian  method  of 
lying  down  at  table  upon  couches.  Am. 
6  :  4,  which  was  likewise  practised  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans.  In  the  pas- 
sage of  Amos  it  is  said  of  the  luxurious 
sinners  who  lived  nearly  eight  hundred 
years  before  Christ,  they  "  lie  upon  beds 
of  ivory,  and  stretch  themselves  upon 
their  couches."  These  "  beds  of  ivory  " 
were  probably  divans,  such  as  those 
above  mentioned,  but  richly  decorated 
with  ivory.  They  used  at  table  very 
low  and  broad  divans,  and  the  guests 
stretched  themselves  at  full  length.  Each 


SEB 


SEC 


divan  held  three  persons.  The  back  was 
supported  bj  a  cushion,  and  the  face  so 
turned  toward  the  table  that  the  head 
was  hold  up  with  the  left  hand  upon  an- 
other cushion.  The  right  hand  was  thus 
free  to  reach  the  food.  The  second  per- 
son lay  with  the  back  part  of  his  head 
toward  the  breast  of  the  former,  and  the 
third,  in  like  manner,  with  the  back  part 
of  his  head  toward  the  second.  Thus 
they  lay,  so  to  speak,  in  the  bosoms  of 
their  neighbors.  Luke  16  :  23;  John  13  : 
23.  This  was  the  ordinary  posture  at 
meals,  and  the  feet  of  the  guests  were 
distant  from  the  table.  Hence  we  can 
readily  form  an  idea  of  the  scene  de- 
scribed in  Luke  7  :  38. 

In  the  eating-room  there  were  com- 
monly three  such  divans;  the  middle 
place  of  the  middle  divan  was  accounted 
most  honorable.  This  was  the  seat  which 
the  Pharisees  so  much  affected  at  feasts. 
1  Sam.  9  :  22 ;  Matt.  23  :  6 ;  Luke  14  : 
8,  9.  At  the  present  day  the  corner  of 
the  bed-divan  is  the  seat  of  dignity,  anrl 
so  it  was  in  ancient  times  among  the 
Hebrews.  Am.  3  :  12.  This  manner  of 
reclining  at  meals — at  least,  in  Persia 
— was  imitated  by  the  women.  Esth. 
7:8.  It  is  uncertain  whether  Hebrew 
women  ate  in  the  same  apartment  with 
the  men.     See  Eat,  Eating. 

SE'BA  {man  ?),  a  wealthy  and  com- 
mercial region  of  Ethiopia,  Ps.  72:  10; 
Isa.  43  :  3  ;  45  :  14  ;  Eze.  23  :  42.  Seba 
appears  to  have  corresponded  to  the 
northern  portion  of  Abyssinia.  Jose- 
phus  placed  the  original  Seba  at  Meroe, 
but  the  name  seems,  in  later  times,  to 
have  included  a  region  of  considerable 
importance  on  the  south-western  coast 
of  the  Red  Sea.  Its  inhabitants  are 
mentioned  with  Sheba,  Ps.  72  :  10,  the 
trading-people  of  the  other  side  of  the 
sea.  The  inhabitants  of  both  Sheba  and 
Seba  were  called  Sabreans  by  Greek  and 
Latin  writers,  but  the  Hebrew  words  are 
distinct.  Meroe  lay  between  the  river 
Astaboras,  the  northern  tributary  of  the 
Nile,  and  the  Astapus  or  "  Blue  River." 
The  capital  city  was  about  90  miles  south 
of  the  junction  of  the  Astaboras  and  the 
Nile.  Extensive  ruins  20  miles  north- 
east of  Shendy,  in  Nubia,  near  the  Nile, 
may  indicate  the  site.      See  Sab^us. 

SE'BAT,  OR  SHE'BAT.  Zech. 
1  :  7.     See   Month. 

SEC'ACAH  {enclosure),  one  of  the 


six  cities  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah,  on 
the  western  side  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Josh. 
15  :  fil.  '  Conder  suggests  its  identity 
with  the  ruin  Sikkeh,  east  of  Bethany. 

SE'CHU  (?//<.' /t(Y/,  or  t';/(j;je/(fe), a  place 
apparently  on  the  route  between  (iibeah 
and  Ramah — that  is,  between  the  resi- 
dence of  Saul  and  that  of  Samuel — noted 
for  the  "great  well"  or  cistern.  1  Sam. 
19  :  22.  Swartz  speaks  of  a  large  pit  at 
Bir  Neballa,  near  JVehi/  Sunnvil,  which 
may  mark  the  place,  but  Conder  pro- 
poses to  locate  its  site  at  Siiweikeh,  im- 
mediately south  of  Beeroth, 

SECT.  The  word  appears  eight 
times  in  the  A.  V.  It  has  a  twofold 
meaning — either  a  "  chosen  set  of  doc- 
trines or  mode  of  life.  Acts  24:  14;  2 
Pet.  2:1;  or  else  a  parti/  adhering  to 
the  doctrine." — Sinifh.  But  it  does  not 
necessarily  imply  any  error  of  doctrine 
or  practice.  It  is  alwaj's  in  the  singular, 
and  always  as  a  translation  of  the  Greek 
term  "  heresy,"  which  signifies,  primarily, 
''choice,"  then  ''party,"  "sect,"  and  is 
used  of  the  religious  parties  among  the 
Jews,  Acts  5:17;  15  :  5  ;  26  :  5  ;  of  the 
Christians  in  general,  who  were  for  a 
long  time  called  by  the  Jews,  in  con- 
tempt, "  the  sect  of  the  Nazarenes,"  Acts 
24  :  5  ;  of  parties  within  the  Christian 
Church,  1  Cor.  11 :  19  ;  of  heresies  proper, 
or  errors — that  is,  wilful  perversions  of 
Christian  truth.  2  Pet.  2:1;  Gal.  5  :  20. 

It  is  easy  to  see  how  Christianity  was 
originally  considered  as  a  new  sect  of 
Judaism ;  hence,  Tertullus,  accusing 
Paul  before  Felix,  says  that  he  was 
chief  of  the  seditious  sect  of  the  Naz- 
arenes, Acts  24  :  5,  and  the  Jews  of 
Rome  said  to  the  apostle,  when  he  ar- 
rived in  that  city,  that,  as  to  "  this 
sect,"  it  was  everywhere  spoken  against. 
Acts  28  :  22.  The  word  "  heresy,"  in 
Acts  24  :  14,  is  the  same  in  the  orig- 
inal with  the  word  "  sect  "  in  Acts  24  : 
5;  so  that  the  apostle  replies  directly 
to  the  argument  of  Tertullus,  and  ad- 
mits that,  "  after  the  manner  of  a  sect, 
producing  division  and  schism,  as  my 
persecutors  say,  so  worship  I  the  God 
of  my  fathers."  In  countries  having 
an  established  Church  or  a  State  relig- 
ion, the  word  "sect"  is  applied  to 
those  communities  or  bodies  of  Chris- 
tians who  separate  themselves  from  the 
Establishment.  In  the  United  States 
the  word  cannot  of  course  be  used  in  this 

775 


SEC 


SEL 


sense  with  any  propriety,  there  being  no 
national  Church.  Each  separate  com- 
munion enjoys  its  own  rights  and  priv- 
ileges as  fully  as  any  other,  and,  while 
there  are  no  sects,  properly  speaking. 
there  are  a  great  number  of  denomina- 
tions, as  Roman  Catholic,  Presbyterian, 
Episcopal,  Baptist,  Methodist,  etc..  etc. 

SECUN'DUS  {seco),d,  or  forttniate), 
a  Christian  of  Thessalonica.  Acts  20  :  4. 

SEDI'TIONS,  Gal.  5  :  20,  should 
be  "  divisions." 

SEED,  MIN'GLED.  Lev.  19  :  19. 
Travellers  tell  us  that  women  are  em- 
ployed in  Aleppo  and  elsewhere  in 
cleansing  the  mimjled  seed  from  all  ad- 
mixture, to  prepare  it  for  sowing. 

SEED-TIME.  Gen.  8  :  22.  See 
Seasons. 

SEER.  1  Sam.  9  :  9.     See  Prophets. 

SEETHE,  to  boil.  Ex.  16  :  23. 

SE.'G\JB  (elevated).  1.  The  young- 
est son  of  Hiel,  who  built  Jericho.  1  Kgs. 
16  :  34. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Judah.  1  Chr.  2  : 
21,  22. 

SE'IR(/m?"r?/),aHoritechiefwhogave 
his  name,  probably,  to  the  mountainous 
region  wherein  he  lived.  Gen.  36  :  20. 

SE'IR  (hairi/),  the  name  of  a  region 
and  of  a  place. 

1.  The  land  or  mount  of  Seir  was  a 
mountain-district  extending  from  the 
Dead  Sea  to  the  eastern  arm  of  the  Red 
Sea.  It  was  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
Arabian  desert,  and  on  the  west  bj'  the 
deep  valley  of  the  Arabah.  The  moun- 
tains are  of  sandstone  and  granite,  the 
principal  peak  being  Mount  Ilor,  which 
is  4800  feet  high.  This  district  was  an- 
ciently inhabited  by  the  Horites.  Gen. 
14  :  6';  Deut.  2:12.  Afterward,  Seir 
was  the  possession  of  Esau  and  his  pos- 
terity. Gen.  32:3;  33:14,16;  36:8,9; 
Deut.  2  :  4,  22  ;  2  Chr.  20  :  10.  Hence, 
Seir  sometimes  means  Edom.  The  Is- 
raelites, when  refused  permission  to  go 
to  Moab  through  Edom,  marched  round 
the  mountain,  down  the  Arabah,  between 
the  limestone  cliffs  of  the  Tih  on  the  west 
and  the  granite  range  of  Mount  Seir  on 
the  east,  until  they  could  turn  to  the 
left  and  march  north  toward  Moab. 

2.  Mount  Seir,  a  place  noted  as  one  of 
the  landmarks  in  the  boundary  of  Judah. 
Josh.  15:  10.  It  was  between  Kirjath- 
jearim  and  Beth-shemesh.  and  may  be 
the  high  ridge  between  the    Wddi/  A/i/ 

776 


and  the  Wddy  Ghurah.  In  the  pass 
leading  to  Beit  Ainmi,  near  Tekuu,  is  the 
modern  village  of  S'ldir  among  the  hills 
which  may  be  its  site,  but  Conder  sug- 
gests Bdtii  es  Saghdr  as  the  Seir  of 
2  Chr.  20  :  23. 

SE'IRATH  (she-goat),  the  place  of 
refuge  whither  Ehud  fled  after  his  mur- 
der of  Eglon.  Jud.  3  :  26,  27.  Perhaps 
it  may  be  found  in  Mount  Ephraim,  aeon-' 
tinuation  of  the  rugged  bushy  hills  which 
stretched  to  Judah's  northern  boundary. 

SE'LA,  AND  SE'L  AH  (rock),  a  cele- 
brated city  of  Edom,  the  Greek  name 
being  "  Petra,"  or  ''rock."  It  was  so 
called  from  its  remarkable  situation, 
"  the  rock,"  for  which  the  Hebrew  word 
is  "  Sela,"  and  the  Greek  is  "  Petra." 
Sela  was  situated  about  halfway  between 
the  southern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  and 
the  northern  end  of  the  Gulf  of  Akabah. 
The  city  lay  in  a  deep  cleft  of  the  range 
of  Mount  Seir,  near  the  foot  of  Mount 
Hor,  and  in  its  situation  and  in  its  his- 
tory was  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
cities  of  antiquity. 

Historij. — Sela  is  only  twice  mentioned 
in  the  0.  T.  Amaziah  captured  it,  and 
called  it  Joktheel — that  is,  **  subdued  of 
God."  2  Kgs.  14  :  7.  It  was  afterward 
a  possession  of  Moab,  and  was  then  ex- 
horted to  send  a  tribute  of  sheep  to  Zion. 
Isa.  16  :  1.  In  some  other  passages  the 
word  "  rock"  is  supposed  to  refer  to  Sela, 
as  in  Jud.  1  :  36;  2  Chr.  25  :  11,  12;  Isa. 
42  :  11 ;  Ob.  3  ;  but  some  of  these  seem 
to  be  indefinite,  and  cannot  be  referred 
to  the  city  with  any  certainty.  Sela  is 
not  mentioned  in  the  N.  T.,  but  has  a  re- 
lation to  a  N.  T.  charaeter,  for  the  first 
wife  of  Herod  Antipas,  whom  he  divorced 
to  take  Herodias,  Luke  3:19,  was  the 
daughter  of  Aretas,  king  of  Petra,  and 
this  wickedness  of  Herod  led  to  war. 

Aretas  was  the  general  name  of  the 
sovereigns  of  Arabia  Petrtea,  a  kingdom 
which  gradually  included  the  territory 
belonging  to  the  ancient  Edomites,  who 
were  driven  out  by  the  Nabatheans,  an 
Arabian  tribe  descended  from  Nebajoth, 
the  eldest  son  of  Ishmael.  Gen.  25  :  13; 
Isa.  60  :  7.  In  B.  c.  301,  Antigonus,  one 
of  Alexander's  successors,  sent  two  ex- 
peditions against  them,  but  with  slight 
success.  Petra  became  an  important 
trade  centre.  It  is  mentioned  by  Strabo, 
Pliny,  Josephus,  Eusebius,  and  Jerome. 
It  became  an  ecclesiastical  see,  and  its 


Tile  J;uck-Tt-iiiijle.-,  at  .■^i-la  (Petra;.     (Ajter  a  rhotogmph.) 


SEL 


SEL 


bishops  are  mentioned  as  late  as  A.  d. 
536.  Afterward,  Petra  entirely  disap- 
peared from  history,  and  remained  un- 
known for  thirteen  hundred  years.  Since 
1807  it  has  been  visited  and  described  by 
many  travellers,  of  whom  the  most  noted 
were  Seetzen  (1807),  Burckhardt  (1812), 
Irby  and  Mangles  (1818).  The  reports 
of  these  early  travellers  seem  almost  as 
unreal  as  an  Arabian  tale,  but  later  re- 
searches have  shown  that  Petra  was 
really  one  of  the  most  wonderful  cities 
of  the  earth.  Robinson,  Porter,  Baede- 
ker, and  Stanley  describe  it  fully. 

Present  Appearance.  —  Petra  is  ap- 
proached from  the  east  through  a  re- 
markable and  famous  defile,  the  Sik,  or 
"cleft,"  between  rocks  of  red  sandstone 
rising  perpendicularly  to  the  height  of 
100,  200,  or  300  feet.  This  gorge  is  about 
a  mile  and  a  half  in  length.  It  is  a  dry 
torrent-bed,  and  is  known  among  the 
Arabs  as  Wddj  Mousa,  from  the  tradi- 
tion of  the  Koran  that  this  cleft  was 
made  by  the  rod  of  Moses  when  he 
brought  the  stream  through  into  the 
valley  beyond.  The  road  through  this 
cleft  was  once  regularly  paved  like  the 
Appian  Way,  and  the  pavement  still  re- 
mains in  some  places.  The  cliffs  are  of 
sandstone,  and  the  rocks  show  beauti- 
fully-variegated colors  of  crimson,  indi- 
go, yellow,  purple,  etc.  At  the  end  of 
the  defile,  and  fronting  it,  is  a  temple 
excavated  from  the  rock.  This  is  the 
so-called  Kliaznet  Fir'aioi,  or  ''Treasury 
of  Pharaoh."  The  facade  is  85  feet  in 
height;  the  sculpturing  is  in  excellent 
preservation ;  five  out  of  six  columns  are 
standing.  The  portal  leads  into  a  spa- 
cious chamber  12  yards  square  and  25 
feet  high.  About  200  yards  farther  are 
the  ruins  of  the  magnificent  amphithe- 
atre, the  chief  boast  of  Petra.  It  is 
hewn  entirely  from  the  rock,  and  is  39 
yards  in  diameter;  thirty-three  tiers  of 
seats  rise  one  above  another,  and  the 
whole  would  probably  accommodate  from 
three  thousand  to  four  thousand  specta- 
tors. Among  the  other  principal  objects 
of  interest  are  the  Kasr  Fir'aun,  or  ''  Pha- 
raoh's palace,"  the  triumphal  arch,  sev- 
eral temples,  and  numerous  tombs,  some 
of  verj'  elaborate  workmanship.  The 
whole  valley  of  Petra  is  about  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  long  and  from  250  to 
500  yards  wide.  The  situation  of  this 
city  in  the  midst  of  the  desert  greatly 
778 


enhances  the  impression  made  by  the 
ruins.  The  complete  destruction  and 
desolation  of  the  place  fulfils  the  proph- 
ecv  of  Jeremiah.  49  :  16,  17. 

SEXAH.  Hab.  3  :  3,  9,  13.  This 
is  a  musical  term,  and  occurs  seventy- 
one  times  in  thirty-nine  Psalms,  also  in 
Hab.  3  :  3,  9,  13 — in  all,  therefore,  sev- 
enty-four times  in  the  Bible.  The  most 
probable  definition  of  it  is  that  it  "  di- 
rects the  falling-in  of  the  sound  of  the 
priests'  trumpets  into  the  Levite:' 
psalm-singing  and  playing  on  stringe.l 
instruments.  It  occurs,  therefore,  wliere 
very  warm  emotions  have  been  express- 
ed." "  Higgaion,"  joined  with  "  Selah," 
Ps.  9  :  16,  some  render  "  a  louder  strain," 
others,  '•  piano."  We  know  nothing  defi- 
nite about  it.     See  Marginal  Reading. 

SE'LA-HAMMAHLE'KOTH 
(rock  of  divisions),  a  natural  stronghold 
in  the  wilderness  Maon,  south-east  of 
Hebron,  and  where  David  made  a  re- 
markable escape  from  Saul.  1  Sam.  23  : 
28.  It  has  been  identified  with  a  place  in 
the  present  Wddy  Malaki/,  east  of  Maon. 

SE'LED  (exnltation),  a  descendant 
of  Judah.   1  Chr.  2  :  30. 

SELEU'CIA,  the  seaport  of  Anti- 
och,  and  the  place  at  which  Paul  and 
Barnabas  embarked  on  their  first  mis- 
sionary journey.  It  was  on  the  Medi- 
terranean, about  5  miles  north  of  the 
river  Orontes  and  16  miles  west  of  Anti- 
och.  Seleucia  lay  on  the  slope  of  Mount 
Corypha?us,  and  was  founded  by  Seleu- 
cus  Nicator,  died  B.  c.  280.  To  distin- 
guish it  from  other  cities  named  from 
the  same  founder,  it  was  sometimes 
called  "Seleucia  ad  Mare,"  or  "Seleucia 
by  the  sea,"  and,  from  Mount  Pierus,  it 
was  called  "  Seleucia  Pieria."  The  city 
appears  to  have  been  a  very  beautiful 
one  under  the  rule  of  the  Seleucidae.  The 
harbor  was  excellent,  enclosing  a  basin 
of  47  acres.  The  masonry  is  jet  in 
good  preservation,  although  the  port  is 
choked  with  sand  and  mud.  There  is 
still  a  gateway  at  the  south-eastern  cor- 
ner of  the  city,  through  which  Paul  and 
Barnabas  probably  passed.  The  Arabs 
called  it  Selukiyeh,  and  the  city  is  now 
in  a  desolate  condition,  only  a  small  vil- 
lage existing  near   its    site,  and  called 

El-Kahifii. 

SELEU'CUS,  the  name  of  five 
kings  called  the  Seleucidae.  Seleucus 
Philopator  was  the  fourth,  and  is  men- 


SEM 


SEN 


tioned  in  the  Apocrj-pha,  1  Mace.  7:1; 

2  Mace.  3  :  3,  and  elsewhere.  He  was 
the  son  of  Antiochus  tlie  Great,  whom 
he  succeeded, B.C.  187.  llis  policy  toward 
the  Jews  was  conciliatory.     In  2  Mace. 

3  there  is  an  interesting  account  of 
the  attempt  he  made  to  plunder  the 
temple  and  how  signally  he  failed. 
Heliodorus,  who  was  the  agent  in  this 
business,  poisoned  him,  b.  c.  175.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 
Daniel  describes  him,  11  :  20,  as  "  a 
raiser  of  taxes,"  because  he  had  to  re- 
sort to  extraordinary  measures  to  raise 
the  requisite  revenues. 

SEM,  Greek  form  for  "Shem,"  used 
in  Luke  3  :  36. 

SEMACHI'AH  {Jehovah  sustains 
hint),  a  grandson  of  Obed-edom,  and  a 
Levite  porter.  1  Chr.  26  :  7. 

SEM'EI  {renowned),  one  mentioned 
in  our  Lord's  genealog}'.  Luke  3  :  26. 

SENA'AH  {fhorni/),  a  place  (named 
with  the  article)  whose  inhabitants  re- 
turned from  captivity  with  Zerubbabel. 
Ezr.  2  :  35  ;  Neh.  7  :  38  ;  3:3.  Eusebi- 
us  and  Jerome  mention  Magdal  Senaah, 
7  miles  north  of  Jericho,  but  it  cannot  be 
certainly  identified  with  this  Senaah. 

SEN'ATE.  The  word  denotes  the 
"elders  of  Israel,"  one  of  three  classes 
composing  the  Sanhedrin ;  the  other 
two  were  the  priests  and  the  scribes. 
Acts  5  :  21. 

SE'NEH  {hush,  or  thorn-rock),  the 
name  of  one  of  the  sharp  rocks  by  which 
Jonathan  sought  the  Philistines.  1  Sam. 
14:4.  In  the  Wddy  Suweinif,  a  deep 
valley  south  of  Michmash,  about  65 
miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  are  two  re- 
markable hills,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
valley,  which  are  supposed  to  be  Bozez 
and  Seneh. 

SE'NIR  {eoat-of-mail,  or  cataract), 
a  name  for  Mount  Hermon.  1  Chr.  5  : 
23  ;  Eze.  27  :  5.     See  Her.mon. 

SENNACH'ERIB  (Ileb.  Sanherib, 
Sin,  the  moon,  sent  nnmy  brothers — i.  e., 
he  was  not  his  father's  eldest  son)  was  king 
of  Assyria  when  Hezekiah  reigned  in  Ju- 
dah.  He  was  the  son  and  successor  of  Sar- 
gon.  Judah  had  paid  tril)ute  to  Assyria, 
but  under  Hezekiah  it  revolted,  and  so  re- 
venge was  determined  upon;  accordingly^ 
Sennacherib  appears  in  the  Bible  as  the 
invader  of  Palestine  on  two  occasions. 
The  first  time  he  was  pacified  hj  a  trib- 
ute. 2  Kgs.  18  :  14.     But,  Hezekiah  hav- 


ing the  second  time  revolted,  he  sent  an 
embassy  with  a  few  troops  to  the  capital 
and  demanded  submission.  He  also  sent 
an  insulting  letter  to  Hezekiah,  who  went 
up  to  the  house  of  the  Lord  and  prayed 
for  deliverance.  His  prayer  was  an- 
swered, for  the  Assyrian  army  besieging 
Libnah  was  smitten  with  a  plague  so  se- 


Seunacherib  on  )iis  Thioiie.     (trojn  monuments 
at  Kouyunjik.) 

vere  that  it  is  stated  185.000  died  in  one 
night.  The  eff"ect  of  this  catastrojihe 
was  that  the  siege  was  raised  and  Sen- 
nacherib retreated  to  Nineveh.  2  Kgs. 
19  :  35.  Many  years — perhaps  twenty — 
after  this  he  was  worshijiping  in  the 
house  of  his  god  Nisroch  when  Adrajn- 
melech  and  Sharezer,  his  sons,  smote  him 
with  the  sword.  19  :  37.  He  was  succeed- 
ed by  Esar-haddon. 

Sennacherib's  reign  lasted  twenty-two 

779 


SEN 


SER 


years,  B.  c.  705-682.  It  was  brilliant. 
He  crushed  the  revolt  of  Babylon,  at- 
tacked Sidon,  made  many  cities  tribute, 
and,  as  Sargon  had  done,  laid  a  heavy 
hand  upon  the  neighboring  nations.  lie 
made  Nineveh  his  capital  and  adorned 
it  with  many  splendid  buildings.  His 
palaces  were  large  and  beautiful.  His 
monuments  exist  in  unexpected  places. 
Thus,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nakr  tl-Kalh, 
near  Beyrout,  and  close  by  an  inscription 
of  Barneses  the  Great  of  Egypt,  is  the 
record  of  his  arrival. 

SENU'AH  {hristUmi),  properly, 
"  Hasenuah,"  with  the  definite  article,  a 
Benjamite.  1  Chr.  9:7;  Neh.  11 :  9. 

SEO'RIM  {barley),  the  head  of  the 
fourth  priestly  course.  1  Chr.  24  :  8. 

SE'PHAR,  a  boundary  of  the  Jok- 
tanites.  Gen.  10  :  30.  It  was  probably 
in  South-eastern  Arabia,  near  the  shore 
of  the  Indian  Ocean,  where  is  an  ancient 
seaport-town  called  Zafar. 

SEPH'ARAD  {separation),  a  place 
from  whence  captive  Jews  would  return 
to  the  cities  of  the  South.  It  is  named 
only  in  Ob.  20.  Some  identify  the  place 
with  Sardis  in  Lydia  ;  others  with  Zare- 
phath  ;  while  modern  Jews  regard  it  as 
Spain,  and  others  identify  it  with  Sip- 
phara.     See  Sepharvaim. 

SEPHARVA'IM  {the  tu-o  Sipparas, 
one  being  on  each  side  of  the  river),  a 
place  in  Assyria  from  whence  colonists 
came  into  Israel  or  Samaria.  2  Kgs.  17  : 
24;  18  :  34 ;  19  :  13  ;  Isa.  36  :  19  ;  37  :  13. 
Rawlinson  and  others  have  proposed  to 
identify  it  with  Sippara,  a  town  on  the 
Euphrates,  between  Hit  and  Babylon. 
It  was  built  on  both  sides  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, or  of  the  canal,  and  the  one  was 
called  Sipar-sa-Samas — /.  e.,  ''consecra- 
ted to  Samas,  the  sun-god  ;"  the  other  was 
called  Sipar-sn-A)iu)r)t,  ''consecrated  to 
the  goddess  Anunit."  On  the  monuments 
it  is  called  "  Sippara  of  the  Sun."  It  had 
a  library,  probably  similar  to  that  found 
at  Nineveh, whicli  has  been  deciphered  by 
George  Smith  and  others.  The  modern 
town  Mdx'iil)  now  stands  near  its  site. 

SE'PHARVITES,  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Sejiharvaim.  2  Kgs,  17  :  31. 

SEP'TUAGINT,  the  Greek  ver- 
sion of  the  0,  T.     See  Biblk. 

SEP'ULCHRE.     See  Burial. 

SE'RAH   (  princess),  a  daughter  of 
Asher.  (4on.  46  :  1  7  ;  1  Chr.  7  :  30  ;  called 
Sarah  in  Num.  26  :  46. 
780 


SERAI'AH  {warrior  of  Jehovah). 
1.  David's  scribe,  2  Sam.  8  :  17 ;  called 
Sheva  in  20  :  25,  Shisha  in  1  Kgs.  4  : 
3,  and  Shavsha  in  1  Chr.  18  :  16. 

2.  The  high  priest  in  the  reign  of  Zed- 
ekiah,  taken  captive  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
and  killed  at  Riblah.  2  Kgs.  25  :  18-21 ; 
1  Chr.  6:  14:  Jer.  52:24-27. 

3.  A  Netophathite  who  submitted  to 
Gedaliah.  2  Kgs,  25  :  23  ;  Jer,  40  :  8. 

4.  A  Judite.  1  Chr.  4  :  13,  14. 

5.  A  Simeonite.  1  Chr.  4 :  35. 

6.  A  priest  who  came  back  with  Zerub- 
babel,  Ezr.  2:2;  Neh.  10  :  2  ;  12  :  1,  12  ; 
called  Azariah  in  Neh.  7  :  7. 

7.  One  of  the  ancestors  of  Ezra,  Ezr. 
7:1:  Neh.  11 :  11 ;  called  Azariah  in  1 
Chr.  9:11. 

8.  An  officer  whom  Jehoiakim  com- 
manded to  take  Baruch  and  Jeremiah. 
Jer,  36  :  26, 

9.  The  brother  of  Baruch,  who  was  a 
member  of  the  court  and  held,  during 
the  journey  of  Zerubbabel  to  Babylon, 
the  position  of  leader  of  the  caravan, 
for  so  the  words  "quiet  prince"  should 
read,  Jer,  61  :  59,  61. 

SER'APHIM  (princess),  the  name 
given  by  Isaiah  to  the  spirits  waiting  on 
the  Lord,  and  which  are  apparently  the 
most  exalted  of  the  angelic  host,  Isa. 
6  :  2.  6, 

SE'RED  {fear),  one  of  Zebulun's 
sons.   Gen.  46:14:   Num,  26  :  26. 

SER'GEANTS.  Acts  16  :  35,  38. 
This  was  a  class  of  public  officers  under 
the  Roman  government.  They  were  ap- 
pointed to  carry  the  fasces,  or  bundle  of 
rods,  before  the  supreme  magistrates, 
and  to  inflict  the  punishment  of  scourg- 
ing and  beheading  upon  criminals. 

SER'GIUS  PAU'LUS,  the  pro- 
consul or  deputy  governor  of  Cyprus  at 
the  time  of  Paul  and  Barnabas'  visit. 
He  showed  his  intelligence  and  candor 
by  sending  for  the  apostles  and  accept- 
ing the  overthrow  of  Elymas,  the  sor- 
cerer, as  demonstration  of  the  overthrow 
of  the  creed  Elymas  represented.  He 
embraced  the  gospel.  Acts  13  :  7,  12. 
Some  think  the  apostle  Paul  took  this 
name  instead  of  Saul,  in  compliment  to 
his  distinguished  convert:  which  is  im- 
probable. It  is  a  proof  of  Luke's  minute 
accuracy  that  he  calls  Sergius  Paulus  a 
proconsul  because  the  island  had  been 
governed  by  a  propraetor  during  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  but  in  the  reign  of  Claudius, 


SER 


SET 


the  time  of  the  visit,  as  is  proved  by  coins, 
it  was  under  proconsular  government. 

SER'PENT.  In  its  ordinary  scrip- 
tural use,  this  word  does  not  denote  any 
definite  species,  but  snakes  as  a  class,  or 
some  one  or  more  kinds  made  definite 
by  the  context.  The  serpent  is  a  crea- 
ture distinguished  for  its  subtility,  Gen. 
3:1,  and  wisdom  in  avoiding  danger. 
Matt.  10  :  16,  as  well  as  for  the  instinct- 
ive dread  which  it  inspires  in  man  and 
most  animals.  About  one-sixth  of  all 
the  species  known  are  venomous. 

The  devil  is  called  "the  serpent"  and 
"the  old  serpent,"  Rev.  12:9,  14;  15, 
probably  in  allusion  to  his  subtility  and 
malice,  and  also  to  the  fact  that  in  tempt- 
ing our  first  parents  to  disobey  God  he 
emploj'ed  a  serpent  or  assumed  the  form 
of  one,  2  Cor.  11 :  3. 

The  serpent  is  used  by  the  sacred  wri- 
ters as  an  emblem  of  wickedness.  Matt. 
23  :  33,  cruelty,  Ps.  58  :  4  ;  Prov.  23  :  32  ; 
,  Eccl,  10:  11,  and  treachery.  Gen.  49  : 
17.  There  is  allusion  to  the  art  of 
taming  and  charming  these  reptiles  in 
Ps.  58:5;  Eccl.  10:11;  Jer.  8:17; 
Jas.  3  :  7.  Eating  dust  is  ascribed  to  it, 
Gen.  3:14;  Isa.  65  :  25  ;  Mic.  7:17,  be- 
cause it  is  swallowed  by  the  serpent  with 
its  food,  or  the  expression  is  figurative 
for  its  life  in  the  dust.  There  is  no  rea- 
son to  suppose  that  this  creature  was 
able  to  go  otherwise  than  on  its  belly 
before  the  fall,  but  subsequent  to  that 
event  its  normal  mode  of  progression 
was  constituted  a  mark  of  condemna- 
tion. The  worship  of  these  reptiles  is  very 
common  in  India  and  other  parts  of  the 
Old  World,  and  probably  originated,  in 
part  at  least,  from  fear  of  the  more  ven- 
omous and  powerful  kinds.  "  It  was 
probably  from  a  tradition  of  the  instru- 
mentality of  the  serpent  in  the  fall  of 
man  that  it  was  used  throughout  the 
East  as  an  emblem  of  the  spirit  of  dis- 
obedience and  of  the  evil  spirit.  The 
doctrine  of  Zoroaster — that  the  evil  one, 
in  the  guise  of  a  serpent,  first  taught 
men  to  sin — is  a  plain  tradition  of  the 
history  of  the  fall. 

"  To  this  we  may  add  that  on  the 
monuments  of  Egypt  there  not  unfre- 
quently  occurs  the  figure  of  a  man  in 
regal  costume  (probably  an  incarnate 
deity)  piercing  with  a  spear  the  head  of 
a  large  serpent — remarkably  suggestive 
of  a  tradition  of  the  prophecy  that  '  the 


seed  of  the  woman  should  bruise  the  ser- 
pent's head.'" — 'J'ristrtini.  The  sacred 
symbol  of  the  globe  and  serpent  is  found 
on  almost  all  the  monuments  of  Egypt, 
See  Adder,  Asp,  Cockathice.  Viper. 

SERPENT,  BRAZEN.  Num. 
21  :  9.  As  a  punishment  for  the  mur- 
muring of  the  Israelites,  God  sent  into 
the  midst  of  the  camp  a  venomous  ser- 
pent, called  "  fiery,"  probably,  from  the 
burning  which  followed  its  deadly  bite. 
There  are  many  species  of  such  dan- 
gerous serpents  still  found  in  the  wil- 
derness of  Sinai,  the  various  kinds  of 
which,  or  perha{)s  some  particular  spe- 
cies, may  here  be  intended.  The  destruc- 
tion of  life  was  fearful,  and  the  people 
entreated  Moses  to  intercede  for  their 
deliverance.  To  test  the  sincerity  of 
their  penitence,  Moses  was  commanded 
to  make  a  serpent  of  brass  resembling 
the  serpents  which  were  among  them, 
and  put  it  upon  a  pole,  that  it  might  be 
seen  from  all  parts  of  the  camp,  and 
then  whoever  was  bitten  should  be  heal- 
ed by  simply  looking  at  the  brazen  fig- 
ure ;  and  it  was  accordingly  done,  and 
all  the  promised  effects  followed.  This 
passage  of  history  is  alluded  to  by  our 
Saviour  as  an  illustration  of  the  work 
he  came  to  do.  .John  3:14,  15. 

SERPENT,  FIERYFLYaNG. 
Isa.  14  :  29  ;  30  :  6.  This  creature  has 
no  connection  with  the  preceding.  The 
phrase  may  be  a  figurative  expression 
for  the  swiftly-darting  sand-serpents 
of  Eastern  deserts,  or  a  mere  poetic 
expression,  like  the  entirely  fabulous 
dragon  or  winged  serpent  of  modern 
literature. 

SE'RUG  (branch),  one  of  the  post- 
diluvian patriarchs,  in  the  line  of  Shem, 
Gen.  11  :  20,  23 ;  1  Chr.  1  :  26  ;  called  Sa- 
ruch  in  Luke  3  :  35. 

SER'VANT.  Phile.  16.  The  word 
so  rendered  is  generally  to  be  interpreted 
"  bondman  "  or  ''  slave."  But  there  were 
also  servants  in  our  sense  of  the  term: 
thus.  .Joshua  was  servant  to  Moses,  Elisha 
to  Elijah,  and  Elisha  himself  had  a  ser- 
vant, Gehazi.  There  are  other  instances. 
See  St,ave. 

SER'VITOR,  a  servant.  2  Kgs. 
4  :  43. 

SETH  {compensation),  son  of  Adam 
and  Eve,  was  born  when  Adam  was  one 
hundred  and  thirty  years  old,  and  lived 
nine  hundred  and  twelve  years.  Gen.  5  : 

781 


SET 


SHA 


3.  Tradition  ascribes  to  Seth  the  inven- 
tion of  letters. 

SE'THUR  (hidden),  the  spy  from 
Asher.    Num.  13  :  13. 

SEVEN.  Gen.  2:2.  As  from  the 
beginning  this  was  the  number  of  days 
in  the  week,  so  it  has  ever  in  Scripture 
a  sort  of  emphasis  attached  to  it,  and  is 
very  often  and  generally  used  as  a  round 
number,  or,  as  some  would  say,  a  2)erfect 
number.  Clean  beasts  were  taken  into 
the  ark  by  sevens.  Gen.  7  :  2.  The  years 
of  plenty  and  famine  in  Egypt  were 
marked  by  sevens.  Gen.  41  :  2,  3.  AVith 
the  Jews  not  only  was  there  a  seventh- 
day  Sabbath,  but  every  seventh  year  was 
a  Sabbath,  and  every  seven  times  seventh 
year  was  a  jubilee.  Their  great  feasts 
of  unleavened  bread  and  of  tabernacles 
were  observed  for  seven  da^'s.  The 
number  of  animals  in  many  of  their 
sacrifices  was  limited  to  seven.  The 
golden  candlestii'k  had  seven  branches. 
Seven  priests  with  seven  trumpets  went 
around  the  walls  of  Jericho  seven  days, 
and  seven  times  on  the  seventh  day.  In 
the  Apocalypse  we  find  seven  churches 
addressed,  seven  candlesticks,  seven 
spirits,  seven  stars,  seven  seals,  seven 
trumpets,  seven  thunders,  seven  vials, 
seven  plagues,  and  seven  angels  to  pour 
them  out. 

"  Seven  "  is  often  put  for  any  round  or 
whole  number;  just  as  we  use  "ten  "  or 
"  a  dozen  ;"  so  in  1  Sam.  2:5;  Job  5  : 
19:  Prov.  26  :  16,  25;  Isa.  4:1;  Jcr. 
15  :  9 ;  Matt.  12  :  45.  "  In  like  manner 
"seven  times,"  or  "seven-fold,"  means 
"often,"  "  abundantlv,"  "  completelv." 
Gen.  4:15,  24;  Lev.  26:24;  Ps.  12  :*  6  ; 
79  :  12;  Matt.  18  :  21.  And  seventy 
times  seven  is  still  a  higher  superlative. 
Matt.  18:21,  22. 

SHAALAB'BIN  (cih/  of  jackals), 
a  town  of  Dan.  Josh.  19  :  42  ;  also  called 
Shaalbim.  Jud.  1:  35;  1  Kgs.  4:  9. 
Now  the  present  village  Selbit,  near 
Aijalon,  south-east  of  Lydda. 

SHAAL'BIM.     See  above. 

SHAALBONITE,  THE.  2  Sam. 
23  :  32  ;  1  Chr.  11  :  33.  Eliahba,  one  of 
David's  thirty-seven  heroes,  is  so  called. 
It  is  not  known  Avhere  Shaalbon  was. 

SHA'APH  (diri..iou).  1.  2.  Two 
names  in  the  genealogy  of  Judah.  1  Chr. 
2  :  47,  49. 

SHAARA'IM  {two  gates).  1.  A  city 
in  the  plain  of  Judah  ;  called  also  Sha- 
782 


raim.  1  Sam.  17  :  52 ;  Josh.  15  :  36. 
Probably  identical  with  the  ruin  Saireh, 
west  of  Beit  Atab. 

2.  A  town  in  Simeon.  1  Chr.  4  :  31. 
In  the  list  of  Joshua  it  appears  as  Sha- 
RUHEN  and  Shilem,  which  see. 

SHAASH'GAZ  [beauty's  lustre f), 
the  eunuch  in  the  second  house  of  the 
harem  of  Xerxes.   Esth.  2:14. 

SHABBETH'AI  [sabbath -horn),  a 
Levite  who  assisted  Ezra  in  expounding 
the  Law  and  in  dealing  with  the  illegal 
marriages.  Ezr.  10  :  15;  Neh.  8  :  7;  11 :  16. 

SHACH'IA  [Jehovah  ^jrofecfs),  a 
Benjamite.   1    Chr.  8  :  10. 

SHAD'DAI  [the  w( /(//if?/),  the  name 
for    God    in    common    use,    along    with 
"  El,"  before  Jehovah  was  revealed.    It 
is  translated  "the  Almighty." 

SHAD'OVV.  The  word  is  used  in 
Col.  2  :  1 7  ;  Heb.  8:5;  10  :  1  to  express 
the  relation  between  Judaism  and  Chris- 
tianity. The  rites  of  the  old  religion 
preficrured  the  realities  of  the  new. 

SHA'DRACH  (ro^n//).  Dan. 1:7. 
See  Abrdnego. 

SHA'GE  [erring),  the  father  of  one 
of  David's  warriors.   1  Chr.  11 :  34. 

SHAHARA'IM  [the  two  dawns),  a 
Benjamite.   1  Chr.  8  :  8. 

SHAHAZ'IMAH  [heights),  a  town 
in  Issachar.  Josh.  19  :  2*2.  Perhaps 
Te/l  esh  Kdsim,  in  the  Jordan  valley. 

SIlA'IjV:m.  (peaceful).  Gen.  33  :'l8. 
If  this  term  indicates  a  place,  it  may  be 
identified  with  the  present  village  of 
Salim,  3  miles  east  of  Shechem.  Some 
would  render  it,  however,  "in  peace," 
and  would  read  the  verse,  "Jacob  came 
in  peace  to  the  citv  of  Shechem." 

SHA'LIM,  THE  LAND  OF, 
which  means  "the  land  of  foxes"  or 
"jackals"  through  which  Saul  passed. 
1  Sam.  9:4.  It  may  have  been  eastward 
from  Shalisha. 

SHAL'ISHA,  LAND  OF  (tri- 
angular), a  district  near  Mount  Ephraim. 
1  Sam.  9  :  4.  In  it,  perhaps,  the  city  of 
Baal-shalisha  was  situated.  2  Kgs.  4  :  42. 
Eusebius  and  Jerome  place  it  about  15 
Roman  miles  north  of  Lydda.  Perhaps 
near  Tliilth.     See  Baal-shalisha. 

SHAL'LECHETH  [a  casting 
down),  the  name  of  a  gate  of  the  temple. 
1  Chr.  26:16.  Literally,  it  means  the 
"gate  of  projection" — that  is,  from 
which  were  thrown  out  the  sweepings, 
ashes,    and   offal   of  the   temple.      The 


SHA 


SHA 


causeway  was  made  by  Solomon  from  | 
his  own  palace  by  way  of  the  Tyropoeon  \ 
valley  to  the  western  wall  of  the  temple  ; 
to  this  causeway  the  gate  led,  Grove 
would  identify  it  with  the  gate  Sinsleh, 
at  the  western  wall  of  tlie  Haram  en- 
closure, 600  feet  above  the  south-western 
corner. 

SHAL'LUM  [retvihmion).  1.  The 
murderer  of  Zaehariah,  king  of  Israel. 
He  usurped  the  crown,  but  was  slain  by 
Menahem  at  the  end  of  the  first  month 
of  his  reign,  B.  c.  771.  2  Kgs.  15  :  10-15. 

2.  The  husband  of  tlte  ])rophetess 
Huldah  in  the  reign  of  Josiah.  2  Kgs. 
22:14;  2  Chr.  34:22. 

3.  A  man  of  Judah.  1  Chr.  2  :  40,  41. 

4.  The  fourth  son  of  Josiah,  king  of 
Judah,  and  king  three  months,  1  Chr. 
3:15;  Jer.  22  :  U  ;  called  Jchoahaz  in 
2  Kgs.  23  :  31-34;  2  Chr.  36  : 1-4. 

5.  A  man  of  Simeon.  1  Chr.  4  :  25. 

6.  A  high  priest.  1  Chr.  6  :  12,  13; 
Ezr.  7  :  2. 

7.  A  son  of  Naphtali.  1  Chr.  7  :  13. 
See  Shtllem, 

8.  The  chief  of  a  family  of  porters.  1 
Chr.  9  :  17.  His  descendants  returned 
with  Zerubbabel.   Ezr.  2  :  42  ;  Neh.  7  :  45. 

9.  Oneof  the  porters.  1  Chr.  9  :  19,  31. 

10.  A  chief  Ephraimite.  2  Chr.  28  :  12. 

11.  A  Levite  poi'ter  who  had  a  foreign 
wife.  Ezr.  10  :  24. 

12.  A  similar  offender.  Ezr.  10  :  42. 

13.  One  who  helped  to  build  the  wall. 
Keh.  3  :  12. 

14.  The  uncle  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah, 
Jer.  32  :  7. 

15.  A  temple-doorkeeper.  Jer.  35  :  4. 
SHAL'LUN   {retribution),   one    who 

helped  in  repairing  Jerusalem's  walls. 
Neh.  3:15. 

SHAL'MAI  {my  thanks).  Some  of 
the  Nethinims  were  his  children,  and 
returned.  Ezr.  2  :  46  ;   Neh.  7  :  48. 

SHAL'MAN,  the  name  of  an  As- 
syrian king  before  Pul.  Hos.  10  :  14. 
The  ordinary  opinion,  that  it  is  a 
contraction  for  "  Shalmaneser,"  seems 
to  be  incorrect. 

SHALMANE'SER  {Salman  is 
gracious),  a  king  of  Assyria  whose  reign 
lasted  from  B.  c.  727-722,  coming  be- 
tween those  of  Tiglath-pileser  and  Sar- 
gon.  He  comes  into  biblical  notice  as 
the  invader  of  Israel.  The  king,  Iloshea, 
had  revolted,  but  he  conquered  and  ex- 
acted a  tribute.  2  Kgs.  17  :  3.     He  then 


returned  home,  but,  as  Iloshea  revolted 
a  second  time  and  allied  himself  with 
So,  king  of  Egypt,  Shalmaneser  return- 
ed, ravaged  Samaria,  besieged  Iloshea 
in  his  capital,  and  after  three  years  the 
city  fell.  But  during  this  time  a  rebellion 
headed  by  Sargon  had  broken  out  in 
Assyria,  and  Shalmaneser  was  deposed. 
It  is  not  stated  in  2  Kgs.  17  :  6  that 
Shalmaneser  took  Samaria,  but  that  the 
kin;/  of  Assyria  did.     See  Sargon. 

SHA'MA  {obedient),  a  warrior  of 
David's.  1  Chr.  11 :  44. 

SHAMARI'AH  {lohom  Jehovah 
keeps),  a  son  of  Rehoboara,  2  Chr.  11  : 
19. 

SHAM'BLES,  a  meat-market.  1 
Cor.  10  :  25. 

SHA'MED  {a  destroyer),  a  Benjam- 
ite.    1  Chr.  8:12. 

SHAME  FACEDNESS,  a  mis- 
print or  corruption  in  1  Tim.  2:9  for 
"  shamefastness,"  in  the  sense  of  being 
fast  or  established  in  modesty  and  devo- 
tion. 

SHAMMER  (a  keejyer).  1.  A  Levite. 
1  Chr.  6  :  46. 

2.  A  chief  of  Asber,  1  Chr.  7  :  34 ; 
called  also  Shomer  in  v.  32. 

SHAM'GAR  {cnp-bearer  ?),  a  judge 
of  Israel  of  whom  it  is  related  that  he 
slew  six  hundred  Philistines  with  an 
ox-goad  and  delivered  Israel.  Jud.  3  :  31. 

SHAM'HUTH  {desolation),  one  of 
David's  captains.   1  Chr.  27  :  8. 

SHA'MIR  {a  thorn),  a  Levite.  1 
Chr.  24  :  24. 

SHA'MIR  (rt  sharji  2^oint),  a  name 
for  two  places. 

1.  A  city  in  the  mountains  of  Judah. 
Josh.  15  :  48.  It  is  probably  the  ruins 
of  Somerah,  west  of  IJcbir. 

2.  The  place  in  Mount  Ephraim  where 
Tola  lived.  Jud.  10  : 1,  2.  Swartz  places 
it  at  Sanur,  on  a  hill  6  miles  north  of 
Samaria;  but  Van  de  Velde  at  Sammer, 
10  miles  south-south-east  of  Nabliis. 

SHAM'MA  {desolation),  an  Asherite 
chief.   1  Chr.  7  :  37. 

SHAM'MAH  {desolation).  1.  A 
duke  of  Edom.  Gen.  36  :  13,  17  ;  1  Chr. 
1  :  37. 

2.  The  third  son  of  Jesse,  1  Sam. 
16  :  9  :  17  :  13  ;  called  also  Shimeah 
and  Shimina. 

3.  One  of  the  three  greatest  of  David's 
mighty  men.  2  Sam.  23  :  11,  33. 

4.  One  of  David's  mighties,  2   Sam. 

783 


SHA 


SHA 


23  :  25  ;  called  also  Shammoth  the  Ha- 
rorite  in  1  Chr.  11  :  27,  and  Shamhuth 
the  Izrahite  in  1  Chr.  27  :  8. 

SHAM'MAI  {desolated).  1,  2,  3. 
Three  descendants  of  Judah.  1  Chr.  2  : 
28,  32,  44,  45;  4:  17. 

SHAM'MOTH.   1  Chr.  11:  27.    See 

SHAMNfAH,  4. 

SHAMJWU'A,      SHAMMU  AH. 

1.   The  spy  from  Reuben.    Num.  13  :  4. 

2.  One  of  David's  sons,  born  in  Jeru- 
salem, 2  Sam.  5  :  14  ;  1  Chr.  14  :  4;  called 
Shimea  in  1  Chr.  3  :  5. 

3.  A  Levite.  Neh.  11 :  17. 

4.  A  priest  in  the  days  of  Jehoiakim. 
Xeh.  12:18. 

SHAMSHERA'I  {heroic),  a  Ben- 
jamite.   1  Chr.  8  :  26. 

SHA'PHAM  {bald),  a  Gadite.  1 
Chr.  5  :  12. 

SHA'PHAX  {coney),  the  scribe  or 
secretary  to  King  Josiah.  2  Kgs.  22  : 
.3-14:  2'Chr.  34:8-20,  etc. 

SHA'PHAT  {judge).  1.  The  spy 
from  Simeon.  Num.  13  :  5. 

2.  The  father  of  Elisha.  1  Kgs.  19  : 
16,  19;  2  Kgs.  3  :  11 ;  6:31. 

3.  One  of  the  royal  line  of  Judah. 
1  Chr.  3  :  22. 

4.  One  of  the  Gadite  chiefs.  1  Chr.  5  : 
12. 

5.  One  of  David's  chief  herdsmen. 
1  Chr.  27  :  29. 

SHA'PHER  {brightness),  a  station 
of  the  Israelites  at  a  mountain  in  the 
Arabian  desert.  Num.  33  :  23.  Rowlands 
would  identify  it  with  Jebel  Arcnf,  a 
rocky  promontory  on  the  western  shore 
of  the  Elanitic  Gulf;  but  others  propose 
Jebel  esh-Shnreif,  a  hill  70  miles  north- 
west of  Elath. 

SHAR'AI  {Jeliovdh.  frees  him),  one 
who  had  a  foreign  wife.  Ezr.  10  :  40. 

SHAR'AIM  {two  gates).  Josh.  15  : 
36.     See  Shaaraim. 

SHA'RAR  {cord),  the  father  of  one 
of  David's  warriors,  2  Sam.  23  :  33: 
called  Sacar  in  1  Chr.  11  :  35. 

SHARE'ZER  {priuce  off  re),  the 
son  of  Sennacherib,  who  joined  his 
brother  Adrammelech  in  murdering  their 
father.  2  Kgs.  19  :  37  ;   Isa.  37  :  38. 

SHAR'ON  {the  plain),  a  level  tract 
along  the  Mediterranean,  between  Cses- 
area  and  Joppa;  called  also  Saron.  Acts 
9  :  35.  It  is  25  or  30  miles  in  length, 
and  from  8  to  15  miles  in  width. 

Scrijiture  History.  —  Sharon  is  first 
784 


noticed  in  the  Bible  as  Lasharon,  the 
Hebrew  article  being  taken  as  part  of 
the  word.  Josh.  12  :  IS.  It  was  renowned 
for  its  fertility.  The  flocks  of  David  fed 
there,  and  Isaiah  praised  its  excellency 
and  uses  it  both  in  promise  and  in 
threatening.  1  Chr.  27  :  29  ;  Isa.  35  :  2  : 
65  :  10  :  33  :  9.  The  Rose  of  Sharon  is 
celebrated  in  Solomon's  Song.  2  :  1. 

Present  Condition.  —  The  luxuriance 
and  fertility  of  the  plain  of  Sharon  are 
noted  to  this  day,  although  the  frequent 
raids  of  the  Bedouin  make  its  cultiva- 
tion difficult.  The  plain  has  on  the 
north  a  range  of  inland  cliflfs.  A  por- 
tion of  the  plain  is  composed  of  marl 
and  alluvial  soil,  another  portion  of  red 
sandstone  and  shelly  breccias  of  blown 
sand  in  large  patches.  The  hills  are  of 
softest  chalk,  gently  sloping,  partly 
covered  by  woods  of  oak,  the  trees  stand- 
ing at  intervals  like  a  park,  the  ground 
being  sandy  in  some  places  and  of  a 
loam  or  limestone  chai'acter  in  others. 

Sharon  is  mentioned  in  connection 
with  Gilead  in  Bashan  in  1  Chr.  5  :  16. 
Stanley,  noting  the  difficulty  of  suppos- 
ing that  the  pasture-lands  of  Gad  could 
have  been  so  far  from  the  home  of  the 
tribe  east  of  the  Jordan  as  Sharon  would 
have  been,  thinks  that  "  Sharon  " — which 
has  in  the  Hebrew  exactly  the  same 
meaning  as  Mishor — may  signify  the 
Mishor,  or  '^  upland  downs,"  of  Gilead 
and  Bashan. 

SHAR'ONITE,  THE.  Shitrai 
is  so  called.   1  Chr.  27  :  29. 

SHARU'HEN  {])leasant  dwelling), 
a  city  in  Simeon.  Josh.  19  :  6.  It  was 
in  the  "  south  country,"  and  may  have 
been  identical  with  the  large  ruin  esh- 
Shen'ah,  north-west  of  Beer-sheba. 

SHASH'AI  {whitish,  or  noble),  one 
who  had  a  foreign  wife.  Ezr.  10  :  40. 

SHA'SHAK  {eagerness),  a  Benjam- 
ite.   1  Chr.  8  :  14,  25. 

SHA'UL  {desired).  1.  A  son  of 
Simeon  bv  a  Canaanitish  woman.  Gen. 
46  :  10  ;  Ex.  6:15;  Num.  26  :  13  ;  1  Chr. 
4  :  24. 

2.  An  Edomite  king,  1  Chr.  1 :  48,  49  ; 
in  A.  V.  of  Gen.  36  :  37  he  is  called 
Saul. 

3.  A  Kohathite  Levite.  1  Chr.  6  :  24. 
SHA'ULITES,     descendants     of 

Shaul.  1.    Num.  26:  13. 

SHA'VEH  {a  plain),  a  valley  on 
the  north  of  Jerusalem;    known  also  as 


SHA 


SHE 


the '' King's  Dale."  Gen.  14:  17;  2  Sam. 
18  :  18.     See  King's  I)ai-k. 

S  H  A'V  E  H-K  I  K I A  T  H  A'l  M 

'^phxiu  of  KirJtitJi<(i)n),  a  jilain  or  valie}' 
near  the  city  Kirjathaim,  in  Moab.  Gen. 
14  :  5.  Afterward  it  belonsj;cd  to  Keuben. 
Num.  32:37;  Josh.  13  :^19.  Eusebius 
says  it  was  well  known  in  his  day  as  a 
village  10  miles  west  of  Medeba. 

SHAV'SHA  (warrior  of  Jehovah), 
the  scribe  or  secretary  to  David,  1  Chr. 
18  :  1<> ;  called  also  Seraiah  and  Shisha. 

SHE'AL  (askiiiff),  one  who  had  a 
foreign  wife.  Ezr.  10  :  29. 

SHEAL'TIEL  (/  have  anked  him 
of  God),  the  father  of  Zerubbabel.  Ezr. 
3  :  2,  8  5  5:2;  Neh.  12  : 1 ;  Hag.  1 :  1,  12, 
14;  2:2,  23. 

SHEARI'AH  (lohom  Jehovah  esti- 
maten),  a  descendant  of  Saul.  1  Chr.  8  :  38  ; 
9  :  44. 

SHEARING -HOUSE,  a  spot 
between  Jezreel  and  Samaria  where  Jehu 
slew  forty-two  of  the  royal  family  of 
Judah.  2  Kgs.  10  :  12,  14.  According  to 
Eusebius,  it  is  in  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  15 
Roman  miles  from  Legio  (Lejiin),  and 
Conder  suggests  Akadah  as  the  site,  on 
the  western  side  of  the  great  plain. 

SHE'AR-JA'SHUB  (a  rcmvant 
retnrusi).  the  symbolical  name  Isaiah 
gave  his  son.  Isa.  7  :  3. 

SHE'BA  [an  oath).  1.  The  son  of 
Bichri,  a  Benjamite  who  revolted  from 
David,  was  pursued  by  Joab.  and  be- 
headed in  the  fortress  of  Abel-beth-ma- 
achah.    2  Sam.  20  :  1-22. 

2.   A  Gadite  chief.  1  Chr.  5  :  13. 

SHE'BA  {man?).  1.  One  of  Ham's 
descendants.   Gen.  10  :  7  ;   1  Chr.  1  :  9. 

2.  One  of  Shem's  descendants.  Gen. 
10:28;   1  Chr.  1:22. 

3.  One  of  Abraham's  descendants  by 
Keturah.    Gen.  25  :  3  ;   1  Chr.  1  :  32. 

These  were  all  founders  of  tribes. 

SHE'BA  {seven,  or  an  oath],  a  name 
for  a  region  in  Arabia  and  a  town  in 
Palestine. 

1.  A  wealthy  region  in  Arabia  border- 
ing on  the  Red  Sea.  It  included  the 
most  fertile  districts  of  that  country. 
The  queen  of  Sheba  visited  Solomon, 
coming  "to  Jerusalem  with  a  very  great 
train,  with  camels  that  bear  spices,  and 
very  much  gold,  and  precious  stones." 
1  Kgs.  10  :  1-13;  2  Chr.  9:1-12.  Many 
ancient  writers  noted  the  abundance  of 
spices  in  the  Yemen,  or  Sabaean  country. 
50 


Herodotus  says  that  the  whole  tract 
exhaled  an  odor  of  marvellous  sweetness, 
and  Diodorus  relates  that  the  perfume 
extended  far  out  to  sea;  while  Strabo 
asserts  that  the  enormous  profits  of  the 
spice  trade  made  the  Saba?ans  one  of  the 
wealthiest  nations  on  the  face  of  the 
earth.  They  used  gold  and  silver  most 
lavishly  in  their  furniture,  their  utensils, 
and  even  on  the  doors  and  roofs  of  their 
houses.  Precious  stones  also  abounded 
there.  Its  chief  cities  were  Seba  {Sana) 
and  Sephar  {Zafar). 

2.  A  town  in  Simeon,  mentioned  be- 
tween Beer-sheba  and  Moladah.  Josh. 
19  :  2.  Shema  is  named  next  to  Moladah 
in  Josh.  15  :  26,  and  is  probably  identical 
with  this  Sheba.  Two  miles  east  of 
Beer-sheba,  on  the  road  to  Moladah,  is 
a  mound  called  el-Seha,  which  may  mark 
the  site  of  ancient  Sheba.  It  has  a  well 
separate  from  those  at  Beer-sheba. 

SHE'BAH  {Dcven,  or  an  oath),  a 
well  dug  by  Isaac's  servants,  and  from 
which  Beer-sheba  was  named.  Gen.  26  : 
33.     Sec  Beer-sheba. 

SHE'BAM  {coolness),  one  of  the 
towns  east  of  the  Jordan  desired  by 
Reuben  and  Gad.  Num.  32  :  3.  See 
Shibmaii  and  Sibmah. 

SHEBANI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  has 
made  gran-  up).  1.  A  priest  who  blew  a 
trumpet  at  the  bringing  up  of  the  ark. 
1  Chr.  15  :  24. 

2.  A  Levite  who  sang  and  sealed  the 
coveiiant.  Neh.  9:5;  10  :  10. 

3.  A  priest  who  sealed  the  covenant. 
Neh.  10:4:  12  :  14. 

4.  A  Levite  who  did  the  same.  Neh. 
10:12. 

SHEB'ARIM  {wins),  a  place  near 
Ai  to  which  the  Israelites  were  pursued. 
Josh.  7:5.  The  term  may  mean  ''pre- 
cipices," or  possibly  "fissures,"  but  the 
location  is  unknown. 

SHE'BER  (breaking),  a  son  of 
Caleb,  the  son  of  Hezron.   1  Chr.  2  :  48. 

SHEB'NA  {youth).  1.  The  "treas- 
urer," or  prefect  of  the  palace  of 
Hezekiah,  Isa.  22  :  15-25,  a  man  of 
great  pride,  but  whose  ignominious  fall 
is  prophesied  by  the  prophet. 

2.  The  scribe  or  secretary  of  Hezekiah  ; 
a  different  person  from  the  preceding, 
though  with  the  same  name.  Isa.  36  :  3 ; 
2  Kgs.  18  :  18.  37  ;  19  :  2.  He  was  one 
of  the  ambassadors  sent  to  Rabshakeh. 

SHEB'UEL  {captive  of  God).    1.  A 

785 


SHE 


SHE 


descendant  of  Moses,  1  Chr.  23  :  16  ;  26  : 
24;  also  called  Shubael  in  1  Chr.  24  :  20. 

2.  One  of  the  Levite  singers,  1'  Chr. 
25  :  4  :  called  Shubael  in  25  :  20. 

SHECANI'AH  {familiar  with  Je- 
hovah). 1.  One  of  the  priests  chosen  by 
lot  during  David's  reign.  1  Chr.  24:  11. 

2.  A  Levite  in  the  reign  of  Ilezekiah. 
2  Chr.  31  :  15. 

SHECHANI'AH  {familiar  toith 
Jehovah).  1.  A  descendant  of  the  regal 
line.  1  Chr.  3  :  21,  22. 

2,  3.  The  fathers  of  persons  with  Ezra. 
Ezr.  8  :  3,  5. 

4.  One  who  headed  the  party  against 
foreign  marriages.   Ezr.  10  :  2. 

5.  The  father  of  Shemaiah,  a  gate- 
keeper. Neh.  3  :  29. 

6.  The  father-in-law  of  Tobiah  the 
Ammonite.  Neh.  6  :  18. 

7.  Head  of  some  with  Zerubbabel. 
Neh.  12  :  3. 

SHE'CHEM  {the  shoulder-blade). 
1.  The  ravisher  of  Dinah,  slain  by 
Simeon  and  Levi.  Gen.  33  :  19  ;  34. 

2.  A  man  of  Manasseh.  Num.  26  :  31 ; 
Josh.  17  ;  2. 

3.  Another  descendant  of  Manasseh. 
1  Chr.  7  :  19. 

SHE'CHEH  {shoulder),  a  town  in 
the  valley  between  Mounts  Ebal  and 
Gerizim ;  called  also  Sichem,  Sychem, 
and  Sychar  ;  in  later  times  it  was  known 
as  Neapolis,  and  now  its  Arabic  name  is 
Nablus.  It  was  34  miles  north  of  Jeru- 
salem, about  7  miles  south-east  of  Sa- 
maria, and  its  site  is  unrivalled  for 
beauty  in  Palestine.  Two  mountains 
parallel  to  each  other,  Ebal  and  Gerizim, 
almost  meeting  at  their  bases  and  only 
a  mile  and  a  half  apart  at  their  summits, 
enclose  a  beautiful  little  valley  extend- 
ing east  and  west,  not  more  than  a 
hundred  yards  wide  at  the  narrowest 
part,  and  widening  out  in  both  direc- 
tions. At  the  narrowest  part  of  the  vale 
is  the  town  of  Nabliis,  clinging  to  the 
slope  of  Gerizim,  the  "  mountain  of 
blessing."  It  is  at  an  altitude  of  1950 
feet  above  the  sea. 

Scripture  History. — The  city  is  men- 
tioned forty-eight  times  in  the  Bible. 
Its  history  begins  four  thousand  years 
ago,  when  Jerusalem  had  no  existence, 
extends  through  Scripture  from  Abraham 
to  Christ,  and  continues  to  the  present 
day.  When  Abraham  came  from  Chal- 
dasa  to  the  land  which  God  should  give 
786 


him,  he  halted  at  the  "place of  Sichem." 
Geu.  12  :  6.  When  Jacob  came  from 
Mesopotamia,  Shechem  was  a  Hivite 
city,  and  Jacob  bought  from  Hamor  the 
parcel  of  the  field  which  he  afterward 
gave  to  his  son  Joseph.  Gen.  33  :  18, 19  ; 
43  :  22 ;  Josh.  24  :  32  ;  John  4  :  5.  She- 
chem was  captured  and  the  male  inhab- 
itants murdered  by  Simeon  and  Levi. 
Gen.  34  ;  49  :  5-7.  Abraham  worshipped 
under  the  oak  which  was  by  Shechem, 
and  there  Jacob  buried  the  images 
brought  by  his  famil}^  from  Padan-aram ; 
and  Joseph  came  from  Hebron  to  She- 
chem and  Dothan,  seeking  his  brethren, 
and  there  also  Joseph  was  buried.  Gen. 
27  :  12-28  :  Josh.  24  :  32.  A  solemn 
dedicatory  service  of  the  whole  nation 
took  place  near  Shechem.  Deut.  11  :  29, 
30.  Abimelech  caused  the  Shechemites 
to  revolt  from  the  Hebrews  and  to  elect 
him  as  king,  but  after  a  reign  of  three 
years  he  was  expelled,  and  in  revenge 
destroyed  the  city  and  sowed  the  ground 
with  salt.  Jud.  9.  It  was  rebuilt,  and 
Rehoboam  went  there  to  be  crowned ; 
but,  in  consequence  of  the  revolt,  he  fled. 
The  city  was  fortified  by  Jeroboam,  who 
made  it  the  first  seat  of  the  northern 
kingdom.  1  Kgs.  12  :  1-19,  25,-  2  Chr. 
10.  Men  of  Shechem  were  slain  by 
Ishmael.  Jer.  41  :  3,  5.  After  the  Cap- 
tivity, Shechem  became  the  centre  of 
Samaritan  Avorship.     See  Samaria. 

N.  T.  references  to  this  city  are  few. 
Jesus  visited  the  region,  preached  to  a 
woman  at  Jacob's  well,  and  many  from 
Sychar  believed  on  him.  John  4  :  5,  39- 
42.  Whether  Sj'char  occupied  precisely 
the  same  site  as  ancient  Shechem  has 
been  a  question  in  dispute  among 
scholars.  Stephen  refers  to  the  sepul- 
chres of  the  patriarchs  at  Sychem.  Acts 
7  :  16.  During  the  Christian  period 
Neapolis  became  the  seat  of  a  bishop. 
Justin  Martyr  was  born  there.  The 
Crusaders  took  it  after  the  conquest  of 
Jerusalem  ;  Baldwin  II.  held  a  great 
diet  there,  a.  d.  1120. 

Present  Appearance. — Modern  travel- 
lers bear  uniform  testimony  to  the  beauty 
of  the  scenery  of  Nabliis.  Dr.  Robinson 
calls  it ''  a  scene  of  luxuriant  and  almost 
unparalleled  verdure."  Dean  Stanley, 
says  it  is  "  the  most  beautiful — perhaps 
the  only  very  beautiful — spot  in  Central 
Palestine,"  and  Tristram  says  the  land- 
scape is  *'  the  richest  in  Palestine."     It 


SHE 


SHE 


is  abundantly  supplied  with  water : 
vegetation  is  luxuriant:  there  are  olive 
trees  and  orange  groves  and  palm  trees. 

The  streets  of  the  town  are  cleaner, 
and  its  houses  as  a  rule  better,  than  those 
of  Jerusalem,  being  high,  built  of  stone, 
and  crowned  with  domes.  The  side 
streets  are  often  like  low  cellars,  quite 
dark,  vaulted,  and  narrow,  and  so  low 
that  the  passengers  can  scarcelj'^  stand 
upright,  except  in  the  centre  of  them. 
The  town  is  a  considerable  centre  of 
trade  and  manufactures.  Cotton  became 
the  staple  of  the  place  a  few  years  ago, 
and  a  cotton-mill  was  erected.  There  is 
also  a  trade  in  wool,  and  there  are  a 
score  of  manufactories  of  soap,  which  is 
made  from  olive  oil.  The  bazaar  exhibits 
a  great  variety  of  wares. 

The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Mussul- 
mans. Tristram  estimated  the  popula- 
tion at  9000,  of  whom  about  650  were 
Christians,  200  Samaritans,  and  a  few 
Jews.  There  is  a  Protestant  school,  sup- 
ported by  the  English  Church  Missionary 
Society.  Baedeker  estimates  the  popu- 
lation at  13,000,  including  140  Samari- 
tans, a  few  Jews,  600  Christians  of  the 
Greek  Orthodox  Church,  and  a  few 
Latins  and  Protestants.    The  people  still 

f (reserve  their  ancient  reputation  as  rest- 
ess,  turbulent,  and  quarrelsome. 

Among  the  principal  attractions  of  the 
town  is  the  great  mosque  Jdmi  el-Kehir, 
originally  a  church  of  the  Crusaders, 
dedicated  to  St.  John,  and  completed 
A.  D.  1167.  There  are  two  other  mosques 
which  were  originally  churches  of  the 
Crusaders.  In  the  south-western  part 
of  the  town  is  the  Samaritan  synagogue 
(Kemnet  es-Sdiinreh),  a  small,  plain 
whitewashed  room,  the  pavement  of 
which  is  covered  with  matting  and  must 
not  be  trodden  on  with  shoes.  The 
Samaritans  still  retain  their  hereditary 
form  of  worship,  and  possess  the  famous 
Samaritan  Codex  of  the  Pentateuch,  which 
is  guarded  with  great  care.  Sometimes 
a  copy  is  shown  instead  of  the  original, 
which  they  derive  from  a  grandson  of 
Aaron.     See  Samaria. 

The  well  which  Jacob  dug,  and  upon 
which  our  Lord  rested  and  talked  with  a 
woman  of  Samaria,  is  near  Nablvis.  See 
Jacob's  Well. 

A  little  distance  north  of  Jacob's  well 
is  the  reputed  site  of  Joseph's  tomb,  Josh. 
24  :  32,  which  has  been  preserved  from 
788 


molestation  from  age  to  age  by  the  com- 
mon reverence  in  which  the  ])atriarch  is 
held  by  Jew,  Samaritan,  Christian,  and 
Muslim  alike.  The  building  shown  is 
comparatively  modern,  being  a  common 
Muslim  tomb  in  a  square  enclosure.  It 
was  recently  restored  by  Mr.  Rogers,  an 
English  consul  at  Damascus,  in  1868. 
The  Muslims  claim  that  Joseph's  body 
is  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah,  at  Hebron, 
having  been  carried  thither  from  She- 
chera. 

The  granite  shafts  belonging  possibly 
to  the  Samaritan  temple  on  Gerizim  are 
to  be  found  amidst  the  ruins  of  a  Roman 
villa  in  the  plain,  and  again  in  another 
site  of  same  date  at  a  little  distance. 

At  the  foot  of  the  northern  slope  of 
Gerizim  is  a  cemetery.  The  place  is 
called  El  Amud{''  the  column  "),  and  the 
Rev.  George  Williams  has  with  much 
probability  identified  it  with  *'  the  pillar 
that  was  in  Sheehem,"  where  Abimelech 
was  made  king,  Jud.  9  :  6,  and  with  the 
oak  of  Moreh,  near  which  Abraham  built 
his  first  altar  to  the  Lord  after  entering 
the  Promised  Land,  and  where  Joshua 
set  up  a  great  stone.  Josh.  24  :  26. 

SHE'CHEMITES,  the  family  of 
Sheehem.  Num.  26  :  31. 

SHECHI'NAH  (resthig-place). 
This  familiar  word  is  found  in  the  Tar- 
gums  and  in  Christian  writings,  although 
not  in  the  Bible,  but  the  fact  it  presents 
often  is,  for  the  shechinah  was  enveloped 
in  the  pillar  of  cloud  and  of  fire,  and 
was  "  the  glory  "  which  covered  the  tab- 
ernacle and  filled  Solomon's  temple.  In 
the  N.  T.  there  is  reference  to  this  "glory 
of  the  Lord  "  in  Luke  2:9;  Rom.  9:4; 
John  1:14,  etc. 

SHED'EUR  [dartinq  of  Jive),  the 
father  of  the  prince  of  Reuben  at  the 
time  of  the  Exodus.  Num.  1:5;  2:10; 
7:30.  35:  10:18. 

SHEEP,  SHEPHERD, 
SHEEP -MASTER,  SHEEP- 
COTE,  SHEEP'FOLD.  The  sheep 
is  mentioned  about  five  hundred  times 
in  the  Bible,  and  seems  likely  to  have 
been  the  first  animal  domesticated  by 
man.  Gen.  4  :  4,  The  sheep  anciently 
kept  by  the  Israelites  were  probably  of 
the  broad-tailed  variety,  in  which  the 
tail  is  a  mass  of  delicate  fat  sometimes 
weighing  14  pounds,  or  even  more.  Ex. 
29:22;  Lev.  3  :9,  11. 

Sheep  often  constituted  the  chief  wealth 


SHE 


SHE 


of  a  man  in  patriarchal  times  ;  and  hence, 
with  the  Jews,  the  care  of  sheep  was 
among  the  earliest  and  most  respectable 
employments,  Gen.  4:2;  Ex.  3:1;  Job 
42  :  12;  1  Sam.  16  :  11,  though  it  was 
odious  to  the  Egyptians.  The  office  of 
chief  shepherd,  Ileb.  13  :  20  ;  1  Pet.  5  :  4, 
is  often  mentioned  by  heathen  writers. 
It  was  an  office  of  great  trust  and  respon- 
sibility, as  well  as  of  distinguished  honor. 
2  Kgs.  3  :  4.  Chardin  saw  a  clan  of 
Turcoman  shepherds  whose  flocks  con- 
sisted of  400,000  beasts  of  carriage,  such 
as  camels,  horses,  oxen,  cows,  and  asses, 
and  3,000,000  of  sheep  and  goats.  Dr. 
Shaw  confirms  his  statement. 


Eastern  Sheepfold. 

The  shepherd  or  "  sheep-master  "  was 
constantly  with  his  flocks  by  night  and 
by  day,  to  number,  gather,  feed,  conduct, 
and  guard  them,  Gen.  31  :  39  ;  Luke  2  : 
8,  and  was  often  attended  with  a  despised 
dog.  Job  30  :  1.  His  care  of  the  sheep 
was  constant  and  tender,  and  his  control 
over  them  very  great.  Isa.  40  :  11 ;  John 
10  :  1-16.  Piev.  John  Hartley,  a  mission- 
ary in  Greece,  tells  us  that  he  was  once 
passing  by  a  flock  of  sheep,  and,  having 
heard  it  said  they  would  obey  the  shep- 
herd's voice,  he  asked  him  to  call  one  of 
his  sheep,  which  instantly  left  its  pas- 
turage and  ap|)roached  the  hand  of  the 
shepherd  with  a  prompt  obedience  which 
he  never  saw  in  any  other  animal.  It 
is  also  universally  true  in  that  country 
that  a  stranger  they  will  not  follow. 
They  flee  from  him,  for  they  know  not 
the  voice  of  a  stranger. 

It  is  said  that  the  shepherds  of  Judaea 
gave  each  lamb  a  distinct  name,  and 
that  they  instantly  obeyed  the  voice  of 
the  shepherd,  coming  and  going  daily  at 
his  call.  An  ancient  Jewish  writer,  born 
and  educated  in  Egypt,  states  that  the 
sheep,  in  the  season  of  shearing,  would 


run  to  the  shepherd  at  his  call,  and, 
stooping  a  little,  put  themselves  into  his 
hands  to  be  shorn  and  stand  quietly  until 
he  had  done. 

The  docility,  timidity,  and  liability  to 
wander  (all  which  are  among  the  charac- 
teristics of  this  animal)  are  often  figura- 
tively employed  by  the  sacred  writers, 
as  2  Chr.  18  :  16  ;  Ps.  119  :  176  ;  Isa.  11  : 
6 ;  53  :  6,  7  ;   Mic.  5:8;  Matt.  9  :  36. 

In  the  0.  T.  the  word  "  shepherd  "  is 
used  figuratively  for  Jehovah,  Ps.  80  : 1 ; 
Jer.  31  :  10  ;  anil  for  kings,  Eze.  34  :  10  ; 
but  in  the  N.  T.  it  denotes  Christ,  John 
10  :  11,  etc. ;    Heb.  13  :  20  :    1  Pet.  5  :  4, 
and  also  those  teachers  who  presided  in 
the    synagogues.     This   use    of    the 
-gr--^    word   gave  rise  to  the  application 
^  of  the  word  "  shepherd  "  or  "  pas- 
s  tor,"   in    modern    times,    to    minis- 
ters of  the  gospel,  and  those  under 
their  spiritual  care  are   called    the 
"fold"  or  "flock." 

It  was  the  business  of  the  shep- 
^  herd  to  count  the  sheep  daily,  per- 
—  haps  oftener,  and  he  was  account- 
able for  any  that  were  missing. 
Gen.  31  :  38,  39:  Ex.  22  :  12,  13; 
Lev.  27  :  32  ;  Jer.  33  :  13.  See  Rod. 
Sometimes  a  lamb  was  taken  into 
the  tent  and  brought  up  like  a  dog.  2  Sam. 
12  :  3.  It  is  common  in  Armenia  to  see 
shepherds  carrying  in  their  bosoms  the 
lambs  of  the  flock  they  are  tending. 
They  are  too  feeble  to  roam  with  their 
dams,  and  nothing  evinces  more  tender- 
ness and  care  than  gently  leading  such 
as  are  with  young,  or  such  as  have  young 
lambs  to  which  they  give  suck.  Isa.  40  : 
11.  Two  of  our  American  missionaries 
tell  us  that  while  travelling  in  Armenia 
they  passed  several  shepherds,  probably 
from  the  neighboring  villages,  carrying 
in  their  bosoms  the  lambs  of  the  flocks 
they  tended.  The  same  scene  had  already 
frequently  interested  them  by  presenting 
the  source  of  the  beautiful  imagery  of 
the  prophet.  It  is  exhibited  only  at  one 
season  of  the  year,  when  lambs  are  fre- 
quently brought  forth  during  the  day  at 
a  distance  from  the  fold.  The  new- 
comers, being  too  weak  to  follow  the 
flock  in  its  rovings  after  grass,  are  carried 
in  the  bosom  of  the  shepherd,  and  not 
unfrequently  they  so  multiply  as  to  fill 
his  arms  before  night.  They  are  then 
taken  to  the  fold,  and  guarded  there 
;  until  sufficiently  strong  to   ramble  with 

789 


SHE 


SHE 


their  dams.  One  of  these  enclosures 
presents  an  amusing  scene  when  the 
sheep  return  anxiously  bleating  in  the 
evening  from  their  day's  pasture,  and 
scores  of  hungry  young  ones  are  con- 
ducted by  shepherds'  boys  each  to  its 
own  mother. 

The  time  of  shearing  was  a  season  of 
great  festivity.  1  Sam.  25  :  7,  8, 11 ;  2  Sam. 
13  :  23.  The  flock  was  collected  in  an 
uncovered  enclosure  called  a  "  sheep  fold" 
or  "  sheepcote."  Num.  32  :  Ifi  :  2  Sam.  7  : 
8  ;  Jer.  23  :  3  ;  Zeph.  2:6;  John  10  :  16. 
Here  their  legs  were  tied  together,  and 
the  '^  shearing-bouse,"  2  Kgs.  10  :  12,  14, 
literally  means  the  "tie-house."  They 
were  never  housed  at  any  season  of  the 
year. 

A  watch-house  was  often  erected  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  flocks,  from  which  the 
approach  of  danger  could  be  easily  des- 
cried. This  is  called  the  "  tower  of  the 
flock."  jVIic.  4  :  8.  The  wool  of  the  sheep 
was  probably  made  into  cloth,  Lev.  13  : 
47;  Deut.  22  :  11,  by  women.  Prov.  31  : 
13.  It  formed  part  of  the  tribute  paid 
by  the  Moabites  to  Israel,  2  Kgs.  3  :  4, 
and  was  a  common  article  of  merchan- 
dise. Eze.  27  :  18.  Ewes'  milk  was  an 
important  part  of  daily  food.  Deut.  32  : 
14;  1  Cor.  9  :  7.  The  flesh  of  sheep  and 
lambs  was  eaten.  1  Sam.  25  :  18  :  1  Kgs. 
1:19;  4  :  23  ;  Ps.  44  :  11.  If  Josh.  6  : 
4  is  correctly  rendered,  as  probably  it  is 
not,  rams'  horns  were  made  into  trum- 
pets. Sheep-skins  were  used  as  a  cover- 
ing for  the  tabernacle,  Ex.  25  :  5,  and 
the  poor  clothed  themselves  in  them. 
Heb.  11 :  37. 

The  sheep  was  especially  the  animal 
of  sacrifice,  and  there  were  few  off"erings 
required  in  which  the  lamb  or  the  ram 
was  not  admissible.  As  an  animal  sym- 
bolical of  innocence  and  purity,  the  sheep 
was  well  fitted  for  this  use.  With  refer- 
ence to  his  sacrificial  mission,  as  well  as 
to  his  meekness,  patience,  and  submis- 
sion, Christ  is  often  called  "the  Lamb," 
"the  Lamb  of  God,"  "  the  Lamb  slain." 
John  1  :  29,  36  ;  Rev.  13  :  8  ;  22  :  1,  3. 

SHEEP-GATE,  an  ancient  gate 
of  Jerusalem.  Neh.  3  :  1,  32  ;  12  :  39. 
Barclay  concludes  that  it  must  have  been 
near  the  temple,  and  between  the  tower 
of  Meah  and  the  Prison-gate.  Compare 
Acts  3  :  32  with  12  :  39  :  A.  V.  "  prison- 
gate."  Tradition  identifies  the  Sheep-gate 
with  Saint  Stephen's  gate,  which  leads  to 
790 


Gethsemane  and  Mount  Olivet.  Grove 
would  phice  it  near  the  Bab  el-Kaitanin. 
SHEEP-MARKET.  John  5  :  2. 
"Market"  is  an  interpolation  by  the 
translators ;  it  should  probably  read 
"  gate." 

SHEETS,  Jud.  14  :  12,  should  be 
"  shirts,"  either  the  thin  garment  worn 
next  to  the  body  or  the  loose  night- 
wrapper. 

SHEHARI'AH       {Jehovah       seeks 

him),  a  Benjamite  chief.   1  Chr.  8  :  26. 

SHEK'EL  means  "weight,"  then  a 

;  particular  weight  of  uncoined  gold   or 

i  silver,  to  the  value  of  20  gera.   Ex.  30  : 

13.     See  Money. 
I       SHE'LAH  (;^e^V(ojO,  the  third  son 
I  of  Judah.     Gen.  38  :  5,  11,  14,  26;    46  : 
12  ;  Num.  26  :  20  ;  1  Chr.  2:3;  4:21. 

SHE'LAH  {s2iront).    1   Chr.  1  :  18, 
24.     See  Salah. 
i      SHE'LANITES,  the  descendants 

of  Shelah.   Num.  26  :  20. 
1       SHELEMI'AH  {whom  Jehovah  re- 
2iai/s).  I.  1  Chr.  26  :  14.     See  Meshel- 

EMIAH. 

2,  3.  Two  persons  who  had  foreign 
wives.  Ezr.  10  :  39,  41. 

4.  Father  of  Hananiah.  Neh.  3  :  30. 

5.  A  priest  appointed  by  Nehemiah  a 
treasurer.  13  :  13. 

6.  Ancestors  of  one  in  time  of  Jehoi- 
akin.  Jer.  36  :  14. 

7.  Father  of  one  of  Jeremiah's  ac- 
cusers to  Zedekiah,  37  :  3 ;  38  :  1  ;  per- 
haps identical  with  him  mentioned  in 
36  :  26. 

8.  Father  of  the  captain  of  a  ward  who 
arrested  Jeremiah.  37  :  13. 

SHE'LEPH  {(Irairn  out),  the  sec- 
ond in  order  of  the  sons  of  Joktan.  Gen. 
10  :  26  :  1  Chr.  1  :  20. 

SHE'LESH  {tried),  an  Asherite 
chieftain.  1  Chr.  7  :  35. 

SHEL'OMI  {pacific),  the  father  of 
the  prince  of  Asher  in  time  of  Moses, 
Num.  34:  27. 

SHEL'OMITH  (;K»cvy?c).  1.  The 
Danite  mother  by  an  Egyptian  of  a 
stoned  blasphemer.   Lev.  24  :  11. 

2.  A  daughter  of  Zerubbabel.  1  Chr. 
3:19. 

3.  A  Gershonite  Levite.  1  Chr.  23  :  9. 

4.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  1  Chr.  23  :  18; 
called  Shelomoth  in  24  :  22. 

I       5.  One  who  had  charge  of  the  dedi- 
cated things  in   David's  reign.    1    Chr. 
1  26  :  25,  26. 


SHE 


SHE 


6.  A  son  of  Rehoboam.  2  Chr.  11 :  20. 

7.  One  whose  sons  returned  with  Ezra. 
Ezr.  8  :  10. 

SHEL'OMOTH.  1  Chr.  24  :  22. 
See  SnELOMiTH,  4. 

SHELU'MIEL  {friend  of  God), 
the  prince  of  Simeon  in  the  wilder- 
ness. Num.  1  :  G;  2  :  12;  7  :  3G,  41; 
10  :  19. 

SH.EM(»(n»f),  theehlestsonof  Noah, 
preserved  with  his  wife  in  the  ark.  His 
conduct  toward  his  father  on  one  oc- 
casion is  recited  to  his  praise.  Gen.  9  : 
20-27.  The  Jews  are  his  descendants, 
and,  besides,  there  are  the  Aramaeans, 
Persians,  Assyrians,  and  Arabians.  The 
languages  spoken  by  the  descendants  of 
Shem  (the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Assyrian, 
and  Arabic)  are  called  Shemitic  lan- 
guages. 

SHE'MA  {rumor).  1.  A  descendant 
of  Judah.  1  Chr.  2  :  43,  44. 

2.  A  Reubenite.  1  Chr.  5  :  8. 

3.  A  Benjamite  chief.   I  Chr.  8  :  13. 

4.  One  who  stood  by  Ezra  during  the 
reading  of  the  Law.  Neh.  8  :  4. 

SHE'MA  {nnaor),  a  place  in  Judah, 
Josh.  15  :  26 ;  19  :  2,  and  the  same  as 
Sheba,  No.  2. 

SHE3IA''AH  {rumor),  a  Benjamite 
whose  sons  joined  David  at  Ziklag.  1 
Chr.  12  :  3. 

SHEMAFAH  {Jehovah  hears).  1. 
A  prophet  in  the  time  of  Rehoboam,  and 
a  chronicler  of  his  reign.   1  Kgs.  12  :  22; 

2  Chr.  11  :2;  12  :  5,  15. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Zerubbabel.  1  Chr. 

3  :  22. 

3.  A  Simeonite.  1  Chr.  4  :  37. 

4.  A  Reubenite.  5  :  4. 

5.  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11.  Levites.  9  :  14; 
cf.  Neh.  11:  15;  1  Chr.  9  :  10;  15:8,  11; 
24:  6;  2  Chr.  17  :  8 ;  29:  14;  31  :  15; 
35  :  9. 

12.  The  eldest  son  of  Obed-edom.  1 
Chr.  26  :  4,  6,  7. 

13.  A  messenger  of  Ezra's.  Ezr.  8  : 
13,16. 

14.  15.  A  priest  and  another  who  had 
foreign  wives.  Ezr.  10  :  21,  31. 

16.  A  traitor.   Neh.  6:10. 

17.  A  priest  who  sealed  the  covenant. 
Neh.  10:8;  12:  6,  18,  35. 

18.  One  of  the  princes  of  Judah.  Neh. 
12  :  34. 

19.  One  of  the  choir  at  the  dedication 
of  the  wall.  Neh.  12  :  36. 

20.  A  priest.  Neh.  12  :  42. 


21.  The  father  of  a  prophet  in  the  time 
of  Jeremiah.  Jer.  26  :  20. 

22.  A  false  prophet  of  Jeremiah's 
time.  Jer.  29  :  24,  31,  32. 

23.  The  father  of  a  prince  in  Jehoi- 
akin's  reign.  36  :  20. 

SHEMARI'AII  {whom  Jehovah 
keeps).  1.  One  of  David's  soldiers  at 
Ziklag.  1  Chr.  12  :  5. 

2,  3.  Two  who  had  foreign  wives.  Ezr. 
10  :32,41. 

SHEM'EBER  {lofty  Jiight),  one  of 
the  allies  who  were  attacked  by  Chedor- 
laonier.  Gen.  14  :  2. 

SHE'MER  {lecH  of  wine),  the  owner 
of  the  hill  which  King  Omri  bought  and 
covered  with  the  city  of  Samaria,  giving 
it  its  former  owner's  name.  1  Kgs.  16  : 
24. 

SHEMI'DA,  SHEMI'DAH 
{fame  of  wisdotn),  a  man  of  Manasseh. 
Num.  26  :  32  ;  Josh.  17  :  2  ;   1  Chr.  7  :  19. 

SHEMI'DAITES,  the  descendants 
of  the  above.  Num.  26  :  32. 

SHE3'I'INITH(^//,ee(Vy//f;0.amusical 
term  which  appears  in  1  Chr.  15  :  21,  and 
in  the  titles  to  Ps.  6  and  12.  Its  mean- 
ing is  uncertain,  but  probably  it  refers  to 
the  time  of  the  piece,  rather  than  any 
instrument. 

SHEMIR'AMOTH  {name  most 
high).  1.  A  musical  Levite  in  David's 
day.  1  Chr.  15  :  18,  20;  16  :  5. 

2.  A  Levite  in  the  reign  of  Jehosh- 
aphat.  2  Chr.  17  :  8. 

SHE3IIT'IC,  ou  SEMIT'IC, 
LANGUAGES.     See  Shem. 

SHEMU'EL  {heard  of  God).  1. 
The  representative  of  Simeon  in  the 
division  of  the  land.  Num.  34  :  20. 

2.  Samuel  the  prophet.  1  Chr.  6  :  33. 

3.  A  chieftain  of  Issachar.  1  Chr.  7  :  2. 
SHEN  {the   tooth).     Samuel   erected 

the  stone  Ebenezer  between  Mizpah  and 
Shen.  1  Sam.  7:12.  It  was  probably 
so  named  from  a  tooth-shaped  rock. 

SHENA'ZAR  {  fier,,  tooth),  de- 
scendant of  David.  1  Chr.  3  :  18. 

SHE'NIR,  a  name  given  to  Mount 
Hermon  by  the  Sidonians.  Deut.  3:9; 
Cant.  4  :  8.     See  Hermon. 

SHE'PHAM  {bear-region),  a  land- 
mark on  the  eastern  boundary  of  the 
Promised  Land,  between  Hazar-enan 
and  Riblah.     Num.  34  :  10.  11. 

S  H  E  P  H  A  T  H I  A  H  (Jehova h 
jud'/fs).  a  Bcnjiiniite.   1  (Mir.  9  :  8. 

SHEPHATl'AH  {Jehovah  fudges). 

791 


SHE 


SHI 


I.  The  fifth  son  of  David.  2  Sam.  3:4; 
1  Chr.  3  :  3. 

2.  A  Benjamite  warrior  with  David  at 
Ziklag.  1  Chr.  12  :  5. 

3.  The  chief  of  the  Simeonites  in 
David's  time.   1  Chr.  27  :  16. 

4.  A  son  of  Jehoshajjhat.  2  Chr.  21 :  2. 

5.  6.  Two  persons  whose  posterity'  re- 
turned with  Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  2  :  4,  57 ; 
Neh.  7  :  9,  59. 

7.  One  of  the  posterity  of  Judah. 
Neh.  11  :  4. 

8.  One  who  desired  Jeremiah's  exe- 
cution. Jer.  38  :  1-4. 

SHEP'HERD  (pastor).    John  10: 

II.  See  Sheep. 
SHEPHERD.    Ps.  23  :  1.      See 

SHE'PHI  (a  nal-ed  A(70,  a  descend- 
ant of  Seir,  1  Chr.  1  :  40 ;  called  Shepho 
in  Gen.  36  :  23. 

SHE'PHO  {smoothnefsfi).  See  above. 

SHEPHU'PHAN  {serpent),  a 
grandson  of  Benjamin,  1  Chr.  8:5; 
called  Shuphara  in  Num.  26  :  39,  Shup- 
pim  in  1  Chr.  7  :  12,  15,  and  Muppim  in 
Gen.  46  :  21. 

SHE 'RAH  {blood-kindred),  daugh- 
ter of  Ephraim.   1  Chr.  7  :  24. 

SHEREBI'AH  (heat  of  Jehovah), 
one  of  the  chief  Levitical  friends  and 
helpers  of  Ezra,  and  one  who  sealed  the 
covenant.  Ezr.  8  :  18,  24;  Neh.  8:7;  9  : 
4;  10:  12. 

SHE'RESH  {root),  a  descendant  of 
Manasseh.   1  Chr.  7:16. 

SHERE'ZER  (Asnr  protect  the 
king  .'),  a  man  mentioned  in  Zech.  7  :  2. 

SHER'IFFS,  mentioned  in  Dan. 
3  : 2  as  among  the  Babylonish  digni- 
taries, were  probably  officers  like  the 
mufti,  or  the  '*  head-doctors  of  the  Law 
in  the  Turkish  empire." 

SHE'SHACH,  a  svmbolical  name 
for  Babylon,  Jer.  25  :  26  ;  51  :  41,  from 
its  goddess  Shach  reduplicated,  as  Misael 
is  called  Meshach. 

SHE'SHAI  {ichiti^h),  one  of  the 
three  sons  of  Anak.  Num.  13:22;  Josh. 
15:  14:  Jud.  1:  10. 

SHE'SHAN  (lihj),  a  descendant  of 
Judah.   1  Chr.  2:  31,' 34,  35. 

SHESHBAZ'ZAR  {fire-worship- 
per), the  Persian  name  borne  by  Zerub- 
babel at  the  Persian  court.  Ezr.  1  :  8, 
11;  5:14.  16. 

SHETH  {tumult).    1.  The  patriarch. 
1  Chr.  1:1. 
792 


2.  In  Num.  24  :  17  not  a  proper  name; 
read  :  *'  children  of  tumult,"  not  "  chil- 
dren of  Sheth."  Jer.  48  :  45. 

SHE'THAR  {a  star),  one  of  the 
Persian  princes.  Esth.  1  :  14. 

SHE'THAR-BOZ'NAI  {star  of 
splendor),  a  Persian  oflScer  in  Syria.  Ezr. 
5:3,  6;  6:6,  13. 

SHE'VA  {Jehovah  contends).  The 
name  is  corrupted  from  Seraiah. 

1.  The  son  of  Caleb  ben-Hezron.  1 
Chr.  2 :  49. 

2.  The  scribe  of  David.  2  Sam.  20  :  25. 
SHEW'-BREAD   was  unleavened 

bread  prepared  anew  every  Sabbath,  and 
presented  hot  on  the  golden  table  set  in 
the  sanctuary,  in  twelve  loaves  of  a 
square  or  oblong  shape,  according  to 
the  number  of  the  tribes  of  Israel.  Ex. 
25 :  30.  Salt  and  frankincense  were  put  on 
each  row.  The  loaves  were  placed  either 
in  two  piles  or  in  two  rows,  with  six 
loaves  in  each,  and  it  was  called  "shew- 
bread,"  or  "  bread  of  the  face,"  or  the 
"  bread  of  setting  before,"  because  it 
stood  continually  before  the  Lord  ;  later 
"  bread  of  ordering."  1  Chr.  9  :  32 ; 
marg. ;  Neh.  10  :  33. 


Table  of  Shew- bread. 

The  incense  having  been  burnt,  the  old 
loaves  were  removed  every  Sabbath,  Lev. 
24  :  8.  and,  as  a  general  rule,  were  to  be 
eaten  by  the  priests  alone,  and  by  them 
only  in  the  court  of  the  sanctuary.  1 
Sam.  21:1-6;   Matt.  12  :  3,  etc. 

SHIB'BOLETH  {an  ear  of  corn, 
or  a  stream,  a  food).  Jud.  12  :  6.  In  the 
course  of  a  war  between  the  Ephraimites 
and  the  Gileadites,  the  former  were  rout- 
ed and  fled  toward  the  Jordan.  The 
Gileadites  had  taken  care  to  post  a  party 
at  the  fords,  and  when  an   Ephraimite 


SHI 


SHI 


who  had  escaped  came  to  the  river-side 
and  desired  to  pass  over,  they  asked  him 
if  he  were  not  an  Ephraiiuite.  If  he 
said,  "No,"  they  bade  him  pronounce 
**  Shibboleth,"  and  if  he  pronounced  it 
"  sibboleth,"  according  to  the  dialect  of 
the  Ephraiuiites,  they  killed  him.  Thus 
fell  42,0U0  Ephraimites  in  a  single  day. 
Comp.  Matt.  26  :  73.  Milton  says,  with 
reference  to  that  event, 

"Without  reprieve,  adjudged  to  death, 
For  want  of  well  pronouncing  shibboleth." 

The  word  is  now  used  for  a  test  or  the 
watchword  of  a  party. 

SHIB'MAH  {fr<n/rance),  a  town  in 
Reuben,  east  of  the  Jordan.  Num.  32  : 
38.     See  Sibmah. 

SHI'CROIV  {driDiJceiniess),  a  land- 
mark of  Judah  between  Ekron  and  Jab- 
neel.  Josh.  15  :  11. 

SHIELD.  Jud.  5  :  8.     See  Armor. 

SHIGGA'ION.  Ps.  7,  title.  It 
probably  means  a  dithyrambic  ode,  er- 
ratic— i.  e.,  wild  and  mournful. 

SHIGI'ONOTH,  the  plural  of 
Shiggaion.    Hab.  3  :  1. 

SHI'HON  (destruction),  a  place  in 
Issachar.  Josh.  19  :  19.  Eusebius  calls 
it  a  village  near  Mount  Tabor,  probably 
Shaiii,  3  miles  north-west  of  Tabor. 

SHI'HOR.  1  Chr.  13:5.  See  Nile. 

SHI'HOll-LIB'NATH  {blnck- 
white),  a  landmark  of  Asher.  Josh.  19  : 
26.  The  term  is  usually  supposed  to  re- 
fer to  a  river  which  formed  the  extreme 
point  of  the  frontier  toward  the  south, 
and  must  have  included  Dor.  Probably 
the  Zerku,  or  ''Blue  Kiver,"  which  runs 
into  the  Mediterranean  south  of  Dor; 
but  Conder  suggests  its  identity  with 
Wdd]i  Shac/Jiur. 

SHIL'HI  [armed),  the  grandfather 
of  Jehoshaphat.  1  Kgs.  22:42;  2  Chr. 
20:31. 

SHIL'HIM  {armed  men),  a  town  in 
Judah.  Josh.  15  :  32.  Wilton  proposes 
to  locate  it  at  the  ruin  ex-Saram,  and 
Conder  has  conjectured  that  it  might  be 
at  Shelkhah. 

SHIL'LEM  [requital),  a  son  of 
Naphtali,  and  ancestor  of  the  Shillem- 
ites.   Gen.  46  :  24  :  Num.  26  :  49. 

SHIL'LEMITES.     See  above. 

SHILO'AH  [sendinci  forth),  the 
quietly-flowing  stream  Siloam.  Isa.  8  : 
6.     See  Siloam. 

SHI'LOH.    The  word  "  Shiloh,"  as 


used  in  Gen.  49  : 1 0,  has  given  rise  to  much 
discussion.  Many  of  the  best  scholars 
consider  it  as  referring  to  the  town.  But 
it  is  better  to  adopt  the  traditional  view, 
and  interpret  "Shiloh"  of  the  Messiah. 
The  word  in  this  connection,  according 
to  the  majority,  means,  "  He  whose 
right  it  is."  Others  translate  '*  Peace." 
Cf.  Isa.  9  :  0.  Still  others,  "  The  sceptre 
shall  not  depart  from  Judah  till  He 
comes  to  whom  it  belongs." 

SHI'LOH  [jilfice  of  rest),  a  city 
north  of  Bethel,  south  of  Lebonah,  on 
the  east  of  the  road  from  Bethel  to  She- 
chem.  Jud.  21  :  19.  It  is  now  called  Sei- 
lun,  and  is  17  miles  north  of  Jerusalem 
and  very  nearly  midway  between  Bethel 
and  Shechem,  being  about  9  or  10  miles 
from  each. 

Scripture  Histori/. — Joshua  selected 
Shiloh  as  the  site  of  the  tabernacle,  and 
there  made  the  allotments  of  the  Prom- 
ised Land.  Josh.  18:1,  8-10.  During 
the  period  of  the  Judges,  for  three  hun- 
dred years,  the  tabernacle  remained  here, 
and  in  its  honor  a  festival  was  annually 
celebrated,  on  which  occasion  the  daugh- 
ters of  Shiloh  danced,  and  thus  gave  an 
opportunity  for  the  Benjamites  to  carry 
otf  two  hundred  of  them  as  wives.  Jud. 
21  :  19-23.  Shiloh  was  the  residence  of 
Eli  and  of  Samuel,  1  Sam.  3  and  4,  and 
thither  tidings  were  brought  to  the  old 
man  of  the  capture  of  the  ark  by  the 
Philistines.  The  ark  was  never  brought 
back  to  Shiloh,  and  the  tabernacle  was 
removed  to  Nob  and  thence  to  Jerusa- 
lem. 2  Chr.  1  :  3,  4.  The  prophet  Ahi- 
jah  lived  there.  1  Kgs.  14:  1-17.  Shi- 
loh seems  to  have  been  desolate  in  Jere- 
miah's day.  Jer.  7  :  12,  14;  26  :  6,  9.  In 
the  time  of  Jerome  the  place  was  a  ruin. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  erroneously 
supposed  to  have  lain  near  Nehi/  SamwiL 

Present  Appearance. — It  has  been  iden- 
tified without  doubt  with  iS'e(7(ni,  a  ruin- 
ed village  on  a  low  hill,  showing  traces 
of  ancient  building-material  and  early 
foundations.  The  most  interesting  fea- 
ture is  a  sort  of  level  open  court,  412 
feet  long  and  77  feet  wide,  partly  hewn 
out  of  the  rock,  "  which  might  have  been 
the  actual  spot  where  the  ark  rested,  for 
its  custodians  would  naturally  select  a 
place  sheltered  from  the  bleak  winds  that 
prevail  in  these  highlands."  (See  Recov- 
ery of  Jerusalem,  p.  364.)  In  a  little  val- 
ley about  half  a  mile  from  the  ruins  are 

793 


SHI 


SHI 


?eiluii  (ancient  Shilob). 


the  spring  and  well  of  Shiloh,  and  this 
must  have  been  the  spot  where  the 
"  daughters  of  Shiloh  "  were  seized.  In 
the  neighborhood  of  this  spring  are 
many  rock-hewn  tombs,  in  which,  ac- 
cording to  Jewish  tradition,  were  laid 
the  bodies  of  Eli  and  his  sons.  From 
its  central,  and  at  the  same  time  seclu- 
ded, position,  Shiloh  was  well  adapted 
to  be  the  resting-place  of  the  ark  and 
the  principal  sanctuary  of  the  Jewish 
nation. 

SHILO'NI,  the  descendant  of  She- 
lah.   Neh.  11  :  [>. 

SHI'LONITE,  the  resident  of 
Shiloh;  so  Ahijah  is  called.  1  Kgs.  11 : 
29. 

SHI'LOXITES,  THE,  members 
of  the  house  of  Shelah.  1  Chr.  9  :  5. 

SHIL'SHAH  (triad— i.  e.,  the  third 
son),  an  Asherite  chief.  1  Chr.  7  :  37. 

SHIM'EA,SHIM'EAH(^;if/*erM-- 

i)>() — \.  e.,  a)i-sit:eri)if/ — prayer).  1.  Brother 
of  David,  2  Sam.  21  :  21 .:  called  Sham- 
mah  and  Shimma, 

2.  A   son   of  David  by  Bathsheba.  1 
794 


Chr.  3:5;  called  Shammua  and  Sham- 
muah. 

3.  A  Merarite  Levite.  1  Chr.  6  :  30. 

4.  A  Gershonite  Levite.  1  Chr.  6  :  39. 

5.  A  Beniamite.  1  Chr.  8  :  32. 
SHIM'EAM  (the  hearing— i.  e.,  an- 

steering — jjrai/er),  1  Chr.  9  :  38 ;  same  as 
4,  above. 

SHIM'EATH  (the  hearing),  an  Am- 
monitess,  the  mother  of  Jozachar  or  Za- 
bab,  one  of  the  murderers  of  King  Jo- 
ash.  2  K ss.  12  :  21  :  2  Chr.  24  :  26. 

SHIM'EATHITES,  a  family  of 
scribes.   1  Chr.  2:55. 

SHIM'EI  {renoivned).  1.  A  son  of 
Gershon,  the  son  of  Levi.  Num.  3:18; 
1  Chr.  6:17,  29;  23:7.  9,  10;  Zech. 
12:13;  called    Shimi   in    Ex.  6:17. 

2.  The  Benjamite  of  the  house  of  Saul, 
living  at  Bahurim,  who  cursed  David 
when  the  latter  was  fleeing  from  Absa- 
lom. 2  Sam.  16:5-13.  David  forbade 
any  violence  at  the  time.  On  his  victo- 
rious return  Shimei  sought  the  forgive- 
ness of  David,  who  not  only  spared  his 
life  then,  but  covenanted  with  him  never 


SHI 


SHI 


to  put  him  to  death.  2  Sam.  19  :  23.  On 
his  death-bed,  however,  he  charged  Sol- 
omon to  remember  Shimei  as  a  guilty 
man.  Solomon  accordingly  forbade  him 
to  leave  Jerusalem  on  pain  of  death. 
This  prohibition  he  violated  by  going  to 
Gath  in  search  of  two  fugitive  servants, 
and  suffered  the  threatened  penalty.  1 
Kgs.  2  :  46. 

3.  One  of  David's  mighty  men  who 
opposed  Adonijah.  1  Kgs.  1  :  8. 

4.  The  Benjamitish  provision-officer 
of  Solomon.  1  Kgs.  4  :  18. 

5.  The  brother  of  Zerubbabel.  1  Chr. 
3:19. 

6.  A  Simeonite.  1  Chr.  4  :  26,  27. 

7.  A  Reubenite.  1  Chr.  5  :  4. 

8.  A  Gershonite  Levite.  1  Chr.  6  : 
42. 

9.  Head  of  the  tenth  musical  course. 
1  Chr.  25  :  17. 

10.  The  overseer  of  David's  vineyards. 
1  Chr.  27  :  27. 

11.  A  Levite  who  assisted  in  Ilezeki- 
ah's  purification  of  the  temple.  2  Chr. 
29  :  14. 

12.  A  Levite  in  Hezekiah's  time  who 
had  charge  of  the  temple-treasure.  2 
Chr.  31  :  12,  13. 

13.  A  Levite  who  had  a  foreign  wife. 
Ezr.  10  :  23. 

14.  15.  Two  persons  who  put  away 
their  foreign  wives.     Ezr.  10  :  33,  38. 

16.  One  of  the  ancestors  of  Mordecai. 
Esth.  2  :  5. 

SHIM'EON  (a  hearuHf),  one  who 
had  a  foreign  wife.    Ezr.  10  :  31. 

SHIM'HI  {renoiDued),  a  Benjamite. 
1  Chr.  8  :  21. 

SHI'MI.  Ex.  6  :  17.     See  Shimei,  1. 

SHIM'ITES,  the  descendants  of 
Shimei,  1.  Num.  3  :  21. 

SHIM'MA  {the  hearhig),  David's 
third  brother.    1  Chr.  2:  13. 

SHI'MON  (desert),  a  descendant  of 
Judah.   1  Chr.  4  :  20. 

SIIIM'R  ATH  ( watch),  a  Benjamite. 
1  Chr.  8:21. 

SHIM'RI  {watchful).  1.  A  Simeon- 
ite. 1  Chr.  4  :  37. 

2.  Father  of  one  of  David's  guard.  1 
Chr.  11 :  45. 

3.  A  Levite  in  Hezekiah's  reign.  2 
Chr.  29  :  13. 

SHIM'RITH  {watchful),  a  Moab- 
itess,  mother  of  Jehozabad,  one  of  the 
murderers  of  King  Joash,  2  Chr.  24  :  26  ; 
called  Shomer  in  2  Kgs.  12  :  21. 


SHIM'ROM,  mistaken  spelling  for 
SHIM'RON  (JtY(^-//),  the  fourth  son  of 
Issachar.  Gen.  46  :  13  ;  Num.  26  :  24;  1 
Chr.  7:1. 

SHIM'RON  {watch-post),  an  ancient 
city  of  Canaan,  over  which  Jabin  was 
king.  Josh.  11 :  1 ;  19  :  15.  The  Shim- 
ron-meron  of  Josh.  12  :  20  is  probably 
the  same  with  Shimron.  It  may  be  iden- 
tified with  the  village  es-Semii-iyeh,  about 
5  miles  from  Acre,  on  the  road  to  Tyre, 
where  a  solemn  conference  took  jtlace, 
A.  D.  1277.  The  Pal.  Memoirs  suggest 
Semdnieh,  a  small  village  with  three 
springs,  at  the  edge  of  the  Plain  of 
Esdraelon,  5  miles  west  of  Nazareth. 

SHIM'RONITES,  the  descendants 
of  Shimron.   Num.  26  :  24. 

SHIM'RON-ME'RON.  Josh.  12  : 
20.     See  Shimron. 

SHIM'SHAI  {suumj),  the  scribe  or 
secretary  of  Rehum  the  chancellor.  He 
joined  in  opposing  the  rebuilding  of  the 
temple  under  Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  4  :  8,  9, 
17,  23. 

SHI''NA'B  {coolincj),  the  king  of  Ada- 
mah,  in  the  valley  of  Siddim,  when  Che- 
dorlaomer  invaded  the  land.  Gen.  14  : 
2. 

SHI'NAR,  THE  LAND  OF 
{casting  out?  country  of  two  rivers?), 
the  region  where  the  people,  after  the 
Flood,  made  bricks  and  used  slime  (bit- 
umen) for  mortar.  Gen.  11  :  2,  3.  "  Shi- 
nar"  was  probably  the  Hebrew  name  for 
the  plain  of  Mesopotamia,  on  the  Eu- 
phrates and  the  Tigris.  It  would  seem 
originally  to  have  denoted  the  northern 
part  of  Babylonia,  as  "  Chaldgea  "  denoted 
the  southern  part;  but  subsequently, 
like  '"Chaldsea,"  it  was  sometimes  used  for 
the  whole.  Gen.  10:10;  Isa.  11:11; 
Dan.  1:2;  Zech.  5:11.  In  Josh.  7  :  21 
it  is  rendered  *'  Babylonish."  Among  its 
cities  were  Babel  (Babylon),  Erech  or 
Orech  (Orchoi),  Calneh  or  Calno  (prob- 
ably Niffer),  and  Arrad. 

SHIP.  Dean  Howson  says  that  more 
about  the  ancients'  merchant-ships  is  to 
be  learned  from  Luke  than  from  all  the 
writers  in  classic  literature.  Some  of 
these  ships  were  very  large,  and  prob- 
ably the  majority  carried  from  500  to 
1000  tons.  They  were  steered  by  two 
large  paddles  at  the  sides.  Acts  27  :  40, 
carried  usually  but  one  mast  with  a  huge 
sail,  but  were  also  propelled  by  oars, 
hence  required  rowers,  were  ornamented 

795 


SHI 


SHI 


by  images  in  the  bow  and  stern  and 
figures  painted  on  the  side  of  the  bow, 
which  made  "the  sign" — e.  g.,  Castor 
and  Polhix.  Acts  28  :  1 1.  Tliey  were  fur- 
nished with  undergirders,  which  passed 
round  the  frame  at  right  angles  to  its 
length  and  "  frapped "  it  wlien  the 
planks  were  in  danger  of  starting,  an- 
chors like  ours,  except  that  they  had 
no  flukes,  sounding-lines;  ''could  sail 
within  seven  points  of  the  wind ;  seem 
to  have  had  some  mode  of  keeping  the 
log;  and  it  has  been  supposed  that  with 
a  fair  breeze  they  could  make  seven  knots 
an  hour." — A;/re.  Xor  need  they  hug  the 
shore.  The  Hebrews  were  not  sailors. 
We  have  no  information  in  regard  to  the 
ships  of  their  nautical  neighbors.  The 
reference  to  rudder-banch,  Acts  27  :  40, 
is  thus  explained :  the  rudder-paddles 
already  mentioned  "  were  lashed  up  lest 
they  should  interfere  with  the  ground- 
tackle.  When  they  wished  to  steer  again 
and  the  anchor-ropes  were  cut,  they  un- 
fastened the  lashings  or  bands  of  the 
paddles."  Ancient  ships  were  properly 
galleys. 

SHI'PHI  {ahnndnnt),  the  father  of 
the  prince  of  Simeon  in  Hezekiah's  time. 
1  Chr.  4  :  37. 

SHIPH'MITE.  Probably  Zabdi, 
1  Chr.  27  :  27,  was  a  native  of  Shepham, 
which  see. 

SHIPH'RAH  {hemihj),  one  of  the 
chief  midwives  among  the  Hebrews  in 
Egypt.  Ex.  1:  15. 

SHIPH'TAN  (judicial),  the  father 
of  the  prince  of  Ephraim.  Num.  34  :  24. 

SHI'SHA  {Jehovah,  conteuds],  father 
of  the  scribes  of  Solomon.  1  Kgs.  4:3; 
same  with  Seraiah. 

SHI'SHAK,  the  head  of  the  twen- 
ty-second dynasty,  Sheshonk  I.,  who  re- 
ceived the  fugitive  Jeroboam,  1  Kgs.  11 : 
40,  and  in  the  fifth  year  of  Rehoboam, 
B.C.  969,  invaded  Judaea  and  spoiled  the 
temple.  14  :  25,  26  ;  2  Chr.  12  :  2-9.  At 
Karnak,  on  the  Nile,  there  is  an  inscrip- 
tion which  records  this  expedition.  The 
king  presents,  among  his  other  captives, 
one  with  an  unmistakable  Hebrew  phys- 
iognomy. The  accompanying  inscrip- 
tion, *' ludaha-malek,"  has  been  inter- 
preted "  Kingdom  of  Judah."  If  this 
is  correct,  then  Rehoboam  is  probably 
meant. 

Other    inscriptions    give   a  particular 
list  of  the  "fenced  cities"  mentioned  in 
796 


Head  of  Shishak.    {Fiom  temple  at  Karnak.) 

2  Chron.  12  :  4  as  having  been  taken  in 
this  expedition. 

SHIT'RAI  (scribe),  one  of  David's 
chief  herdmen.  1  Chr.  27  :  29. 

SHIT'TAH  TREE.  Isa.  41  :  19. 
See  Shittim-wood. 

SHIT'TIM  (acacias),  the  last  en- 
campment of  the  Israelites  before  enter- 
ing Canaan  ;  the  scene  of  the  sin  with 
the  Midianites,  and  of  its  terrible  pun- 
ishment, Num.  25;  31  :  1-12;  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Law  and  the  farewell  of 
Moses  :  the  sending  forth  of  the  spies 
to  Jericho ;  and  the  final  preparation 
before  crossing  the  Jordan.  Josh.  2. 

Physical  Features.  —  Shittim  —  also 
called  Abel-sfcittim,  or  "the  meadow 
of  acacias,"  from  the  number  of  acacia 
trees  in  it — was  the  green,  fertile,  well- 
watered  plain  stretching  from  the  foot 
of  the  mountains  of  Moab  to  the  Jordan. 
Tristram  describes  it  as  "  by  far  the 
largest  and  richest  oasis  in  the  whole 
Ghor."  Many  acacia  (shittim)  trees  still 
grow  there.  The  plain  now  bears  the 
name  of  Ghor  es-Seisaban.  At  the  north 
is  Tell  Ximrin  (Beth-nimrah).  South  of 
this  are  Tell  Kefrain  (Abel-shittim  and 
Abila  of  Josephus),  Tell  er-Rama  (Beth- 
haram),  and  Smceimeh,  which  Dr.  Mer- 
rill and  others  would  identify  with  Beth- 
jeshimoth.     See  Abei.-siiittim. 

SHITTIM,  THE  VALLEY 
OF,  referred  to  in  Joel  3  :  18,  may 
denote  the  same  valley  mentioned  above, 


SHI 


SHO 


indicating  that  the  blessing  should  spread 
even  beyond  the  borders  of  Judah.  Some, 
however,  suppose  that  the  reference  is  to 
a  valley  in  which  acacias  grew,  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Jordan,  and  nearer 
Jerusalem. 

S  H I  T  '  T  I  M-W  O  O  D  (from  the 
.ihiftah  tree,  Isa.  41  :  19)  was  much  used 
in  constructing  and  furnishing  the  taber- 
nacle. Ex.  25  :  15,  16.  The  only  tim- 
ber tree  of  any  size  now  found  in  the 
Arabian  desertis  the h-cyal ( Acacia  sci/al). 
The  large  specimens  of  this  have  been 
mostly  destroyed  for  charcoal  and  other 
uses,  but  the  writer  saw  a  fio/al  in  Wddy 
Feiran  3  feet  through,  and  Tristram 
speaks  of  trees  of  this  kind  on  the  west 
of  the  Dead  Sea  which  would  make 
planks  "4  feet  in  diameter."  There  can 
be  little  doubt  that  this  acacia  was  once 
abundant  in  the  Sinai  region  and  is  the 
shittim  of  Scripture. 


Shittim-wood  (Acacia). 

The  seyal  is  a  very  thorny  tree,  some-  I 
what  resembling   our   apple  tree  when 
seen  from   a  distance,  but  with  decom- 
pound leaves,  small  leaflets,   and  little  i 


yellow  balls  of  fibrous  bloom,  followed 
by  locust-like  pods.  Its  wood  is  close- 
grained,  hard,  browuish-hued,  and  well 
adapted  for  cabinet-work.  From  cuts 
or  cracks  in  the  trunk  and  limbs  of  this 
and  one  or  two  other  acacias  gum-arabio 
exudes,  and  is  collected.  The  burning 
bush,  Ex.  3  :  2,  on  philological  grounds, 
is  believed  to  be  a  similar  but  smaller 
tree,  the  fin)it  (Acacia  Nilolica),  found 
occasionally  in  this  region.  Several 
localities  mentioned  in  the  Bible  were 
named  from  the  shittim. 

SHI'ZA  (loviny),  the  father  of  a 
Reubenite  captain.   1   Chr.  11  :  42. 

SHO' A  {opulent).  Eze.  23:2:5. 
Whether  this  is  the  name  of  a  place, 
as  Palmer  suggests,  or  merely  a  title, 
is  uncertain.  Ewald  renders  it  ''cry- 
ing ;"  Keil  renders  it  "  noble ;"  and  the 
former  takes  it  to  be  the  name  of  some 
Chalda^an  tribe. 

SHO'BAB  [ajiostate).  1.  A 
child  of  Bathsheba  by  David.  2 
Sam.  5  :  14;   1  Chr.  3  :  5  ;  14  :  4. 

2.  A  son  of  Caleb,  son  of  Hezron. 
1  Chr.  2  :  IS. 

SHO 'BACH  {pouring).  1. 
The  general  (jf  Hadarezer,  king  of 
the  Syrians  of  Zoba.  David  defeat- 
ed and  slew  him.  2  Sam.  10  :  15-18. 
In  1  Chr.  19  :  16,  18  he  is  called 
Shophach. 

SHO'BAI  {tahing  captive),  one 
whose  children  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel.    Ezr.  2  :  42  ;  Neh.  7  :  45. 

SHO'BAL  '{flowing).  1.  The 
second  son  of  Seir  the  Horite,  and  a 
sheik  of  the  Horites.  Gen.  36  :  20  ; 
1  Chr.  1  :  38. 

2.  The  son  of  Caleb,  son  of  Hur. 

1  Chr.  2  :  50,  52. 

3.  In  1  Chr.  4  :  1,  2  he  is  identical 
probably  with  2. 

SHO'BEK  {forsaking),  one  who 
sealed  the  covenant.   Neh.  10  :  24. 

SHO'BI  {taking  captive),  a 
chief  Ammonite  who  provisioned 
David    during  Absalom's  rebellion. 

2  Sam.  17  :  27. 
SHO 'C  HO,    2    Chr.   28:  18, 

SHO'CHOH,  1  Sam.  17:1,  and 
SHO'CO,  2  Chr.  11  :  7.    See  SocoH. 
SHOES.     See  Clothes. 
SHOE-LATCH'ET.  Mark  1  :  8. 
See  Ci.OTHKS. 

SHO 'HAM  {n7}i/x),  a  Merarite  Le- 
vite.  1  Chr.  24  :  27. 

797 


SHO 


SHU 


SHO'MER  [a  keeper).  1.  A  man 
of  Asher,  1  Chr.  7  :  32 ;  called  Shamer 
in  V.  34. 

2.  The  father  of  Jehozabad,  who  killed 
Joash,  2  Kgs.  12  :  21 ;  called  Shimrith 
in  2  Chr.  24  :  26. 

SHO'PHACH  (pouring).  1  Chr. 
19  :  16,  IS.     See  Shobach. 

SHO'PHAX.  Num.  32  :  35.  The 
word  should  probably  be  written  in  con- 
nection with  the  preceding  Hebrew  word, 
"Atroth  Shophan  " — that  is,  "Ataroth  of 
the  burrow" — to  distinguish  it  from  the 
Ataroth  in  v.  34.     See  A  troth. 

SHOSHAN'IVIM  (lih/),  Ps.45;  69, 
title,  SHOSHAN'IVIM  -  E'DUTH 
{lili/,  a  testimony),  Ps.  80,  title,  prob- 
ably signifies  the  melody  to  which  the 
Psalm  was  sung.  Some  have  regarded 
it  as  the  title  of  a  bridal-song,  while 
others  think  it  means  a  musical  in- 
strument. 

SHOUL'DER.  Gen.  49  :  15.  To 
bare  the  shoulder  is  significant  of  ser- 
vitude, and  to  withdraw  it  denotes 
rebellion.  Neh.  9  :  29.  To  bear  upon 
the  shoulder  is  to  sustain.  Isa.  9:6: 
22  :  22. 

SHO'VEL.     See  Fan,  Wiiraow. 

SHRINE.     See  Diana. 

SHROUD,  in  Eze.  31  :  3,  means 
"cover,"  "  shelter." 

SHU'A  (riches),  father-in-law  of 
Judah.  Gen.  38  :  2,  12  ;   1  Chr.  2  :  3. 

SHU'AH  [a  pit).  1.  A  son  of  Abra- 
ham by  Keturah.  Gen.  25  :  2;  1  Chr. 
1  :  32.  Bildad  is  called  the  Shuhite. 
Job  2  :  11. 

2.  A  name  in  1  Chr.  4  :  11. 

SHU'AL  {a  fox),  an  Asherite.  1  Chr. 
7  :  36. 

SHU'AL  (fox,  or  jachal),  THE 
LAND  OF,  a  district  toward  which 
one  of  the  three  devastating  bands  of 
Philistines  went  from  Michmash.  1 
Sam.  13  :  17.  It  was  prol)ab]y  not  far 
from  Bethel.  It  is  not  mentioned  else- 
where, but  there  is  a  wild  region  east 
of  Toiyibeh  containing  a  ravine  named 
that  of  "hyaenas,"  and  it  may  be  iden- 
tical with  the  land  of  Shalim.  1  Sam. 
9:4. 

SHU'BAEL  (captive  of  God).  1. 
In  1  Chr.  24  :  20.     See  Shebukt,.  1. 

2.  In  1  Chr.  26  :  20.     See  Shkuukl,  2. 

SHU'HAM   (perhaps  pit-dii/(/pr),  a 
Bon  of  Dan,   Num.  26  :  42 ;  called  Hu- 
shim  in  Gen.  46  :  23. 
798 


SHU'HAMITES,  the  descendants 
of  the  above. 

SHU'HITE.     See  Shuah,  1. 

SHU'LAMITE,  the  woman  from 
Shulem ;  probably  Shunem,  and  hence 
Abishag  the  Shunammite.    Cant.  6:13. 

SHU'MATHITES,  the  inhabit- 
ants of  an  unlocated  village  Shumah.  1 
Chr.  2  :  53. 

SHU'NAMMITE.  See  Shu- 
lamite. 

SHU'NEM  (tiro  resting-jilaces),  a 
city  in  the  territory'  of  Issachar.  Josh. 
19  :  18.  The  Philistines  encamped  there 
before  the  great  battle  of  Gilboa.  1  Sam. 
28  :  4.  David's  wife,  Abishag,  was  of 
Shunem,  1  Kgs.  1  :  3,  and  it  was  the 
residence  of  the  Shunammite  woman  who 
entertained  Elisha.  2  Kgs.  4:8.  It  an- 
swers to  the  modern  Sulem,  on  the  south- 
western slope  of  Little  Hermon,  about 
53  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  8  Ptoman 
miles  from  Tabor,  and  3i  miles  north  of 
Jezreel.  The  village  is  encircled  by  en- 
closed gardens  and  luxuriant  fields  of 
grain.  Porter  noticed  children  playing 
bareheaded  in  the  grain-fields  under  the 
burning  sun,  thus  illustrating  how  the 
Shunammite's  child  may  have  played  in 
the  prophet  Elisha's  day.  The  villagers 
are  rude  and  hostile.  The  place  is  in 
full  view  of  the  sacred  sites  on  Mount 
Carmel;  it  has  a  spring,  from  which, 
doubtless,  the  Philistine  army  was  sup- 
plied with  water. 

SHIT'NI  (qniet),  a  son  of  Gad.  Gen. 
46:  16;  Num.  26:  15. 

SHU'NITES,  the  descendants  of 
the  above. 

SHU'PHAM,  SHUP^PIM  [ser- 
penta).  1.  X  Benjamite.  Num.  26:39; 
1  Chr.  7:12. 

2.  A  Levite  porter.   1  Chr.  26  :  16. 

SHU'PHAMITES,  descendants 
of  Shuphani. 

SHIJR  (fort-wrtU),  a  place  in  the  wil- 
derness, on  the  south-west  of  Palestine, 
including  the  whole  district  between  the 
north-eastern  frontier  of  Egypt  and  the 
land  of  Canaan.  The  wilderness  is  also 
spoken  of  as  the  "wilderness  of  Etham." 
Num.  33  :  8.  We  first  read  of  Shur  in 
the  account  of  Hagar's  flight,  and  this 
region  later  became  the  dwelling-place 
of  the  wild  Ishmaelites.  Gen.  16:  7;  25: 
18.  Abraham  dwelt  between  Kadesh 
and  Shur.  Gen.  20  :  1.  It  was  over 
against  Egypt.    1   Sam.  15  :  7;    27  :  8. 


SHU 


SHU 


Some  would  identify  it  with  Ai/un 
Musa,  7  or  S  miles  from  Suez ;  but 
Trumbull  supposes  it  to  mean  *'  a  wall 
of  Egypt,"  from  the  Great  to  the  Red 
Sea.     See  Etiiam. 

SHU'SHAN  (a  lifi/),  a  celebrated 
city,  known  to  the  Greeks  as  "  Susa," 
in  the  province  of  Elam,  a  part  of  an- 
cient Susiana. 

Historij. — "  Shushan  the  palace,"  as  it 
is  named  in  the  prophecy  of  Daniel  and 
by  Nehemiah,  is  mentioned  over  twenty 
times  in  the  Bible,  nineteen  of  the  ref- 
erences being  in  the  book  of  Esther.  In 
Dan.  8  :  2  it  is  placed  in  the  province  of 
Elam.  Elam  is  mentioned  as  a  son  of 
Shem,  and  then  in  connection  with  Che- 
dorlaomer's  invasion^of  Canaan  .and  in 
the  prophecies  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and 
Ezekiel.  The  province  was  probably  in- 
dependent of  Babylon,  and  perhaps  su- 
perior to  it,  but  in  later  times  came  un- 
der the  power  of  Persia.  Gen.  10  :  22  ; 
14:1;  Isa.  21:2;  Jer.49:34;  Eze.  32: 
24.  See  Elam.  The  city  of  Susa  was  a 
place  of  great  antiquity.  Its  name  ap- 
pears in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  of  As- 
sur-bani-pal,  the  Sardanapalus  of  the 
Greeks,  b.  c.  650,  who  took  it,  and  the 
record  gives  a  ground-plan  of  the  city. 
From  the  tablets,  as  deciphered  by  George 
Smith,  we  take  the  following :  *'  I  over- 
whelmed Elam  through  its  extent.  .  .  . 
Their  bodies  like  bows  and  arrows  filled 
the  vicinity  of  Shushan.  .  .  .  Shushan, 
his  royal  city,  I  captured."  Susa  was 
possessed  by  the  Babylonians  after  the 
division  of  the  Assyrian  empire  by  Cy- 
axares  and  Xabopolassar.  In  Belshaz- 
zar's  last  year  Daniel  was  at  Shushan  in 
the  palace  when  he  saw  the  vision.  Dan. 
8  :  2.  By  the  conquest  of  Babylon  the 
Persians  under  Cjmus  came  into  posses- 
sion of  Susa,  and  Darius  Ilystaspes  and 
the  Acha3menian  princes  made  it  the 
capital  city.  He  founded  the  grand  pal- 
ace described  in  Esth.  1:4,  6.  It  was 
cooler  than  Babylon,  and.  having  excel- 
lent water,  Susa  was  a  suitable  metrop- 
olis of  the  Persian  empire.  The  kings 
made  it  their  residence  the  chief  part  of 
the  year,  leaving  it  only  during  the  sum- 
mer for  Ecbatana,  among  the  mountains. 
After  the  battle  of  Arbela.  Alexander  the 
Great  found  in  the  city,  treasures  worth 
over  twelve  millions  sterling,  and  all  the 
regalia  of  the  great  king.  His  preference 
for  Babylon  caused  Susa  to  decline,  and 


it  was  not  again  made  the  capital  city. 
It  was  conquered  by  Antigonus,  h.  c.  315, 
who  obtained  treasures  worth  about  three 
millions  and  a  half  sterling.  It  was 
again  attacked  by  Molo,  b.  c.  221,  who 
took  the  town,  but  did  not  capture  the 
citadel.  In  the  conquest  of  Persia  by 
the  Mohammedans,  in  A.  d.  040,  Susa 
was  captured,  fell  into  decay,  and  its 
site  was  for  a  long  period  unknown. 
The  region  was  famed  for  its  fertility, 
and  the  Kerkhah  water  was  so  excellent 
that  it  was  carried  about  with  the  great 
king  on  his  journeys.  For  an  illustra- 
tion of  a  palace  see  Assyria,  p.  80. 

Present  Appearance. — The  site  of  Shu- 
shan has  been  identified  with  the  mod- 
ern Shush  or  Sns,  between  the  river  Cho- 
aspes  [Kherkhah)  and  the  Ulai  [Enlpcns). 
These  are  really  two  branches  of  the 
same  river,  which  divides  about  20 
miles  above  Susa.  Hence,  Daniel  might 
be  standing  on  the  "  banks  of  the  Ulai  " 
and  also  "  between  Ulai."  Dan.  8  :  2,  16. 
The  site  is  nearly  due  east  of  Babylon 
and  north  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  The 
ruins  cover  an  area  some  3  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, being  6000  feet  long  from 
east  to  west  and  4500  feet  wide  from 
north  to  south.  There  are  four  distinct 
and  spacious  platforms  or  mounds ;  the 
western  one,  of  earth,  gravel,  and  sun- 
dried  bricks,  is  smallest,  but  loftiest,  be- 
ing 119  feet  above  the  river,  with  steep 
sides,  having  a  round  space  at  the  top, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  site  of 
the  citadel  of  Susa.  South-east  of  this 
is  a  great  platform  of  60  acres,  the  east- 
ern face  of  it  being  3000  feet  long.  A 
third  platform,  north  of  the  other  two, 
is  a  square  of  1000  feet  each  way.  These 
three  mounds  together  form  a  space  point- 
ing almost  due  north,  4500  feet  long  by 
3000  feet  wide.  Remains  have  been 
found  belonging  to  the  great  palace 
built  by  Darius,  the  father  of  Xerxes, 
as  appears  from  inscriptions  on  the  ped- 
estals, written  in  three  languages.  The 
central  hall  was  343  feet  long  and  244 
feet  wide,  and  this  was  probably  used 
for  the  great  state  ceremonies.  The 
bases  of  four  of  the  immense  columns 
and  the  position  of  all  the  seventy-two 
pillars  of  the  original  palace  have  been 
discovered.  It  was  in  the  great  palace 
and  the  surrounding  buildings  that  the 
principal  scenes  of  the  book  of  Esther 
took  place.     The  '•  King's  Gate."  where 

799 


SHIT 


SIT) 


Mordecai  sat,  Esth.  2  :  21,  was  probably 
a  hall  100  feet  square,  supported  by  pil- 
lars inthecentre,  standing  150  feet  from 
the  northern  portico.  Between  these  two 
was  probably  the  inner  court,  where  Es- 
ther appeared  before  the  king.  The 
royal  house  and  the  house  of  the  women 
were  behind  the  great  hall,  toward  the 
south,  or  between  the  great  hall  and  the 
citadel,  communicating  with  it  by  a 
bridge  over  the  ravine.  The ''court  of 
the  garden  of  the  king's  palace"  was 
in  front  of  the  eastern  or  western  porch, 
and  in  it  Ahasuerus  made  a  feast  "  unto 
all  the  people  seven  da^-s,  ,  .  .  where 
icere  white,  green,  and  blue  hangings, 
fastened  with  cords  of  fine  linen  and 
purple  to  silver  rings  and  pillars  of 
marble."  Esth.  1 :  5,  6.  The  feast  was 
evidently  out  of  doors,  in  tents  put  up 
in  one  of  the  palace  courts.  The  effect 
of  such  a  group  of  buildings,  including 
a  stately  central  palace  standing  high 
above  the  plain.  u])on  an  elevated  pla- 
teau interspersed  with  trees  and  shrubs, 
must  have  been  very  magnificent.  The 
tracing  out  of  these  ruins  in  detail  has 
furnished  the  most  interesting  corrobo- 
ration of  the  Scripture  histor}'.  On  the 
low  ground  near  the  river  is  a  building 
believed  b}"^  the  natives  to  be  the  tomb 
of  Daniel. 

SHU'SHAN-E'DUTH,  Ps.  80, 
title,  the  same  with  Shoshannim.  See 
Shoshanxim. 

SHU'THALHITES,  the  descend- 
ants of  Shuthelah.    Num.  26  :  35. 

SHU'THELAH  {noise  of  break- 
ing),  a  son  of  Ephraim.  Num.  26  :  35, 
36;   1  Chr.  7:20,  21. 

SHUT'TLE,  a  well-known  instru- 
ment used  by  weavers  for  throwing  the 
thread  of  the  woof  across  the  warp.  Job 
7:6.  As  it  moves  with  great  swiftness 
from  one  side  to  the  other,  so  as  scarcely 
to  be  seen  in  its  passage,  it  is  used  fig- 
uratively to  denote  the  rapid  flight  of 
time. 

SI'A,  SI'AHA  {congrer/nfio})),  the 
ancestor  of  some  who  returned.  Ezr.  2  : 
44:  Neb.  7:47. 

SIB'BECAT,  SIB'BECHAI 
{thicket  of  Jehornh),  one  of  David's 
mighty  men.  2  Sam.  21  :  IS:  1  Chr.  11  : 
29;  20:4:  27  :  11  ;  called  Mebunnai  in 
2  Sam.  23  :  27. 

SIB'BOLETH.     See  Shibboleth. 

SIB'MAH  {coolness,  or  fragrance^, 
800 


a  city  east  of  the  Jordan,  built  or  forti- 
fied l3y  the  Reubenites :  called  also  She- 
bam  and  Shibmah.  Josh.  13  :  19;  Num. 
32  :  3,  38.  It  is  not  noticed  again  until 
the  prophet's  lament  over  Moab.  Isa. 
16  :  8,  9  ;  Jer.  48  :  32.  At  that  time  it 
was  a  Moabite  town  noted  for  its  grapes. 
Jerome  says  it  was  500  paces  from  Hesh- 
bon.  A  trace  of  the  name  is  found  in 
the  ruins  es-Sameh,  4  miles  east  of  Hesh- 
bon. 

SIB'RAIM  {twofold  hope),  a  land- 
mark in  the  northern  boundary  of  Pales- 
tine between  Damascus  and  Hamath. 
Eze.  47  :  16. 

SI'CHEM.   Gen.  12  :  6.     See  She- 

CHEM. 

SICK'LE.  Deuf.  16  :  9.  We  have 
preserved  in  Egyptian  monuments  the 
form  of  the  ancient  sickle,  which  bore 
a  very  close  resemblance  to  our  imple- 
ment. The  scythe  was  unknown  in  Bible 
times. 

SID'DIM,  THE  VALE  OF. 
The  name  is  variously  interpreted. 
FUrst  and  Stanley  render  it  "  the  valley 
of  the  open  "  or  "well-cultivated  fields;" 
Gesenius  and  Kalisch,  as  "a  valley  filled 
with  rocks  and  pits"  or  a  "plain  cut  up 
by  stony  channels;"  Conder  renders  it 
"the  valley  of  cliffs;"  others  as  "the 
A'alley  of  gypsum."  The  place  is  men- 
tioned in  Scripture  only  in  connection 
with  the  battle  between  Chedorlaomer 
and  the  five  confederated  kings  of  Sodom 
and  the  adjacent  cities.  The  vale  is  said 
to  have  been  full  of  slime-pits.  Gen.  14  : 
3-10.  The  "slime"  means  bitumen, 
which  abounds  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  and  especially  at  the 
southern  extremity.  The  site  of  the 
vale  of  Siddim  is  connected  with  that  of 
the  destroyed  cities  of  the  plain.  The 
theory  has  long  prevailed  that  these 
cities  were  at  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  and  were  submerged  in  it. 
In  that  event  the  southern  part  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  below  the  Lisan  Peninsula,  is 
taken  as  their  site,  and  this  would  cor- 
respond with  the  vale  of  Siddim;  and 
thus  it  is  indicated  upon  many  maps. 
Many  scholars,  however,  are  now  of  the 
opinion  that  the  cities  were  not  at  the 
south  end  of  the  sea,  but  jirobably  at  the 
north  end,  and  hence  that  the  vale  of 
Siddim  must  be  found  in  that  region 
also.  The  sea  is  not  of  recent  origin,  as 
the  theory  of  the  submergence  of  those 


STT) 


SIL 


cities  would  indicate,  but  the  lake  is 
Jfnly  the  remains  of  a  larger  and  more 
ancient  sea.  Dr.  Merrill,  who  favors  the 
northern  sites  for  the  lost  cities,  de- 
scribes a  series  of  singular  pits  extend- 
ing across  the  Shittim  plain,  which  local 
tradition  declares  are  very  old  and  were 
used  for  military  purposes.  For  a  more 
full  treatment  of  these  disputed  sites  see 
Sodom,  Salt  Sea,  and  Zoar. 

SI'DON.  Gen.  10  :  15,  19.  See 
Zinox. 

SIDO'NIANS,  inliabitants  of  Sidon. 

SIEGE.     Dent.  20  :  19.     See  War. 

SIEVE.  Isa.  30  :  28.  The  bolter, 
or  sieve,  which  is  so  necessary  an  article 
in  our  day  in  the  preparation  of  meal 
for  bread,  etc.,  was  in  ancient  times 
made  of  rushes  and  papyrus.  Ancient 
writers  say  that  only  the  Gauls  had 
sieves  of  horsehair.  AVhat  was  left  in 
the  bolter  was  put  into  the  mill  a  second 
time.  Sieves  of  various  degrees  of  fine- 
ness were  no  doubt  used,  for  the  same 
authors  tell  us  of  four  different  qualities 
of  meal. 

SIGI'OIVOTH.     See  Shigionoth. 

SIG'NET.  Gen.  38  :  10.     See  Seal. 

SIGNS,  John  4  :  48,  and  WON'- 
DERS  (as  they  are  usually  connected), 
sometimes  denote  those  proofs  or  demon- 
strations of  power  and  authority  which 
were  furnished  by  miracles  and  by  other 
tokens  of  the  divine  presence,  as  in  Acts 
2  :  22,  and  at  other  times  those  unusual 
appearances  which  betoken  the  approach 
of  a  great  event,  as  in  Luke  21  :  11,  25. 

SI'HON  [siceepiiuj  au-aji),  a  king  of 
the  Amorites  who  lost  his  dominions  in 
consequence  of  his  refusal  to  permit  the 
Hebrews  to  pass  through  them  on  their 
tvay  from  Egypt  to  Canaan.  Sihon  him- 
self was  slain  in  battle,  his  army  was 
routed,  Heshbon,  his  capital,  was  taken, 
and  his  country  distributed  between 
Reuben  and  Gad."  Xum.  21 :  21-30  ;  Deut. 
1:4:  2  :  24-32  ;  Josh.  13  :  15-29. 

SI'HOR.  Isa.  23  :  3  ;  Jer.  2  :  18. 
See  Nile. 

SI'HOR-LIB'NAH,  the  name  of 
two  separate  valleys,  according  to  the 
Septuagint,  Josh.  19  :  26,  now  called 
Shofjhur  and  el-lielnt,  which  run  into 
each  other.     See  SniiiOR-LiBNATii. 

SI'LAS,  Acts  15  :  40.  contracted 
from  SILVA'NIJS  (wondi,),  2  Cor.  1  : 
19,  is  called  one  of  the  chief  of  the  breth- 
ren. Acts  15  :  22,  and  a  faithful  brother. 
51 


]  Pet.  5:12.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  Antioch,  and  a  member 
of  the  Christian  church  there.  Acts  15  : 
37-41.  He  was  the  associate  of  Paul  in 
several  of  his  missionary  tours,  and  his 
fellow-prisoner  at  Pliilippi.  Acts  15  : 
40;  16  :  25,  29;  17  :  4.  10,  15.  He  is 
called  a  prophet,  Acts  15  :  32,  but  what 
was  the  precise  nature  of  this  office  in 
the  days  of  the  apostles  is  not  clear. 

SILK.  The  only  nndonbted  reference 
to  silk  occurs  in  Rev.  18  :  12.  It  is  a 
question  whether  the  Hebrews  knew  any- 
thing about  it,  although  there  are  two 
passages  in  which  a  word  so  translated 
is  employed.  Prov.  31  :  22;  Eze.  16  :  10, 
13.  The  "silk"  of  the  A.  V.  is  rather 
byssus,  or  fine  linen.  But  in  N.  T.  times 
silk  was  common. 

SIIj'LiA  («  fioHj),  a  place  near  which 
King  Joash  was  slain.  2  Kgs.  12  :  20. 
It  was  evidently  in  the  valley  below 
Millo. 

SILO'AII,  THE  POOL  OF, 
properly  "the  pool  of  Shelach" — that 
is,  "the  dart."  Neh.  3:15.     See  SiLOAir. 

SILO'AIW,  OR  SHILO'AH  {sent), 
the  name  of  a  pool  and  of  a  tower. 

1.  A  pool  near  Jerusalem,  referred  to 
as  "the  waters  of  Shiloah  that  go  soft- 
ly," and  as  "the  pool  of  Siloah  by  the 
king's  garden."  Isa.  8:6;  Neh.  3  :  15. 
It  is  also  called  "the  pool."  John  9  :  7- 
11.  These  texts  give  us  no  clue  to  the 
location  of  the  pool.  .Josephus  mentions 
it  as  a  fountain  and  says  it  was  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Tyropoeon  valley,  and  there 
is  no  doubt  as  to  its  identity  with  a  pool 
now  existing  at  the  mouth  of  this  valley, 
about  450  yards  south  of  the  Haram  wall 
and  60  yards  west  of  the  southern  po'nt 
of  Ophel  at  Jerusalem.  There  are  really 
two  pools,  of  which  the  smaller  may  be 
properl}'  the  pool  of  Siloain.  It  is  52 
feet  long,  18  feet  wide,  and  19  feet  deep. 
A  flight  of  steps  leads  to  the  bottom,  and 
the  pool  has  yet  a  good  supply  of  water, 
generally  somewhat  salt  to  the  taste,  per- 
haps from  the  soil  through  which  it  per- 
colates, and  it  is,  moreover,  polluted  by 
the  washerwomen  and  tanners  by  whom 
it  is  constantly  used.  The  pool  is  part- 
ly hewn  out  of  the  rock,  partly  built  with 
masonry,  and  columns  extend  along  the 
side  walls  from  top  to  bottom.  The  water 
is  supplied  from  the  Fountain  of  the  Vir- 
gin, with  which  the  ])ool  is  connected  by 
a  zigzag  tunnel,  cut  in  the  solid   rock, 

801 


SIL 


SIL 


1708  feet  long.  Robinson,  Barclay,  and 
Warren  crawled  through  this  passage, 
which  is  1()  feet  high  at  the  entrance,  and 
only  16  inches  at  its  narrowest  jiart. 
In  this  tunnel  a  remarkable  inscription 
was  discovered  in  1880.  It  is  Hebrew, 
and  narrates  the  completion  of  the 
tunnel.  The  inscription  is  reputed  to 
belong  to  the  age  of  Hezekiah  or 
possibly  of   Solomon.      See  p.   2.     The 


Pool  of  Siloam. 

Arabs  call  it  Birl-pt  el-Hamra,  or  the 
'•  red  pond."  Warren  supposes  this  to 
have  been  the  pool  dug  by  King  Heze- 
kiah. the  "  king's  pool "  of  Nehemiah 
and  the  Siloam  of  Josephus.  It  was  to 
the  pool  of  Siloam  that  a  Levite  was  sent 
with  a  golden  pitcher  on  "the  last  day, 
that  great  clay  of  the  feast"  of  taber- 
nacles. To  this  Jesus  alluded  when, 
standing  in  the  temple,  he  cried,  "  If 
any  man  thirst  let  him  come  unto  me 
and  drink."  John  7  :  37-39.  To  this 
pool  the  blind  man  was  sent  to  wash, 
and  returned  seeing.  John  9  :  7-11.  Its 
waters  now  refresh  the  gardens  below, 
making  them  the  greenest  spots  about 
Jerusalem,  and  abounding  in  olives,  figs, 
and  pomegranates. 

2.  The  tower  of  Siloam,  which  killed 
eighteen  men  in  its  fall.  Luke  13  :  4. 
There  is  nothing  in  the  text  to  deter- 
mine the  spot  where  the  tower  stood. 
The  name  is  preserved  in  a  wretched 
802 


little  village  among  the  tombs  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Kedron,  and  now  called 
A'e/r  Si/waii.  The  village  is  at  the  foot 
of  the  third  height  of  Olivet,  near  the 
spot  where  Solomon  built  the  temples  to 
Chemosh,  Ashtoreth,  and  Milcolm,  known 
as  "  the  Mount  of  Corruption." 

SILVA'NUS  {ti-oody).  See  Silas. 
SIL'VER,  a  well-known  precioiis 
metal.  The  Tarshish  whence  it  was  ob- 
tained was  probably  in  Spain,  as  silver 
is  still  brought  from  the  same  region 
which  furnished  it  in  the  days  of  Solo- 
mon, 1  Kgs.  10  :  22,  as  well  as  from 
many  countries  then  unknown.  That 
llie  value  of  this  metal  was  recognized 
\  erv  earlv  in  human  historj^  is  evident, 
(^en.  13":  2:  44  :  2 :  Job  28  :  1.  The 
reason  probably  is  that,  like  gold,  it  is 
(ilten  I'ound  in  a  state  of  purity  in  the 
earth,  and  therefore  easily  discovered. 
It  was  used  in  the  construction  of  the 
tabernacle,  Ex.  26  :  19,  32,  for  the  fur- 
niture of  the  temple,  1  Chr.  28  :  14-17, 
and  also  for  musical  instruments,  Num. 
10  :  2,  and  for  adorning  idols.  Is-a.  40 : 
]'.<.  And  that  it  was  abundant  in  that 
(lay  appears  from  1  Kgs.  10  :  27. 

Silver  constituted  the  chief  medium 
of  trade,  though  it  was  not  coined,  but 
used  by  weight,  Gen.  23  :  10,  and  the 
Hebrew  word  for  this  metal  denoted 
money  in  general,  as  does  the  French 
word  rnujent.  The  ''pieces  of  silver" 
(thirty  of  which  were  given  as  the  price 
if  innocent  blood.  Matt.  26  :  15  ;  27  :  3) 
were  probably  shekels  of  silver,  worth 
fifty  cents  each.  The  "  silverling,"  Isa. 
7  :  23,  is  supposed  to  have  been  of  like 
value. 

In  Mai.  3 :  2,  3  there  is  manifest  refer- 
ence to  the  "  cupellation  "  of  silver  by 
means  of  lead,  the  process  of  purifica- 
tion employed  before  the  discovery  of 
quicksilver. 

'*  'A  very  beautiful  phenomenon,  known 
as  the  fulguration  of  the  metal,  attends 
the  removal  of  the  last  portions  of  lead 
from  the  silver.  During  the  earlier 
stages  of  the  process  the  film  of  oxide 
of  lead,  which  is  constantly  forming  over 
the  melted  mass,  is  renewed  as  rapidly 
as  it  is  removed:  but  when  the  lead  has 
all  been  oxidized,  the  film  of  litharge 
upon  the  silver  becomes  thinner  and 
thinner  as  it  flows  off".  It  then  exhibits 
a  succession  of  the  beautiful  iridescent 
tints  of  Newton's  rings;  and  at  length 


1.  Pool  of  fSiloam.  2  Pian  of  the  tunnel,  leading  from  the  Virgin's  Fount,  or  Well,  to 
the  Pool  of  Siloani.  8.  Fac-simile  of  the  aueieut  Inscription  found  (1881)  in  the  tunnel, 
about  15  feet  from  the  Pool  of  Siloam. 


SIL 


SIM 


the  film  of  oxide  suddenly  disappears, 
and  reveals  the  brilliant  surface  of  the  me- 
tallic silver  beneath.' — Miller'n  Chemis- 
try. The  brilliant  tints  of  the  film  of 
oxide  in  its  later  stages,  and  the  sudden 
flashing  forth  of  the  metal  in  its  full 
pure  glory,  form  a  striking  illustration 
of  the  olTering  of  righteousness  wliitdi  the 
refining  and  purifying  intluenoe  of  the 
Christum  faith  produces." — Prof.  Deane. 
SIL'VERLING.    Isa.  7  :'23.     See 

SlLVKR. 

SIH'EON"  {a  hearhxj).  1.  Son  of 
Jacob  and  Leah.  Gen.  29  :  33.  Accord- 
ing to  the  prediction  of  Jacob,  Gen.  49: 
5-7,  and  as  a  punishment  for  his  offence 
in  the  matter  of  the  Shechemites,  Gen. 
34  (see  Dinah),  his  posterity  dwindled, 
comp.  Num.  1  :  22,  23  :  26  :  14,  and  their 
inheritance  was  only  a  dismembered 
portion  of  the  terrritory  of  Judah.  Josh. 
19:1. 

2.  A  man  of  singular  piety  residing  at 
Jerusalem.  Luke  2  : 2.3.  lie  had  been 
favored  with  a  divine  intimation  that  he 
should  live  to  see  the  incarnate  Redeem- 
er, the  Lord's  Christ,  and,  being  led  by 
the  Spirit  into  the  temple  at  the  partic- 
ular time  when  the  infant  Jesus  was 
brought  thither  by  his  parents,  accord- 
ing to  the  requirement  of  the  Law,  Ex. 
13  :  12  ;  22  :  29,  he  took  him  up  in  his 
arms  and  uttered  the  most  devout  thanks- 
givings to  God,  accompanied  with  a  re- 
markable i>rediction  respecting  the  vari- 
ous eff"ects  of  his  advent.' 

3.  A  man  of  this  name  was  among  the 
prophets  and  teachers  of  the  Christian 
church  at  Antioeh.  Acts  13:1.  Some 
have  supposed  (though  without  warrant) 
that  he  is  the  same  with  Simon  the  Cy- 
renian.  Matt.  27  :  32. 

4.  ** Simeon"  is  a  Hebrew  name,  and 
in  Acts  15  :  14  is  the  same  with  "  Simon." 

5.  A  name  in  our  Lord's  genealogy. 
Luke  3  :  30. 

SIM'EOiV,  THE  TERRITORY 
OF,  the  south-western  portion  of  the 
Promised  Land.  The  ilistrict  assigned 
to  Simeon  lay  within  tlie  inhei'itance  of 
Judah,  and  included  eighteen  cities  in 
the  South  of  Palestine  around  the  well 
of  Beer-sheba.  Josh.  19  :  1-9  ;  1  Chr.  4  : 
28-33.  On  its  entrance  to  the  Pronrised 
Land,  Simeon  was  the  smallest  of  all  the 
tribes,  having  at  that  time  only  22,200 
able-bodied  men.  Num.  26  :  14.  At  a 
later  date  some  of  the  towns  within  its 


territory  were  possessed  by  Judah,  as 
Hormah  and  Beer-sheba,  while  Ziklag 
became  a  Philistine,  and  then  a  Juihean, 
town.  1  Sam.  27  :  6  ;  30  :  30  ;  1  Kgs.  19  : 
3.  After  the  division  of  the  kingdom 
the  territory  of  this  tribe  appears  to 
have  been  subject  to  many  changes,  as 
the  population  was  partly  in  fellowship 
with  the  northern  kingdom,  though  it 
seems  to  have  shared  in  the  reformation 
under  Asa  and  Josiali.  2  Chr.  15  :  9  :  34:  (5. 

SIM'EOIVITES,  the  members  of 
the  tribe  of  Simeon.  Num.  25  :  14  ;  26  : 
14.  No  eminent  person  is  recorded  as 
of  this  tribe  save  Judith,  a  heroine  of  a 
story  in  the  Apocrypha,  although  there 
is  a  Jewish  tradition  that  it  furnished 
schoolmasters  to  the  other  tribes. 

SI'MOiV  (rt  heariiKj),  contracted  from 
SIM'EON,  a  native  of  Samaria,  and  a 
famous  sorcerer,  who  professed  to  be  a 
convert  to  the  Christian  faith,  and  was 
baptized  as  such  by  Philip,  but  was 
severely  rebuked  by  Peter  as  a  hypocrite 
because,  under  the  influence  of  merce- 
nary motives,  he  desired  apostolic  gifts. 
Acts  8  :  9.  Hence  the  buying  and  selling 
of  ecclesiastical  rights,  benefits,  or  priv- 
ileges is  called  niinonj — a  high  offence 
against  the  purity  and  integrit}'  of  the 
Christian  faith,  and  one  of  which  the 
seller  and  buyer  are  equally  guilty. 

2.  Simon  Peter.  Matt.4:  18.SeePF.TER, 

3.  Simon  the  Canaanite,  Matt.  10  :  4, 
or  Simon  Zelotes  (or  the  zealous),  one 
of  the  twelve  apostles;  was  one  of  the 
party  called  Zealots,  hence  his  name. 
The  epithet  "  Canaanite "  is  properly 
'' Kananite,"  the  Chaldee  for  ''zeal," 
and  has  no  reference  to  locality, 

4.  The  brother  of  our  Lord,  Matt.  13  : 
5.5;  Mark  6:3;  not  to  be  confounded 
with  the  preceding,  nor  with  Symeon, 
who  succeeded  James  as  bishop  of  the 
church  in  Jerusalem. 

5.  A  Pharisee.  Luke  7  :  36. 

6.  A  leper.  Matt.  26  :  6. 

7.  The  father  of  Judas  Iscariot.  John 
6  :  71. 

8.  The  man  of  Cyrene  who  was  com- 
pelled to  bear  our  Saviour's  cross  when 
the  latter  was  no  longer  able.  Matt.  27  : 
32;  Mark  16:21;  Luke  23:20;  John 
19  :  17. 

9.  The  tanner  at  Joppa  with  whom 
Peter  lo.lged.  Acts  9  :  43. 

SIM'RI  (watrli/,,1),  a  Merarite  Le- 
vite  in  the  time  of  David.  1  Chr.  26  :  10. 

803 


SIN 


SIN 


SIN",  Gen.  4:7,  is  the  transgression  | 
of  the  law  of  God.  1  John  3  :  4.  All 
unrighteousness  is  sin.  1  John  5:17. 
The  word  is  sometimes  used  for  a  sin- 
otfering,  as  in  Hos.  4:8:  Rom.  8  :  .3  ;  2 
Cor.  5  :  21.  In  the  text  first  cited  refer- 
ence is  had  to  the  eating,  either  from 
greediness  or  in  violation  of  the  Law, 
of  that  which  was  brought  as  a  sin- 
ofFering. 

The  Bible  traces  the  introduction  of 
sin  to  the  fall  of  our  first  parents.    There 
is  none  sinless.     But  sins  differ  in  enor- 
mity.    John  distinguishes  the  "  sin  not 
unto  death  "  and  "  the  sin  unto  death." 
I  John  5  :  16.     The  verse  teaches  that  j 
a  man  can   drive  out  God's  Spirit  from 
his    heart    and    cut    himself    off"    from 
all  intercession.     There  is  also  an  "  un- 
pardonable "  sin.  Matt.  12  :  31,  32.    This  ; 
is  the  result  of  absolute    resistance    to 
the  operation  and  influence  of  the  Holy 
Spirit    upon   the   heart;  it   is    final   im-  '. 
penitence,  excluding  the  possibility  of  \ 
conversion,  and  hence  of  forgiveness.      I 

SIN  {mire),  a  city  of  Northern  Egypt, 
known  to  the  Greeks   as  Pelusium.     It  j 
was  "the  strength,"  or  stronghold,  ''of  } 
Egypt."  Eze.  30  :  15,  16.     The  city  was  ' 
situated  upon  the  most  easterly  mouth 
of  the  Nile,  only  a  few  miles  from   the  ', 
sea.     A  Sallier  papyrus   records  a  great 
battle  at  Sin   between   Barneses  and  the  j 
Sheta,   and  the    reputed    wonderful    de-  ^ 
liverance  of  Sethos  from   Sennacherib — 
when  mice   gnawed  the  Assyrian   bow-  , 
strings  and  shields  by  night,  rendering  ' 
the  arms  of  the  Assyrians  useless — took 
place   near   this    town.     Herodotus    re- 
ports a  statue  of  Sethos   with  a  mouse 
in  his  hands  standing  in  Vulcan's  tem- 
ple, probably  in  commemoration  of  this 
deliverance  by  mice.     Ezekiel's  proph- 
ecy, "  Sin   shall  have  great  pain,"   was 
fulfilled   by  the    great    cruelty  inflicted 
upon  the  Egyptians  by  Camb3'ses,  who 
conquered    them    near    this    city.      The 
site  of  Sin,  or  Pelusium,  may  be  marked 
by   some   mounds  at  el- Forma,   though 
some  suppose  it  is  at  Ahon  KJiceyar,  west 
of  the  old  Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Nile. 

SIN,  WILDERNESS  OF,  a 
region  between  Elim  and  Rephidim. 
Ex.  16:1:  17:1;  Num.  33:11,  12. 
Here  the  Israelites  were  first  fed  with 
manna  and  quails.  The  wilderness  ex- 
tends 25  miles  along  the  east  shore  of 
the  Red  Sea,  from  Wudy  Taiytheh  to 
804 


Wddy  Feiran ;  it  is  now  called  the 
plain  of  el-Marl-ha.  It  is  barren,  but 
has  a  little  vegetation,  and  when  the  rain- 
fall was  larger  and  the  drainage  from 
the  mountain  descended  more  gradually, 
instead  of  sweeping  everytliing  before  it 
as  now.  it  may  have  afforded  fair  ])astur- 
age.  Travellers  report  seeing  numer- 
ous quails  upon  this  plain  in  modern 
times. 

SI'NA,  the  Greek  form  of  "  Sinai." 
Acts  7  :  30,  38. 

SI'NAI  {bunu'iifj  hush  f ).  a  name  of 
a  peninsula  and  of  a  mountain,  or  group 
of  mountains. 

1.  The  peninsula  of  Sinai  is  a  tri- 
angular region  lying  between  the  two 
arms  of  the  Red  Sea.  On  the  west  it 
extends  along  the  Gulf  of  Suez  for 
about  190  miles,  and  on  the  east  along 
the  Gulf  of  Akabah  about  130  miles, 
while  the  base  of  the  triangle,  on  a  line 
from  Suez  to  the  north  end  of  Akabah, 
is  150  miles  long.  It  includes  an  area 
of  about  11.500  square  miles,  or  a  little 
less  than  that  of  Massachusetts  and 
Connecticut. 

Physical  Features. — This  district  con- 
sists largely  of  sterile  ranges  of  moun- 
tains, furrowed  by  uuilies,  or  valleys 
with  watercourses,  which  are  scantily 
filled  only  after  a  rain.  Projecting  into 
it  wedgewise  from  the  north  is  the  desert 
of  Tib,  or  "  wilderness  of  wandering," 
of  limestone  formation.  South  of  the 
hills  of  the  Tih  plateau  is  a  broad  belt 
of  sandstone,  extending  nearly  from 
Suez  to  Akabah.  South  of  this  is  a 
great  cluster  of  granite  mountains,  in 
such  a  rugged,  tumbled  chaos  as  scarce- 
ly to  admit  of  classification,  the  highest 
peaks  reaching  to  an  elevation  of  be- 
tween 8000  and  9000  feet.  Between 
the  mountains  are  deeply-cut  valleys, 
through  which  a  large  company  might 
march  into  the  very  heart  of  the  moun- 
tain-region. The  mountain-ranges  ex- 
tend down  the  east  side  of  Suez  and 
down  the  west  side  of  Akabah,  the  two 
ranges  meeting  in  an  angle  at  the 
southern  portion  of  the  peninsula,  where 
the  mountains  are  the  most  precipitous 
and  elevated,  and  where  they  often  as- 
sume fantastic  shapes  and  take  on  gor- 
geous colors.  This  huge  range  is  com- 
posed of  gneiss  and  granite,  or,  more 
exactly,  of  colorless  quartz,  felspar, 
green  hornblende,  and  black  slate,  with 


SIN 


sm 


considerable  outcropping  of  limestone. 
Tt  is  rich  in  mineral  wealth  of  iron, 
copper,  and  turquoise,  so  that  the 
Eg3-ptians  called  it  the  "  land  of  copper." 
Mines  were  once  extensively  worked  in 
this  region  by  the  ancient  Egyptians 
and  others,  but  they  have  been  long 
neglected.  The  most  important  were 
probably  the  mines  of  Maghara,  situ- 
ated on  the  slope  of  a  precipitous 
mountain,  about  145  feet  from  the 
bottom  of  the  valley.  The  opening  is 
broad  but  low,  and  the  shaft  pene- 
trates the  rock  to  a  considerable  depth, 
numerous  pillars  having  been  left  to 
support  the  roof.  From  these  a  tur- 
quoise of  a  beautiful  green  color  was 
taken,  and  copper  was  found  together 
with  a  species  of  malachite.  The  miners 
were  condemned  criminals  and  prison- 
ers of  war.  See  a  striking  account  of 
this  mining  in   Ebers'    Uarda. 

Hiatori/. — This  region  was  known  and 
settled  nearlj'^  as  early  as  Egypt  itself. 
The  first  Pharaoh,  having  conquered  the 
mountain-tribes,  claimed  to  have  dis- 
covered the  mines.  The  region  was 
dependent  on  the  Pharaohs  until  the 
time  of  the  Hyksos  kings  ;  after  their 
expulsion  the  region  was  again  sub- 
dued by  Egypt,  but  possesses  its  chief 
interest  from  the  journey  of  the  Israel- 
ites, who  wandered  in  it  for  forty  years 
previous  to  their  entrance  into  Canaan. 
Christianity  was  planted  here  very  early, 
perhaps  by  Paul ;  the  peninsula  was  an- 
nexed to  the  Roman  empire,  A.  D.  10a. 
In  the  fourth  century  it  was  peopled  by 
anchorites  and  various  brotherhoods  of 
hermits  and  monks,  their  principal 
settlement  being  on  Mount  Serbal  and 
in  the  Wddi/  Feiraii.  They  suffered 
terrible  massacres  from  the  Saracens, 
A.  D.  373  to  A.  D.  411.  In  the  reign  of 
Justinian  a  church  of  the  Virgin  was 
founded  on  Mount  Sinai.  Later,  the  Mo- 
hammedans overran  the  peninsula,  and 
its  lonely  valleys  have  been,  and  are  still, 
traversed  by  hosts  of  Mecca  pilgrims. 

Numerous  inscriptions  have  been 
found  in  several  of  the  valleys  of  the 
peninsula,  but  chiefly  in  the  Wdd>/  Mu- 
Icatteb,  or  the  "  written"  valley.  Ebers 
counted  more  than  a  hundred  inscrip- 
tions, chiefly  in  groups,  occurring 
quite  frequently  in  a  few  hours'  trav- 
el. Most  of  them  are  on  the  western 
side  of  the  valleys.  They  were  once 
806 


regarded  as  very  mysterious,  some  sup- 
posing them  to  have  been  made  by  the 
Israelites.  The  inscriptions  are  mostly 
in  the  Xabattean  character,  but  some 
are  in  Greek,  and  a  few  in  Coptic  and 
Arabic.  They  are  roughly  engraved  on 
the  rock,  which  was  seldom  smoothed 
for  the  purpose,  and  the  little  figures 
are  often  extremely  rude  and  inartistic. 
They  represent  armed  men,  travellers 
and  warriors,  camels,  horses  with  and 
without  riders,  goats,  stars,  crosses,  and 
ships  ;  a  priest  with  raised  arms  and  an 
equestrian  performer  are  also  among  the 
figures  worthy  of  notice.  They  are  now 
believed  to  be  not  older  than  the  second 
century  before  Christ,  while  some  are 
not  older  than  the  fourth  century  of 
the  Christian  era. 

Among  the  highest  summits  in  the 
peninsula  are  Jebel  (the  Arabic  word 
for  "mount")  Serbal,  6734  feet;  Jebel 
Musa,  7363  feet;  Jebel  Umm  Shomer, 
8449  feet;  Jebel  Katharina,  8536  feet; 
Jebel  Zebir,   8551  feet. 

2.  "Sinai  "is  also  used  to  designate 
the  range  of  mountains  from  which  the 
Israelites  received  the  Law.  The  at- 
tempt to  decide  which  of  the  numerous 
peaks  in  this  extended  range  is  the  true 
Mount  of  the  Law  has  been  a  source  of 
protracted  and  animated  discussion.  In 
determining  its  identity  with  any  exist- 
ing peak  several  conditions  must  be 
met:  (1)  The  mountain  must  have  be- 
fore it  an  open  space  within  sight  of 
the  summit,  Ex.  19  :  11  ;  20  :  18,  large 
enough  to  contain  at  least  two  millions 
of  peojile  ;  (2)  It  must  rise  sharply  from 
the  plain,  since  the  people  "came  near 
and  stood  under  the  mountain,"  Deut. 
4  :  11  ;  it  "  might  be  touched,"  Heb.  12  : 
18;  and  Moses  was  commanded  to  "  set 
bounds  .  .  .  round  about,"  Ex.  19  :  12  ; 
(3)  As  the  Israelites  remained  in  the 
neighborhood  for  a  year,  they  must  have 
found  a  suflRcient  supply  of  water  and 
pasturage. 

At  least  five  mountains  have  been  at 
different  times  identified  with  the  Mount 
of  the  Law,  but  two  of  these,  Jebel  el- 
Ejnieli  and  Jebel  Umm  Alawi,  do  not  at 
ail  fulfil  the  conditions,  and  must  be  set 
aside.  Josephus  says  that  Mount  Sinai 
was  the  highest  of  the  district,  and  this 
led  to  its  identification  with  Jebel  K<tth- 
arlnn  (8536  feet  high),  and  its  twin  peak 
Jebel  Zebir  (8551  feet).     But  the  moun- 


SIN 


SIN 


tains  surrounding  these  summits  so  hem 
them  in  that  they  are  not  visible  from 
any  place  in  the  neighborhood  where  a 
large  number  of  people  could  be  asgem- 
bled.  The  question  was  thus  narrowed 
down  to  Jebel  SerhaL  Jcbd  Musa,  and 
Ras  Sufsdfch. 


Jehel  Serial  is  described  by  Wilson 
{Bible  Eihicator,  iv.  p.  186)  as  "perhaps 
the  most  striking  mountain  in  tlie  penin- 
sula. It  rises  abruptly  to  a  height  of 
more  than  4000  feet  above  the  valley  at 
its  base  [6734  feet  above  the  sea-level], 
aad   its  summit,  a  sharp   ridge  about  '.^ 


^^Cxx'^f^t^^^ 


JCLfr  L 


, '")    /;  ., 


I  CON  veNTi  -:nuiNs. 

',  "re  >  K"^ 


U/i<A'- " 


.  -  OrTIICZU\ 

iMOUNT   /// 


to  - 


Outline  Map  of  Mount  Sinai 

miles  in  length,  is  broken  into  a  series 
of  peaks,  varying  little  in  altitude,  but 
rivalling  each  other  in  the  beaut}'  and 
grandeur  of  their  outline."  There  are 
**  some  ten  or  twelve  peaks,  which  vary 
so  little  in  altitude  that  when  seen  from 
lower  ground  or  from  a  distance  the  eye 
fails  to  distinguish  the  highest."  Evi- 
dently the  true  Sinai  is  not  to  be  sought 


{After  the  Ordnance  Survey.) 

in  such  a  confusion.  Nor  is  there  any 
place  in  the  neighborhood  for  the  en- 
campment of  a  large  host.  Holland 
{Bccoren/  of  Jentsafem,}).  410)  describes 
the  valleys  at  its  base  as  "a  wilderness 
of  boulders  and  torrent-beds,"  and  the 
space  between  the  valleys  as  "  a  chaos 
of  rugged  mountains." 

The  members  of  the  Ordnance  Survey 

807 


SIN 


SIN 


unanimously  reached  the  conclusion  that  I 
the  real  Sinai  was  to  be  found  in  Jebel 
Mitsa,  including  its  peak  Jias  Su/xd/eh,  ' 
which  is  situated  a  little  north-west  of  | 
the  centre  of  the  Sinaitic  group,  and  ; 
some  20  miles  east  by  south  of  Jebel  ] 
Serhal. 

"Jebel  Musa"  is  the  general  name 
applied  to  a  mountain-mass,  2  miles  long 
and  1  mile  broad,  which  extends  north- 
east and  south-west.  At  its  southern 
extremity  is  a  peak  7363  feet  in  height, 
to  which  the  name  of  ''Jebel  Musa" 
("Mount  of  Moses")  has  been  for  ages 
applied.  This  is  the  traditional  mount 
of  legislation. 

lias  Sii/sd/ch,  which  was  formerly 
thought  to  be  a  separate  mountain,  is 
now  known  to  be  only  a  northern  peak 
of  this  mass  of  Jebel  Mnsa.  This  north- 
ern peak,  0937  feet  in  height,  is  now  re- 
garded as  the  place  of  the  actual  giving 
of  the  Law.  To  avoid  confusion  arising 
from  this  double  use  of  the  name"  Jebel 
Musa,"  Wilson  suggests  "  Musa-Sufsa- 
feh  "  for  the  whole  mountain,  thus  limit- 
ing the  name  of  "Jebel  Musa"  to  the 
southern  peak.  Many  writers — Ritter, 
the  great  German  geographer,  among 
them — supposed  that  this  southern  peak 
was  the  scene  of  the  giving  of  the  Law, 
and  that  there  was  to  the  south  of  it  a 
plain  of  great  extent ;  but  Dean  Stanley 
describes  the  valley  as  "  rough,  uneven, 
and  narrow,"  and  the  surveyors  found 
no  plain  which  would  accommodate  the 
hosts  of  Israel. 

At  the  northern  end  of  the  mountain, 
however,  all  the  conditions  are  met  in 
the  peak  of  Ras  Snfudfeh. 

This  whole  block  is  isolated  from  the 
surrounding  mountains  by  deep  valleys, 
so  that  boundaries  might  have  been  set 
completely  around  it.  Ex.  19  :  12,  23. 
To  the  north  of  Rnn  Snfsdfeh,  and  ex- 
tending to  its  very  base  is  the  plain  of 
Er  Rdkali,  2  miles  long  and  half  a  mile 
wide,  embracing  400  acres  of  available 
standing-ground,  directly  in  front  of  the 
mountain.  The  plain,  with  its  branches, 
contains  4.293,000  square  yards,  in  full 
view  of  the  mount,  affording  more  than 
sufficient  standing-ground  for  the  two 
millions  of  the  Israelites.  Here  they 
might  stand  "at  the  nether  part  of  the 
mount,"  Ex.  19  :  17,  which  rises  so 
abruptly  from  the  plain  as  to  answer  the 
description  of  "  the  mount  that  might 
808 


be  touched."    Heb.  12  :  18.     This  fulfils 
all  the  conditions  of  the   Scripture  nar- 
rative;  and  the  conclusion  is  that  this 
stately,     awful-looking,     isolated    mass 
Ras    Snfsdfeh     is    the    very    mountain 
where   "the     Lord    came    down    upon 
Mount  Sinai,  on  the  top  of  the  mount," 
Ex.  19  :  20,  and  where  "  Uod  spake  all 
these   words"  of  the  ten   commandine)its. 
Ex.   20  :  1-17.      The   southern    summit 
(Jebel  Mus(i)  is  completely  hidden  from 
the  plain,  and   Palmer  suggests  that  it 
may   have    been   to   this    secluded    spot 
Moses  went  when  the  Lord  called  him 
up  to  the  top  of  the  mount.  Ex.  19  :  20. 
There,  too,   perhaps,   he   was  "  with   the 
Lord  forty  days  and  foi'ty  nights."  Ex. 
34  :  28.     Near  the  base  of  Ras  Snfsdfeh 
is  the  Harun,   or  "  hill   of   the   golden 
calf."     On   the  eastern   declivity  is  the 
convent  of  St.    Katharine,   founded   by 
the    emperor    Justinian     in    A.   D.    527, 
where  Tischendorf  discovered  the  famous 
Codex  Sinaiticns,  one   of  the  oldest  and 
best  manuscripts  of  the  N.  T.  in  exist- 
ence.    Four  running  streams  are  found 
in  the  vicinity,  and  there  is  no  other  spot 
in  the  whole  peninsula  which  is  nearly 
as    well    supplied    with    water    as    the 
neighborhood  of  Jebel  Mnsa.      Besides, 
there  is  no  other  district  in  the  penin- 
sula which  affords    such   excellent  pas- 
turage   as    the    neighborhood    of    .Jebel 
Musa.    We  add  the  testimony  of  modern 
travellers.     Dr.  Robinson,  on  his  visit  in 
1838,  first  ascended  Ras  Snfsdfeh,  and 
pointed  it  out  as  the  true  locality  of  leg- 
islation.    In  his  account  he  says  ( Bib- 
lical Res.  I.  107):  "The   extreme   diffi- 
culty, and  even  danger,  of  the  ascent  was 
well  rewarded  by  the  prospect  that  now 
opened  before  us.     The  whole  plain  Er 
Rdhah  lay  spread  beneath  our  feet,  with 
the  adjacent  n-ddifs  and  mountains;  while 
Wddi/  esh-Sheikh  on  the  right,  and  the 
recess  on  the  left,  both  connected  with 
and    opening   broadly   from    Er   Rdhah, 
presented  an  area  which  serves  nearly  to 
double  that  of   the  plain.     Our  convic- 
tion was   strengthened   that  here,  or  on 
some  of  the  adjacent  cliffs,  was  the  spot 
where  the   Lord  '  descended   in  fire  '  and 
proclaimed  the  Law.     Here  lay  the  plain 
where  the  whole  congregation  might  be 
assembled;    here    was    the    mount    that 
could  be  approached  and  touched,  if  not 
forbidden  ;  and  here  the  mountain-brow 
where  alone  the  lightnings  and  the  thick 


SIN 


SIP 


cloud  would  be  visible,  and  the  thunders 
and  the  voice  of  the  trump  be  heard 
when  the  Lord  'cauie  down  in  the  sight 
of  all  the  people  upon  Mount  Sinai.' 
We  gave  ourselves  u])  to  the  impressions 
of  the  awful  scene,  and  read,  with  a  feel- 
ing that  will  never  be  forgotten,  the  sub- 
lime account  of  the  transaction,  and  the 
commandments  there  promulgated,  in  the 
original  words  as  recorded  bv  the  great 
Hebrew  legislator.  Ex.  19  :  9-25  ;  20  :  1- 
21."  Dr.  Schaif,  who  visited  Mount 
Sinai  in  1877,  gives  the  following  de- 
scription (T/iroiKjh  Bible  //«»(/*■,  p.  177) : 
''Then  we  climb  with  difficulty,  and  some 
danger,  over  granite  blocks  to  the  giddy 
height  of  Ras  Safsdfeh.  Here,  on  a  pro- 
jecting rock,  we  rest  an  hour,  looking 
down  on  the  vast  plain  of  Er  Rdhah  and 
the  adjoining  tvddi/s  of  esh'Sheikh  and 
Lejah,  and  looking  beyond  to  the  am- 
phitheatre of  mountains  which  wall  them 
in  and  meditating  over  the  past,  which 
here  assumes  the  character  of  a  present 
overpowering  reality,  we  are  lost  in 
amazement  at  the  panorama  of  terrible 
sublimity  of  nature,  and  the  immeasur- 
able significance  of  that  historic  event 
which  is  felt  to  this  day  all  over  the 
world  as  far  as  the  ten  commandments 
are  known  and  read.  It  is  difficult  to 
imagine  ^,  more  solemn  and  impressive 
sight.  We  then  descend  a  steep  ravine 
(imagining  that  we  follow  the  track  of 
Moses,  Ex.  32  :  17,  19),  over  confused 
heaps  of  rocks,  to  the  valley  Er  Rdhah, 
and  return  to  our  camp  near  the  convent. 
It  was  the  most  fatiguing,  as  well  as  the 
most  interesting,  day's  work  of  moun- 
tain-climbing I  can  remember.  I  fully 
satisfied  my  mind  that  Ras-  Siifsd/eh  is 
the  platform  from  which  the  Law  was 
proclaimed.  Here  all  the  conditions  re- 
quired by  the  Scripture  narrative  are 
combined.  Moses  may  have  received 
the  Law  on  the  higher  Jebel  Miisn,  but 
it  must  have  been  proclaimed  to  the  peo- 
ple from  RdH  Sii/sd/eh,  which  can  be  seen 
from  every  part  of  the  plain  below.  For 
Er  Rdhah  is  a  smooth  and  gigantic  camp- 
ing-ground, protected  by  surrounding 
mountains,  and  contains,  as  has  been  as- 
certained by  actual  measurement,  two 
millions  of  square  yards;  so  that  the 
whole  people  of  Israel  could  find  ample 
room  and  plainly  see  ami  hear  the  man 
of  God  on  the  rocky  pulpit  above.  Dean 
Stanley  relates  that  *  from  the   highest 


point  of  Mas  Sufsdf eh  to  its  lower  peak, 
a  distance  of  about  60  feet,  the  page  of 
a  book,  distinctly  but  not  loudly  read, 
was  perfectly  audible,  and  every  remark 
of  the  various  groups  of  travellers  rose 
clearly  to  those  immediately  above  them.' 
Descending  from  that  mount  through  a 
ravine  between  two  peaks,  Moses  and 
Joshua  might  have  first  heard  the  shouts 
of  the  people  before  they  saw  them  dan- 
cing round  the  golden  calf.  Ex.  32:  17, 
19.  In  one  word,  there  is  the  most  com- 
plete adaptation  of  this  locality  to  all 
the  circumstances  of  the  Sinaitic  legis- 
lation as  described  by  Moses.  Tradition 
is  for  Jehel  Musa,  the  Bible  for  Ran  Snf- 
sd/eh.  But,  after  all,  they  form  but  one 
mountain  (as  do  the  five  peaks  of  Serial), 
and  tradition  in  this  case  is  at  least  very 
near  the  truth." 

SINCERITY  stands  opposed  to 
dissimulation  or  hypocrisy',  and  implies 
the  entire  correspondence  of  the  heart 
with  the  expressions  of  the  lips.  2  Cor. 
1 :  12.  The  original  word  refers  to  the 
bright  and  penetrating  light  of  the  sun, 
and  denotes  such  things  as,  on  being  ex- 
amined by  the  brightest  light,  are  found 
pure  and  unadulterated. 

SI'NIM.  This  geographical  term 
occurs  only  once  in  the  Bible,  in  Isa. 
49  :  12.  The  country  meant  is  generally 
considered  to  be  China,  though  some 
would  leave  it  an  open  question. 

SIN'ITE,  a  tribe  descended  from 
Canaan.   Gen.  10  :  17  ;   1  Chr.  1  :  15. 

SIN-MONEY,  money  sent  by  per- 
sons at  a  distance,  with  which  to  buy  the 
required  offerings,  2  Kgs.  12  :  16;  and, 
as  there  was  usually  some  surplus,  it 
was  the  perquisite  of  the  priest,  and  was 
called  ''  sin-money,"  or  "  sin-offering 
monev."  Num.  18  :  9. 

SIN-OF'FERINGS.  Num.  18  :  9. 
See  Offkking. 

SI'ON  (lo/h/),  the  name  of  two 
mountains  in   Palestine. 

1.  One  of  the  various  names  of  Mount 
Hermon.  Deut.  4  :  48:     See  Hekmon. 

2.  The  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew 
name  '•  Zion."  Matt.  21  :  5  ;  John  12  : 
15.     See  ZioN. 

SIPH'MOTH  (fruitful  places),  a 
place  in  the  South  of  Judah  frequented 
by  David  when  an  outlaw.  1  Sam.  30  : 
28. 

SIP'PAI  (threshuhlf),  a  Philistine 
giant,  1  Chr.  20  :  4;  called  also  Saph. 

809 


SIR 


SLA 


SI'RAH,  THE  WELL  OF  (re- 
treat), the  place  from  which  Abner  was 
recalled  by  Joab,  who  put  him  to  death 
at  Hebron.  2  Sam.  8  :  26.  It  is  now 
called  'Ain  Sarah,  a  spring  about  1  mile 
from  Hebron,  and  a  little  to  one  side  of 
the  main  road. 

SIR'ION  (breastplate  F),  a  Zidonian 
name  of  Mount  Hermon.  Deut.  3:9,- 
Ps.  29  :  6.  Perhaps  this  name  was  ap- 
plied to  a  part  of  Hermon  only. 

SISAM'AI  (distinguished.^),  a  de- 
scendant of  Judah.   1  Chr.  2  :  40. 

SIS'ERA  (battle-array).  1.  The 
general  of  Jabin's  army.  Jud.  4  :  2. 
See  Barak,  Deborah,  Jael. 

2.  The  ancestor  of  some  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  2  :  53  ;  Neh.  7  :  55. 

SIS'TER'S  SON.  In  Col.  4:10 
the  term  should  be  "  cousin."  In  bib- 
lical usage,  this  word  is  not  limited  to 
our  sense,  but,  like  "  mother,"  "  father," 
"  son,"  "  daughter,"  has  a  far  wider  ap- 
plication. Thus,  in  2  Sam.  13  :  2,  it 
means  a  step-  or  half-sister,  in  Matt.  13  : 
56  a  cousin,  and  in  Rom.  16  :  1  merely  a 
fellow-believer. 

SIT'XAH  (strife),  the  name  of  the 
second  of  two  wells  dug  by  Isaac  in  the 
valley  of  Gerar,  and  for  which  the  herd- 
men  disputed.  Gen.  26:21.  It  is  be- 
tween Rehoboth  and  Eeer-sheba,  in  a 
small  valley  called  Shutnet  er-Raheibeh, 
names  in  which  are  doubtless  preserved 
both  the  Sitnah  and  Rehoboth  of  the 
Scripture. 

SI' VAN.  Esth.  8  :  9.     See  Month. 

SKINS.  Ileb.  11 :  37.    See  Clothing. 

SLAVE,  SLAVERY.  Slavery  is 
contrary  to  the  constitution  and  destina- 
tion of  man  and  to  the  spirit  of  the  Bible, 
which  begins  and  ends  with  freedom,  and 
represents  man  as  made  in  the  image  of 
God,  and  places  him,  as  lord,  at  the  head 
of  the  whole  creation.  God  gave  Adam 
an  equal  and  only  partner  in  Eve.  Slav- 
ery, like  polj^gamy  and  war,  was  the  con- 
sequence of  sin,  and  spread  with  sin 
among  all  ancient  nations.  The  Bible 
tolerates,  regulates,  moderates,  and  re- 
strains this  abnormal  institution,  but 
provides  also  for  its  ultimate  extinction. 
"The  manner  in  which  Christ  and  the 
apostles  dealt  with  an  institution  so 
universally  prevalent  in  its  worst  forms, 
and  so  intimately  interwoven  with  the 
whole  public  and  private  life  in  the 
Roman  empire,  is  a  strong  proof  of  their 
810 


divine  wisdom.  Christianity  accomplish- 
ed what  no  other  religion  has  even  at- 
tempted before  or  since.  Without  inter- 
fering with  slavery  as  a  political  and 
economical  question,  without  encourag- 
ing any  revolution  or  agitation,  without 
denouncing  the  character  or  denying  the 
rights  of  the  slave-holder  or  creating 
discontent  among  the  slaves,  without 
disturbing  the  peace  of  a  single  family, 
without  any  appeal  to  the  passions  and 
prejudices  of  men  on  the  evils  and  abuses 
of  slavery,  without  requiring,  or  even 
suggesting,  immediate  emancipation,  in 
one  word,  without  changing  the  outward 
and  legal  relation  between  the  two  par- 
ties, but  solemnly  enforcing  the  rights 
and  duties  arising  from  it  to  both, — 
Christ  and  the  apostles,  nevertheless, 
from  within,  by  purely  spiritual  and 
peaceful  means,  by  teaching  the  com- 
mon origin  and  common  redemption,  the 
true  dignity,  equality,  and  destiny  of 
men,  by  inculcating  the  principles  of 
universal  justice  and  love,  and  by  rais- 
ing the  most  degraded  and  unfortunate 
classes  of  society  to  virtue  and  purity, 
and  to  spiritual  freedom  in  Christ,  pro- 
duced a  radical  moral  reformation  of  the 
system,  and  prepared  the  only  effectual 
way  for  its  gradual,  legitimate,  and  harm- 
less extinction." — SiCHAFF:  Slavery  and 
the   Bible  (1861). 

A.Hebrew  Slavery.  —  There  were 
only  two  conditions  known  among  the 
Jews  —  independence  and  servitude. 
Whenever  a  man  was  too  poor  or 
otherwise  unable  to  be  independent, 
he  became  a  slave.  Slaves,  among 
the  Hebrews,  were  of  two  general 
classes:    1.  Hebrews;    2.  Non-Hebrews. 

1.  Hebrews. — There  were  three  ways 
whereby  liberty  could  be  taken  from  a 
Hebrew:  (I)  Poverty.  He  might  sell  him- 
self in  default  of  payment  of  debt.  Lev. 
25  :  39.  (2)  Theft,  when  he  could  not  pay 
the  auiount  required.  Ex.  22:  1,  3.  Ac- 
cording to  Josephus,  he  could  onlj'  be 
sold  to  a  Hebrew.  (3)  Parents  could  sell 
their  daughters  as  maid-servants,  but 
they  were  ultimately  to  be  their  masters' 
concubines.  Ex.  21  :  7.  There  were  three 
ways  by  which  the  servitude  might  end  : 
(1)  When  the  debt  or  other  obligation 
was  met:  (2)  When  the  year  of  Jubilee 
had  come.  Lev.  25  :  40 ;  (3)  At  the  con- 
clusion of  six  years  of  service.  Ex.  21  : 
2 ;  Deut.  15  :  12,     Indeed,  no  servitude 


SLA 


SMY 


could  last  longer  than  six  years.  In 
case,  however,  the  slave  did  not  wish  to 
go  at  the  expiration  of  the  time,  either 
because  he  loved  his  master  or  his  wife 
— presumably  a  foreigner — and  cliildren, 
who  must  be  left  behind,  as  they  were  the 
master's  property,  the  master  announced 
this  fact  to  the  judges,  and  then  bored 
his  ear  through  with  an  awl.  Ex.  21  :  (5  ; 
Deut.  15  :  17.  That  this  was  done  speaks 
volumes  for  the  mildness  of  Hebrew  shiv- 
ery. Indeed,  the  Law  made  the  condi- 
tion of  a  slave  very  tolerable.  The  owner 
was  expressly  forbidden  to  ''  rule  over 
him  with  rigor."  Lev.  25  :  43.  Nor  was 
he  suffered  to  go  away  empty,  but  must 
be  furnished  liberally  out  of  the  fluck, 
out  of  the  floor,  and  out  of  the  wine-press. 
Deut.  15  :  14.  A  slave  might  even  marry 
a  daughter  of  his  master.  1  Chr.  2  :  35. 
In  the  ease  of  a  female  Hebrew  slave, 
there  was  not  the  release  at  the  end  of 
six  years ;  but  if  marriage  with  the 
owner  or  his  son  did  not  take  place,  she 
was  not  to  be  sold  to  a  foreigner,  but "  he 
shall  cause  her  to  be  redeemed  " — i.  e., 
he  should  return  her  to  her  father  or  find 
her  another  Hebrew  master,  or  else  free 
her  absolutely.  Ex.  21:7-n.  When 
Hebrews  became  the  slaves  of  non-He- 
brews, they  might  be  redeemed  or  re- 
deem themselves,  or  else  go  free  at  the 
year  of  jubilee.  Jewish  Hebrew  sla- 
very terminated  at  the  Captivity. 

2.  Non-Hebrews. — These  constituted  the 
majority  of  the  slaves  among  the  He- 
brews. They  were  mostly  captives  made 
in  war  from  the  neighboring  tribes,  but 
besides  were  purchased  of  dealers.  Lev. 
25  :  45,  foreigners  reduced  to  this  con- 
dition, or  else  the  children  of  such  slaves. 
Gen.  14  :  14 ;  Eccl.  2  :  7.  This  sort  of 
slavery  survived  the  Captivity,  but  was 
opposed  by  the  Pharisees.  Tiiirty  shek- 
els seems  to  have  been  the  average  price 
of  a  slave.  Ex.  21  :  32.  The  slaves'  lot 
was  comparatively  happy.  Their  per- 
sons were  protected  against  violence;  for 
if  they  lost  an  eye  or  a  tooth  from  rough 
handling,  they  got  their  liberty.  Ex.  21  : 
26,  27.  To  kill  one  was  murder.  Lev. 
24  :  17,  22.  They  had  full  religious 
privileges,  since  they  were  circumcised. 
Gen.  17:  12. 

Slavery  at  best  is  bondage,  and  hence 
we  find  the  service  of  these  slaves  was 
menial.  They  ploughed  the  fields,  did 
the   housework,  ground   the  corn,  took 


oflF  and  put  on  their  master's  sa.nda1s, 
washed  his  feet,  and  performed  all  the 
services  expected  of  those  in  their  con- 
dition. But  slaves,  by  their  industry 
and  ability,  could  raise  themselves  to 
positions  of  trust,  becoming  stewards, 
as  was  Eliezer,  Gen.  15  :  2,  or  independ- 
ent freemen,  as  was  Ziba.  2  Sam.  9  :  2, 
10. 

B.  RoArAN  Slavery. — The  Gospel  of 
Jesus  Christ,  declaring  freedom  from 
the  slavery  of  sin,  was  preached  unto 
them  who  were  literally  bound.  The 
early  Christian  Church  was  largely  com- 
posed of  slaves,  and  around  them  were 
thrown  none  of  the  protections  which 
rendered  a  Hebrew  slave  so  safe.  On 
the  contrary,  the  Roman  master  regard- 
ed his  slaves  as  his  absolute  property. 
He  might  treat  them  kindly — and  doubt- 
less many  did — but  no  law  compelled  him 
to  do  so.  The  Roman  proverb, ''  So  many 
slaves,  so  many  foes,"  tells  a  pitiful  story 
of  wrong.  This  was  the  sort  of  slavery 
mentioned  incidentally  in  the  N.  T.  It 
is  remarkable  that  nothing  is  said  about 
its  abolishment.  On  the  contrary,  the 
slaves  were  enjoined  to  be  obedient  to 
their  masters,  and  to  prove  their  Chris- 
tian character  by  their  patience  under 
suffering. 

The  Bible  has  furnished  the  defenders 
of  slavery  with  proof-texts,  but  yet  the 
study  of  the  Bible  has  led  to  the  abolish- 
ment of  the  system.  The  Mosaic  legis- 
lation on  the  subject  induced  such  mild- 
ness that  the  very  idea  could  not  be  tol- 
erated, and  so,  in  Christ's  day,  Hebrew 
slavery  of  both  kinds  was  utterly  extir- 
pated. The  N.  T.  directions  had  a  sim- 
ilar result.  A  Christian  could  not  hold 
souls  in  bondage  for  whom  the  blood  of 
Christ  was  shed.  And  so  slavery  ended 
in  the  empire  among  Christians.  To- 
day it  is  acknowledged  throughout  Chris- 
tendom as  a  crime;  while  Mohammedan- 
ism holds  fast  to  slavery  and  polj'gamy 
— the  two  twin-sisters  of  barbarism.  The 
liberty  in  Christ  Jesus  extends  to  the  body 
as  well  as  to  the  soul.  The  gospel,  in 
emancipating  from  the  bondage  of  sin, 
breaks  the  backbone  of  every  other  kind 
of  bondage,  and  substitutes  for  it  the  ser- 
vice of  God,  which  is  perfect  freedom. 

SLIME.  Gen.  11  :  3.     See  Pitch. 

SLING.     See  Arms. 

SMYR'NA  {»i,/rrh),  a  city  of  Asia 
Minor  named  in  Scripture  as  containing 

811 


SMY 


SMY 


one  of  the  seven  churches  of  Asia.  Rev. 
1:11;  2:8-11. 

Situation. — Smyrna  is  on  the  ^gean 
Sea,  at  the  bottom  of  the  Hermajan  Gulf, 
the  entrance  to  which  is  opposite  the 
island  of  Mitylene.  The  modern  town 
is  situated  2^  miles  from  the  ancient  one 
of  the  same  name,  partly  upon  the  slopes 
of  Mount  Pagus,  and  partly  on  the  low 
ground  at  its  foot.  The  city  was  about 
•tU  miles  north  of  Ephesus. 

Histori/. — Some  piratical  Greeks  built 
a  fortification  on  Mount  Pagus  about 
B.  c.  1500  :  Theseus  built  a  city  and  call- 
ed it  Smyrna,  after  his  wife,  B.  c.  1312. 
It  was  on  the  border-line  between  Ionia 
and  ^olia,  and  was  possessed  by  both 
parties  alternately  in  the  times  of  the 
Trojan  war.  The  king  of  Sardis  de- 
stroyed it,  B.  c.  628  ;  Alexander  the  Great 
built  a  new  city,  b.  c.  320.  From  this 
time  Smyrna  became  an  important  com- 
mercial place.  It  was  subject  to  the 
Romans  and  was  famous  for  its  beauty, 
Antigonus  calling  it  "  the  beautiful." 
Christianity  was  early  planted  there, 
and  the  church  is  commended  in  the 
Revelation  of  John.  Polycarp,  a  pupil 
of  St.  John,  suffered  martyrdom  at 
Smyrna,  a.  d.  1o5,  in  extreme  old  age, 
perhaps  illustrating  the  prophecy,  "Be- 
hold, the  devil  shall  cast  some  of  you 
into  prison,  that  ye  may  be  tried ;  and 
ye  shall  have  tribulation  ten  days :  be 
thou  faithful  unto  death,  and  I  will  give 
thee  a  crown  of  life."  Rev.  2:10.  His 
grave,  with  a  plain  monument,  is  shown 
on  a  hill.  The  city  sent  a  bishop  to 
the  Council  of  Nice,  A.  d.  325  ;  it  was 
captured  by  the  Turks,  A.  D.  1313,  and 
is  still  in  their  possession.  It  has 
several  times  suffered  from  fires  and 
earthquakes. 

Present  Condition. — The  modern  city 
of  Smyrna  has  a  population  of  about 
180,000  to  190,000,  of  which  not  a  fourth 
are  Turks.  There  are  many  Europeans, 
and  several  Greek,  Roman  Catholic,  and 
Protestant  churches  are  sustained.  Prof. 
A.  H.  Sayce,  of  Oxford,  England,  speaks 
of  the  new  quay  of  the  city,  in  1880,  as  a 
busv  centre  of  trade,  and  when  its  cafes 
are  lighted  up  at  night  the  traveller  may 
imagine  himself  in  fairy-land.  ''  The  en- 
chantment is  rudely  dispelled  if  we  turn 
down  one  of  the  narrow  alleys  which 
lead  into  the  back  streets  of  the  town. 
Dark,  dirty,  and  noisome,  full  of  uptorn 
812 


stones  and  deep  holes  into  which  the  un- 
wary passenger  may  fall  at  any  moment, 
they  produce  an  impression  of  cheerless 
insecurity.  And  the  impression  is  not 
diminished  by  the  sight  of  the  few  way- 
farers that  timidly  and  hurriedly  pick 
their  way  through  them.  Each  man  is 
armed  to  the  teeth,  and  seldom  walks 
through  the  streets  at  night  except  in 
company  with  two  or  three  friends.  In 
fact,  Smyrna,  with  all  its  trade,  its  wealth, 
and  its  prosperity,  is  an  eminently  unsafe 
place.  Police,  in  the  true  sense  of  the 
word,  there  are  none,  and  the  number  of 
desperadoes  that  crowd  to  it  from  all 
parts  of  the  Levant  makes  midnight 
wanderings  extremely  dangerous.  Dur- 
ing the  day  it  is  possible  to  pass  from 
the  quay  to  the  principal  street,  which 
runs  parallel  with  it,  through  a  number 
of  passages  and  arcades.  The  gates  of 
these,  however,  are  closed  at  nightfall, 
and  the  courts  and  houses  within  them 
made  secure  from  the  intruder.  Even 
during  the  day,  except  on  the  quay, 
walking  in  Smyrna  is  not  an  agreeable 
pastime.  The  streets  are  so  wretchedly 
paved — or,  rather,  unpaved — that  it  is 
as  fatiguing  to  walk  through  them  as 
over  a  bed  of  granite  boulders.  .  .  .  The 
shops  of  Smyrna,  however,  are  good  and 
numerous  :  and  if  we  wander  on  to  the 
bazaar  in  the  Turkish  quarter,  Ave  may 
purchase  in  abundance  Turkey  carpets 
and  Persian  rugs  at  higher  prices  than  we 
should  have  to  give  for  them  at  home,  or 
antiqviities  of  all  kinds,  especially  coins, 
which  are  mostly  local  forgeries." 

Concerning  the  people  Prof.  Sayce 
adds :  "  Creeds  and  nationalities  of  all 
kinds  jostle  one  against  the  other  at 
every  turn.  There  is  the  stately  Turk, 
in  baggy  trousers,  scarlet  waistband, 
and  blue  jacket,  his  head  covered  with 
a  fez,  or,  if  he  claim  descent  from  the 
prophet,  with  a  green  turban ;  the  con- 
sular kavass,  strutting  along  in  the 
proud  consciousness  of  self-importance, 
his  yataghan  clashing  behind  him  ;  the 
Egyptian,  in  a  long  gown  of  colored 
silk  ;  the  Arab,  in  cotton  robe  and  white 
head-dress ;  the  Armenian,  with  keen 
eye  and  dark  visage :  or  the  multitudi- 
nous swarm  of  Europeans,  of  every 
country  and  race,  among  whom  the 
Greek  naturally  predominates.  Pres- 
ently there  is  a  pressure  of  the  crowd 
toward  one  side  of  the  road  as  a  long 


SMY 


SMY 


train  of  camels,  tied  to  one  another  by 
a  rope  and  led  by  a  donkey,  comes  sol- 
emnly along,  their  heads  bent  stupidly 
down  and  their  backs  laden  with  the 
wares  of  the  East." 

Jiiiinsn/theCiti/. — A  graphic  description 
of  the  interesting  ancient  ruins  of  Smyrna 
is  given  by  Prof.  Sayce  in  7'he  Xew  York 
Independent,  1880,  which  we  condense: 

"  At  the  foot  of  Mount  Pagus  are  the 
remains  of  the  seats  of  the  Greek  the- 
atre, though  their  place  has  been  taken 
by  Jewish  graves,  and  the  marble  blocks 
which  once  clothed  them  have  been  con- 
verted into  Jewish  tombstones.  The 
whole  side  of  the  hill,  in  fact,  has  be- 
come a  vast  Jewish  cemetery.  The  an- 
cient temple  of  Zeus  and  a  ruined  watch- 
tower  are  also  found  on  the  side  of  the 
hill,  and  extensive  fortifications  crown 
the  top  of  Pagus.  Court  after  court  of 
ruined  masonry,  crumbling  towers,  and 
broken  walls  are  seen  along  the  ridge. 
Here  we  come  across  a  huge  vaulted 
chamber  of  Roman  brickwork,  there 
solid  walls  of  Macedonian  construction, 
there  again  the  irregular  building  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  In  one  spot  is  a  ruined 
mosque,  once  a  Christian  temple,  in 
which,  according  to  the  legend.  Poly- 
carp  preached.  Below  flows  the  thin 
anti  narrow  stream  of  the  Meles,  span- 
ned bj'two  aqueducts,  one  of  Pioman,  the 
other  of  Turkish,  workmanship. 

''  Perhaps  even  more  famous  among 
guides  and  tourists  than  the  fortifica- 
tions with  which  the  mount  is  crowned 
are  the  beds  of  oyster-shells  which  are 
passed  on  the  way  back  into  the  town. 
Speculations  have  been  various  about 
them,  but  a  morning's  examination  was 
sufficient  to  reveal  their  origin.  Plenti- 
fully mixed  with  the  shells  I  found  frag- 
ments of  Macedonian  and  Roman  pot- 
tery and  the  bones  of  animals.  These 
beds,  therefore,  are  the  kitchen-middens, 
or  refuse-heaps,  belonging  to  the  houses 
of  wealthy  Greeks  and  Romans  which 
once  occupied  the  slope  of  the  hill.  The 
oyster-shells  are  the  remains  of  banquets 
enjoyed,  it  may  be,  two  thousand  years 
ago." 

Such  is  Smyrna,  the  home  of  that  lit- 
tle band  of  Christians  to  whom  the  wri- 
ter of  the  Apocalypse  promises  a  crown 
of  life  in  spite  of  tribulation  and  pov- 
erty. The  city  was  not  more  than  four 
hundred  years  old  when  St.  John  the 
814 


Divine  saw  his  vision  in  Patmos.  It 
had  been  built  by  Lysimachus,  the  gen- 
eral of  Alexander  the  Great,  of  whom 
the  Macedonian  wall  on  Mount  Pagus  is 
a  lasting  memorial.  Of  the  other  struc- 
tures which  adorned  the  Greek  city — the 
temples  of  C^ybele  and  Nemesis,  the  town- 
hall,  the  public  library  and  public  hos- 
pital, the  Homerium,  or  monument  of 
Homer — not  a  vestige  remains. 

As  already  noted,  the  city  was  once  de- 
stroyed and  rebuilt.  The  more  ancient 
ruined  town  is  thus  described  : 

*'  There  was  an  older  city  than  the 
Smyrna  of  the  Apocalypse.  It  was  the 
quick  eye  of  Alexander  the  Great  that 
chose  the  present  site.  For  four  hun- 
dred years  previously  no  Smyrna  had 
existed.  The  ancient  city  had  been  de- 
stroyed by  the  Lydians,  and  its  inhabit- 
ants scattered  through  the  villages  of 
the  plain.  That  ancient  city  stood  on 
the  steep  hill  which  forms  part  of  the 
range  of  Sipylus  and  rises  above  Burna- 
bat.  on  the  northern  side  of  the  bay.  It 
was  discovered  by  the  French  explorer 
Texier,  who  imagined  he  had  found  in 
it  the  relics  of  the  half-fabulous  Tantalus. 
Here  he  uncovered  some  remarkable 
tombs,  built  of  Cyclopean  masonry  and 
hidden  under  A'ast  cairns  of  unshaped 
stones.  The  largest  of  these,  erected  on 
one  of  the  points  of  the  hill,  he  surnnm- 
ed  the  Tomb  of  Tantalus.  It  is  built  of 
large  stones,  beautifully  cut  and  fitted 
together  without  cement,  in  the  shape  of 
an  arched  corridor,  the  arch  being  form- 
ed by  the  gradual  overlapping  of  the 
successive  layers  of  stones.  Still  higher, 
through  the  prickly  shrubs  and  dry  grass, 
is  the  ancient  Acropolis,  surrounded  by 
a  wall  of  Cyclopean  workmanshij),  and  en- 
tered by  a  gateway  whose  lintel  and  posts 
are  single  blocks  of  stone.  Below,  on 
the  western  side,  are  the  foundations  of 
a  temple,  probably  that  of  the  great 
Asiatic  goddess  Cybele.  From  time  to 
time  new  tombs  are  found  on  this  steep 
and  rocky  site.  Sometimes  they  are  cut 
in  the  rock,  like  rectangular  couches; 
sometimes  they  consist  of  terra-cotta 
sarcophagi,  into  which  the  bodies  of  the 
dead  have  been  made  exactly  to  fit. 
Some  tombs  of  the  latter  kind  were  dis- 
covered lately,  and  in  them  several  ar- 
chaic ornaments  of  gold  which  take  us 
back  to  an  early  period  in  the  history 
of  Greek  art.  ...  It  was  this  primeval 


SNA 


SOA 


city  which  was  besieged  in  vain  by 
Gyges,  the  founder  of  the  last  Lydian 
dynasty,  the  Gog  of  the  0.  T.,  and  its 
origin  was  traced  back  to  the  Amazons 
— the  mythical  companions  of  the  Asiat- 
ic goddess.  I  believe  that  the  legends 
of  the  Amazons  in  Asia  Minor  mark  the 
presence  of  Hittite  conquest  and  culture 
and  the  worship  of  the  Assyrian  goddess 
of  love  and  war  which  the  Hittites  brought 
with  them  from  their  capital,  Carche- 
mish.  If  so,  we  may  see  in  Old  Smyrna 
an  ancient  Ilittite  outpost,  or,  at  all  events, 
a  city  which  owed  its  origin  to  the  civiliza- 
tion carried,  in  a  remote  epoch,  by  Hittite 
chieftains  fromthe  banks  of  theEuphrates 
to  the  far  West." 

SNAIL.    The  word  thus  rendered  in 
Lev.  11 :  30  may  denote  some  species  of 


Snail. 


lizard — perhaps  the  sand-lizard,  which 
is  found  in  the  desert  of  Sinai  and  in 
many  parts  of  Palestine.  These  crea- 
tures are  eaten  by  the  Arabs,  but  ai'C 
esteemed  unclean  by  the  Jews. 

In  Ps.  58  :  8  the  common  snail  or  the 
slug  is  doubtless  meant.  The  former  is 
eaten  by  the  Jews,  as  by  most  Orientals. 
These  creatures,  of  many  species,  ex- 
ceedingly abound  in  Bible  lands.  Snails 
seem  to  waste  themselves  by  covering 
their  path  with  a  thick  shining  slime. 
Though  they  secrete  themselves  in  crev- 
ices of  the  rocks,  yet  during  the  long, 
dry  summer  multitudes  of  them  perish 
from  the  heat,  being  utterly  shrivelled 
and  wasted  away  in  their  shells.  The 
melting  away  spoken  of  in  Psalms  is 
doubtless  to  be  taken  in  one  or  the 
other  of  these  senses. 

SNOW,  vapor  congealed  in  the  air, 
and  often  falling  in  large,  broad  flakes 


resembling  wool.  2  Sam.  23  :  20  :  Ps.  147: 
16.  The  allusions  to  snow  in  the  sacred 
writings,  especially  to  its  whiteness,  are 
frequent.  Ex.  4:0:  Num.  12  :  10 ;  2  Kgs. 
5  :  27  ;  Ps.  51  :  7  ;  Isa.  1:18.  The  com- 
parison in  Prov.  25  :  13  has  reference  to 
the  use  of  snow  brought  from  the  moun- 
tains to  cool  the  drink  of  the  reapers  in 
the  heat  of  harvest,  as  we  use  ice.  Snow- 
water is  softer  and  more  detergent  than 
common  water;  hence  the  allusion  in  Job 
9  :  30.  Snow  is  found  on  Mount  Lebanon, 
and  it  lies  in  the  ravines  of  Ilermon  and 
other  peaks  throughout  the  year.  Rob- 
inson states,  "Snow  often  falls  in  Jeru- 
salem in  January  and  February  to  the 
depth  of  a  foot  or  more,  but  does  not 
usuallv  lie  long."— Bib.  Res.  I.  429. 

SNUFF-DISHES,  SNUFFERS. 
Ex.  25  :  38  ;  37  :  23.     See  Candlestick. 

SO,  the  king  of  Egypt,  mentioned 
once  in  the  Bible,  2  Kgs.  17  :  4 :  prob- 
ably identical  with  Sevechus,  the  sec- 
ond king  of  the  twenty-fifth  dynasty. 
He  reigned  ten  or  twelve  years.  Hosea 
made  an  alliance  with  him  after  Israel 
had  become  the  vassal  of  Assyria.  The 
discovery  of  this  led  to  the  imprisonment 
of  Hosea  and  the  captivityof  the  ten  tribes. 

SOAP.  Jer.  2  :  22  ;  Mai.  3  :  2.  Sev- 
eral kinds  of  shrubby  alkaline  plants, 
one  of  which  is  figured,  grow  very- 
abundantly  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Dead 


Salsola  Kali. 

and  Mediterranean  Seas.  The  Arabs 
dry  and  burn  these,  and  obtain  a  largo 
proportion  of  potash   from  their  ashes. 

815 


soc 


SOD 


With  this,  from  oil  and  other  fatty  sub- 
stances, a  soft  soap  has  been  made  by 
the  Jews  from  very  early  times.  They 
used  it  not  onl}'  for  washing  their  per- 
sons and  their  clothes,  but  in  smelting 
metals  as  a  flux,  or  substance  which 
cleansed  them  and  made  them  flow 
more  readily.  In  Isa.  1 :  25  the  reading 
should  be,  instead  of  "purely,"  ''as  with 
alkali.''  Making  hard  soap  from  olive 
oil  is  the  only  important  manufacturing 
business  of  modern  Jerusalem.  There 
is  considerable  exportation  from  Pales- 
tine of  the  alkali  mentioned  above.     See 

SO'CHO,     AND     SO'CHOH 

(branches).  1  Chr.  4:18;  1  Kgs.  4  :  10. 
See  SocoH. 

SO'COH  [branches),  a  name  of  two 
towns  in  Judah. 

1.  A  city  in  the  plains  of  Judah.  Josh. 
15  :  35.  It  is  also  called  Shoco,  2  Chr. 
11  :  7,  Shoeho,  2  Chr.  28  :  18,  and 
Shochoh.  1  Sam.  17  :  1.  At  this  place 
Goliath  was  slain  and  the  Philistines 
were  defeated.  The  town  was  included 
in  one  of  Solomon's  commissariat  dis- 
tricts ;  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam  ;  was 
seized  by  the  Philistines  in  the  time  of 
Ahaz ;  and  in  the  time  of  Eusebius  and 
Jerome  was  called  Soechoth,  and  lay  be- 
tween 8  and  9  Roman  miles  from  Eleu- 
theropolis,  on  the  road  to  Jerusalem.  It 
is  identified  with  the  ruins  eih-Shnirei- 
keh  and  the  Wddy  Sumt,  or  "valley  of 
Elah,"  about  3^  miles  south-west  of  Je- 
rusalem. 

2.  A  town  in  the  mountains  of  Judah. 
Josh.  15  :  48.  It  has  been  identified  with 
esh-Shuweikeh,  about  a  mile  to  the  north 
of  Jattir  and  10  miles  south-west  of  He- 
bron, in  the  Wddii  cl-KhallL 

SOD,  SOD'DEN,  the  preterite  and 
past  participle  of  "  seethe."  Gen.  25  :  29  : 
Ex.  12  :  9. 

SO'DI  [a  ronfiflant),  the  father  of 
the  spy  from  Zebulun.  Num.  13  :  10. 

SOD'OM  (burniiiff?),  the  principal 
city  in  a  group  of  cities  in  the  vale  of 
Siddim,  which  were  destroyed  on  account 
of  the  great  wickedness  of  their  inhab- 
itants. Gen.  10  :  19  ;  13  :  3,  10-13  :  19  : 
1-29.  Sodom  is  first  mentioned  in  de- 
scribing the  Canaanitish  border :  it  was 
afterward  chosen  by  Lot  as  his  home, 
the  country  around  it  being  fertile,  well 
watered  everywhere,  "  even  as  the  gar- 
den of  the  Lord."  It  was  plundered  by 
816 


Chedorlaomer  and  his  allies,  but  the  cap- 
tives and  booty  were  recovered  by  Abra- 
ham. The  history  of  its  great  Avicked- 
ness  and  its  terrible  punishment  is  given 
in  Gen.  18  :  16-33  :  19  :  1-29.  Sodom  is 
often  held  up  as  a  warning  to  sinners  to 
escape  the  terrible  vengeance  of  God. 
Deut.  29  :  23  :  Isa.  1  :  9.  10  :  3  :  9  :  13  : 
19  j  Jer.  23:14:  49:18;  Eze.  16:49, 
50;  Am.  4  :  11 ;  Zeph.  2:9:  Matt.  10  : 
15;  11:23,  24;  2  Pet.  2:6-8:  Rev. 
11 :  8. 

Situation. — The  overthrow  of  the  cities 
of  the  plain,  including  Sodom,  was  so 
complete  that  their  sites  have  never 
been  certainly  determined.  It  was 
formerly  a  common  opinion  that  the 
Dead  Sea  covered  the  place  occupied 
by  these  cities,  and  early  travellers  fan- 
cied that  they  could  discern  broken  col- 
umns and  other  relics  of  the  doomed 
cities  in  the  waters  of  the  lake.  The 
southern  part  of  the  Dead  Sea,  below 
the  "  tongue,"  or  Lisan  Peninsula,  is 
very  shallow,  having  an  average  depth 
of  not  more  than  13  feet,  and  here  some 
would  place  the  sites  of  the  lost  cities. 
There  is  no  scWptural  evidence,  howev- 
er, that  the  cities  were  submerged,  but 
the  whole  drift  of  the  history,  as  well  as 
the  geological  character  of  the  region, 
is  directly  opposed  to  such  a  theory. 
There  are  only  two  possible  localities 
for  these  cities — the  lower  end  of  the 
lake,  or  the  upper  end  of  the  same. 
Tradition,  from  the  time  of  Josephus 
and  Jerome,  has  pointed  to  the  southern 
site.  This  view  has  been  further  urged 
from  the  name  Jebel  Usditin,  the  latter 
word  having  a  supposed  resemblance  to 
Sodom,  and  Uxdnin  being  at  the  south 
end  of  the  lake.  Some  also  have  be- 
lieved that  it  was  favored  by  the  fact 
that  pillars  of  salt,  detached  from  the 
great  salt  clifi's  at  the  southern  end,  have 
borne  the  name  of  "  Lot's  Wife."  A 
stronger  argument  in  favor  of  the  south- 
ern site  is  drawn  from  the  fact  that  Abra- 
ham, standing  near  Hebron,  beheld  the 
smoke  of  the  country.  Gen.  19  :  27,  28. 
Another  argument  is  found  in  the  nu- 
merous "slime-pits,"  or  wells  of  bitu- 
men or  asphaltum,  found  in  great  masses 
on  the  southern  shore.  Gen.  14  :  10.  This 
view  has  been  advocated  by  Robinson, 
Woolcott,  and  Lynch,  and  favored  by 
Porter.  Baedeker,  Schatf,  and  others.  The 
arguments  in  favor  of  the  northern  site 


SOD 


SOL 


are  :  that  Lot  chose  the  "jihvin  of  Jordan,"  | 
vvhicli  mus!t  ha\e  been  at  the  north  end  of 
the  Dead  Sea.   Gen.  13:  11.12.  Thi.-^  jjlain  j 
of  Jordan  would  be  visible  to  Abraham  j 
and  Lot  standing  at  Bethel,  while  they 
would   not  be  able  to  see  the  south  end 
of  the  lake  from  that  jtoint.     It  is  also  [ 
argued   that  the   hill    near  Hebron  from  \ 
■  whence    Abraham     belield    the    burning 
cities,  being  about  midway  between  the 
north  end  and  the  south  end  of  the  lake, 
would  enable  him  to  see  the  smoke  aris- 
ing from  the  northern  end  quite  as  clear-  | 
ly  as  from  the  southern  end  of  the  sea. 
It  is  also  claimed  that  the  northern  site 
better  suits  the  details  in  the  account  of 
the  attack  of  Chedorlaomer.     Dr.  Mer- 
rill further  asserts  that  there  are  numer- 
ous slime-pits  in  the  vale  of  Shittim.  at 
the  northern  end  of  the  lake,  and  that 
there  are    several    sites  upon  the  plain 
which  might  harmonize  with   those    of 
the    lost    cities.       Tristram    proposed    a 
site  for  Zoar  at  the  northern  end  of  the 
sea.  but  this  has  not  been  satisfactorily  [ 
established.     The  argument  against  the  ; 
northern  site,  based  on  the  fact  that  pil-  ; 
lars  of  salt  have  been  found  at  the  south  : 
end  named  "  Lot's  Wife,"  is  of  little  value,  | 
since  these  pillars  are  constantlychanging  I 
by  the  action  of  the  weather,  and  to  sup-  ' 
pose  that  a  pillar  of  salt  of  the  size  of 
a  person  would  stand  for  four  thousand 
years  is   simply  absurd.     The  northern 
site    has    been    strongly    advocated    by  , 
Grove,  Tristram,  Thomson,   and  olhers,  | 
but  the  question  is  one  which  is  unde- 
cided, since  able   scholars   strongly  ad-  i 
vocate  each  of  the  locations.     See  Salt 
Sea  and  Gomorrah.  ! 

SOD'OIA.  Rom.  9  :  29.    The  Greek  \ 
name  for  Sodom,  which  see. 

SOD'OMITES.     The  word  has  no  ; 
reference  to  Sodom,  but  is   the  biblical 
term  for  those  who  practise  sodomy — a 
sin  to  which  the  inhabitants  of  that  city  ' 
were  addicted.   Gen.  19  :  5.  I 

SOL'DIERS.     See  Armies.  j 

SOL'OMON  {peaceful),  from  E.  C.  ! 
1021-981  king  of  Israel,  was  the  son 
and  successor  of  David.  Soon  after  the 
birth  of  Solomon,  the  prophet  Nathan 
was  sent  by  divine  authority  to  give  him 
the  name  of  ".Jedidiah,"  signifying  ''  be- 
loved of  the  Lord."  ; 

Toward    the    close   of   David's    life    a 
conspiracy  was  detected  to  place  Adoni- 
jah  on  the  throne.     To  settle  the  gov- 
52 


eminent  in  the  order  of  the  divine  ap- 
pointment, David  caused  Solomon  to  be 
invested  with  the  robes  of  roj'alty  and  re- 
signed to  him  voluntarily  the  sceptre  of 
government,  giving  him  a  solemn  charge 
respecting  the  administration  of  it. 

The  early  part  of  his  reign  was  ex- 
ceedingly prosperous,  and  was  marked 
by  several  public  acts  which  displayed 
his  wisdom  and  piety.  1  Kgs.  2:19,  27, 
31:  3  :  1,  9,  16-28.  *IIis  court  was  dis- 
tinguished for  its  magnificence,  his  do- 
minions and  revenue  were  vast,  his 
personal  character  exalted,  his  wisdom 
proverbial,  and  his  cajjital  and  palace 
renowned  for  wealth  and  splendor.  1 
Kgs.  4  and  10.  During  his  reign,  for 
the  only  time  in  Jewish  history,  there 
was  a  flourisliing  commerce.  The  great 
event  of  his  reign  was  the  erection  of  the 
temple  in  Jerusalem  (hence  called  Sol- 
omon's temple},  begun  in  his  fourth  and 
finished  in  his  eleventh  year,  which  was 
designed  by  David,  his  father.  1  Chr. 
21  :  1-11.  The  plan  and  materials  of 
the  house  and  the  furniture,  as  well  as 
of  the  royal  palace,  are  minutel_v  de- 
scribed, 1  Kgs.  6,  7  (see  Temple),  as  are 
also  the  services  at  the  dedication  of  it. 
1  Kgs.  8.  After  this,  Solomon  received 
a  renewed  assurance  of  the  divine  favor 
and  of  a  gracious  answer  to  his  prayers 
and  supplications,  and  at  the  same  time 
one  of  the  most  fearful  denunciations  of 
wrath  in  case  he  should  forsake  God's 
law.  1  Kgs.  9  :  1-10. 

In  the  latter  part  of  Solomon's  reign 
he  was  led  by  his  numerous  foreign  wives 
and  concubines  into  the  practice  of  idol- 
atry and  other  abominable  sins,  which 
drew  upon  him  and  the  country  heavy 
judgments.  1  Kgs.  11.  From  the  height 
of  wisdom  he  sunk  to  the  de))th  of  foll^'. 
We  are  told  that  the  Arabs  call  the  south- 
ern side  of  the  Mount  of  Olives  the 
"Mount  of  Solomon,"  because  his  idol- 
atrous altars  were  built  here.  It  is 
called  the  "Mount  of  Corruption,"  2 
Kgs.  23  :  13,  from  the  same  cause.  He 
reigned  forty  years,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Rehoboam.  1  Kgs.  11  :  42,  43. 

"  Solomon,"  wrote  his  biographer, 
"s])ake  three  thousand  proverbs,  and 
his  songs  were  a  thousand  and  five." 
1  Kgs.  4  :  32.  Thus  he  was  a  volumi- 
nous author  and  handled  many  topics. 
His  repentance  after  his  long  course  of 
folly  is  thought  to  be  expressed  in  Ec- 

817 


SOL 


SOX 


clesiastes,  which  teaches  the  sad  but 
wholesome  lesson  of  the  vanity  of  all 
things  and  the  paramount  importance 
of  "fearing  God  and  keeping  his  com- 
mandments." 

The  life  of  Solomon  is  very  simply  and 
truthfully  told  in  the  Bible.  No  excuse 
is  made  for  him,  no  sin  is  glossed  over. 
This  is  in  itself  a  strong  proof  of  the 
genuineness  of  the  record,  and  a  great 
contrast  to  the  legends  in  which  he  is  a 
hero  of  unparalleled  splendor,  to  whom 
all  power  upon  earth  is  committed.  His 
life,  so  brilliant  in  its  promise,  so  pros- 
perous in  its  course,  so  disastrous  in  its 
close,  albeit  his  sins  were  forgiven,  is 
not  alone  in  history.  Two  characters 
are  recalled — Seneca,  the  tutor  of  Nero, 
who  combined  great  wisdom  with  low 
avarice,  and  Lord  Bacon,  "the  wisest, 
brightest,  meanest  of  mankind."  These 
instances  show  us  that  there  may  well 
be  great  elevation  of  sentiment  with 
great  laxity  of  life ;  that  the  pearls  of 
wisdom  can  be  cast  before  the  swine  of 
selfishness  and  folly.  There  is,  however, 
this  difference — that  Solomon  was  en- 
dowed with  divine  wisdom,  and  that  his 
folly  belongs  to  the  later  period  of  his 
life  and  cannot  impair  the  authority  of 
the  inspired  writings  of  his  youth  and 
manhood. 

SOLOMON'S  POOLS.  The 
three  pools  of  Solomon  are  in  a  narrow 
valley  south-west  of  Bethlehem,  on  the 
road  to  Hebron,  and  still  supply  Jeru- 
salem with  water  through  an  aqueduct. 
See  Eeel.  2  :  6.  They  are  partly  hewn 
in  the  rock  and  partly  built  with  ma- 
sonry, are  all  lined  with  cement,  and 
are  formed  on  successive  levels,  one 
slightly  above  the  other,  with  conduits 
leading  from  the  upper  to  the  lower,  and 
with  flights  of  steps  from  the  bottom  to 
the  top  of  each  pool.  The  waters,  gath- 
ered from  the  surrounding  country  into 
a  large  fountain  or  reservoir  near  the 
upper  pool,  are  from  thence  conducted 
by  an  underground  passage  into  the 
pools.  The  main  supply  of  the  water, 
however,  comes  from  the  spring,  or  foun- 
tain. The  upper  pool  is  380  feet  long. 
236  feet  broad  at  the  east  and  229  feet 
at  the  west  end,  is  25  feet  deep,  and  160 
feet  above  the  middle  pool.  This  mid- 
dle pool  is  423  feet  long,  250  feet  broad 
at  the  east  and  160  feet  at  the  west  end, 
is  39  feet  deep,  and  248  feet  above  the 
818 


lower  pool.  The  lower  pool  is  582  feet 
long,  207  feet  broad  at  the  east  and  148 
feet  at  the  west  end,  and  is  50  feet  deep. 
Dr.  Thomson  says,  "When  full  of  water, 
it  would  float  the  largest  man-of-war 
that  ever  ploughed  the  ocean."  These 
pools  were  built  to  supply  Jerusalem 
with  water. 

SOLOMON'S  PORCH,  a  clois- 
ter or  colonnade  on  the  east  side  of  the 
temple  and  of  the  court  of  the  Gentiles. 
John  10  :  23  :  Acts  3:11;  5  :  12.  The 
ceiling,  finished  with  cedar,  was  40  feet 
above  the  floor  and  supported  by  a 
double  row  of  white  marble  Corinthian 
columns.     Sec  Jeiusalem  and  TI•:^tPLE. 

SOl/OMON, PROVERBS  OF. 
See  Proverbs. 

SOLOMON'S  SER'VANTS. 
Their  descendants  are  mentioned  in  Ezr. 
2  :  55,  58  ;  Neh.  7  :  57.  60.  These  "ser- 
vants "  were  probabh'  his  slaves,  but 
they  had  been  converted,  and  their  con- 
nection, although  enforced,  with  the  con- 
struction of  the  temple  and  the  other 
s]ilendid  structures  of  Solomon,  gave 
their  children  a  certain  standing. 

SON.  The  Hebrews  used  all  terms 
of  relationship  in  a  much  looser  way 
than  we  do.  "  '  Son '  implies  almost  any 
kind  of  descent  or  succession.  '  Son  of 
a  year' — i.  e.,  a  jear  old;  'son  of  a  bow' 
— i.  e.,  an  arrow."  "  Son,"  when  it  ex- 
presses human  connection,  is  used  for 
grandson — e.  g..  Gen.  29  :  2 — and  for  re- 
moter descendants — e.  f/..  Matt.  22  :  42. 

SONG  OF  SOLOMON.  The 
book  is  entitled  the  "Song  of  Songs" — 
i.  e.,  the  most  beautiful  of  songs — also, 
after  the  Latin,  the  "  Canticles."  It  has 
always  formed  part  of  the  canon,  and 
has  been  held  in  the  highest  esteem.  The 
Rabbins  have  a  saying  :  "  Proverbs  are 
the  outer  court  of  Solomon's  temple ; 
Ecclesiastes,  the  holy  place;  Canticles, 
the  holy  of  holies."  There  are  many 
theories  in  regard  to  its  authorship,  its 
object,  and  its  proper  character.  There 
are  three  principal  interpretations,  and 
each  appears  under  difl'erent  forms. 

1.  The  Literal. — It  was  written  by 
Solomon  on  the  occasion  of  his  mar- 
riage either  with  the  daughter  of  Pha- 
raoh or  with  a  beautiful  shepherd- 
maiden.  Its  dialogues  and  monologues 
introduce  these  characters :  a  lover, 
Shelomoh  (Solomon);  a  bride,  the 
Shulamite   (perhaps  Abishag,  the   Shu- 


' '    ii!    "  ^''h,^^^m'ii^'isim 


SON 


SOO 


nammite) ;    and    a   chorus    of    virgins, 
daughters  of  Jerusalem. 

2.  lite  Typical. — It  was  written  to  set 
forth  the  Hebrew  ideal  of  pure  conjugal 
love,  and  throughout  expresses  t.vpically 
the  love  of  Christ  for  his  Church.  This 
interpretation  commends  itself  by  the 
fact  that  the  0.  T.  frequently  represents 
the  union  of  Jehovah  to  his  people  as  a 
marriage  relation,  and  by  the  further 
fact  that  St.  Paul  speaks  of  husband 
and  wife  as  reflecting  the  sacred  union 
of  Christ  and  his  Church,  which  is  his 
Bride.  Eph.  5  :  38. 

3.  The  Alleijoricrd. — It  is  in  no  sense 
historical.  The  persons  and  objects  de- 
scribed are  mere  figures  or  names  for 
spiritual  persons  and  objects,  which 
latter  are  alone  contemplated  by  the 
inspired  writer.  The  Song  is  thus  a 
description  of  the  love  of  Jehovah  for 
Israel,  or  of  Christ  for  his  Church. 
This  is  the  view  advocated  by  Jewish 
and  by  the  majority  of  orthodox  Chris- 
tian commentators.  Thus  interpreted, 
the  book  has  held  its  place  in  the  heart 
of  Christendom. 

The  general  use  of  the  Canticles  has 
been  prevented  by  their  supposed  indeli- 
cacies, but  these  can  easily  be  explained 
and  removed  by  a  fuller  understanding 
of  Oriental  customs  and  by  a  more  correct 
translation.  Our  present  Version  need- 
lessly increases  their  number,  while  pru- 
dery and  custom  find  them  where  they  are 
not.  A  revised  translation  and  a  health- 
ier mind  would  entirely  banish  them. 
For  instance,  in  5  :  li  the  reference 
is  to  the  clothed,  and  not  to  the  naked, 
body;  for  the  '"sapphires"  are  a  figure 
of  the  dress  of  sapj)hire  blue,  or  of  the 
girdle  of  such  gems  which  bound  it,  and 
in  V.  15  the  mention  of  legs  is  harmless. 
Dr.  Kitto  aptly  reminds  us  that  Oriental 
women  keep  their  faces  covered,  but  are 
"  perfectly  indifferent "  to  a  display  of 
their  bosoms.  Hence,  as  those  parts 
habitually  uncovered  with  us  are  free 
subjects  of  description,  it  is  no  shame 
for  them  to  dwell  upon  the  beauty  of 
that  part  habituallv  uncovered  with  them. 

SON  OF  GOD.  Dan.  3  :  25.  This 
is  one  of  the  titles  of  our  divine  Re- 
deemer, and  is  applied  to  none  else  ex- 
cept in  a  connection  which  shows  the 
sense.  It  is  applied  to  angels,  Job  38  : 
7,  and  to  Adam,  Luke  3  :  38,  as  created 
immediately  by  God's  hand,  and  to  be- 
820 


lievers,  Rom.  8  :  14,  15  ;  2  Cor.  6  :  18,  as 

adopted  into  God's  spiritual  family;  but 
when  applied  to  Christ,  it  is  in  a  pecu- 
liar and  exalted  sense  which  cannot  be 
mistaken.  It  signifies  his  divine  nature, 
as  the  term  "  Son  of  man  "  signifies  his 
human  nature.  He  is  the  Son  of  God, 
the  eternal,  the  onli/  hetjotten  Son.  Comp. 
John  1:18:  5  :  19-26:  9  :  35-38  ;  Matt. 
11  :  27  ;  16  :  16  ;  21  :  37,  and  many  pas- 
sages in  the  Epistles.  While  he  directs 
us  to  address  (jod  as  "  our  Father,"  he 
himself  never  addresses  him  thus,  but 
always  as  **  vry  Father,"  or  *'  Father " 
simply,  because  of  his  peculiar  intimacy 
with  God,  far  above  the  level  of  human 
children  of  God,  who  are  made  such  only 
bv  regeneration  and  adoption. 

■  SON  OF  MAN.  Matt.  8  :  20.  This 
title  is  given  to  our  Saviour  eighty  times 
in  the  N.  T.  It  is  also  applied  to  him 
by  Daniel.  7  :  13.  The  Jews  perfectly 
understood  it  to  denote  the  Messiah.  It 
sets  forth  his  peculiar  and  intimate 
relation  to  mankind  in  his  incarnate 
state,  as  the  phrase  "  Son  of  God  "  de- 
notes his  peculiar  relation  to  the  divine 
Being. 

The  phrase  "the  Son  of  man,"  how- 
ever, does  not  express  simply  the  hu- 
miliation and  condescension  of  Christ, 
who  became  bone  of  our  bone  and  flesh 
of  our  flesh,  but  also  his  exaltation 
above  the  ordinary  level  of  humanity. 
He  calls  himself,  not  a  son  of  man  (among 
other  children  of  men),  but  the  Son  of 
man  (above  all  others) — the  ideal,  the 
universal,  the  perfect  Man.  So.  on  the 
other  hand,  he  calls  himself  not  a,  but 
the,  Son  of  God — the  only-begotten  and 
eternal  Son  of  the  Father.  Compare 
such  passages  as  John  1  :  51  :  3  :  13  :  6  : 
53  ;  Matt.  9:6;  12  :  8 ;  18  :  11 :  Mark 
2:10,  28. 

The  term  son  of  man  is  applied  to  Eze- 
kiel  and  Daniel,  meaning  merely  "  man," 
as  it  does  in  Num.  23  :  19;  Job  25  :  6  : 
Ps.  8  :  4,  etc. 

SONS  OF  GOD.  Thus  the  angels 
are  called  in  Job  1  :  6  :  2  :  1  ;  38  :  7.  But 
in  the  verse  Gen.  6  :  2  this  designation 
is  not  allowable.  The  best  interpreta- 
tion is  that  it  refers  to  the  race  of  Seth, 
who  intermarried  with  the  race  of  Cain, 
the  daughters  of  men  acv.ursed. 

SOOTH'SAYER  was  one  vrho 
pretended  to  foretell  future  events.  Dan. 
2  :  27.    The  original  word  comes  from  tht> 


SOP 


SPA 


verb  to  "divide,"  because  the  soothsayer 
dissected  the  entrails  of  animals  for  the 
purpose  of  telling  from  their  apj)earanee 
what  would  come  to  pass.  The  Pliilis- 
tines  appear  to  have  been  notorious  for 
their  practice  of  this  magic  imposition. 
Isa.  2 :  6.  This  was  a  common  mode  of 
divining  among  the  Romans. 

SOP.  John  13  :  2(3.  Our  ordinary 
table-utensils  were  unknown  among  the 
Hebrews.  Hence,  in  eating  broth  or 
milk,  it  was  either  taken  with  the  hollow 
of  the  hand  or  the  bread  was  dipped  into 
it.  This  is  at  present  the  usage  in  all 
the  Oriental  countries — even  at  the  table 
of  the  Persian  king.  Thus  the  reapers 
of  Boaz  dipped  their  "  morsel  in  the 
vinegar,"  Ruth  2:14,  and  thus  our 
Saviour  "  dipped  the  sop,"  or  morsel, 
and  gave  it  to  the  traitor  Judas. 

SOP'ATER  {father  saved),  a  Be- 
ranin  who  was  Paul's  companion.  Acts 
20  :4. 

SOPH'ERETH  {scribe),  one  whose 
descendants  returned  with  Zerubbabel. 
Ezr.  2  :  55  :  Neh.  7  :  57. 

SOR'CERY,  one  of  the  arts  of  the 
magicians,  Ex.7:  11 — hence  called  "sor- 
cerers " — by  the  use  of  which  they  pre- 
tended to  predict  future  events,  cure 
diseases,  work  miracles,  etc.  Acts  8:9; 
13  :  6.  The  practice  of  sorcery,  or  any 
confidence  in  it,  is  threatened  with  the 
severest  judgments.  Mai.  3:5;  Rev.  21 : 
8  •  22 • 1 5 

'SO'REK,  VALLEY  OF  {a  clwlce 
vine),  the  home  of  Delilah,  whom  Samson 
loved.  Jud.  16  :  4.  Conder  identifies  it 
with  the  present  Wudj/  Sitrar,  which  has 
a  broad  flat  valley,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Beth-shemesh  and  Zorah.  On  the 
northern  side  of  this  valley  is  a  ruin 
called  S'lirik.  Perhaps  it  was  along  this 
same  valley  that  the  lowing  kine  drew 
the  ark.     See  Beth-shkmesh. 

SOSIP'ATER  (preservation  of  a 
f(itlicr),  a  native  of  Berasa,  and  a  kins- 
man of  Paul.   Rom.  16:21. 

SOS'THENES  {safe  iu  .sfrevf/th),  a 
ruler  of  the  Jewish  synagogue  at  Corinth. 
He  was  seized  and  beaten  in  that  city 
by  a  party  of  Greeks,  who  were  thus 
excited  to  acts  of  violence  by  what  they 
thought  the  unjustifiable  and  malicious 
persecution  of  Paul.  Acts  18  :  17.  It  is 
thought  that  he  afterward  became  a 
convert  to  the  Christian  faith.  1  Cor.  1 : 
1,2. 


SO'TAI  («  devtaior),  one  whose  de- 
scendants returned  with  Zerubbabel. 
Ezr.  2  :  55  ;  Neh.  7  :  57. 

SOUL.  Gen.  2  :  7.  The  Scriptures 
evidently  distinguish  between  the  soul 
and  the  spirit.  1  Thess.  5  :  23  ;  Heb.  4: 
12.  The  word  which  we  call  "soul"  is 
used  to  denote  mere  animal  life — the  seat 
of  sensations,  appetites,  and  passions. 
Gen.  1  :  20.  Here  the  word  translated 
"life"  is  the  same  with  that  which  is 
elsewhere  translated  "  soul."  Hence  it 
may  be  inferred  that,  as  we  have  our 
bodies  and  animal  life  in  common  Avith 
brutes,  it  must  be  the  spirit  which  was 
created  in  the  likeness  or  image  of  God. 
and  which  raises  man  above  the  brutes 
that  perish  and  makes  him  a  rational 
and  accountable  being.  Very  often, 
however,  the  word  "  soul "  is  used  in  a 
wider  sense,  and  designates  the  whole 
immaterial  or  spiritual  nature  of  man  ; 
as  when  we  say  that  man  consists  of  bodj' 
and  soul. 

The  immortality  of  the  soul  is  a  funda- 
mental doctrine  of  Christianity,  which 
brought  life  and  immortality  to  light ;  so 
what  the  ancients  hoped  or  guessed  we 
know.  Even  among  the  Jews  the  truth 
was  only  partially  revealed.  Much  more 
is  said  about  the  grave  than  of  the  life 
beyond,  and  the  prevailing  tone,  in  view 
of  death,  is  one  of  great  sadness.  In 
Christ,  however,  we  are  made  alive,  and 
can  never  die.  To  the  Christian,  death 
is  robbed  of  its  sting;  it  is  converted 
into  a  friend  who  ushers  the  soul  into 
the  company  of  the  blessed. 

It  is  the  immortal  soul  which  is  the 
subject  of  future  reward  or  punishment. 

SOUTH  RA'MOTH,  a  place  to 
which  David  and  his  outlaws  resorted. 
1  Sam.  30  :  27.  It  bordered  on  the  desert 
south  of  Judah. 

SOW,  SOWER.  Matt.  13  :  3.  See 
AfiKicT'i/miE,  Season. 

SPAIN,  a  well-known  country  of 
Europe,  though  the  name  ancientl}'  in- 
cluded the  whole  peninsula  now  occupied 
by  Spain  and  Portugal.  The  Hebrews, 
in  the  time  of  Solomon,  were  acquainted 
with  the  position  and  wealth  of  Spain. 
Paul  desired  to  preach  the  gospel  there. 
Rom.  15  :  24-28.  Whether  he  ever  visited 
Spain  is  a,  question  in  dispute  among 
scholars.  Those  who  hold  that  Paul  was 
fivire  imprisoned  at  Rome  think  that  ho 
visited     Spain    between    his    first    and 

821 


SPA 


SPl 


second  imprisonments.  Christianity  was 
introduced  into  that  country  at  a  very 
early  period,  as  Irenjeus  and  Tertullian 
testify.     See  Tarshish. 

SPAN.   Isa.  40  :  IL'.    See  Measures. 

SPAR'ROW.  The  original  word 
might  properl}'  have  been  alwa\'s  trans- 
lated, as  it  is  generally,  ^'  bird "  or 
"fowl."  It  denotes,  indefinitely,  some 
of  the  sparrow-like  (passeyiiie)  species, 
which  in  multitudes  inhabit  the  Holy 
Land.    In  the  East  such  little  birds  have 


Tree 

always  been  sold  at  the  merest  trifle  for 
food.  Matt.  10  :  29.  The  blue  thrush  of 
Palestine  is  peculiarly  a  solitary  species, 
and  in  all  its  habits  exactly  meets  the 
description  of  Ps.  102  :  7.  Birds  of  the 
sparrow  kind  often  build  their  nests  in 
the  mosques  and  public  buildings  of  the 
East.  The  writer,  during  service  in  the 
English  church  at  Nazareth,  observed  a 
house-syjarrow  enter  through  a  broken 
pane  of  glass  and  fly  to  its  nest,  high 
overhead,  illustrating  Ps.  84  :  •''). 

SPEAR.   1  Sam.  13:22.    See  Arms. 

SPEAR'MEN.     The  word  so  trans- 
lated in  Acts  23  :  23  is  of  rare  occurrence 
and    of   doubtful  meaning,  but    it  most 
probably  refers  to  light-armed  troops. 
822 


SPECK'LED  BIRD.  Jer.  12  :  9. 

See  Hy.exa. 

SPI'CERY,  SPICES.     The 

former  word  occurs  in  Gen.  37  :  25,  and 
should  be  the  rendering  instead  of 
"spices"  in  Gen.  43  :  11.  It  is  believed 
to  denote  gum-tragacanth,  the  product 
of  several  species  of  Astrayalii-i,  shrub- 
by and  exceedingly  thorny  plants  very 
abundant  in  Palestine.  This  gum  had 
medicinal  value. 

The  term  ''spices,"  the  translation  of 
two  other  words,  as 
used  by  the  sacred 
writers,  is  much 
more  comprehensive 
than  the  modern  use 
of  it.  With  them  it 
includes  not  only 
fragrant  gums,  as 
myrrh,  and  also 
roots  and  barks,  as 
cassia,  cinnamon, 
cane,  etc.,  but  the 
odors  of  flowers  and 
various  perfumes. 
Cant.  4  :  14.  Spices 
were  imported  into 
Judaja  chiefly  from 
Southern  Arabia. 
Sweet  spices,  Mark 
16  :  1,  are  merely  aro- 
matic substances  used 
in  eaibalming.  The 
word  '•  spices  "  fully 
expressed  the  mean- 
ing of  the  original 
word,  without  the  ad- 
jective. 

S  P  I '  D  E  R  ,  a 
well-known  little 
creature  of  very  singular  structure  and 
habits.  The  thinness  and  frailty  of  its 
web  are  made  emblematic  of  a  false  hope 
and  of  the  schemes  of  wicked  men.  Job 
8  :  14 :  Isa.  59  :  5. 

Another  word  thus  rendered  in  Prov. 
30  :  28  has  been  thought  by  some  of  the 
best  authorities  to  refer  to  the  <jecku,  a 
kind  of  lizard  which  is  able  to  run  on 
perpendicular  walls,  or  even  on  an  in- 
verted surface.  See  Ferret.  But  so 
skilfully  does  the  spider  use  her  fert  in 
making  her  web  and  climbing  upon  it 
and  upon  walls  th;it  they  may  well  be 
termed  handf,',  and  thus  our  present  trans- 
lation is  rendered  very  plausible.  The 
spider's   spinning-organs  serve  as  both 


SPI 


SPO 


hands  and  eyes.     Spiders  are  abundant 
in  Palestine,  as  elsewhere  in  the  world. 

SPIKE'NARD,  an  aromatic  plant 
from  which  Avas  made  the  costly  oint- 
ment poured  on  Jesus'  head  and  feet. 
Cant.  1  :  12;  4  :  13,  14:  Mark  14  :  3  ; 
John  12  :  3.  There  is  little  question 
that  the  spikenard  was  the  dried  stem 
of  an  herb  of  the  valerian  family  {Nar- 
doHtachys  jatcuiiansi),  which  grows  ex- 
clusively in  India  and  was  once  very 
precious.     If  the  penny  {denarius)  was 


Spikenard  (Nardostachys  Jataniansi). 

equal  to  "fifteen  cents,  the  pound  with 
which  Mary  anointed  our  Saviour  was 
valued  at  a  sum  equal  to  forty-five  dol- 
lars. This  ointment  was  evidently  en- 
closed, like  other  unguents  or  perfumes, 
in  a  slender-necked  and  closely-sealed 
flask  or  bottle  of  alabaster.  It  is  not 
agreed  whether  breaking  this  box  was 
merely  opening  the  seal  or  was  the 
fracture  of  the  frail  neck,  but  probably 
it  was  the  latter. 

SPIN,  SPIN'NING.  The  nations 
of  antiquity  placed  great  stress  upon 
this  womanly  occupation — indeed,  it  was 
a  necessary  duty,  since  the  preparation 
of  the  materials,  no  less  than  the  mak- 
ing of  the  dress  itself,  fell  upon  the 
women.  In  the  Bible  there  are  only 
two  direct  notices  of  the  art,  Ex.  35  : 
25,  26  :  Prov.  31  :  19  ;  but,  since  it  is 
spoken  of  as  a  matter  of  course,  we  infer 
the  custom  was  universal.  Distaff-spin- 
ning was  the  mode,  as  is   now  the  case 


in  the  East,  wheel-spinning  being  ap- 
parently unknown.  The  Hebrew  women 
spun  wool  and  flax  from  the  distaff"  and 
twisted  the  thread  by  means  of  the  spin- 
dle, and  made  up  camel  and  goat-hair 
into  sackclotli  for  mourning,  girdles,  and 
tent-covers.  The  women  also  made  rope 
and  cord.  Tlie  men  did  not  engage  in 
such  work.     See  Distaff. 

SPIR'IT.  Both  in  Greek  and  He- 
brew the  word  for  this  implies  a  "  blow- 
ing "  or  ''  breathing  ;"  its  primary  sense 
is  "  wind."  In  2  Thess.  2  :  8  it  is  used 
for  breath,  in  Eccl.  8  :  8  for  the  vital 
principle;  while  in  other  places  it  de- 
notes the  soul.  Angels,  both  good  and 
bad,  souls  without  bodies,  are  thus  desig- 
nated. Matt.  14  :  26;  Luke  24  :  39. 
Metaphorically,  the  tendency  or  incli- 
nation is  similarly  called;  hence  we 
have  a  spirit  of  grace  and  of  supplica- 
tion, Zech.  12  :  10,  a  spirit  of  infirmity. 
Luke  13  :  11,  etc. 

The  Holy  Spirit  or  Holy  Ghost  is  the 
third  Person  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  of  one 
essence  or  nature  with  the  Father  and 
the  Son,  yet  distinct  from  them.  He  is 
the  Author  of  regeneration  and  sanctifi- 
cation.  He  applies  the  work  of  re- 
demption to  VIS,  and  makes  us  parta- 
kers of  all  the  benefits  of  Christ,  of  his 
righteousness,  life,  and  death.  He  is  our 
Advocate,  who  pleads  our  cause,  who 
strengthens  and  comforts  us  and  pre- 
pares us  for  glory  in  heaven.  Matt.  1  : 
18,  20  :  28  :  19  :  John  1  :  33  ;  14  :  26  ; 
16  :  7,  8  ;  20  :  22  :  Acts  2:4:  Rom.  5  : 
.5  ;  2  Cor.  13  :  14  ;  1  Thess.  4  :  8.  Our 
English  Version  uses,  in  most  passages, 
the  term  Holy  Ghont ;  in  four  passages, 
Holv  Spirit,  which  is  better. 

SPIRITUAL  BODY.  Paul  so 
calls  the  resurrection  body,  1  Cor.  15  :  44, 
which  will  be  divested  of  all  sensual 
and  animal  appetites,  and  be  perfectly 
fitted  for  pure  spiritual  exercises  and 
enjoyments,  in  perfect  unison  with  the 
redeemed  and  completely  sanctified 
soul. 

SPOIL.  Ex.  3  :  22.  The  original 
word  in  this  passage  means  "to  recover 
propertv  taken  away  by  violence."  1 
Sam.  30  :  22. 

SPONGE,  a  submarine  substance, 
composed  of  fibres  interwoven  in  a  sur- 
prising manner,  and  surrounded  by  thin 
membranes,  which  arrange  themselves 
in  a  cellular  form.  Matt.  27  :  48.     It  ab- 

823 


SPO 


vSTA 


sorbs  a  great  quantity  of  fluid,  and  parts 
with  it  upon  a  strong  pressure.  Drink 
could  be  easily  conveyed  in  this  form 
where  cups  could  not  be  used.  This 
substance  is  inhabited  by  animals,  like 
the  coral,  who  use  the  0})cnings  of  the 
sponge  to  suck  in  and  throw  out  water. 

SPOUSE.     See  Mahuiaof:. 

SPRINKLING,  BLOOD  OF. 
Heb.  12  :  24.  The  Jewish  high  priest, 
on  the  great  day  of  atonement,  carried 
blood  into  the  inner  sanctuary  and 
sprinkled  it  upon  the  mercy-seat.  It 
was  by  this  sprinkling  of  blood  that  an 
''atonement"  was  made  ''for  the  holy 
place,  because  of  the  uncleanness  of  the 
children  of  Israel."  Lev.  16:16.  The 
blood  of  sprinkling  was  typical  of  the 
atoning  blood  of  Christ.  When  this 
has  been  applied  to  the  soul  of  the  be- 
liever, he  may  approach  the  presence 
of  a  holy  God  in  the  name  of  the  great 
Advocate  and  Redeemer,  confident  of  a 
gracious  reception.  The  blood  of  Abel, 
alluded  to  in  the  above  passage  from 
Hebrews,  called  only  for  vengeance,  Gen. 
4  :  10,  11,  but  the  blood  of  Christ  speaks 
of  pardon,  peace,  and  eternal  life. 

STA'CHYS  [mi  ear  of  corn),  a  Ro- 
man Christian  friend  of  Paul's.  Rom. 
16:9. 

STAC'TE  (a  drop),  prescribed  in 
Ex.  30  ;  34  as  one  of  the  ingredients  of 
the  sacred  dncense.  Stacte  was  either 
myrrh  flowing  spontaneously  from  the 
balsamodendron,  or  it  was  a  gum  from 
the  storax  tree  {Stjjrax  officinale).  This 
latter  is  a  large  shrub  which  grows 
abundantly  on  the  lower  hills  of  Gali- 
lee and  on  Tabor  and  Carmel.  Its  oval, 
dark-green  leaves  are  white  beneath,  and 
in  March  its  twigs  are  profusely  hung 
with  sweet-scented,  snow  white  flowers, 
which  resemble  the  flowers  of  the  orange 
in  color,  size,  and  perfume,  making  it  a 
shrub  of  rare  beauty.  The  styrax  of 
modern  commerce  has  an  entirely  diff"er- 
ent  origin.     See  Myurh. 

STAR  OF  THE  WISE  MEN. 
Matt.  2  :  1-21.  There  are  two  theories 
in  regard  to  this  episode  in  our  Lord's 
infancy. 

Th^  first  theory  is  that  the  star  which 
the  wise  men  saw  was  a  miraculous  star 
beyond  astronomical  calculation,  prob- 
ably a  meteor,  and,  having  attracted 
their  attention  in  their  native  country, 
it  actually  served  as  their  guide  to  Pal- 
824 


estine  and  "  stood  over  where  the  young 
child  was."  Matt.  2  :  9.  This  theory  is 
in  entire  keeping  with  a  literal  meaning 
of  the  text,  and  is  the  one  certain  to  oc- 
cur to  the  ordinary  reader.  Nor  need 
there  be  any  objection  on  the  score  of 
improbability.  Our  Lord's  birth  was  a 
most  stupendous  event.  In  honor  of  it 
the  angelic  host  openly  revealed  them- 
selves, and  many  circumstances  remark- 
ably conspired  to  render  it  possible.  That 
the  heavens  should  be  laid  under  contri- 
bution and  one  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
be  the  appointed,  the  silent  leader  of  the 
magi,  whose  coming  prophesied  the  in- 
gathering of  the  learning  and  the  treas- 
ure of  the  Gentiles,  was  in  itself  a  prob- 
able event.  The  earth  felt  the  tread  of 
his  blessed  feet;  why  should  not  the  sky 
lend  one  of  its  jewels  to  light  the  path 
of  his  seekers  ? 

The  second  theory  asserts  that  the 
"star"  of  the  wise  men  was  a  conjunc- 
tion of  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  in  the  sign 
of  Pisces,  with  the  later  addition  of 
Mars  and  probably  an  extraordinary 
star  of  uncommon  brilliancy.  Jewish 
astrologers  ascribed  to  this  conjunction 
a  special  signification,  and  connected  it 
with  the  birth  of  Moses  and  with  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah.  This  theory 
rests  upon  astronomical  proof,  and  was 
the  suggestion  of  Kepler  (1571-1630), 
the  eminent  and  devout  astronomer, 
who  on  Oct.  10.  1604,  observed  a  star 
of  uncommon  brilliancy  enter  the  con- 
junction of  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Mars. 
This  excited  his  interest,  as  it  seemed 
to  give  an  explanation  of  the  star  of 
the  wise  men.  By  careful  calculation, 
he  discovered  that  a  similar  conjunc- 
tion had  taken  place  three  times,  b.  c. 
7  or  6.  This  puts  the  first  appearance 
of  the  star  one  or  two  years  before  the 
birth  of  Christ,  and  allows  time  for  the 
journey  of  the  magi  from  the  far  East. 
Kepler's  calculation  has  been  verified 
by  modern  astronomers — Schubert  at 
Petersburg,  Ideler  and  Encke  at  Ber- 
lin, and  Pritchard  at  Greenwich — and 
is  pronounced  to  be  "as  certain  as  any 
celestial  phenomenon  of  ancient  date." 
This  is  a  remarkable  verification  of 
Scripture  from  an  unexpected  quarter. 
"  The  star  of  astrology  has  become  a 
torch  of  chronology,"  as  Ideler  says. 
The  magi,  with  their  astrological  ideas 
and  widespread  Messianic  expectations, 


STA 


STE 


must  have  been  attracted  by  such  a  con- 
stellation in  the  highest  degree.  Divine 
Providence  usually  acts  through  natu- 
ral agencies  and  adapts  revelation  to 
the  capacity,  and  even  the  weakness,  of 
men.  But  if  we  take  this  theory,  it  is 
necessary'  to  give  the  description  of 
Matthew  a  liberal  construction,  remem- 
bering that  the  Bible,  in  alluding  to 
astronomical  phenomena,  iises  popular, 
not  scientific,  language,  derived  from 
their  appearance  to  our  eye,  as  we  all 
now  speak  of  the  rising  and  setting 
sun,  moon,  and  stars. 

STARS.  Under  the  name  of  stars 
the  Hebrews  comprehended  constella- 
tions, planets,  and  heavenly  bodies — 
indeed,  all  luminaries  except  the  sun  and 
moon.  The  Psalmist,  to  exalt  the  power 
and  omniscience  of  God,  Ps.  147  :  4,  de- 
scribes him  taking  a  review  of  the  stars 
as  a  king  takes  a  survey  of  his  army  and 
knows  the  name  of  every  one  of  his  sol- 
diers. To  express  a  very  extraordinary 
increase  and  multiplication,  the  sacred 
writers  use  the  similitude  of  the  stars  of 
heaven  or  of  the  sands  of  the  sea.  Gen. 
15:  5;  22  :  17;  26:  4;  Ex.  32  :  13, 
etc. 

No  part  of  the  visible  creation  ex- 
hibits the  glory  of  the  Creator  more 
illustriously  than  do  the  starry  heavens. 
Ps.  19  :  1.  When  we  seriously  contem- 
plate the  moon  and  stars,  the  work  of 
the  fingers  of  God,  we  cannot  but  be 
astonished  that  he  should  condescend  to 
pay  any  attention  to  man.  Ps.  8  :  ?>.  The 
celebrated  philosopher  Kant  declared : 
"Two  things  fill  my  mind  with  ever- 
growing reverence  and  awe — the  starry 
heavens  above  me,  and  the  moral  law 
within  me.'' 

Stars  are  sometimes  symbolically  put 
for  rulers  and  princes,  Dan.  8:10;  some- 
times, also,  for  pastors  and  ministers. 
Rev,  1  :  16,  20.  The  angels,  too,  appear 
to  be  intended  by  the  term,  Job  38  :  7, 
and  sometimes  it  points  prophetically  to 
the  Lord  of  angels.  Num.  24:  17. 

Jesus  Christ  is  called  the  *'  Morning 
Star,"  Rev,  22  :  16,  as  he  introduced  the 
light  of  the  gospel  day  and  made  a  fuller 
manifestation  of  the  truths  of  God  than 
the  prophets,  whose  predictions  are  now 
accomplishpd. 

STA'TER.  This  coin,  mentioned 
in  the  margin  of  Matt.  17  :  27,  in  the 
text  vaguely  spoken  of  as  '■  a  piece  of 


money,"  was  in  value  equal  to  four  drach- 
mas or  a  shekel. 

STEEL.  Ps.  18  :  34.  This  word 
occurs  four  times  in  our  English  Bible, 
and  should  in  every  instance  be  rendered 
"  copper."  It  is  not  certain  that  the 
ancient  Hebrews  were  acquainted  with 
steel,  though  it  seems  to  have  been  known 
to  the  Egyptians. 

Iron  from  the  north.  Jcr.  15  :  12,  may 
denote  a  superior  kind  of  the  metal,  or 
that  which  had  been  unusually  hard- 
ened. 

STEPH'ANAS  (cromi)  was  one  of 
the  earliest  converts  to  Christianity  in 
Corinth,  1  Cor.  16  :  15,  and  received 
baptism  at  the  hands  of  Paul.  1  Cor.  1  : 
16. 

STE'PHEN  (crojrn),  usually  known 
as  the  first  martj'r,  was  one  of  the  seven 
men  of  honest  report  who  were  elected, 
at  the  suggestion  of  the  twelve  apostles, 
to  relieve  them  of  a  particular  class  of 
their  labors.  Acts  6:5.  He  was  a  fore- 
runner of  the  apostle  Paul.  He  is  de- 
scribed as  a  man  full  of  faith  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  Acts  6  :  8.  10.  He  argued 
for  the  new  faith  with  convincing  power. 
It  was  to  stop  lips  so  eloquent  that  he 
was  arrested  and  placed  before  the  "coun- 
cil," the  Sanhedrin.  But  as  he  realized 
his  position  the  prospect  of  testifying  in 
that  assemblage  of  the  chief  of  his  peo- 
ple to  the  love  and  work  of  Jesus  so 
wrought  upon  him  that  his  spirit  rose 
within  him,  and  his  face  had  such  beauty 
and  purity,  such  thoughtfulness  and  man- 
liness, that  he  awed  his  judges,  for  on  him, 
their  victim,  they  beheld  the  angel-face. 
His  defence  was  a  calm  historical  proof 
of  the  two  points:  1.  God  had  not  limit- 
ed his  favor  to  the  Holy  Land  or  to  the 
temple;  2.  The  Jews  had  always  op- 
posed to  this  free  spirit  of  their  God  a 
narrow,  bigoted  spirit.  How  long  he 
would  have  spoken  none  can  say,  but 
the  manner  in  which  these  quiet  and 
truthful  words  were  received  caused  him 
to  break  off"  abruptly  into  fierce  invec- 
tive and  reproach  ;  but  so  direct  was  its 
appeal  to  the  consciences  of  the  populace 
that  they  were  excited  to  madness,  Acts 
7  :  54,  and  fell  upon  Stephen  like  wild 
beasts,  shouting  and  sto])])ing  their  ears; 
and  after  they  had  forced  him  beyond 
the  walls  of  the  city,  they  stoned  him  to 
death,  Saul  being  present  and  conspicu- 
ous in  this  tumultuous  transaction.    The 

825 


STE 


STO 


last  breath  of  the  martyr  was  spent,  like 
that  of  his  divine  Master,  in  prayer  for 
the  forgiveness  of  his  murderers.  It  is 
worthy  of  remark  that  this  prayer  of 
Stephen  is  directed  to  the  Lord  Jesus, 
or  rather  it  seems  to  be  a  continuation 
of  the  prayer  respecting  himself  which 
was  addressed  immediately  to  Christ,  as 
the  word  "  God  "  in  v.  59  of  our  trans- 
lation is  an  interpolation. 

The  date  of  Stephen's  martyrdom  was 
about  A.  D.  37.  His  blood  was  the  seed 
of  the  Church,  and  was  soon  followed  by 
the  conversion  of  his  bitterest  persecu- 
tor. 

STEWARD,  the  chief  overseer  of 
the  household,  as  Eliezer,  Gen.  15  :  2,  and 
Chusa.  Luke  8  :  3.  Ministers,  1  Cor.  4:1, 
2  ;  Tit.  1 :  7,  and  Christians  generally,  1 
Pet.  4  :  10,  are  by  a  natural  metaphor 
called  stewards. 

STOCKS,  the  name  of  a  machine 
or  instrument  by  which  the  feet  of  pris- 
oners are  secured.  Job  13  :  27 ;  33  :  11. 
It  is  said  that  the  jailer  at  Philippi,  to 
whose  custody  Paul  and  Silas  were:  com- 
mitted with  a  strict  charge  to  keep  them 
safely,  not  only  put  them  in  an  inner 
prison  or  dungeon,  but  made  their  feet 
fast  in  the  stocks.  Acts  16  :  24. 

The  upper  half  being  removed,  each 
leg  is  placed,  just  above  the  ankle,  in  the 
groove  of  the  lower  half,  and  then  the 
upper  part  is  so  fastened  down  as  to 
confine  them  inextricably. 


Ancient  Stocks. 

The  "  stocks  "  used  on  Paul  and  Silas 
could  be  turned  into  an  instrument  of  tor- 
ture by  widely  separating  the  legs.  The 
"  stocks"  used  on  Jeremiah,  Jer.  20  :  2, 
were,  properly  speaking,  the  pillory,  be- 
cause the  neck  and  arms  as  well  as  the  legs 
were  confined,  and  so  the  body  was  bent. 
826 


STO'ICS  were  a  sect  of  heathen 
philosophers,  much  like  the  Pharisees, 
who  took  their  rise  from  one  Zeno,  a 
Cyprian  of  Citium,  the  name  coming 
from  the  stoa,  or  porch,  in  which  he 
taught,  in  the  third  century  b.  c.  While 
in  some  respects  there  is  a  similarity 
between  their  opinions  and  those  of 
Christians,  there  is  yet  the  broad  dif- 
ference that  Stoic  morality  was  based 
on  pride;  Christian,  on  humility.  They 
generally  taught  that  it  is  wisdom  alone 
that  renders  men  happy,  that  the  ills  of 
life  are  but  fancied  evils, i,nd  that  a  wise 
man  ought  not  to  be  moved  with  either 
joy  or  grief;  and  in  their  practice  they 
affected  much  patience,  austerity,  and 
insensibility.  The  Stoics  were  known 
for  many  ages,  especially  at  Athens. 
where  some  of  them  encountered  Paul. 
Acts  17  :  18.  The  most  distinguished 
members  of  the  school  were  Epictetus, 
who  died  about  A.  b.  115,  and  the  em- 
peror Marcus  Aurelius,  a.  d.  121-180. 

Of  all  the  ancient  sects,  the  Stoics  were 
most  strict  in  their  regard  to  moral  virtue. 
They  believed  in  the  unity  of  the  divine 
Being,  the  creation  of  the  world  by  the 
Logos  or  Word,  and  a  superintending 
providence  administered  in  conformity 
with  the  will  and  purpose  of  God. 

STONE.  Gen.  35  :  14.  Houses  of 
stone  were  common  among  the  Hebrews, 
as  they  are  now  in  Palestine.  The  more 
elegant  structures  were  built  of  hewn  and 
squared  stones.  Amos  says  to  the  lux- 
urious Israelites,  "  Ye  have  built  houses 
of  hewn  stone,  but  ye  shall  not  dwell  in 
them."  Am.  5:11.  When  Solomon  was 
about  to  raise  the  temple,  he  "  command- 
ed, and  they  brought  great  stones,  costly 
stones,  ronl  hewed  stones,  to  lay  the  foun- 
dation of  the  house."  1  Kgs.  5  :  17. 

Stones  were  often  used  as  we  use 
knives,  Ex.  4  :  25 ;  Josh.  5  :  2,  and  we 
are  told  that  stone  knives  were  used  by 
j  the  Egyptians  in  preparing  dead  bodies 
for  the  process  of  embalming.  The  dis- 
ciples of  Christ  are  called  stones,  or  lively 
(living)  stones,  1  Pet.  2  :  5,  in  allusion 
to  their  connection  with  Christ,  upon 
whom  they  are  built  up  compactly  to- 
gether, as  upon  the  one  only  foundation 
which  God  has  laid,  the  living  Stone,  1 
Pet.  2  :  4,  or  the  Source  of  life. 

A  ''  heart  of  stone"  is  a  figurative  ex- 
pression, importing  great  hardness  and 
impenitency,     A  stone  is  sometimes  put 


STO 


STO 


for  an  idol.  Hab.  2  :  19,  Heaps  of  stones 
were  raised  to  mark  some  signal  provi- 
dence of  God  in  the  way  of  either  de- 
liverance or  puni.shnient.  Josh.  4  :  4-7. 
The  weights  of  the  Hebrews  were  also 
called  stones. 

STONE,  WHITE,  is  supposed  by 
many  to  be  an  allusion  to  the  practice 
of  some  ancient  nations  of  passing  judg- 
ment on  an  accused  person.  Rev.  2  :  17. 
Those  in  favor  of  acquitting  him  cast  a 
white  ball  into  an  urn,  and  those  who 
adjudged  him  guilty  cast  in  a  black  ball; 
and  if  the  number  of  the  former  exceeded 
that  of  the  latter,  the  prisoner  was  dis- 
charged. Others  think  reference  is  made 
to  the  white  stones  which  were  given  to 
conquerors  in  the  Olympian  games  with 
their  names  written  upon  them,  and  the 
value  of  the  prize  they  won.  So  the  new 
name  mentioned  in  Isa.  62  :  2  raaj^  de- 
note the  adoption  of  the  individual  into 
the  family  of  God,  by  which  he  is  ad- 
mitted to  privileges  and  blessings  known 
only  to  him  who  possesses  them.  Arch- 
bishop Trench  brings  out  what  is  prob- 
ably the  best  interpretation.  He  repudi- 
ates the  idea  that  this  symbol  was 
borrowed  from  heathen  antiquity,  and 
maintains  it  was  a  diamond,  the  Urim 
and  Thunimim. 

STONES,  PRE'CIOUS.  About 
twenty  different  names  of  such  stones 
are  found  in  the  Bible.  In  many  in- 
stances it  is  at  present  impossible  to 
determine  precisely  what  gem  was  in- 
tended by  these  names.  This  whole  sub- 
ject is  one  of  great  difficulty,  for  the 
mineralogy  of  ancient  times  was  very 
vague  and  imperfect.  The  same  word 
was  often  used  for  different  gems  or 
substances  possessing  some  common 
property.  Thus,  ''adamant "  ("uncon- 
querable") might  mean  steel,  quartz, 
corundum,  or  any  other  very  hard  sub- 
stance;  "crystal"  {kerach)  meant  either 
ice  or  transparent  quartz.  The  same 
ancient  names  were  applied  differently 
by  different  authorities,  and  even  by  the 
same  writer.  Even  where  a  word  has 
passed  unchanged  in  form  from  Hebrew 
through  Greek  or  Latin  into  modern  use, 
it  cannot  be  certainly  concluded  that  the 
present  application  is  the  early  one. 

The  stones  of  the  high  priest's  breast- 
plate were  engraved  with  the  names  of 
the  tribes,  E.\.  28:21,  but  it  is  certain 
that  at  that  time  the  art  of  cutting  the 


harder  gems  was  unknown.  According 
to  Professor  Maskelyne,  a  recognized 
authority,  we  must  for  this  reason  ex- 
clude from  the  breastplate  the  diamond, 
sapphire,  emerald,  and  topaz.  In  ])lace 
of  these  there  may  be  substituted,  re- 
spectively, rock-crystal  (or  chalcedony), 
lapis-lazuli,  garnet,  and  chrysolite.  The 
ruby  and  chrysoberyl  would  be  too  hard 
to  claim  a  place  in  this  list.  Few  dia- 
monds Avere  ever  known  of  the  size  of 
these  stones,  which  Joscjihus  tells  us 
were  large,  and  which  probably  reached 
at  least  an  inch  square.  If  the  diamond 
is  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  it  is  probably 
only  in  the  N.  T.     Sec  Jasper. 

The  sacred  ornament  of  the  high  priest 
was  probably  broken  up  early  in  our 
era,  but  the  gems  which  composed  it  are 
doubtless  somewhere  in  existence  in  the 
Turkish  empire  or  in  Persia.  It  is  not 
probable  that  all  of  these  large  engraved 
precious  stones  will  always  remain  in 
obscurity.  "  What  a  source  of  rejoicing, 
both  to  archaeologists  and,  above  all,  to 
the  religious  world,  will  be  the  identifi- 
cation of  even  one  of  these  venerable 
relics! — a  contingency  by  no  means  to 
be  pronounced  chimerical  in  an  age 
which  has  witnessed  the  resuscitation  of 
Sennacherib's  own  cup,  signet,  and 
queen's  portrait."  (See  C.  W.  King's 
Precious  Stones  and  Metals ;  art.  "  Urim 
and  Thummim.") 

In  the  very  earliest  times  men  set  a 
high  value  on  some  of  these  minerals. 
Gen.  2:12;  1  Chr.  29  : 2.  The  Tyrians 
traded  in  precious  stones,  which  they 
obtained  from  India,  Arabia,  and  Syria. 
Eze.  27:16,  22. 

Figuratively,  the  various  gems  are 
used  in  the  Bible  to  emphasize  such 
ideas  as  value,  beauty,  and  durability,  in 
Cant.  5  :  U  ;  Isa.  54":  11,  12  ;  Lam.  4:7; 
Rev.  21  :  18-20  ;  and  passages  already 
mentioned. 

STON'ING  was  the  most  general 
punishment  inflicted  on  notorious  crimi- 
nals, and  is  usually  meant  where  no 
other  description  of  capital  punishment 
is  expressly  mentioned,  as  in  Lev.  20  : 
10.  Idolaters,  blasphemers,  Sabbath- 
breakers,  incestuous  persons,  and  stub- 
born or  rebellious  children  were  liable 
to  it.  The  culprit  was  led  out  of  thecit)'^ 
and,  as  some  have  supposed,  was  bound. 
The  witnesses  against  him  were  required 
to  commence   the   work    of  death,    and 

827 


STO 


STO 


probably  they  divested  themselves  of 
clothing  that  it  might  be  done  more 
effectually.  Acts  7  :  58.  At  the  murder 
of  Stephen  they  committed  the  custody 
of  their  clothes  to  Saul,  who  was  not 
improbably,  from  his  talents  and  ardor, 
a  ringleader  of  the  mob  and  one  of  the 
most  violent  of  the  persecutors,  and  the 
multitude  followed  the  example  of  the 
leaders  until  the  victim  was  beaten  to 
death.  The  Rabbinical  writers  say  that 
the  first  stone  was  cast  by  one  of  the  wit- 
nesses on  the  chest  of  the  convict;  and  if 


this  failed  to  cause  death,  the  bystanders 
proceeded  to  complete  the  sentence. 

Some  think  that  the  frequent  taking 
up  of  stones  by  the  Jews  to  throw  at  our 
Saviour,  and  the  stoning  of  Stephen,  Acts 
7  :  59,  and  of  Paul,  Acts  14  :  19,  were 
vestiges  of  a  punishment  called  the 
'•rebels'  beating,"  inflicted  bj^  the  mob, 
with  fists,  staves,  or  stones,  on  the  ex- 
citement of  the  moment. 

STORK  {the  pious),  a  bird  of  pas- 
sage, much  like  the  crane,  but  larger. 
It   feeds   on   insects,    snails,  frogs,  and 


The  Stork.     (Ciconia  Alba.     After  Tristram.) 


offal,  and  was  reckoned  among  unclean 
birds.  The  common  stork  {Ciconia  (ilba) 
stands  nearly  4  feet  high,  and  is  white 
except  the  extremities  of  the  wings, 
which  are  black.  Its  long  legs  enable  it 
to  seek  its  food  in  the  water  as  well  as 
on  the  land,  and  its  bill  is  so  formed  as 
to  retain  its  slippery  prey.  In  Palestine 
it  builds  its  nest  on  trees,  Ps.  104:  17,  or 
828 


on  lofty  ruins,  but  in  Europe  it  every- 
where appropriates  chimney-tops  and 
the  eaves  of  houses. 

In  Hebrew  as  in  Latin  the  stork  is 
"the  pious  bird,"  and  its  English  name 
comes,  indirectly  at  least,  from  the  Greek 
storye,  which  signifies  "natural  affec- 
tion." Unquestionably,  these  birds  ex- 
hibit  unusual   tenderness   toward  their 


STR 


STR 


young  and  their  mates,  but  the  ancient 
opinion  that  the  otlspring  recognize  their 
parents  all  through  life  and  (carefully 
tend  them  in  age,  it  is  a  pity  to  say,  is 
probably  apocryphal. 

Storks  are  singularly  regular  in  their 
migrations  to  and  from  Africa.  They 
pass  over  S^'ria  in  vast  flocks,  which 
sail  high  in  the  heaven,  and  as  their 
legions  wheel  in  the  sky  and  even  dim 
the  sunlight  the  most  stupid  mind  is 
awakened  to  admiration.  Jer.  8  :  7. 

"In  various  parts  of  Holland  the  nest 
of  the  stork,  built  on  the  chimney-top, 
remains  undisturbed  for  many  succeed- 
ing years,  and  the  owners  return  with  un- 
erring sagacity  to  the  well-known  spot. 
The  joy  which  they  manifest  on  again 
taking  possession  of  their  deserted  dwell- 
ing, and  the  attachment  which  they 
testify  toward  their  benevolent  hosts, 
are  familiar  in  the  mouths  of  every  one. 
"  In  all  the  countries  where  the  stork 
breeds  it  is  protected  :  boxes  are  provided 
on  the  tops  of  the  houses,  and  he  con- 
siders himself  a  fortunate  man  whose 
roof  the  stork  selects.  There  is  a  well- 
authenticated  account  of  the  devotion  of 
a  stork,  which  at  the  burning  of  the  town 
of  Delft,  after  repeated  and  unsuccessful 
attempts  to  carry  off  her  young,  chose 
rather  to  remain  and  perish  with  them 
than  leave  them  to  their  fate.  Well  might 
the  Romans  call  it  pin  an's  ! 

"The  beauty  and  power  of  the  stork's 
wings  are  seized  on  as  an  illustration  by 
Zechariah  :  '  The  wind  icas  in  their  wings, 
for  they  had  wings  like  the  wings  of  a 
stork.'  5  :  9.  The  black  pinions  of  the 
stork,  suddenly  expanded  from  their 
white  body,  have  a  striking  effect,  having 
a  spread  of  nearly  7  feet,  and  the  bird 
on  the  wing,  showing  its  long  bright-red 
bill  and  steering  itself  by  its  long  red 
legs,  stretched  out  far  behind  its  tail,  is 
a  noble  sight.  The  stork  has  no  organs 
of  voice,  and  the  only  sound  it  emits  is 
caused  by  the  sharp  and  rapid  snapping 
of  its  bill,  like  the  rattle  of  castanets." — 
Tristram. 

This  bird  seems  to  be  fond  of  the 
society  of  man,  is  often  seen  stalking 
in  the  crowded  street,  and  is  supersti- 
tiously  protected  in  the  East.  Its  marked 
preference  for  Muslims  over  Christians 
is,  howev/3r,  not  due  to  special  attai-h- 
ment  to  the  faith  of  Islam,  as  the  Turks 
boast,  but  to  the  greater  amount  of  oll'al 


to  be  found  about  Mohammediin  dwell- 
ings, and,  what  is  more  creditable,  to 
the  kinder  treatment  the  bird  receives  at 
their  hands. 

The  black  stork  {(W-tiuin  in'ifnt)  is 
abundiint  about  the  waters  of  Palestine. 
It  builds  its  nest  in  trees,  is  somewhat 
smaller  and  darker- colored  than  the 
white  species,  and  is  unlike  it  in  shun 
niiig  the  societv  of  man.     See  PKArocK. 

STRAIN  AT,  misprint  for  "strain 
out."   Miitt.  23  :  21. 

STRANC'KR.  (^.en.  15  :  13.  This 
word  has  a  variety  of  significations  in 
the  sacred  writings,  as — 

1.  One  who  is  in  a  foreign  land,  at  a 
distance  from  the  place  of  his  nativity. 
Gen.  23:4. 

2.  One  who  is  not  a  Jew.  Ex.  20  :  H>  ; 
Isa.  14:1. 

3.  One  not  of  Aaron's  familv.  Num.  3  : 
10;  16:40. 

4.  One  that  is  not  of  the  royal  stock 
and  family.  Matt.  17  :  25,  2G. 

5.  Unknown,  disregarded.    Ps.  69  :  8. 
But  usually  the  "  strangers"  were  like 

our  "naturalized  citizens" — persons  from 
foreign  parts  who  come  to  reside  per- 
manentlj'  among  us,  and  who  are  in  all 
respects  one  with  us.  This  element  was 
very  numerous  in  Israel,  owing  to  the 
presence  of  the  "niixed  multitude"  dur- 
ing the  Exodus,  and  also  because  so 
man,y  Canaanites  continued  to  reside  in 
the  land.  Among  both  these  classes 
there  would  be  iiroselytes.  and  with  them 
marriage  was  permitted.  This  is  the  Rab- 
binic opinion.  Cai)tives  were  accounted 
strangers.  Jewish  law  held  them,  etjually 
with  the  Jews,  under  control.  They 
amassed  property,  and  were  able  to  share 
in  the  worship  ])rovided  they  were  cir- 
cumcised. By  this  act  they  became  one 
with  the  chosen  ])eo]ile,  an<l  all  offices 
were  open  to  them  save  the  kingshijt. 
Deut.  17  :  15.  It  is  d-oubtful  whether 
they  could  be  landowners,  although  they 
might  hold  mortgages.  Xeh.  9:2;  13  : 
3  prove  that  after  the  Caj.tivity  the  Jew.s 
were  more  exclusive.  Our  Lord,  by  his 
parable  of  the  (Jood  Samaritan,  rebukes 
this  narrow  spirit. 

In  the  X.  T.  "proselyte"  takes  the 
place  of  the  0,  T.  term  "  stranger."  The 
strangers  were  generally  foreigners,  oc- 
casionally in  its  more  technical  sense,  as 
()it))osed  to  a  citizen. 

STRAW.    (Jen.  24  :  25.     The  straw 

829 


STE 


SUP 


wanted  by  the  Jews  for  bricks,  Ex.  5  : 
7-18,  was  to  lay  them  on  when  fre?h 
moulded.  For  want  of  it  their  mould 
fell  in  ])ieces.  and  their  work  Avas  vain. 

STREET.  Gen.  19  :  2.  The  streets 
of  Oriental  cities  are  usually  narrow. 
Mats  are  sometimes  spread  across  from 
roof  to  roof  to  shade  the  streets  from  the 
sun.  Some  streets  were  named  as  in 
modern  times,  Ezr.  10  :  9  ;  Acts  9  :  11, 
but  it  is  supposed  that  in  other  passages, 
2  Chr.  32  :  6 ;  Neh.  8  :  1,  3,  16,  the  word 
translated  "  streets  "  means  squares  or 
open  places  around  the  gates.  "  Each 
street  and  bazaar  in  a  modern  town  is 
locked  up  at  night,  and  hence  a  person 
cannot  pass  without  being  observed  by 
the  watchman.  The  same  custom  appears 
to  have  prevailed  in  ancient  times." 
Cant.  3  :  3.  To  make  "  streets  "  was  to 
secure    commercial    accommodations.    1 

Kgs.  20  :  :u. 

SU'AH  (sweepiiifj/s),  an  Asherite 
chieftain.   1  Chr.  7  :  3f). 

SUB'URBS.  Lev.25:34.    See  City. 

SUC'COTH  {booths),  a  name  for 
two  places. 

1.  The  place  to  which  Jacob  journey- 
ed after  leaving  Esau,  and  where  he 
built  him  a  house  and  made  booths  for 
his  cattle.  Gen.  33  :  17.  It  was  given 
to  the  tribe  of  Gad.  Josh.  13  :  27.  From 
this  fact  it  would  appear  to  be  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Jordan.  Gideon  severe- 
ly punished  the  people  of  the  y)lace  for 
not  aiding  him  against  the  Midianites. 
Jud.  8  :  5-8,  14-16.  At  this  town  were 
the  brass-foundries  for  casting  the  met- 
al-work for  the  temple.  1  Kgs.  7  :  46  ;  2 
Chr.  4  :  17.  In  the  valley  of  the  Jordan, 
about  a  mile  from  the  river,  and  10  miles 
south  of  Beisan.  is  a  ruin  called  Sdkuf, 
which  is  identified  by  Robinson  and 
others  as  Succoth.  But  the  position  of 
this  place  is  on  the  wrong  side  of  the 
Jordan  for  Succoth.  The  Talmud  calls 
Succoth,  Darafa,  and  Dr.  Merrill  discov- 
ered a  site  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jor- 
dan, called  Tell  Danila,  which  is  1  mile 
north  of  the  Jabbok.  This  may  be  the 
ancient  Succoth.  The  principal  mound 
is  thickly  covered  with  broken  ])ottery. 

2.  The  first  camping-place  of  the  Is- 
raelites in  the  desert.  Ex.  12  :  37  ;  13  :  20  ; 
Num.  33  :  5,  6.  It  was  a  day's  journey 
from  Rameses,  and  must  have  been  12 
or  15  miles  east  of  that  place.  Some 
would  identify  it  with  Birket  Timseh,  or 

830 


'Hake  of  crocodiles,"  a  few  miles  north 
of  the  northern  end  of  the  Red  Sea. 

SUC'COTH-BE'NOTH  {tents 
of  dau(/hterx),  an  idol-divinity  of  the 
Babylonians  for  which  the  transplanted 
Babylonians  built  a  temple  upon  their 
arrival  in  Samaria;  but  nothing  more 
is  known  about  it.  2  Kgs.  17  :  30. 

SU'CHATHITES,  a  family  of 
scribes  at  Jabez.   1   Chr.  2  :  55. 

SUK'KIIMS,  the  name  of  a  portion 
of  the  allies  of  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt, 
in  the  invasion  of  Juda3a.  2  Chr.  12  :  3. 
They  are  supposed  to  have  been  a  tribe 
of  Ethiopians  from  the  shores  of  the  Red 
Sea. 

SUx>I'>IER.     See  Seasons. 

SUi>I'>IER-HOUSE.  See  Dwell- 
ings. 

SUN.  The  Hebrews,  according  to 
the  latest  researches,  gave  the  sun  a 
name  whose  root  means  "to  run,"  be- 
cause it  was,  as  they  regarded  it,  the 
greatest  heavenly  wanderer.  The  Psalm- 
ist compares  him  to  a  bridegroom  coming 
out  of  his  chamber  as  a  strong  man  to 
run  a  race.   Ps.  19  :  5. 

The  worship  of  this  luminary  was  one 
of  the  earliest  forms  of  idolatr_v,  and  ex- 
isted in  all  the  nations  around  Palestine  : 
it  is  therefore  mentioned  in  all  parts  of 
the  0.  T.  Mauasseh  introduced  it  in  its 
purest  form — as  it  existed  among  the 
Assyrians — into  Judah.  2  Kgs.  21  :  3,  5. 
He  and  his  successor,  Anion,  dedicated 
horses  and  chariots  to  the  sun.  and  burn- 
ed incense  to  it  on  the  housetops.  2  Kgs. 
23  :  5,  11.  The  worship  the  Israelites 
met  with  in  Egypt  at  On,  the  Baal  and 
Moloch  worship  in  Palestine,  were  all 
derived  from  the  sun-worship. 

SUN'DAY  is  of  heathen  origin  (like 
our  designations  of  the  other  days  of  the 
week),  and  means  "the  d.ay  of  the  sun," 
or  "  sacred  to  the  god  of  the  sun."  It 
does  not  occur  in  the  Bible,  but  is  now 
in  common  use  for  the  first  day  of  the 
week,  which  has  taken  the  place  of  the 
Jewish  Sabbath,  and  should  properly  be 
called  the  Lord's  Day,  Rev.  1  :  10,  as  the 
day  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  See 
Lord's  Day  and  Sabbath. 

SUPERSCRIP'TIOiX.  Mark  15: 
26.    See  Cross. 

SUPERSTITIOUS.  Acts  17:  22. 
This  term  in  the  original  signifies  noth- 
ing offensive,  but  simply  that  the  Athe- 
nians were  remarkably  religious  in  their 


SUP 


SWE 


polytheistic  way.  They  had  more  jrods,  ! 
more  temples,  more  fei^tivals — in  short, 
more  religious  observances — than  the 
apostle  had  seen  elsewhere,  and  he  was 
about  to  tell  them  what  he  thought  were 
errors  in  these  services. 

SUP'PER.  Lul<el4:16.  See  Eating. 

SUUE'TV.      Jn     lleb. 
7  :  22,  Jesus   is  called   the 
"  Surety  of  a  better  testa-   : 
inent "  (covenant),  because 
his  divine  character,  posi- 
tion,   and   dignity   give    to  ^ 
the  new  covenant  of  grace  ^ 
its  value.     We  are  sure  it  i= 
will  be  carried  out. 

The  danger  of  becoming 
surety  for  others  is  strongly 
represented.  Prov.  6:1  :  11; 
15;  17:  18;  20:10:  22:2(5. 
The  striking  or  joining  of 
hands  was  a  token  of  sure- 
tyship. Job  17  :  3. 
'  SlJ'SA,anameforSnu- 
SHAN,  which  see.  Esth.  2  :  ."> : 
9:11,18. 

SUSAN'NA  (/%),  one 
of  the  women  who  minis- 
tered to  Jesus.  Luke  8  :  3. 

SU'SI  {horseman),  the  father  of  the 
spy  from   Manasseh.  Num.  13:  11. 

SWAL'LOW.  In  Ps.  84  :  3  there  is 
reference  to  this  bird's  habit  of  making 
its  nest  in  all  buildings  to  which  it  can 
gain  access.  Swallows  still  rear  their 
young  about  the  mosques  which  occupy 
the  site  of  Solomon's  temple,  and  circle 


often  build  within  reach  of  the  hand. 
Tiie  incessant  and  rapid  flight  of  this 
bird  explains   Prov.  26  :  2. 

In  Jer.  8:7  and  lsa.38:ll  another 
word  is  found,  wliich  seems  to  refer  to  tlie 
Hiri/t,  a  bird  of  the  swallow  family  and  a 
regular  migrant,  which  in   Palestine  the 


The  Swift, 


above  these  hallowed  places  as  of  old. 
In  Palestine  and  other  Eastern  countries 
they  are  so   rarely  disturbed  that  they 


The  Purple  Gallinule. 

swallow  is  not.  Its  harsh  and  constant 
cry  is  specially  ap])ropriate  to  the  sec- 
ond passage.  Several  species  of  swifts 
and  swallows  inhabit  the  Holy  Land  and 
breed  in  the  clifl's  or  about  buildings. 

SWaN.  This  bird  is  mentioned  <mly 
in  Lev.  11  :  IS  ;  Deut.  14  :  lt>,  and  there 
as  unclean.  The  swan  is  very  rare  in 
the  Levant,  while  there  seems  to  be 
no  reason  why  it  should  not  be  eaten. 
It  is  possible  that  the  sacred  ibis, 
once  abundant  in  Kgyid.  may  bo 
meant,  or  the  purple  gallinule. 
Either  of  these  birds  might  natu- 
rally be  forbidden  as  food,  from  its 
unclean  diet,  and  the  former,  also, 
as  connecteil   with  iilolafry. 

S>\  KAU.    I's.  15:  1.     Sec  Oath. 

swKAR'iMi,   vou  i:    or. 

Lev.   6:1.     The   imjiort  of   this   ex- 
pression  in   the   Hebrew  is  "  hear  tlie 
voice  of  adjuration,  execration,  oath, 
or  curse" — /.  '■.,  hear  this  voice  when 
one  is  adjured  or  [»ut  upon  his  oath 
as   a  witness   in  court.     The  precept 
relates    to    the    case    of    one    who    is 
summoned   to  give   evitlencc  before  the 
civil    magistrate.      Judges    among    the 
Jews  had  power  to  adjure  not  only  the 

831 


SWI 


SYC 


witnesses,  but  the  persons  suspected,  as 
appears  from  the  high  priest's  adjuring 
our  ^Saviour,  who  thereupon  answered, 
though  he  had  before  been  silent.  Matt. 
26  :  03.  If  a  person  "  heard  the  voice 
of  swearing  " — i.  e.,  if  he  were  adjured 
by  an  oath  of  the  Lord  to  testify  what 
he  knew  in  relation  to  any  matter  of 
fact  in  question,  and  yet,  through  fear 
or  favor,  refused  to  give  evidence  or 
gave  it  but  in  part — he  was  to  "  bear 
his  iniquity."  It  seems  to  be  implied 
that  such  a  one  should  be  considered  in 
the  sight  of  God  as  guilty  of  the  trans- 
gression which  he  has  thus  endeavored 
to  conceal. 

SWINE,  Deut.  14  :  8,  or  HOG,  was 
unclean  by  the  ritual  law,  and  an  object 
of  utter  abhorrence  to  the  Jews.  Hence 
the  employment  of  the  prodigal  son  im- 
plies the  most  contemptible  degradation. 
Luke  15  :  15.  Eating  the  flesh  of  swine 
is  mentioned  among  the  sinful  practices 
of  the  Jews.  Isa.  65:4;  66  :  17.  The 
filthy  habits  of  this  animal  illustrate  one 
feature  in  the  character  of  sinners.  2  Pet. 
2  :  22. 

The  herd  of  swine  miraculously  de- 
stroyed, Matt.  8  :  32,  perhaps  belonged 
to  Jews,  and,  if  so,  were  of  course  kept 
in  violation  of  tlieir  own  law.  Lev. 
11  :  7. 

To  cast  "  pearls  before  swine,"  Matt. 
7  :  6,  is  not  more  vain  and  wasteful  than 
to  oflFer  the  words  of  truth  and  wisdom 
to  those  who  are  known  to  despise  them, 
and  who  would  only  return  the  offer  with 
insult  and  abuse. 

As  the  Moslems  hold  the  hog  in  fully 
as  great  abhorrence  as  do  the  Jews,  it  is 
very  rarely  that  this  animal  is  seen  in 
Palestine  or  Mohammedan  countries. 

SWORD.     See  Arms. 

SYCAMINE,  the  familiar  black 
mulberry  (Monts  uiyra),  which  is  still 
called  in  Greece  sycfrmoiea.  Luke  17  : 
B.  Both  the  black  and  white  species  are 
now  largely  cultivated  in  Syria  to  feed 
silkworms.  The  mulberry  belongs  to 
the  same  natural  order  of  plants  with 
the  sycamore  and  the  fig.  See  Mul- 
berry. 

SYCAMORE  (Greek,  fg-mnl- 
berry).  This  tree  (Ficiin  sycomorus)  is 
now  rarely  seen  in  Palestine  except  along 
the  coast,  though  it  is  abundant  in  Egypt. 
It  belongs  to  the  genus  of  the  common 
fig,  which  it  closely  resembles  in  fruit, 
832 


while  its  aromatic  leaf  is  shaped  like 
that  of  the  mulberry.  From  these  two 
resemblauces  comes  its  name. 

The  sycamore  is  a  large  and  noble 
tree,  aflfording  a  dense  shade,  while  the 
branches  are  remarkably  spreading  and 
are  easily  reached.  This  was  the  reason 
why  Zaccha?us  climbed  it  in  order  to  get 
a  glimpse  of  Jesus  as  he  passed.  Luke 
19  :  4.  It  was  once  exceedingly  abun- 
dant in  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  1  Kgs. 
10  :  27 ;  2  Chr.  1:15;  9  :  27,  but  all  are 
now  gone  save  a  few  aged  survivors  near 
Jericho. 

Its  fruit  grows  singly  or  in  clusters 
on  small  sprigs,  which  grow  directly 
from  the  branches  and  trunks,  independ- 
enth'  of  the  leaves.  Sycamore  fruit  re- 
sembles in  shape  and  peculiar  method  of 
flowering  that  of  the  Fig,  which  see.     It 


Sycamore. 

is,  however,  smaller,  but  sweetish  and 
edible,  especially  if  cut  or  nipped  a  few 
days  before  it  is  quite  ripe,  that  the  ac- 
rid properties  may  be  discharged.  In 
Am.  7  :  14  we  should  read,  in  this  sense, 
'* cutter"  (instead  of  "gatherer")  "of 
sycamore  fruit."  As  the  sycamore  bears 
continuously  for  more  than  half  the  year, 
it  is  in  this  respect  a  valuable  tree.  The 
wood,  though  porous,  is  exceedingly  du- 
rable, being  the  material  of  the  Egyptian 


SYC 


SYN 


mumuiy-cases,  which  are  three  thousand 
or  more  years  old.  It  seems  to  have 
been  valued  on  this  aocount  or  for  its 
fruit  by  David.  1  Chr.  27  :  US.  There 
is  allusion  to  its  peculiar  sensitiveness 
to  frost  in  Ps.  78  :  47. 

In  our  own  country  the  plane  tree, 
button-ball,  or  cotton-wood  is  often  called 
sycamore ;  while  in  England,  and  more 
rarely  here,  a  species  of  maple  {Acer 
pseudop/ntouits),  used  as  a  shade-tree, 
t)ears  this  name.  These  trees  have  no 
relationship  to  the  true  sycamore,  and 
should  be  otherwise  designated. 

SY'CHAR  {(/rnnkcu/).  John  4  :  5. 
It  is  generally  supposed  that  Sychar  is 
a  name  of  Shechem,  perhaps  given  to  it 
in  derision.  This  was  Robinson's  view, 
and  he  seems  to  have  followed  a  monk- 
ish tradition  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
objection  to  identifying  Sychar  with 
Shechem  is  that  Jacob's  well,  at  the 
entrance  into  the  valley,  is  a  mile  and 
a  half  from  Shechem,  and  the  woman, 
if  belonging  to  Shechem.  would  not  go 
so  far  for  water  when  plenty  was  nearer 
at  hand.  Hence.  Thomson,  Canon  Wil- 
liams, Conder,  Baedeker,  and  others 
identify  Sychar  with  the  little  village  of 
'Afikar,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  Ebal, 
about  a  mile  and  a  half  from  Shechem, 
and  to  the  north-east  of  Jacob's  well. 
The  village  is  merely  a  modern  one 
built  of  mud,  but  there  are  remains  of 
ancient  tombs  near  the  road  beneath  it. 

SY'CHEM,  a  Greek  form  for  She- 
chem.  Acts  7:16. 

SYE'NE  {opening,  or  heij),  the  fron- 
tier-city of  Egypt,  on  the  south,  and 
bordering  on  Ethiopia.  Eze.  29  :  10  ;  30  : 
6,  margin.  It  was  situated  on  the  Nile, 
below  the  First  Cataract,  and  is  repre- 
sented now  by  the  Arabic  village  of  As- 
soitan,  or  Asimn,  a  little  north  of  the 
ancient  site.  The  well-known  rock  called 
syenite  is  quarried  here,  and  hence  its 
name.  It  was  a  chief  city  of  the  Shep- 
herd-kings. The  expression  ( in  the  mar- 
gin), "from  Migdol  to  Syene  "— that  is, 
from  the  fortress  near  Pelusium,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Nile,  to  Syene,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Ethiopia — was  used  to  describe 
the  whole  land  of  Egvpt. 

SYL'VANUS.     See  Silas. 

SYN'AGOGUE     {an     nxsemblaffe). 

There    is    no    conclusive    evidence    that 

stated  meetings  of  the  peojjie  for  social 

religious  services,  or  meetings  for  recciv- 

63 


ing  public  instruction, were  known  among 
the  Jews  before  the  ('aj)tivity.  After 
that  event  such  meetings  became  com- 
mon, and  were  called  synagogues.  They 
were  probably  held  at  first  in  private 
houses  or  in  the  open  air.  After  a  time 
buildings  were  erected  expressly  for  their 
use,  and  these  were  also  called  "  syna- 
gogues," signifying  properly  the  collec- 
tion of  worshij)pers,  but  figuratively  the 
place  of  meeting.  Tradition  says  there 
were  no  less  than  four  hundretl  and  eighty 
of  these  buildings  in  the  city  of  Jerusa- 
lem before  it  was  subdued  by  the  Romans. 
Probably  this  is  an  exaggeration.  To 
build  a  synagogue  was  considered  a  deed 
of  piety  and  public  usefulness.  Luke  7  : 
5.  They  might  be  built  in  any  place 
where  there  were  worshippers  enough  to 
associate  for  the  pur[)Ose.  Ruins  of  an- 
cient synagogues  are  found  at  Tell  Hum, 
Meiron,  Safed,  Arbela,  and  Kefr-Pjercim. 
There  was  some  resemblance  between  the 
construction  of  these  synagogues  and  that 
of  the  temple.  The  centre  building. which 
was  called  the  temple,  was  furnished  with 
an  ark  or  chest  containing  the  copy  of 
the  Law  which  was  read.  A  low  desk  or 
pulpit  vvas  erected  about  the  middle  of 
the  sj'Uagogue.  Some  of  the  seats  were 
higher  than  others,  and  were  assigned 
to  the  elders.  They  were  called  chief 
or  uppermost  seats.  Matt.  23  :  6.  The 
officers  of  each  synagogue  were: 

1.  The  (trehixyninjogoK,  "the  chief 
ruler  of  the  synagogue."  Mark  6  :  35  ; 
Acts  18  :  8. 

2.  The  council,  composed  of  aged  and 
influential  men,  presided  over  by  the 
chief  ruler,  Mark  6  :  22  ;  Acts  13  :  15, 
who  had  authority  to  scourge  and  to  ex- 
communicate. Matt.  10  : 1  7  :  John  16  :  2. 

3.  "  The  minister."  Luke  4 :  20,  who  got 
the  building  ready  for  service  and  taught 
the  school  connected  with  the  synagogue. 

4.  At  least  two  alms-collectors,  and  at 
least  three  distributers. 

5.  One  who  was  not  a  ])ermanent 
officer,  but  who  offered  prayer  and  read 
the  Scriptures  as  the  "  delegate  of  the 
congregation."  Some  erroneously  con- 
nect this  office  with  that  of  "the  angel 
of  the  congregation."  Rev.  1  :  20. 

6.  Three  of  the  council,  the  "dele- 
gate," the  three  deacons  for  alms,  the 
interpreter,  who  read  the  Hebrew  and 
translated  it  into  the  vernacular,  the 
theological   schoolmaster    and    his    in- 

833 


SYN 


SYN 


terpreter;  these  constituted  the  so- 
called  ''men  of  leisure,"  permanently 
on  duty,  who  constituted  a  congrega- 
tion (ten  being  the  minimum  number), 
"so  that  there  might  be  no  delay  in 
beginning  the  service  at  the  proper 
hour,  and  that  no  single  worshipper 
might  go  away  disappointed." 

The  service  of  the  synagogue  was  as 
follows :  The  people  being  seated,  the 
minister,  or  angel  of  the  synagogue, 
ascended  the  pulpit  and  offered  up  the 
public  prayers,  the  people  rising  from 
their  seats  and  standing  in  a  posture  of 
deep  devotion.  Matt.  6:5;  Mark  11 :  25  ; 
Luke  18  :  11, 13.  The  prayers  were  nine- 
teen in  number,  and  were  closed  by 
reading  Deut.  6  :  4-9  ;  11 :  13-21 ;  Num. 
15  :  37-41.     The  next  thing  was  the  rep- 


etition of  their  ])hylaeteries.  after  which 
came  the  reading  of  the  Law  and  the 
Prophets.  The  former  was  divided  into 
fifty -four  sections,  with  which  were 
united  corresponding  portions  from  the 
prophets,  see  Acts  13  :  15,  27;  16  :  21, 
and  these  were  read  through  once  in  the 
course  of  the  year.  After  the  return 
from  the  Captivity  an  interpreter  was 
employed  in  reading  the  Law  and  the 
Prophets,  Neh.  8  :  2-8,  who  interpreted 
them  into  the  Syro- Chaldaic  dialect, 
which  was  then  spoken  by  the  people. 
The  last  part  of  the  service  was  the  ex- 
pounding of  the  Scriptures  and  preach- 
ing from  them  to  the  people.  This  was 
done  either  by  one  of  the  officers  or  by 
some  distinguished  person  who  happened 
to  be  present.     This  happened  with  our 


Synagogue  at  Meiron.    (After  Photograph  of  Palestine  Fund.) 


Saviour,  Luke  4  :  17-20,  and  there  are 
several  other  instances  recorded  of  him- 
self and  his  disciples  teaching  in  the 
synagogues.  Matt.  13:54;  Mark  6  :  2  ; 
John  18:20;  Acts  13  :  5,  1 5,  44 ;  14  :  1 ; 
17  :  2-4,  10,  17  ;  18  :  4,  26 ;  19  :  8.  The 
whole  service  concluded  with  a  short 
prayer  or  benediction.  The  days  of 
public  worship  were  the  second,  fifth, 
and  seventh  ;  the  hours,  the  third,  sixth, 
and  ninth. 

SYNAGOGUE,  THE  GREAT, 
the  name  given    to    the  council    of  one 
hundred  and  twenty  men  who,  according 
834 


to  Rabbinic  tradition,  under  the  presi- 
dency of  Ezra,  formed  the  Hebrew  canon 
and  established  the  synagogue-worship. 
They  had  successors  in  eminent  scribes. 
The  tradition,  however,  is  questioned,  and 
doubtless  is  not  entirely  correct.  Still, 
it  is  probable  there  was  such  a  body  as 
the  predecessor  of  the  Sanhedrin. 

SYN'TYCHE  (event),  a  female 
member  of  the  church  at  Philippi  who 
is  exhorted  by  Paul  to  be  reconciled  with 
Euodia  (incorrectly  "Euodias").  Those 
who  maintain  there  was  an  order  of  dea- 
conesses  in  the  apostolic   Church    con- 


SYR 


SYR 


sider  that  these  women  were  uieiiibers 
of  it,  and  consequently  their  dilierence 
was  censurable.   Phil.  4  :  2. 

SYR'ACUSE,  a  noted  city  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Sicily  at  which  Paul  spent 
three  days  while  on  his  voyage  to  Rome. 
Acts  28  :  12.  It  is  well  situated  for 
commerce,  having  the  best  harbor  in 
Sicily.  The  city  was  colonized  by  the 
Corinthians,  b.  o.  758,  and  in  the  third 
century  before  Christ  its  walls,  according 
to  one  authority,  were  22  miles  in  cir- 
cumference. It  was  taken  by  the  Ro- 
mans, B.  c.  212,  after  a  long  struggle. 
Archimedes,  who  had  greatly  aided  in 
the  defence  by  his  mechanical  genius, 
was  killed  in  the  general  slaughter.  In 
Paul's  time  it  was  a  convenient  place 
for  the  Alexandrian  corn-ships  to  stop 
at,  for  the  harbor  was  good  and  the  water 
from  the  fountain  Arethusa  excellent. 
The  modern  town  is  situated  upon  the 
islet  Ortygia,  but  the  principal  ancient 
ruins  are  upon  the  main  island.  The 
present  town  has  little  commerce  and 
enterprise.  It  bears  the  Italian  name 
Siraciisa. 

SYR'IA,  the  Greek  name  for  the 
country  known  to  the  Hebrews  as 
"Aram."  It  may  signify  *' the  region 
of  Tyre."  This  country  included,  in  a 
stricter  sense,  only  the  highlands  of 
Libanus  and  Anti-Libanus,  but  in  a  more 
extended  sense  it  reached  to  the  Taurus 
Mountains  on  the  north  and  across  the 
Euphrates,  eastward  to  the  Tigris  and 
the  great  desert,  and  westward  to  Phoeni- 
cia and  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  was 
about  370  miles  long  and  150  miles  wide, 
and  may  be  called  a  continuation  of 
Palestine  on  the  north.  In  its  most 
extended  sense  it  consisted  of  Syria  of  | 
Damascus,  Syria  of  Zobah,  and  Syria  of 
the  Two  Rivers,  which  was  nearly  the  | 
same  as  Mesopotamia.  For  this  latter 
district  see  Mesopotamia. 

Physical  Featttres.  —  Syria  proper  is 
naturally  divided  into  three  or  four 
separate  sections:  (1)  North  of  the 
Orontes.  The  principal  feature  of  this 
region  is  Mount  Amanus  (Muh<i  Dat/h), 
between  5000  and  6000  feet  high.  East 
of  Mount  Amanus  is  a  hilly  tract,  drained 
by  the  streams  which  fall  into  the  Lake 
of  Antioch.  Beyond  this  lies  the  drj' 
upland  tract  extending  to  the  Euphrates. 
(2)  The  Orontes  valley  extends  from 
Antioch  to  Eleutherus.      Through  this  , 


district,  and  almost  parallel  to  the  coast, 
runs  a  mountain- range  which  is  steep 
toward  the  Orontes,  but  descends  into 
low,  irregular  hills  on  the  west.  East  of 
the  fertile  valley  is  another  range  of 
mountains  of  less  elevation.  (.3)  The 
valley  of  the  Leontes  {Litany),  which 
flows  between  the  two  great  mountain- 
ranges  of  Lebanon  and  Anti- Lebanon. 
See  Lkbanon.  The  valley  between  the 
mountains  is  called  "  Ca'le-Syria,"  or 
"hollow  Syria."  Among  the  rivers  of 
Syria,  besides  the  Orontes  and  the  Leon- 
tes, are  the  /i«ra(/a,  known  as  the  Abana 
of  Scripture,  and  tlie  Aicaj,  or  Pharpar. 
The  chief  mountains  of  Syria  are  :  Great 
Hermon,  9:583  feet  high,  in  the  Anti- 
Libanus  or  eastern  range;  Jehel  Mal-h- 
wnl,  near  Beirut  and  Tripoli,  10,016  feet 
high;  andX>a/(y-e/-A'or///>,lO,052feet high, 
in  the  Lebanon,  or  western  range.  Mons 
Carius  of  the  ancients  is  on  the  coast, 
and  Amanus  (Munn  Dugh)  borders  on 
the  Taurus  range.  Of  the  mountains  on 
the  east  of  Jordan  to  the  south,  the 
largest  number  are  volcanic  until  the 
table-lands  of  the  Hauran  are  reached. 
See  Moab.  On  the  climate  of  Syria 
consult  the  article  Palkstine. 

Among  the  principal  cities  may  be 
noticed  Damascus,  Antioch,  Hamath, 
Gebal,  Berytus  or  Beirut,  Tadmor  or 
Palmyra,  lleliopolis  or  Baalbec,  Aleppo, 
Emesah,  and  Zedad.  Baalbec  is  one  of 
the  most  wonderful  ruins  in  Syria ; 
Damascus  is  its  oldest  and  largest  city  ; 
Beirut  is  a  flourishing  seaport-town, 
which  is  a  progressive  and  energetic 
modern  city  and  the  seat  of  an  American 
Protestant  college. 

Hiatory. — Syria  was  first  settled  by  the 
Hittites  and  other  Ilamitic  races.  Later, 
a  Shemitic  element  entered  it  from  the 
south-east,  under  leaders  such  as  Abra- 
ham and  Chedorlaomer.  In  early  times 
the  country  was  divided  among  many 
petty  kings,  as  those  at  Damascus,  Re- 
hob,  Zobah,  and  Geshur.  1  Kgs.  10  :  29; 
2  Kgs.  7  :  6.  .Joshua  subdued  the  country 
in  the  region  of  Hermon  and  Lebanon. 
.Josh.  11  :  2-18.  David  conquered  the 
Syrians  of  Damascus  and  reduced  the 
country  to  submission.  2  Sam.  8  ;  10  : 
6-19.  It  continued  subject  to  Solomon, 
but  near  the  close  of  his  reign  an  inde- 
pentlent  kingdom  was  formed  at  Damas- 
cus. 1  Kgs.  4:21;  11  :  23-25.  The  kings 
of  Damascus  became  formidable  enemies 

835 


SYR 


SYR 


of  Israel,  and  were  frequently  engaged 
in  wars  with  one  or  the  other  of  the 
Israelitish  nations.  1  Kgs.  16  :  1 8-20  ;  20 ; 
22  ;  2  Kgs.  6  :  8-33  ;  7  ;  9  :  14,  15  5  10  : 
32,  33  ;  13  :  3,  14-25.  The  attempt  of  the 
king  of  Syria  and  of  the  king  of  Israel 
to  overthrow  Judah  led  Ahaz  to  seek  the 
aid  of  the  king  of  Assyria,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  conflict  Syria  became  a  part 
of  the  great  Assyrian  empire.  It  was 
ruled  by  the  Babylonians,  by  the  Per- 
sians, and  conquered  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  b.  c.  333.  At  his  death  it  came 
into  possession  of  one  of  his  generals, 
Seleucus  Nicator,  who  made  Syria  the 
head  of  a  vast  kingdom  and  founded 
Antioch  as  its  capital,  b.  c.  300.  The 
country  was  less  prosperous  under  his 
successors,  the  most  remarkable  of  them 
being  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  who  was  a 
most  cruel  oppressor  of  the  Jews.  He 
plundered  the  Jewish  temple,  desecrated 
the  holy  of  holies,  and  caused  a  revolt  of 
the  Jews  under  the  Hasmonean  princes, 
who  gained  their  independence.  The 
Parthians,  under  Mithridates  I.,  overran 
the  eastern  provinces,  B.  c.  164,  but,  later, 
Syria  was  added  to  the  Roman  empire 
by  Pompey,  b.  c.  64.  In  the  organiza- 
tion under  Augustus,  Syria  became  an 
imperial  province,  of  which  Antioch  was 
the  capital.  Several  districts,  however, 
retained  a  degree  of  independence  for 
some  time,  and  took  the  position  of  pro- 
tected states.  Of  these,  Chalcis  was  a 
little  kingdom;  Abilene,  a  tetrarchy  ; 
Damascus,  partially  independent  (till 
the  time  of  Nero) ;  while  Judtea,  being 
remote  from  Antioch,  the  capital,  and 
having  a  restless  people,  was  put  under 
a  special  procurator,  subordinate  to  the 
governor  of  Syria,  but  having  the  power 
of  a  legate  within  his  own  province. 
Damascus  was  under  a  governor  or  eth- 
narch,  appointed  by  Aretas,  king  of 
Arabia  Petrjea,  when  Paul  escaped  from 
it.  2  Cor.  11 :  32.  Palmyra  did  not  actu- 
ally belong  to  the  empire  until  a  later 
age — about  A.  D.  1 14.  Christianity  spread 
in  Syria  through  the  preaching  of  Paul. 
Acts  15  :  23,  41  ;  18  :  18  ;  21  :  3  ;  Gal.  1  : 
21.  The  country  was  overrun  by  the 
Saracens,  a.  b.  632,  but  was  under  the 
control  of  the  Crusaders  for  a  time. 
Selim  I.  conquered  the  country,  a.  d. 
1517,  and  it  has  since  belonged  to  the 
Turkish  empire,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  years  when  it  was  controlled  by 
836 


Egypt.      See   Map    at   the   end   of    the 
Divtionary. 

Present  Condition. — Syria  is  now  one 
of  the  divisions  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  and 
contains  about  60,000  square  miles. 
The  population  is  estimated  at  about 
2,000,000,  and  consists  of  a  very  mixed 
race,  including  many  wandering  tribes 
of  Bedouins  poorly  governed.  In  religion 
the  people  are  Mohammedans,  Jews,  and 
Christians  of  various  churches.  The 
American  missionaries  have  been  very 
successful  in  establishing  missions  and 
churches,  and  Protestant  missionary  so- 
cieties in  Europe  also  have  prosperous 
missions  in  the  country.  The  language 
usually  spoken  is  the  Arabic.  Syria  has 
great  natural  resources,  and,  under  a 
good  government,  it  would  have  a  prom- 
ising future. 

The  mode  of  travelling  in  Syria  is 
much  the  same  now  as  in  the  days  of  the 
patriarchs.  There  are  no  railroads,  and 
the  only  modern  carriage-roads  are  the 
diligence-route  from  Beirut  to  Damascus, 
built  by  a  French  company  after  the  mas- 
sacre of  Christians  in  1860,  and,  in  Pal- 
estine, the  road  from  Jaffa  to  Jerusalem. 
Horses,  mules,  donkeys,  and  camels,  ac- 
companied by  dragomans,  tents,  cooking- 
utensils,  beds,  blankets,  and  whatever  else 
may  be  actually  necessary  for  the  trav- 
eller, are  still  the  means  of  transporting 
passengers  and  tourists  through  this  land. 
Steamers  ply  along  the  coast  from  the  va- 
rious Mediterranean  ports,  but  inland  the 
primitive  method  of  journeying  followed 
four  thousand  j^ears  ago  still  prevails. 

Under    Syrians    proper    are    usually 
classed  all  the  descendants  of  the  people 
who  spoke  Aramaic  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era,  except  the  Jews.     The 
Aramaic  language  has  been  displaced  by 
the  Arabic,  the  former  being  spoken  in 
only  a  few  (perhaps  three)    villages  of 
Antilibanus.    Some  Greeks  have  recently 
settled  in  the  country,  but  there  are  few, 
if  any,  descendants  of  those  Greeks  who 
j  settled   in  Syria  during    the  supremacy 
I  of  the  Europeans,  which  extended  over 
.  nearly  one  thousand  years.     The  Arabi- 
ans are  of   two  classes — the  settlers    in 
towns,   and   the   Bedouins,    or    nomadic 
j  tribes.     The   latter   are   professed   Mus- 
lims, living  a  half-savage  life,  dwelling 
in  tents,  and  preying  upon  the  traveller, 
!  the   settled   inhabitants,  and   not  infre- 
I  quently  upon  one  another.    The  Bedouin 


SYR 


SYR 


regards  with  great  scrupulosity  the  law 
of  hospitality,  and  protects  a  guest  for 
three  days  after  his  departure  from  his 
camp,  if  he  has  been  hospitably  received. 
There  are  many  small  tribes  of  these 
nomadic  Arabs,  and  they  are  generally 
at  war  with  each  other  or  have  deadly 
blood-feuds  existing  among  them,  render- 
ing it  unsafe  to  travel  within  any  region 
over  which  they  roam.  About  four-lifths 
of  the  whole  population  of  Syria  are 
believed  to  be  Muslims  and  followers  of 
Mohammed.  The  native  Christians 
chiefly  belong  to  the  Greek  Church,  but 
usually  speak  and  conduct  their  services 
in  the  Arabic  tongue. 

The  Roman  Catholic,  or  Latin,  Church 
includes  several  sects.  Among  them  are 
the  Maronites  and  the  European  monks. 
The  Maronite  population  of  Lebanon 
alone  is  upward  of  200,000.  They  live 
by  agriculture,  silk-culture,  and  raising 
cattle.  The  Jews  in  Syria,  and  especially 
Palestine,  are  rapidly  increasing,  though 
they  still  form  only  a  small  fraction  of 
the  entire  population  in  any  section  of 
the  country.  Syria  has  not  been  very 
thoroughly  or  scientifically  explored,  and 
the  ruins  and  inscriptions,  as  those  at 
Hamath,  when  investigated  thoroughly, 
may  hereafter  throw  much  clearer  light 
upon  its  early  history. 

SYR'IA-MA'ACHAH.  1  Chr.l9  : 
6.     See  ARA>r  and  Maachah. 

SYR'IAC,  the  ancient  language  of 
Syria,  a  dialect  of  the  Aramaean.  The 
word  occurs  in  Dan.  2  :  4.  where  it  should 
be  ''Aramaic,"  as  it  is  in  the  Hebrew.  The 
Chaldaeans  spoke  in  Aramaic  in  order  to 


conform  to  the  custom  of  the  court,  but 
this  was  not  their  proper  or  scientific 
language.  Daniel  at  this  point  begins 
to  employ  Chiildec  in  his  book,  and 
continues  its  use  to  the  end  of  the  sev- 
enth chapter.  "  The  t(mgue  of  the 
Chaldieans,"  Dan.  1  :  4,  was  the  old 
Chaldee,  the  language  of  Akkad,  used 
by  the  original  inhabitants  of  Baby- 
lonia, and  in  the  time  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar a  dead  language. 

The  language  now  called  Syriac  first 
comes  to  notice  in  the  second  century 
A.  D.,  but  ceased  to  be  avernacular  before 
the  twelfth  century.  It  contains  the  most 
extensive  literature  of  any  Aramaean  dia- 
lect, chiefly  theological,  and,  of  greatest 
importance,  a  translation  of  the  Bible — 
commonly  called  Peshito  ("simple"), 
because  it  was  literal  and  not  para- 
phrastic— which  was  made  in  the  sec- 
ond century.  It  is  the  earliest  of  the 
direct  versions. 

SYR'IAN,  inhabitant  of  Syria. 
Gen.  25  :  20.  and   elsewhere. 

SYRO-PHtENIC'IA.    See  Phoc- 

NICIA. 

SY'RO-PHCENI'CIAN,  a  title 
applied  to  the  woman  who  besought 
Jesus  to  heal  her  daughter.  Mark  7  : 
26.  She  is  also  called  a  woman  of 
Canaan.  Matt.  15  :  22.  "  Syro-Pho^ni- 
cian "  may  denote  a  mixed  race,  half 
Syrian,  half  Phoenician,  or  the  peo- 
ple in  the  Phoenician  portion  of  the 
Roman  province  of  Syria  may  have 
been  so  called,  to  distinguish  tbciii 
from  the  Phoenicians  of  Libya  or  the 
Carthaginians. 

837 


TAA 


TAB 


T. 


TA'ANACH,     AND      TA'NACH 

[sandy  soil),  an  old  city  of  the  Canaan- 
ites.  Josh.  12  :  21.  Joshua  conquered 
its  king,  and  it  was  in  the  territory  of 
Issachar,  but  assigned  to  Manasseh,  and 
then  to  the  Levites.  Josh.  17:11-18; 
21  :  25  ;  Jud.  1  :  27.  Barak's  victory 
was  gained  at  Tabor,  not  very  near  Ta- 
anach,  as  some  assert.  Jud.  5  :  19.  In 
later  times,  with  Megiddo  and  other 
places,  this  city  formed  a  part  of  one 
of  Solomon's  commissariat  districts.  1 
Kgs.  4  :  12.  The  Aner  of  1  Chr.  6  :  70 
may  possibly  be  the  same  as  Taanach. 
Taanach  was  situated  on  the  south-west- 
ern edge  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  4 
miles  south  of  Megiddo,  13  miles  south- 
south-west  of  Nazareth,  and  48  miles 
north  of  Jerusalem.  The  village  is  sit- 
uated on  the  southern  side  of  a  large 
isolated  hill,  or  tell,  which  is  covered 
with  ruins,  cisterns,  and  rock-hewn 
tombs.  The  modern  village  is  a  mean 
one  bearing  the  name  of  Tanmik. 

TA'ANATH-SHI'LOH  [ap- 
pronch  to  Shiloh),  one  of  the  landmarks 
on  the  border  of  Ephraim.  Josh.  16  :  6. 
It  has  been  regarded  by  some  as  identi- 
cal with  Shiloh,  but  Conder  suggests 
Khurbet  Thala,  a  mound  of  ruins,  10 
or  12  miles  east  of  Sheehem. 

TAB'BAOTH  (rings),  the  ancestor 
of  Nethinim  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel.  Ezr.  2  :  43  ;  Neh.  7  :  46. 

TAB'BATH  (celebrated),  a  place 
noted  in  the  account  of  the  flight  of 
the  Midianite  host.  Jud.  7  :  22.  Grove 
suggests  its  identity  with  Tubukhat- 
Fahil,  a  remarkable  mound  or  bank 
about  600  feet  high,  east  of  the  Jordan, 
opposite  Beisan  (Beth-shean). 

TA'BEAL  (God  is  good),  the  father 
of  one  who  was  proposed  king  of  Judah 
by  the  army  of  Pekah,  the  son  of  Rema- 
liah.  Isa.  7 :  6.  The  name  is  Syriac, 
and  it  has  been  conjectured  that  he  was 
a  descendant  of  Naaman. 

TA'BEELi  (God  is  good),  a  Persian 
oflBcer  in  Samaria  during  the  reign  of 
Artaxerxes.   Ezr.  4  :  7. 

TAB'ERAH    (a  burning),  a   place 
in   the  wilderness    of  Paran.   Num.  11 : 
838 


3  ;  Deut.  9  :  22.  It  was  also  called  Kib- 
roth-hattaavah,from  the  pestilence  which 
followed  upon  the  excess  of  the  Israel- 
ites in  eating  quails.  The  Israelites 
rested  there  for  at  least  a  month. 

TA'BERING.  This  obsolete  word 
occurs  in  Nah.  2  :  7.  It  means  **  to  beat 
as  a  taber  "  or  "  tabret."  The  picture  is 
of  a  company  of  Ninevite  women  beat- 
ing upon  their  breasts  as  players  upon 
a  taber.  A  taber  is  a  small  drum  beaten 
by  one  stick,  to  accompany  a  pipe. 

TAB'ERNACLE  probably  means 
a  tent  or  movable  dwelling-place.  Ex. 
25  :  9.  In  this  sense  it  is  used  in  Num. 
24  :  5  ;  Job  11  :  14  ;  22  :  23  ;  Matt.  17  : 
4,  but  in  the  Scriptures  generally  it  is 
applied  to  the  structure  which  was  pre- 
pared by  Moses,  under  the  divine  direc- 
tion, in  which  the  Jews  were  to  worship. 

There  is  undoubted  mention  in  the  0. 
T.  of  two  sacred  tabernacles,  the  one 
erected  in  the  wilderness  and  the  other 
that  in  which  David  put  the  ark,  and 
where  it  remained  until  the  completion 
of  the  temple.  2  Sam.  6  :  17  ;  1  Kgs.  8  : 
1 ;  1  Chr.  16  :  1.  The  old  tabernacle, 
meanwhile,  was  at  Gibeon.  It  is  uncer- 
tain whether  Solomon  removed  it  or  the 
Davidic  tabernacle  into  the  temple — 
most  likely  the  latter.  1  Kgs.  8  : 4. 
Some  commentators  claim  that  prior  to 
the  Sinaitic  tabernacle  there  was  a  tent 
used  for  divine  worship.  They  appeal 
to  Ex.  33.  The  tabernacle  there  referred 
to  was,  they  say,  either  the  tent  Moses 
had  set  apart  for  this  purpose,  or  a  sa- 
cred tent  the  Israelites  had  possessed  in 
Egypt.  But  if  the  Hebrew  verbs,  which 
are  all  in  the  future  in  this  passage,  are 
read  in  the  future  tense,  then  the  taber- 
nacle meant  is  that  constructed  in  the 
wilderness  after  the  divinely-revealed 
plan.  See  Lange,  Commentary  on  Exo- 
dus, p.  137. 

Our  Version  often  confounds  ''tent" 
and  "tabernacle,"  as  in  Ex.  33  :  7-11, 
where  the  word  should  be  "tent"  through- 
out. The  importance  of  this  distinction 
is  manifest.  The  Bible  account  in  regard 
to  this  structure  is  derived  from  Ex.  26 
and  36  :  8-38.     In  this  article  we  follow 


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in  the  main  Mr.  Fergusson's  article  "Tem- 
ple" in  Smith's  Dictiouary  of  (he  Bible. 

"  The     tabernacle     comprised     three 
main    parts — the    tabernacle,  strictly  so 
called,  its    tent,  and   its   covering.     The 
tabernacle  itself  was  to  con- 
sist of  curtains  of  fine  linen 
woven  with  colored  figures 
of  cherubim,  and  a  structure 
of  boards  which  was  to  con- 
tain the  holy  place  and  the 
most  holy  place;  the  tent  was 
to  be  a  true  tent  of  goats'- 
hair  clo-th,   to  contain   and 
shelter  the  tabernacle ;  the    | 
covering    was  to   be  of  red    : 
rams'   skins   and  sealskins, 
and    was    spread    over   the 
goats'-hair  tent  as    an   ad- 
ditional protection   against 
the  weather." — Bible    Com- 
mentary, in  loco. 

The  court  of  the  taberna- 
cle was  surrounded  by  can- 
vas screens.  Those  of  the 
tabernacle  were  5  cubits 
(about  8  feet)  in  height, 
and  hung  from  brazen  pil-  ~ 
lars,  8  feet  apart,  by  hooks 
and  fillets  of  silver.  Twenty 
of  these  pillars  were  on  each 
side,  and  ten  on  each  end,  , 
The  space  thus  enclosed  was 
150  feet  by  75.  The  enclo- 
sure was  only  broken  on  the 
eastern  side  by  the  entrance, 
30  feet  wide,  which  was  clos-  ' 
edby  a  curtain  of  fine -twined  ' 
linen  with  embroidered  fig- 
ures of  cherubim.  This  cur- 
tain could  be  drawn  up  or 
aside  at  pleasure.  The  pil- 
lars were  kept  firm  by  cords 
and  tent-pins  of  bronze,  had 
their  capitals  overlaid  with 
silver,  and  stood  on  bases 
of  bronze.  Ex.  27  :  9-18. 

At  the  upper  end  of  this 
enclosure,  and  facing  the 
entrance,  which  was  toward 
the  east,  stood  the  taberna- 
cle itself.  This  tabernacle 
proper  was  45  by  15  feet,  and  15  feet 
high.  The  sides  and  rear  were  en- 
closed with  boards,  anl  the  front  was 
open.  Each  of  these  boards  was  fur- 
nished with  two  tenons  at  its  lower  ex- 
tremity, which  fitted  into  silver  sockets 


placed  on  the  ground.  At  the  top,  at 
least,  they  were  fastened  together  by 
bars  of  acacia-wood  run  through  rings 
of  gold.  The  middle  bar,  which  reached 
from  end  to  end,  was,  projicrly  speaking, 


the  ridge-pole  of  the  tent.  According- 
ly, we  must  conceive  of  the  tabernacle, 
not  as  having  a  flat  roof,  but  a  pitched 
one,  like  an  ordinary  tent.  See  illus- 
tration, by  which  the  arrangements  of 
the    coverings  will  also  be  understood. 

839 


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Over  the  top  was  thrown  a  rich,  gor- 
geous fabric  of  various  materials,  the 
connection  and  disposition  of  which,  as 
well  as  of  the  other  parts  of  the  cover- 
ing, are  prescribed  with  the  utmost  mi- 
nuteness. Ex.  26  :  1-30.  The  entrance 
or  door  of  the  tabernacle  was  covered 
with  a  beautifully-embroidered  curtain 
suspended  on  five  columns.  The  inte- 
rior was  subdivided  into  two  apartments, 
separated,  each  from  the  other,  by  a 
richly-wrought  curtain  hanging  entirely 
a;ross  and  reaching  from  the  top  to  the 
bottom.  This  was  called  ''  the  veil,"  or 
*'  second  veil,"  Heb.  9  :  3,  because  the 
first  entrance  was  also  curtained.  The 
outer  apartment  was  called  the  "  holy 
place,"  or  '*  sanctuary,"  or  the  "  first 
tabernacle,"  and  the  inner  was  the  "  sec- 
ond tabernacle,"  or  the  '■'■  most  holy 
place,"  or  the  "  holiest  of  all."  Heb.  9  : 
2-8. 

As  to  the  furniture  of  the  court,  there 
were — (1)  The  altar  of  burnt-offering, 
which  stood  near  the  centre  of  the  en- 
closure. See  Altar.  (2)  The  brazen 
laver,  Ex.  30  :  18,  corresponding  to  the 
molten  sea,  1  Kgs.  7  :  23,  which  stood 
between  the  altar  and  the  tabernacle,  in 
its  shape  resembling  an  urn.  It  contained 
water  for  washing  the  hands  and  feet  of 
the  priests  when  they  were  about  to  enter 
the  sanctuary.     See  Sea,  Brazen. 

As  to  the  furniture  of  the  tabernacle 
itself,  there  were — ( 1 )  The  golden  candle- 
stick, standing  on  the  left  of  a  person 
entering  the  sanctuary.  See  Candle- 
stick. (2)  The  table  of  shevv-bread, 
opposite  to  the  candlestick.  See  Shew- 
Bread.  (3)  The  altar  of  incense,  be- 
tween the  shew-bread  and  the  candle- 
stick, and  in  front  of  the  ark.  See  Al- 
tar. (4)  The  ark  of  the  covenant.  See 
Ark. 

The  tabernacle  and  its  court  were  fin- 
ished with  perfect  exactness  according  to 
the  pattern  or  model  supernaturally  re- 
vealed to  Moses.  Heb.  8  :  5.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  the  silver  and  gold  used  in 
its  construction  (to  say  nothing  of  the 
brass  or  copper,  the  wood,  the  curtains 
and  canopies,  the  furniture,  etc.)  amount- 
ed in  value  to  $1,250,000. 

When  it  was  finished,  after  about  nine 
months'  labor,  it  was  consecrated,  Avith 
very  solemn  and  imposing  rites,  to  the 
service  of  Jehovah.  Ex.  30  :  23-33  ;  40  : 
9-11;  Heb.  9:21. 
840 


While  passing  through  the  wilderness 
the  tabernacle  was  always  pitched  in  the 
midst  of  the  camp.  The  tents  of  the  priests 
and  Levites  surrounded  it  in  appointed 
order,  and  at  some  distance  from  them  the 
residue  of  the  tribes,  in  four  great  divis- 
ions consisting  of  three  tribes  each,  and 
each  division  with  its  appropriate  name 
and  standard  or  banner.  Num.  2  :  2-34. 
The  tabernacle  and  its  furniture  were 
so  constructed  as  to  be  conveniently  ta- 
ken down,  transported,  and  set  up  again, 
and  particular  individuals  or  classes  had 
their  respective  duties  assigned  to  them. 
Every  encampment  and  removal,  and 
even  the  order  of  the  march,  was  direct- 
ed expressly  by  Jehovah.  On  the  day 
the  tabernacle  was  completed  God  re- 
vealed himself  in  a  cloud,  which  over- 
shadowed and  filled  it.  By  this  cloud, 
assuming  the  shape  of  a  pillar  or  col- 
umn, their  subsequent  course  was  gov- 
erned. AVhen  it  rested  over  the  tent  the 
people  always  rested,  and  when  it  moved 
the  tabernacle  was  taken  down,  and  the 
whole  host  followed  wherever  it  led.  In 
the  night  this  cloud  became  bright  like 
a  pillar  of  fire,  and  preceded  them  in 
like  manner.  Ex.  40  :  35-38 ;  Num.  9  : 
15-23.  When  the  journeyings  of  the 
people  were  ended  and  they  entered  Ca- 
naan, the  tabernacle  was  erected  at  Gil- 
gal,  Josh.  4 :  19,  where  it  continued  un- 
til the  country  was  subdued,  and  then  it 
was  removed  to  Shiloh,  1  Sam.  1 : 3, 
where  it  stood  between  three  hundred 
and  four  hundred  years.  It  was  thence 
removed  to  Nob,  1  Sam.  21  :  1-9,  and 
thence,  in  the  reign  of  David,  to  Gibeon, 
1  Chr.  21 :  29,  where  it  was  at  the  com- 
mencement of  Solomon's  reign,  2  Chr.  1 : 
1-13  ;  and  when  the  temple  was  finished^ 
some  suppose  the  sacred  fabric,  with  its 
vessels  and  furniture,  was  removed  into 
it.     See  Temple. 

The  "  tabernacles  "  spoken  of  in  Am. 
5  :  26  as  existing  in  the  northern  king- 
dom of  Israel  were  probably  portable, 
carried  upon  the  shoulders,  and  con- 
tained the  idol. 

TABERNACLE  OF  WIT'- 
NESS,  Num.  17  :  7,  8,  TAB'ERNA- 
CLE  OF  TEST  II^IONY .  Ex.  38  : 
21.  These  terms  may  refer  to  the  Law, 
which  was  deposited  in  the  tabernacle, 
and  which  testified  to  God's  authority 
and  holiness,  Ex.  25  :  21,  or  they  may 
refer  to  the  revelations  which  God  made 


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of  himself  in  the  tabernacle,  and  by 
which  he  testified  his  presence  and  maj- 
esty in  the  most  sublime  and  mysterious 
manner. 

TAB'ERNACLES,  FEAST 
OF,  one  of  the  three  greatest  Jewish 
feasts.  The  law  for  it  is  laid  down  in 
Lev.  23  :  34-43,  Num.  29  :  12-40.  It 
was  designed  to  commemorate  the  long 
tent-life  of  the  Israelites  during  the 
Wandering.  The  feast  began  on  the 
fifteenth  day  of  the  seventh  month,  and 
lasted  eight  days — seven  for  the  feast 
and  one  day  for  a  "  solemn  assembly,"  a 
sabbath  of  rest.  In  Num.  29  :  12-39  the 
proper  sacrifices  for  each  day  are  given. 
During  the  whole  time,  the  people  dwelt 
in  booths.  Like  the  other  feasts,  the 
place  for  keeping  this  one  was  Jerusalem. 
The  city  must  have  presented  a  very 
animated  and  picturesque  appearance. 
The  booths  were  erected  on  the  tops  of 
houses,  in  the  courts  of  the  temple,  and 
in  the  streets  and  on  the  neighboring 
hills.  There  was  also  much  innocent 
mirth :  indeed,  it  was  distinguished 
for  this.  It  was  commanded  to  rejoice 
before  the  Lord.  On  the  first  and  last 
days  there  was  a  holy  convocation. 
Deut.  31  :  10-13  enjoins  the  reading  of 
the  Law  to  the  whole  people  every  sev- 
enth or  sabbatical  year  at  the  feast  of 
tabernacles.  This  regulation,  as  in- 
terpreted by  later  Jewish  practice,  is 
obeyed  by  reading,  on  the  first  day  of 
the  feast,  certain  portions  of  Deuteron- 
omy. 

In  Ex.  23  :  16  this  feast  is  called  "the 
feast  of  ingathering,"  because  it  came 
at  the  end  of  the  harvest,  15th  to  22d 
Tisri — September-October.  References 
to  the  observance  of  the  feast  are  found 
in  the  0.  T.  in  Neh.  8  :  13-18 ;  Hos.  12  : 
9 ;  Zech.  14  :  16-19,  and  in  the  N.  T.  in 
John  7  :  2,  37,  38.  In  the  latter  passage 
our  Lord  is  by  some  supposed  to  refer 
to  a  daily  custom  at  the  feast,  adopted 
in  later  times.  The  Israelites,  dressed 
in  holiday  clothes,  repaired  to  the  tem- 
ple at  the  time  of  morning  sacrifice.  A 
priest  then  took  a  golden  ewer,  holding 
about  two  pints  and  a  half,  went  to  the 
pool  of  Siloam,  filled  his  ewer,  and  re- 
turned to  the  temple  by  the  Water-gate. 
His  approach  was  the  signal  for  a  blast 
of  trumpets.  Before  the  people  he  as- 
cended the  steps  of  the  altar,  and  poured 
the  water  into  that  one  of  the  two  silver 
842 


basins  which  was  on  the  eastern  side. 
Into  the  other  wine  was  poured.  There 
were  small  openings  in  the  bottoms  of 
each,  and  so  the  two  streams  flowed, 
mingled  together,  through  pipes,  into 
the  Kidron.  But  on  the  eighth  day  this 
ceremony  was  omitted.  Hence  our  Lord 
on  that  day  offers  himself  to  the  people 
as  the  Source  of  living  waters. 

Again,  in  John  8:12,  some  see  an  al- 
lusion to  another  post-biblical  ceremony 
in  this  pre-eminently  popular  feast;  viz. 
to  the  torch-feast — /.  e.,  the  lighting  of 
the  great  golden  candelabras  in  the  court 
of  the  women  on  the  evening  of  the  first 
day  of  the  feast.  Before  them  the  men 
performed  a  torchlight  dance  with  music 
and  singing. 

TAB'ITHA  {gazelle),  an  exemplary 
disciple  of  Christ  at  Joppa,  whose  deeds 
of  benevolence  had  greatly  endeared  her 
to  the  people.  After  she  was  dead  and 
her  body  prepared  for  the  grave,  she 
was  miraculously  restored  to  life  through 
the  instrumentality  of  Peter.  Acts  9  : 
36-40. 

TA'BLE.  The  table  of  ancient 
times  was  nothing  but  a  circular  skin 
or  piece  of  leather  spread  upon  the  mat- 
ted or  carpeted  floor,  and  this,  at  home 
as  well  as  by  the  way,  answered  for  table 
and  cloth.  Near  the  edges  of  this  leath- 
ern tray  there  are  holes  or  loops,  through 
which,  when  the  meal  is  completed,  a 
cord  is  drawn,  by  means  of  which  the 
whole  aff"air  is  compressed  into  a  small 
compass  and  hung  upon  a  nail.  Bread 
was  kneaded  upon  it. 

The  nearest  approach  to  what  we  call 
a  table  is  a  mere  stool,  which  is  placed 
in  the  centre  of  the  leather  we  have 
mentioned.  This  might  be  intended  in 
Jud.  1  :  7.  Its  only  use  is  to  hold  the 
principal  dish  or  dishes.  There  have 
been  seen  among  the  Arabian  nobles  and 
in  cities  long  tables.  These,  however, 
were  only  a  span  high  and  not  a  yard 
wide,  and  were  entirely  uncovered,  and 
usually  held  nothing  but  the  dishes. 
More  frequently  all  such  conveniences 
are  wanting,  and  the  dishes  stand  on  the 
leather. 

Instead  of  a  table-cloth,  there  is  spread 
round  the  leathern  tray  a  long  cloth,  or 
two  such  cloths,  of  a  dark  color,  which 
prevent  the  soiling  of  the  carpet.  Among 
poorer  people  there  is  nothing  of  the  kind, 
and  every  one  uses  his  handkerchief  by 


TAB 


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way  of  napkin.  Instead  of  plates,  there 
are  set  thin,  round  cakes  of  a  coarse  kind. 

After  the  Captivity  raised  tables  like 
ours  became  common,  and  the  Persian 
practice  of  reclining  on  couches  at  meals 
was  introduced.  For  the  manner  of  sit- 
ting, see  Skats,  Eat. 

In  Mark  7  :  4  "tables"  is  a  mistrans- 
lation for  "bods"  or  "couches."  The 
"  writing-table  "  of  Zacharias,  Luke  1  : 
63,  was  a  waxed  tablet,  on  which  one 
wrote  with  a  stylus. 

TA'BLES,  TO  SERVE.  Acts  6  : 
2.  This  expression  may  denote  either 
actual  attendance  upon  the  gathering 
and  distribution  of  food  for  the  poor,  or 
attention  to  the  pecuniary  afi'airs  of  the 
church.  The  word  is  used  for  the  "  tables  " 
of  money-changers.  Matt.  21 :  12;  John 
2  :  15. 

TAB'LET.     See  Book,  Table. 

TA'BOR  {mouml,  height).  1.  A 
mountain  of  Palestine;  by  Greek  and 
Roman  writers  called  Itabyrion  and 
Atybyrion  ;  now  known  by  the  Arabic 
name  oi  Jehel  et-Tor.  Tabor  is  situated 
on  the  north-eastern  edge  of  the  great 
plain  of  Esdraelon,  and  on  the  borders 
between  Zebulun  and  Naphtali.  It  is  6 
miles  south  of  east  from  Nazareth,  and 
10  miles  south  of  west  from  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  Sea  of  Tiberias. 

History. — The  position  of  Tabor,  over- 
looking the  great  battle-plain  of  Pales- 
tine, Esdraelon,  made  it  a  suitable  place 
for  the  Israelites  to  assemble  for  battle. 
There  Barak  gathered  his  forces — 10,000 
men — for  the  overthrow  of  Sisera.  Jud. 

4  :  6-14.  Some  of  Israel's  warriors  had 
been  slain  there  by  the  Midianites  before 
Gideon's  victory.  Jud.  8  :  18.  Tabor  is 
extolled  with  Hermon  in  Ps.  89  :  12,  and 
mentioned  with  Carmel  in  Jer.  46  :  18. 
Idolatries  practised  upon  that  mountain 
were  a  "  net  spread  upon  Tabor."  llos. 

5  :  1.  Tabor  is  not  mentioned  in  the  N. 
T.  A  tradition  dating  certainl}'  as  early 
as  Origen  and  Jerome  made  this  the 
Mount  of  Transfiguration.  Mark  9  :  2- 
10.  But  the  summit  of  Tabor  must  at 
that  time  have  been  covered  with  houses, 
since  the  town  was  then  existing  which 
Antiochus  the  Great  founded,  b.  c.  218, 
on  the  top  of  the  hill.  Furthermore,  the 
Mount  of  Transfiguration  was  probabl}' 
in  the  region  of  C{«sarea-Philippi,  as  the 
transfiguration  occurred  only  a  few  days 
after  Christ  had  arrived  at  that  place  and 


solicited  the  great  confession  of  Peter. 
However,  the  legend  attached  to  Tabor 
led  to  the  erection,  before  the  entl  of 
the  sixth  century,  of  three  churches,  in 
memory  of  the  three  tabernacles.  After- 
ward the  Crusaders  erected  a  church  and 
a  monastery,  which  were  destroyed  by 
the  Muslims. 

PrcHoit  Appearance. — Mount  Tabor  is 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  moun- 
tains of  Palestine.  It  rises  from  the 
])lain  as  an  isolated  mass,  only  connected 
on  the  west  by  a  low  and  narrow  ridge 
with  the  hills  of  Nazareth.  Its  aj)]»car- 
ance  varies  with  the  ])oint  of  observation. 
From  the  south  it  has  the  form  of  a  dome 
or  the  arc  of  a  circle ;  from  the  west- 
north-west,  that  of  a  truncated  cone.  It 
rises  from  the  surrounding  table-land  to 
the  height  of  1053  feet,  and  its  suiumit 
is  2018  feet  above  the  Mediterranean. 
The  ascent  is  steep  and  rugged,  but 
persons  can  reach  the  summit  on  horse- 
back. The  time  required  for  ascending 
is  about  an  hour.  The  southern  slope  is 
of  barren  limestone  rock  ;  the  other  sides 
are  wooded  with  the  oak,  terebinth,  mock- 
orange,  and  trees  "  resembling  the  scat- 
tered glades  in  the  outskirts  of  the  New 
Forest."  The  soil  is  fertile,  yielding 
luxuriant  pasture.  Partridges,  hares, 
foxes,  and  other  kinds  of  game  abound. 
Porter  speaks  of  seeing  jackals,  wolves, 
and  a  panther  while  he  was  visiting  Ta- 
bor. The  mountain  has  a  flat  summit  a 
little  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long 
and  an  eighth  of  a  mile  wide.  Two 
monasteries  of  comparatively  modern 
date  occupy  the  top  of  the  hill,  one  be- 
longing to  the  (ireeks  and  the  other  to 
the  Latins.  There  are  also  ruins  of  tow- 
ers, fortifications,  vaults,  cisterns,  and 
other  structures  of  various  periods,  Jew- 
ish, Greek,  Roman,  Christian,  Saracenic, 
Frank,  and  Turk,  blended  together  in 
a  confused  mass.  The  view  from  the 
summit  of  Tabor  is  the  best  in  all  Cen- 
tral Palestine.  To  the  north  and  east 
are  Mount  Hermon,  the  Sea  of  (ialilec, 
the  mountains  of  Bashan  and  (iilcad; 
to  the  south  and  west,  the  great  plain 
of  Esdraelon,  (iilboa,  Carmel,  and  the 
Mediterranean.  Standing  on  this  spot, 
the  traveller  sees  why  Tabor  was  the 
gathering-place  of  the  northern  tribes, 
and  can  trace  out  the  great  battlefields 
below. 

2.  A  city  in  Zebulun,  assigned  to  the 

843 


TAB 


TAD 


Levites.     1   Chr.   6  :  77.     Probably  the 
same  as  Ohist.oth-tahor,  which  see. 
TABOR,    THE    PLAIN    OF. 

This  should  rather  be  the  "  oalv  "  or 
"terebinth  of  Tabor."  It  is  mentioned 
only  in  1  Sam.  10  :  ."5.  What  is  meant 
by  "  Tabor  "  it  is  im})ossible  to  say.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  "  the  oak  of 
Tabor "  was  the  same  as  the  "  Allon- 
bachuth"  the  oak  under  which  Deborah 
was  buried.  Gen.  35  :  8.  But  Conder 
proposes  to  identify  this  Tabor  with  el- 
Bukeia,  a  plain  south  of  Jerusalem. 

TAB'RET,     See  Timbrel. 

TAB'RIIION  {Rhnmon  is  hind), 
the  father  of  Benhadad  I.,  king  of  Syria, 
a  conte'tnporary  of  Asa,  king  of  Judah. 
1  Kgs.  16  :  18. 


TACIl'ES  were  hooks  or  clasps  of 
gold  and  cop|tor,  used  in  connecting  the 
curtains  of  the  tiibcriiaclc.  Ex.  26  :  <),  11. 

TACU'MOMTE,  a  ccrruj.tion  for 
*' llachmonite."  the  appellation  of.lasho- 
beani.  2  Sam.  23  :  8  ;  cf.  1  Chr.  11  :  11. 

TACK'LING.  Isa.  33:28;  Acts 
27  :  ly.  Strictly,  in  the  former  ]>as- 
sage,  it  is  used  for  the  ropes  attached 
to  the  mast :  in  the  latter  it  is  used 
loosely,  and  imports  the  sails,  cordage, 
baggage,  and  indeed  all  the  instruments 
of  sailing  except  the  anchors  or  what 
was  indispensable  to  the  preservation 
of  the  ship. 

TAD'MOR(neb.  rawKn-," palms"), 
a  city  in  the  wilderness,  built  bv  Solomon. 
1  Kgs.  9:18;  2  Chr.  8  :  4.     There  is  no 


Temple  of  tlie  Suu. 


>tri;ut  ul    C.uluiiiu.i 


Tadinor  (I'aluiyiuj. 


other  Scripture  mention  of  this  city,  and 
hence  no  other  clue  to  its  site  or  after- 
history.  It  has  usually  been  identified 
with  the  famous  city  of  Palmyra.  Some 
critics,  indeed,  assert  that  there  is  little 
authority  for  the  insertion  of  the  letter  d 
in  the  name  mentioned  in  these  passages, 
and  would  make  the  place  built  rather 
Tamar,  on  the  south  of  the  confines  of 
Judah.  Eze.  47  :  19.  Palmyra  was  within 
the  extensive  empire  of  Solomon,  and 
it  is  most  natural  to  identify  Tadmor 
with  it. 

SiUintion. — Palmyra  occupied  the  most 
favorable  position  on  the  great  caravan- 


route  between  the  rich  cities  of  the  East 
and  the  ports  of  the  Mediterranean.  A 
spring  of  good  water  makes  it  a  natural 
halting-place.  It  was  120  miles  north- 
east of  Damascus  and  00  miles  from  the 
Euphrates,  according  to  the  /illdiru/  Edu- 
cator, but  Baedeker's  Htiinlhoo/c  makes 
it  a  five  days'  journey  with  camels,  in 
long.  38°  no''  E.  and  lat.  33°  o8'  N. 

IlixtDri/. — Palmyra  has  no  Scripture 
history,  and  hence  only  a  brief  sketch 
of  it  need  be  given  here.  It  was  men- 
tioned by  Pliny,  Josephus,  Jerome,  and 
other  early  writers.  About  A.  i).  200  it 
became  famous  in  Roman  history  from 

84a 


TAH 


TAH 


Zenobia,  "the  Queen  of  the  East,"  a 
woman  of  extraordinary  ability.  After 
the  assassination  of  her  husband,  Oden- 
athus,  she  ruled  the  realm,  and  under 
her  Palmyra  reached  the  height  of  its 
glory,  extending  its  supremacy  over 
Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  even  parts  of 
Egypt.  She  was  subdued  by  the  Ro- 
man emperor  Aurelian,  and  led  through 
the  streets  of  Rome  to  grace  the  empe- 
ror's triumphal  procession.  The  inhab- 
itants of  Palmyra  afterward  revolted, 
and  were  slain  in  great  numbers  by  the 
Romans.  Later,  Palmyra  was  merely 
a  frontier-town  in  the  direction  of  the 
wilderness,  fortified  by  Justinian.  In 
1173  the  rabbi  Benjamin  of  Tudela 
found  a  considerable  colony  of  Jews 
there.  It  then  fell  into  oblivion  until 
visited  by  members  of  the  English 
factory  at  Aleppo,  in  1678.  Since  then 
the  city  has  been  explored  and  de- 
scribed by  many  travellers. 

Present  Cotidition. — Porter  says  :  "  In 
describing  the  ruins  of  Palmyra,  it 
would  be  almost  impossible  to  exag- 
gerate. There  is  nothing  like  them 
in  the  world.  In  no  other  spot  in  the 
world  can  we  find  such  vast  numbers 
of  temples,  palaces,  colonnades,  tombs, 
and  monuments  grouped  together  so  as 
to  be  seen  at  a  single  glance.  The  ruins 
extend  over  a  plain  about  .3  or  4  miles  in 
circuit.     The  most  noteworthy  are, 

"  1.  The  Temple  of  the  Sun. — This  was 
dedicated  to  Baal.  The  edifice  was  en- 
closed by  an  outer  wall,  256  yards  in 
length  and  50  feet  high,  flanked  by 
pilasters  68  feet  high.  On  the  north 
side  this  wall  is  still  tolerably  pre- 
served. Round  the  whole  of  the  inte- 
rior ran  a  double  colonnade  or  cloister 
like  that  surrounding  the  court  of  the 
Gentiles  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 
The  number  of  columns  was  three 
hundred  and  ninety.  Near  the  centre 
of  the  court  is  the  temple  proper,  65 
yards  long  and  34  yards  wide,  and  still 
well  preserved.  In  the  great  court  is 
an  Arab  village  of  some  Mty  houses. 

"2.  The  Street  of  Co/nmuH.— This  ex- 
tends from  the  temple  of  the  Sun  west- 
ward across  the  plain,  through  the  cen- 
tre of  the  ancient  city.  It  was  1240  yards 
in  length,  and  consisted  of  rows  of  col- 
umns 55  feet  high.  Wood  thought  there 
were  four  rows  of  columns,  making  the 
original  number  about  fifteen  hundred. 
846 


Baedeker  supposes  a  double  row  having 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  columns.  About 
one  hundred  and  fifty  of  these  are  yet 
existing. 

"3.  The  Tomhs. — Some  of  these  are  of 
great  magnificence,  and  appear  to  have 
been  intended  for  temples  as  well  as 
tombs.  The  inscriptions  show  that 
these  tombs  mostly  belong  to  the  first 
three  centuries  of  our  era.  The  an- 
cient name  is  still  retained  in  the  form 
of   Thadnior." 

TA'HAN  (station,  camp),  an  Ephra- 
imite.  Num.  26  :  35  ;   1  Chr.  7  :  25. 

TA'HANITES,  the  descendants 
of   Tahan.    Num.  26  :  35. 

TAHAP'ANES.  Jer.  2  :  f5.  See 
Tahpanhes. 

TA'HATH  {statio7i).  1.  A  Levite. 
1  Chr.  6  :  24,  37. 

2,  3.  Two  Ephraimites.  1  Chr.  7  :  20. 

TA'HATH  (place,  station),  one  of 
the  camping-stations  of  Israel  in  the 
wilderness.  Num.  33  :  26,  27.  Palmer 
notes  that  the  difiiculty  at  Kibroth-hat- 
taavah  began  with  the  mixed  multitude, 
"or  riffraff,"  and  he  found  a  Wddy  Tah- 
meh,  and  "  Tahmeh"  denotes,  in  Arabic, 
"  a  mixed  multitude  in  a  state  of  sedition." 
Tahath  is  probably  to  be  found  in  the 
region  of  the  Tyahah  Arabs,  and  at 
Jebel  et-  Tih. 

TAH'PANHES,  a  city  on  the 
Tanitic  branch  of  the  Nile,  in  Lower 
Egypt,  and  called  Tahapanes  and  Te- 
haphnehes  ;  possibly  the  Hanes  of  Isa. 
30  :  4;  Jer.  2  :  16':  43  :  7,  8,  9 ;  44  : 
1;  46:14;  Eze.  30:18.  The  name 
resembles  that  of  the  Egyptian  queen 
Tahpenes,  referred  to  in  1  Kgs.  11  :  18- 
20.  Jeremiah,  after  the  murder  of  Ged- 
aliah,  was  taken  to  this  place,  and  Pha- 
raoh had  a  palace  built  or  restored  there, 
made  of  clay  in  a  brick-kiln.  The  chil- 
dren of  Noph  (Memphis)  and  of  Taha- 
panhes  are  used  to  represent  the  entire 
body  of  the  'Egyptians.  Jer.  2:16.  It 
is  identical  with  the  Daphne  of  the 
Greeks.  The  site  of  Daphne  is  sup- 
posed to  be  marked  by  a  mound  called 
Tel  Defenneh,  which  lies  nearly  in  a 
direct  line  Jjetween  the  modern  Zan 
and  Plusiura. 

TAH'PENES  (head  of  the  world?), 
the  queen  of  Egypt,  whose  sister  Hadad 
married.  1  Kgs.  11 :  18-20.  The  Pharaoh 
belonged  to  the  twenty-second  dynasty. 

TAHRE'A  {cunning),  a  descendant 


TAH 


TAN 


of  Saul,  1  Chr.  9  :  41  :  called  Tarea  in 
8  :  35. 

TAH'TIM-HOD'SHI,  THE 
LAND  OF.  This  is  admitted  to  be 
an  inaccurate  text,  but  neither  the  Sep- 
tuagint  nor  the  Syriac  version  throws 
light  on  the  true  reading.  The  land 
was  visited  by  Joab  while  taking  the 
census  of  the  land  of  Israel.  2  Sam. 
24  :  6.  Some  make  it  a  proper  name, 
some  translate  it  as  above  ;  others  trans- 
late the  first  part,  and  make  "  Hodshi  " 
a  proper  name.  This  is  done  by  Fiirst, 
who  makes  llodshi  a  city  in  Northern 
Palestine.  Porter  (in  Kitto)  says  it  was 
manifestly  a  section  of  the  upper  valley 
of  the  Jordan,  probably  that  now  called 
Ard-el-HUlefi,  lying  deep  down  at  the 
western  base  of  Hermon.  Merrill  locates 
it  at  the  south  rnd  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

TAL'ENT.     See  Measures. 

TAL'ITHA-CU'MI,  a  phrase  in 
the  Syro-Chaldaic  language,  the  lit- 
eral translation  of  which  is  given  by 
the  evangelist:  "Damsel"  (or  "maid- 
en"), "arise."  Mark  5  :  41.  Several 
scholars  contend  that  Taleitha  Knm  is 
the  true  reading,  corresponding  with 
the  Aramaic  and  with  similar  phrases 
in  the  Talmud. 

TAL'MAI  (brotherl,/).  1.  A  son  of 
Anak.  Num.  13  :  22  ;  Josh.  15  :  14;  Jud. 
1:10. 

2.  A  king  of  Geshur,  father-in-law  of 
David.  2  Sam.  3  :  3. 

TAL'MOIV  (oppressed),  a  Levite, 
one  6f  the  head-doorkeepers  in  the  tem- 
ple, whose  descendants  returned  with 
Zerubbabel.  1  Chr.  9:17;  Ezr.  2  :  42 ; 
Neh.  7  :  45:  11  :  19:  12  :  25. 

TAL'ItIUD,THE  (teachhu,).  This 
body  of  Jewish  laws  upon  all  topics  is 
divided  into  two  parts — the  Mishnn,  or 
the  text,  and  the  Gemarn,  or  commentary. 
The  Mishna  ("repetition")  is  a  collec- 
tion of  various  Jewish  traditions,  with 
expositions  of  Scripture-texts.  These,  the 
Jews  pretend,  were  delivered  to  Moses 
on  the  mount,  and  were  transmitted  from 
him,  through  Aaron.Eleazar,  and  Joshua, 
to  the  prophets,  and  by  them  to  the  men 
of  the  Great  Synagogue  and  their  suc- 
cessors until  the  second  Christian  cen- 
tury,when  Rabbi  Jehuda  reduced  them  to 
writing,  and  so  he  is  the  collector  of  the 
existing  Mishna.  The  Gemara  ("teach- 
ing") is  the  whole  body  of  controversies 
and  teachings  which  arose  in  the  acade- 


mies after  the  close  of  the  Mishna.  There 
are  two  of  them,  known,  in  connection 
with  the  Mishna,  as  the  .Jerusalem  Tal- 
mud (third  and  fifth  century),  j)rcpared 
by  the  rabbis  of  Tiberias,  and  the  Baby- 
lonian Talmud  (fifth  century). 

The  Talmud  is  useful  as  an  aid  in 
studying  the  teaching  of  Christ.  It 
explains  some  of  his  allusions,  and,  as 
a  Teacher  sent  from  (Jod,  proves  his 
unique  superiority  to  the  Jewish  doc- 
tors of  the  Law. 

TA'MAH  {/<fu;/h(r.r),  the  ancestor  of 
Nethinim  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel, 
Neh.  7  :  55  :  called  Thamah  in  Ezr.  2  :  53. 

TA'MAR  {j>'ilm  tree).  1.  The  wife 
of  Er  and  Onan  successively,  the  sons 
of  Judah.  The  patriarch  refused  to  give 
her  his  remaining  son,  Shelah,  and  there- 
fore Tamar.  in  order  to  remove  the  re- 
proach of  childlessness,  and  likewise  to 
be  revenged  on  Judah,  contrived  to  in- 
duce the  latter  to  unintentionally  commit 
incest.     The  story  is  told  in  Gen.  38. 

2.  The  sister  of  Absalom,  whom  Am- 
non,  by  artifice,  defiled.  2  Sam.  13;  1 
Chr.  3  :  9. 

3.  A  daughter  of  Absalom.  2  Sam. 
14  :  27. 

TA'MAR  (prthn  tree),  a  place  on  the 
south-eastern  frontier  of  Judah.  Eze. 
47  :  19  :  48  :  28.  According  to  Eusebius 
and  Jerome,  it  was  a  day's  journey  south 
of  Hebron  toward  Elim.  Robinson  iden- 
tified it  with  the  ruins  of  Kiiniuh,  about 
a  day's  journey  south  of  el-Mllh  (Mala- 
tha  or  Maladah) :  Wilton  identifies  it  with 
Hazar-gaddah  ;  but  both  these  sites  are 
as  yet  only  conjectural.  Some  suppose 
that  this,  instead  of  Palmyra,  was  the 
"  Tadmor  in  the  wilderness "  built  by 
Solomon.     See  Tadmor. 

TAM'MUZ  [xpront  of  life),  probably 
the  same  with  the  Adonis  of  (Grecian 
mythology,  who  was  fabled  to  have  been 
killed  by  a  wild  boar  while  hunting,  and 
to  have  been  passionately  bewailed  by 
Venus.  The  worship  of  Tammuz,  as 
conducted  in  Syria,  was  accom])anied 
with  obscene  rites.  It  took  place  in 
Julv.    Eze.   8  :  14. 

TA'NACH.     Josh.    21  :  25.       See 

TaANAc  II. 

TAN'HUMETH  {r„mfort),  the 
father  of  a  cajjtain  under  Gedaliah. 
2  Kgs.  25  :  23  :  Jer.  40  :  8. 

TA'NIS.  Eze.  30  :  14,  margin.     See 

Zoa.n. 

847 


TAN 


TAR 


TAN'NER.  The  occupation  of 
tanning  was  considered  disreputable  in 
antiquity,  especially  by  the  Jews.  Ac- 
cordingly, tanners  were  obliged  to  carry 
on  their  trade  outside  of  the  town,  as  is 
the  case  in  the  East  at  the  present  day. 
Peter  showed  his  independence  in  stop- 
ping with  Simon,  a  tanner,  at  Joppa. 
Acts  9  :  43. 

TA'PHATH  {drop),  Solomon's 
daughter,  who  married  the  son  of 
Abinadab.    1   Kgs.  4  :  11. 

TAP'PUAH  {apple  tree),  a  de- 
scendant of  Judah.    1  Chr.  2  :  43. 

TAP'PUAH  {apple-region),  a  name 
for  two  places. 

1.  A  city  in  the  plain-country  of 
Judah,  Josh.  15  :  34 ;  probably  the  same 
as  Beth-tappuah,  now  Teffuh,  4  miles 
north-north-west  of  Hebron.  Ganneau 
suggested  its  identity  with  Artnf. 

2.  A  place  on  the  border  of  Ephraim 
and  Manasseh,  Josh.  16  :  8 ;  17  :  8  ,• 
probably  the  same  as  En-tappuah.  Josh. 
17  :  7.  Around  the  city  was  a  district 
called  the  land  of  Tappuah ;  the  city 
belonged  to  Ephraim,  and  the  land  to 
Manasseh.  Josh.  17  :  8.  It  was  ap- 
parently near  the  torrent  Kanah,  but 
has  not  been  identified.  Which  of  the 
two  places  above  mentioned  is  referred 
to  in  Josh.  12  :  17  is  uncertain. 

TA'RAH  {station),  a  station  of  the 
Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  between 
Tahath  and  Milcah,  Num.  33  :  27,  28  ; 
possibly  in  the  region  of  the  Tawarah 
Arabs. 

TAR'ALAH  {a  reeling),  a  city  in 
Benjamin,  between  Irpeel  and  Zelah. 
Josh.  18  :  27. 

TA'REA  {flight).     See  Tahrea. 

TARES,  bearded  darnel  {Lolium 
temulentam),  a  grass  sometimes  found  in 
our  own  grain-fields,  but  very  common 
in  Eastern  countries.  Matt.  13  :  25. 
Until  the  head  appears  its  resemblance 
to  wheat  is  very  close.  The  seed  is 
noxious,  even  when  ground  with  wheat 
in  small  quantities  producing  dizziness, 
and  in  larger  proportions  convulsions 
and  death.  Many  instances  of  such 
pernicious  effects  are  on  record,  some 
having  been  observed  in  England. 
Owing  to  its  smaller  size,  the  grain 
of  tares  is  readily  separated  from  wheat 
by  winnowing.  Travellers  describe  the 
process  of  pulling  up  this  grass  and 
separating  it  from  the  genuine  grain, 
848 


Tares. 

and  their  descriptions  perfectly  accord 
with  the  language  of  our  Saviour  in 
the  parable. 

T  AR'GET.  1  Sam.  17  :  6.  See  Armor. 

TAR'PELITES,  THE,  an  As- 
syrian people  sent  to  colonize  Samaria. 
Ezr.  4  :  9. 

TAR'SHISH,  AND  THAR'- 
SHISH  {rodqi  ground?).  1  Kgs.  10: 
22 ;  22  :  48.  In  the  genealogies  given 
in  Genesis  we  find  "Elishah  and  Tar- 
shish,  Kittim  and  Dodanim.  By  these 
were  the  isles  of  the  Gentiles  divided  in 
their  lands."  Gen.  10  :  4,  5.  We  read 
of  "the  kings  of  Tarshish  and  of  the 
isles."  Ps.  72:10.  Solomon's  "ships 
went  to  Tarshish  with  the  servants  of 
Huram  ;  every  three  years  once  came 
the  ships  of  Tarshish,  bringing  gold 
and  silver,  ivory,  and  apes,  and  pea- 
cocks." 2  Chr.  9  :  21.  Tarshish  is  men- 
tioned with  dintfint  places:  "The  isles 
afar  off."  Isa.  66:19.  It  must  have  been 
on  the  seacoast,  for  we  frequently  read 
of  the  "  ships  "  and  the  "  navy  "  of  Tar- 
shish. See  1  Kgs.  10  :  22 ;  Ps.  48  :  7  ; 
Isa.  2  :  16 ;  23  :  1,  14  ;  60  :  9  ;  Eze.  27 : 
25.  It  was  the  seat  of  a  vast  and  profit- 
able commerce  with  Tyre.  Eze.  27  : 
12-25.  Jonah  embarked  from  Joppa 
for  Tarshish.   Jon.  1:3;  4:2. 


TAR 


TAX 


Situatiou. — There  has  been  much  dis- 
cussion as  to  the  site  of  Tarshish. 

1.  Some  have  identilied  it  with  Tarsus 
in  Cilicia.  There  is  a  similarity  in  the 
names,  and  there  has  always  existed  an 
extensive  commerce  between  Joppa  and 
Tarsus,  so  that  vessels  were  constantly 
passing  from  one  port  to  the  other.  The 
Arabs  identify  Tarshish  with  Tarsus. 
But  this  opinion  is  very  slenderly 
supported. 

2.  Most  scholars  would  identify  Tar- 
shish with  the  southern  part  of  Spain 
and  with  Tartessus.  This  was  a  Phoe- 
nician colony,  the  emporium  for  the 
products  of  Spain  as  well  as  the  Phoe- 
nician depot  for  the  exports  from  Great 
Britain.  Thus  there  was  an  extensive 
trade  in  the  various  products  mentioned 
as  carried  by  the  ships  of  Tarshish. 
Eze.  27  :  12;  comp.  Jer.  10  :  9.  But 
from  the  fact  that  ships  of  Tarshish 
sailed  also  from  Ezion-geber,  on  the  Red 
Sea,  1  Kgs.  9:26;  22  :  48 ;  2  Chr.  9  : 
21 ;  20  :  36,  some  have  inferred  that 
there  was  also  a  Tarshish  in  the  re- 
mote East.  Others,  however,  suppose 
that  "  ships  of  Tarshish  "  was  the  gen- 
eral name  for  a  certain  class  of  vessels 
fitted  for  long  voyages,  like  the  British 
East  Indiamen,  and  hence  not  neces- 
sarily trading  to  an  Eastern  port  of 
the  name  of  Tarshish. 

TAR'SUS,  celebrated  as  the  birth- 
place of  the  apostle  Paul.  Acts  9:11, 
30  ;  11  :  25  :  21  :  39  :  22  :  3.  It  was  the 
capital  of  Cilioia,  in  Asia  Minor,  and 
**  no  mean  city."  It  stood  in  the  centre 
of  a  spacious  and  fertile  plain,  12  miles 
from  the  Mediterranean,  "which  lay  to  the 
south,  and  about  the  same  distance  from 
the  Taurus  range,  on  the  north.  The 
city  stood  on  both  banks  of  the  river 
Cydnus,  which  has  since  changed  its 
channel.  At  the  mouth  of  the  river 
were  docks,  and  the  port  of  Tarsus 
was  a  place  of  much  commerce,  being, 
indeed,  identified  by  some  writers  with 
Tarshish,  which  see. 

Tarsus  was  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  the  Assyrian  Sardanapalus.  It  suf- 
fered severely  during  the  civil  wars  fol- 
lowing the  assassination  of  Ca?sar.  Au- 
gustus made  it  a  free  city.  It  jiossessed 
a  Roman  stadium  and  gymnasium,  and 
became  famous  as  the  seat  of  one  of 
the  three  great  universities  of  the  pagan 
world,  ranking  next  to  Athens  and 
54 


Alexandria.  The  imperial  family  of 
Rome  selected  tutors  from  the  literati 
of  Tarsus.  Ilence  the  boyhood  of  the 
apostle  Paul  was  ])asse(l  in  a  city  not 
only  of  great  commercial  importance, 
but  one  oflering  opportunities  for  secu- 
lar learning  as  well.  The  modern  city 
is  called  TeiHous.  It  stands  about  a 
mile  from  the  Cydnus,  and  is  a  mean 
Turkish  town  with  narrow  and  filthy 
streets  and  low,  flat-roofed  houses.  The 
population  is  about  30,000  during  the 
winter  season.  In  summer  it  is  re- 
duced to  4000  or  5000  by  the  migration 
of  the  inhabitants  on  account  of  the 
miasma,  which  renders  the  city  un- 
healthy. 

TAR'TAK  {prince  of  darkness),  one 
of  the  gods  of  the  Arvites,  colonists 
whom  Shalmaneser  placed  in  Samaria 
to  occupy  the  land  after  the  original 
inhabitants  had  been  removed.  2  Kgs. 
17  :  31.  It  has  been  identified  with 
the  Accadian  god  Turtak,  who  specially 
watched  over  the  Tigris. 

TAR'TAN.  2  Kgs.  18  :  17.  It  is 
the  name  of  an  office — commander-in- 
chief  of  an  army — not  a  proper  name. 

TAT'NAI  {(jifi),  a  Persian  governor 
in  Palestine.  Ezr*.  5  :  3,  6 ;  6:6,  13. 

TAVERNS,  THE  THREE,  a 
place  where  some  of  the  "brethren" 
came  to  meet  Paul  on  his  journey  to 
Rome,  and  by  their  coming  the  apostle 
took  fresh  courage.  Acts  28  :  13-15. 
It  was  on  the  Appian  Way,  33  miles 
south-east  from  Rome,  and  10  miles 
from  Appii  Forum.  It  was  also  at  the 
junction  of  the  road  from  Antium, 
and  a  great  number  of  travellers  passed 
through  it.  It  may  have  taken  its  name 
from  the  three  taverns  or  places  of  re- 
freshment for  travellers.  But  Luke  docs 
not  translate  the  Roman  word,  but  simply 
transfers  it  into  Greek  as  "  Tres  Ta- 
bernto."  There  are  no  remains  of  The 
Three  Taverns  by  name  at  the  present 
day,  but  the  site  may  be  placed  near 
the  modern  Cisterna. 

TAXES.  As  the  government  of  the 
Jews  shifted  from  the  lax  rule  of  the 
Judges  to  the  firmer  hold  of  the  kings, 
and  from  a  domestic  to  a  foreign  power, 
the  taxes  and  the  mode  of  their  collec- 
tion likewise  altered.  Taxes  were  first 
exacted  for  religious  purposes — for  the 
supj)ort  of  the  priests  and  Levites. 
They  were    called    the    Tithks,    First- 

849 


TAX 


TAX 


FRUITS,  and  the  Redemption-money 
(see  separate  titles).  ''The  payment 
by  each  Israelite  of  the  half  shekel  as 
atonement-money  for  the  service  of  the 
tabernacle  on  taking  the  census  of  the 
people,  Ex.  30  :  13,  does  not  appear  to 
have  had  the  character  of  a  recurring 
tax,  but  to  have  been  supplementary  to 
the  freewill-offering  levied  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  sacred  tent."  Ex.  25  : 
1-7.  The  taxes  were  light;  when  the 
Jews  got  a  king  their  burdens  were 
largelj'  increased.  In  addition  to  forced 
military  service,  heavy  taxes  were  laid 
upon  the  productions,  monopolies  sprang 
up.  1  Kgs.  10  :  28,  29.  We  find  the  most 
detailed  account  of  these  taxes  in  the 
history  of  Solomon's  reign,  but  doubt- 
less the  same  phenomena  appeared  in 
all  subsequent  reigns.  Great  complaints 
were  made.  1  Kgs.  12  :  4.  The  idolatry 
of  the  king  occasioned  less  anxiety  than 
his  extravagance.  The  pocket  is  touched 
sooner  than  the  heart.  The  Persians, 
like  all  conquerors,  required  the  con- 
quered to  pay  heavily.  A  wise  man 
like  Nehemiah  did  what  he  could  to 
lessen  the  evils,  but  he  was  only  par- 
tially successful.  He  exercised  economy, 
and  refused  for  himself  the  usual  sup- 
plies furnished  for  the  governor.  Neh. 
5  :  14.  Read  Neh.  5:1-11  for  a  sad 
picture  of  the  times.  This  taxation 
led,  apparently,  to  such  a  neglect  of 
the  tithes  that  a  special  poll-tax  of 
one-third,  Neh.  10  :  33,  afterward  in- 
creased to  one-half,  a  shekel  was  laid 
for  the  temple-services.  The  latter 
amount  was  exacted  in  N.  T.  times. 
Matt.  17  :  24. 

During  the  GrEeco-Egyptian  period, 
which  followed,  there  was  a  continuance 
of  oppression,  owing  to  the  wretched 
sj'stem  of  "farming"  the  revenues. 
This,  of  course,  led  to  incalculable 
troubles.  After  the  Romans  had  made 
themselves  masters  of  Palestine  they 
left  the  collection  of  the  taxes  to  the 
native  kings,  who  were  required  to  send 
a  large  tribute  yearly  to  Rome.  But 
when  the  Jewish  kings  gave  way  to 
Roman  governors,  then  the  system  of 
tax-collection  so  familiar  to  us  by  the 
N.  T.  came  into  vogue.  It  was  a  tax 
on  poll  and  ground,  on  product  of  field 
and  hand.  "  There  were  duties  to  be 
paid  at  harbors  and  the  gates  of  cities, 
and  there  was  also  a  house-tax  in  Jeru- 
850 


salem,  but  Agrippa  I.  remitted  it." 
Under  these  payments  the  people 
groaned,  but  particularly  because  it 
was  a  galling  proof  of  their  subjection. 

TAXING,  DAYS  OF  THE, 
mentioned  in  Luke  2  :  2.  Properly  it 
was  an  enrolment,  like  our  census,  but, 
as  its  object  was  taxation,  there  was  a 
registration  of  property.  It  was  held, 
under  an  imperial  order,  through  all  the 
Roman  world.  We  read  of  another  en- 
rolment in  Acts  5  :  37.  That  Joseph  and 
Mary  were  enrolled  proves  that  the  Ro- 
man and  the  Jewish  usages  were  em- 
ployed— tribal  registration,  which  was 
the  Jewish  usage,  supplemented  by  fam- 
ily, "  for  the  Romans  required  the  enrol- 
ment of  women,  and  possibly  their  actual 
presence  at  the  place  of  enrolment.  This 
mixture  of  Roman  and  Jewish  usage,  so 
likely  to  occur  in  an  enrolment  made 
under  a  Jewish  king,  yet  by  order  of  the 
Roman  emperor,  is  a  strong  proof  of  the 
accuracy  of  Luke's  account."  And  yet 
upon  this  circumstance  depended  the 
Bethlehemic  birth  of  Jesus  !  "  The  Sa- 
viour of  the  world  was  registered  in  the 
first  census  of  the  world."  There  is  no 
direct  proof  that  Augustus  ordered  a 
universal  census,  but  it  is  reasonably 
inferred,  from  the  known  fact  that  he 
prepared  a  list  of  all  the  resources  of 
his  empire,  which  was  read  in  the 
senate  after  his  death.  Herod  mani- 
festly could  not  resist  such  an  order, 
inasmuch  as  he  was  but  a  tributary 
king.  And,  as  Dr.  Woolsey  says,  "if 
the  census  was  made  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  president  of  Syria,  by  Jew- 
ish officers,  it  would  not  greatly  differ 
from  a  similar  registration  made  by 
Herod,  nor  need  it  have  alarmed  the 
Jews  if  carefully  managed." 

The  interesting  question  in  connection 
with  this  enrolment  is,  "  How  can  we 
vindicate  the  veracity  of  Scripture  in  say- 
ing that  it  was  first  made  when  Cyreni- 
us  (P.  Sulpicius  Quirinius)  was  governor 
of  Syria?"  To  this  question,  for  a  long 
time,  no  definite  answer  could  be  given. 
It  formed  one  of  the  commonplaces  of 
infidelity.  Josephus  states  that  Quirinius 
came  to  Judaea  as  imperial  legate,  and 
in  A.  D.  6  or  7  he  completed  a  census. 
But  this  date  is  ten  years  after  our  Lord's 
birth.  The  best  explanation  of  the 
difficulty  is  to  maintain  that  Quirinius 
was  twice  governor  of  Syria,  as  lately 


Tea 


TEL 


proved — the  first  time  before  Christ's 
birth,  or  B.  c.  4-1 ;  the  second  time, 
A.  D.  6  onward.     See  Cyrenius. 

TEARS.  Allusion  is  supposed  to 
be  made  in  Ps.  66  :  8  to  an  ancient 
custom,  which  was  preserved  among  tiie 
Romans,  of  collecting  the  falling  tears 
of  mourners  at  funerals  and  putting 
them  into  a  bottle  or  urn,  called  a 
"  lachrj'matory."  or  "tear-bottle."  The 
vessel  was  afterward  fixed  upon  the 
sepulchres  of  the  dead,  thus  seeming  to 
preserve  a  memorial  of  the  afi'ection  and 
grief  of  the  survivors. 

TE'BAH  {slaughter),  eldest  of  the 
sons  of  Nahor  by  his  concubine  Reumah. 
Gen.  22  :  24. 

TEBALI'AH  {Jehovah  purifies), 
third  son  of  Uosah,  of  the  children  of 
Merari.  1  Chr.  26  :  11. 

TE'BETH.  Esth.2:16.  See  Month. 

TEETH.  Gen.  49  :  12.     See  Tooth. 

TEHAPH'NEHES.  Eze.  30  .  18. 
See  Tahpanhes. 

TEHIN'NAH  {cr,,  for  mercy),  the 
father  or  founder  of  Ir-nahash — the  city 
of  Nahash — and  son  of  Eshton.  1  Chr. 
4:12. 

TEIL  TREE.  The  word  thus 
rendered  in  Isa.  6  :  13  is  translated 
"elm"  in  Hos.  4:13  and  "oak"  in 
many  passages,  which  are  mentioned 
under  Oaks.  See  also  Nuts.  In  most, 
perhaps  all,  of  these  places  the  terebinth 
{Pistacia  of  several  species)  is  doubtless 
meant. 

This  tree  has  pinnate  leaves,  small 
red  berries,  and  belongs  to  the  order  of 
the  sumac.  According  to  the  writer's 
observation,  the  terebinth  was  most 
abundant  fn  the  North  of  Palestine,  and 
especially  above  Lake  Merom,  where 
some  of  these  trees  were  very  sym- 
metrical, dense,  and  spreading,  with 
luxuriant  foliage  of  a  blue-green,  afford- 
ing a  delightful  shelter,  if  not  appropri- 
ated as  Arab  burying-places.  Such 
specimens  show  that  the  terebinth,  if 
suffered  to  reach  age,  is  a  noble  tree,  and 
that  Absalom  might  easily  have  been 
caught  in  riding  under  one  of  them.  It 
is  an  Eastern  idea  that  this  tree  lives  a 
thousand  years,  and  when  it  dies  the  race 
is  renewed  by  young  shoots  from  the 
root;  so  that  the  tree  may,  in  a  sense, 
be  called  perpetual.  Hence  the  allusion 
in  Isa.  6:13. 

"  In  Smyrna,  Constantinople,  and  other 


Eastern  cities  the  cypress  overshadows 
the  Muslim's  grave,  but  the  terebinth 
the  Armenian's.  They  say  that  this 
homeless  j)eople  brougbt  this  tree  with 
them  from  the  shores  of  Lake  Van,  and 
love  to  see  those  who  are  dear  to  them 
sheltered  in  their  last  sleep  by  its  ances- 
tral shiide." —  Warhnrton. 

TE'KEL.  Dan.  5  :  25.     See  Menk. 

TEKO'A,  AND  TEKO'AH  ( pitch- 
ing of  tents/),  a  city  on  the  borders  of 
the  desert  to  which  it  gave  its  name: 
"  The  wilderness  of  Tekoah."  2  Chr.  20  : 
20  ;  Jer.  6:1.    It  was  colonized  by  Asher, 

1  Chr.  2  :  24  ;  4:5;  fortified  by  Reho- 
boam.  2  Chr.  11 :  6.  The  "wise  woman" 
who  interceded  for  Absalom  resided  here, 

2  Sam.  14  :  2,  4,  9,  and  here  also  was  the 
birthplace  and  residence  of  the  prophet 
Amos.  Am.  1  :  1.  Tekoa  was  situated 
about  5  miles  south  of  Bethlehem,  at  a 
place  still  called  Tek'na,  on  a  broad  hill- 
top. The  region  is  bleak  and  desolate, 
and  the  inhabitants  wild  and  uncivil. 
There  is  a  fine  view  toward  the  east,  and 
the  Dead  Sea  is  visible.  "  The  ruins  at 
this  place  are  extensive  [covering  4  or  5 
acres],  but  uninteresting.  To  the  east 
are  many  excavated  caves  and  cisterns, 
but  the  town  itself  is  simply  a  heap  of 
ruins,  the  stones  of  which  are  small  and 
friable."  There  are  ruins  of  a  Greek 
church  and  baptismal  font  and  of  a  fort- 
ress. 

TEKO'ITES,  inhabitants  of  Te- 
koa. 2  Sam.  23  :  26;  1  Chr.  11  :  28  ;  27  : 
9:  Neh.  3  :  5,  27. 

TEL'ABIB  {corn-hill),  a  city  of 
Chalda-a  or  Babylonia,  on  the  river 
Chebar,  the  residence  of  Ezekiel.  Eze. 
3:  15. 

TE'LAH  {breach),  an  Ephraimite. 
1   Chr.  7  :  25. 

TEIi'AIM  (i/onng  lambx),  the  place 
where  Saul  collected  and  numbered  his 
host  before  his  attack  on  Amalek.  1  Sam. 
15  :  4.  Possibly  it  may  be  identical  with 
Telem,  as  suggested  by  Wilton,  who  sup- 
poses it  to  have  been  at  El  A'useir,  a 
ruin  between  the  Dead  Sea  and  Beer- 
sheha.     See  Tei.em. 

TELAS'SAR,  and  TIIELA'SAR 
{the  hill  of  Axxhnr),  a  jilace  inhabited  by 
the  "children  of  Eden  "  and  subdued  by 
the  Assyrians.  2  Kgs.  19  :  12;  Isa.  37  : 
12.  Rawlinson  puts  it  in  Western  Meso- 
potamia, near  Ilarran  and  Orfa;  Layard 
at  Tell  Afer,  40  miles  west  of  Mosul. 

851 


TEL 


TEM 


TE'LjEM  (oppression),  a  temple- 
porter.    Ezr.  10  :  24. 

TE'JLEM  (oppyessio))),  a  city  in  the 
South  of  Judahi,  occurring  between  Ziph 
and  Bealoth.  Josh.  15  :  24.  It  is  possiblj'^ 
identical  with  Telaim,  which  see.  Wil- 
ton associates  it  with  Dhulldm,  a  district 
south-east  of  Beersheba,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Moladah  (el-Milh),  and  per- 
haps, it  may  be,  at  Kuhhet  el-Baul. 

TEL'HARE'SHA,  and  TEL- 
HAR'SA  (forest  hill),  a  place  in 
Babylonia  from  which  some  Jews  who 
could  not  prove  their  pedigree  returned 
to  Juda?a  with  Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  2  :  59; 
Neh.  7  :  61.  Rawlinson  thinks  it  was  in 
the  low  country  near  the  sea;  Fiirst 
places  it  in  Upper  Mesopotamia,  on  the 
Chebar. 

TEL-ME'LAH  (salt  hill),  a  place 
in  Babylonia  from  which  persons  of 
doubtful  pedigree  returned.  Ezr.  2  :  59  ; 
Neh.  7  :  61.  Rawlinson  would  identify 
it  with  a  city  near  the  Persian  Gulf,  the 
Thelme  of  Ptolemy  ;  Fiirst  would  place 
this  also  near  to  Tel-harsa,  in  Upper 
Mesopotamia. 

TE'MA  (south  desert),  an  Tshmaelite 
tribe  descended  from  Tema,  Gen.  25  :  15  ; 
1  Chr,  1 :  30,  and  settled  in  Arabia.  Tema 
is  mentioned  with  Sheba,  Job  6  :  19,  and 
with  Dedan.  Isa.  21:14;  Jer.  25  :  23. 
On  the  great  caravan-road  from  Damas- 
cus to  Mecca  and  on  the  eastern  border 
of  Syria  is  a  town  called  Teyma',  near 
Dumah  and  Kedar,  which  is  supposed  to 
represent  Tema. 

TE'MAN  (south  desert),  a  country 
named  from  the  oldest  son  of  Eliphaz,  the 
son  of  Esau.  Gen.  36:  11.  These  people 
were  called  Temani,  or  Temanites,  and 
seem  to  have  been  noted  for  wisdom. 
Jer.  49  :  7  ;  Ob,  9.  They  are  especially 
mentioned  in  the  prediction  against 
Edom.  Jer.  49  :  7  ;  Eze.  25  :  13  ;  Am.  1 : 
12;  Ob.  9;  Hab.  3  :  3.  Their  country 
seems  to  have  been  the  south-eastern 
part  of  Edom,  the  land  of  "  the  sons  of 
the  east."  Eusebius  and  Jerome  men- 
tion a  Teman  15  miles  from  Petra. 

TEMANI,  AND  TE'MANITE. 
Gen.  36  :  34  :  Job  2  :  11,  etc.  See  Teman. 

TEM'ENI,  the  father  of  Tekoa.  1 
Chr.  4  :  6. 

TEM'PERANCE,  in  the  A.  V., 
does  not  mean  moderation  only  in  the 
use  of  wine  or  other  drink,  but  self-con- 
trol leading  to  moderation  in  every  thing. 
852 


It  is  to  be  regretted  that  this  good  word 
should  be  doubly  perverted — first  in  the 
direction  mentioned  above,  and  second 
to  mean  total  abstinence  from  drink. 
This  perversion  leads  to  inaccurate 
thinking.  1  Cor.  9  :  25. 

TEM''P1jE,  the  sacred  edifice  erected 
at  Jerusalem  upon  Mount  Moriah.  See 
Jerusalem.  In  its  general  form  it 
resembled  its  prototype,  the  tabernacle, 
after  which  it  was  modelled.  There  are 
three  temples  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 
We  shall  treat  them  in  their  historic 
order. 

1.  The  Temple  of  Soloinon. — The  idea 
of  building  a  temple  to  take  the  place  of 
the  tabernacle  as  the  permanent  place 
of  worship  for  the  Jewish  Church  was 
first,  it  would  seem,  the  idea  of  David. 
1  Chr.  17  :  1.  And,  although  forbidden 
by  the  Lord  from  beginning  the  work, 
he  ever  held  it  in  mind,  and  joj'fully 
accumulated  from  the  spoils  of  his 
enemies  and  from  the  revenue  of  his 
kingdom  a  fund  for  this  purpose.  In 
1  Chr.  22  :  14  the  amount  is  thus  given 
in  the  chronicler's  report  of  David's 
speech  to  Solomon :  "  I  have  prepared 
for  the  house  of  the  Lord  one  hundred 
thousand  talents  of  gold  and  one  million 
talents  of  silver,  and  of  brass  and  of  iron 
without  weight."  Reckoning  the  talent 
of  silver  at  3000  shekels  of  silver,  and 
the  talent  of  gold  as  worth  sixteen  times 
that  of  silver,  this  amount  of  money,  put 
into  our  coinage,  would  be,  according  to 
Lange  (Commentary,  in  loco):  Silver, 
$1,710,000,000;  gold,  $2,737,500,000: 
total,  $4,447,500,000— ''a  sum  incredibly 
high  for  the  requirements  of  worship  at 
that  time."  But,  reckoning  the  shekel 
after  the  king's  weight,  or  half  the  value 
of  the  shekel  of  the  sanctuary,  then  the 
above  sum  is  cut  down  one-half,  and  we 
can  parallel  it  from  secular  history. 

Besides  gold  and  silver,  David  collect- 
ed immense  quantities  of  brass  (bronze 
or  copper),  iron,  stone,  timber,  etc.,  and 
he  secured  skilful  mechanics  and  arti- 
ficers for  every  branch  of  the  work.  1 
Chr.  22  ;  29  :  4,  7.  He  also  furnished 
the  design,  plan,  and  location  of  the 
building  ;  in  all  which  he  was  divinely 
instructed.  1  Chr.  21;  22;  28:11-19. 
He  was  not  permitted,  however,  to  see  a 
single  step  taken  in  its  erection.  1  Kgs. 
5  :  3.  The  superintendence  of  the  build- 
ing was  committed  to  Solomon,  the  son 


TEM 


TEM 


and  successor  of  David,  who  commenced 
the  work  in  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign. 
There  were  183,600  Jews  and  strangers 
employed  on  it — of  Jews  30,000,  by  ro- 
tation 10,000  a  month  ;  of  Canaanites, 
153,600,  of  whom  70,000  were  bearers  of 
burdens,  80,000  hewers  of  wood  and 
stone,  and  3600  overseers.  The  parts 
were  all  prepared  at  a  distance  from  the 


site  of  the  building,  and  when  they  were 
brought  together  the  whole  immense 
structure  was  erected  without  the  sound 
of  hammer,  axe,  or  any  tool  of  iron,  1 
Kgs.  6  :  7,  and  at  the  end  of  seven  and 
a  half  years  it  stood  complete  in  all  its 
s])lcndor,  the  glory  of  Jerusalem,  and 
the  most  magnificent  edifice  in  the 
world,  B.  c.  1006. 


Level  of  the  Temple-Platform.    {After  Beswick,  1875.) 


Like  the  tabernacle,  it  had  its  front 
toward  the  east.  All  the  arrangements 
of  the  temple  were  identical  with  those 
of  the  tabernacle,  and  the  dimensions 
of  every  part  exactly  double  those  of  the 
previous  structure. 

We  shall  give  an  idea  of  the  temple 
of  Solomon  by  condensing  the  account 
in  Stanley's  History  of  (he  Jewish  Church, 
Lecture  27.  On  the  eastern  side  was  a 
cloister  or  colonnade.  The  later  kings, 
however,  continued  it  all  around.  This 
portico  opened  on  a  large  quadrangle, 
surrounded  by  a  wall,  partly  of  stone, 
partly  of  cedar,  and  planted  with  trees. 
Within  this  quadrangle  was  a  smaller 
court,  on  the  highest  ridge  of  the  hill, 
which  enclosed  the  place  of  David's  sac- 
rifice— the  rocky  threshing-floor  of  Arau- 
nah  the  Jebusite.  This  rock  was  levelled 
and  filled  up,  so  as  to  make  a  platform 
for  the  altar,  which  was  a  square  chest 
of  wood,  plated  outside  with  brass,  fill- 
ed inside  with  stones  and  earth,  with  the 
fire  on  a  brass  grating  at  the  top,  the 
whole  placed  on  a  mass  of  rough  stone. 
South  of  the  altar  was  the  brazen  laver, 
supported  on  twelve  brazen  bulls.  This 
was  used  for  the  ablutions  of  the  priests 
as  they  walked  to  and  fro  barefooted 
over  the  rocky  platform.  On  each  side 
were  the  ten  lesser  movable  vessels  of 
brass,  on  wheels,  for  the  washing  of  the 
entrails.  Round  about  the  lesser  court, 
in  two  or  three  stories  raised  above  each 
other,  were  chambers  for  the  ]»ricsts  and 
other  persons  of  rank.  2  Chr.  31  :  11  ; 
Jer.  36  :10.  In  the  corners  were  the 
kitchens    and    boiling-apparatus.    Eze. 


46  :  20-24.  Each  had  brazen  gates.  2 
Chr.  4:9.  In  the  court  was  the  "  tem- 
ple "  properly  so  called.  In  front  towered 
the  porch,  in  height  more  than  200  feet. 
Behind  it  was  a  lower  edifice,  lessening 
in  height  as  it  approached  its  extremity. 
On  the  sides  were  small  chambers,  enter- 
ed only  from  without  through  a  sandal- 
wood door  on  the  south,  and  gilded 
chambers  above  them  accessible  to  the 
king  alone.  1  Kgs.  6  :  8.  The  two  elab- 
orate pillars  called  Jachin  and  Boaz 
stood  immediately  under  the  porch. 
Within,  another  pair  of  folding-doors 
led  into  the  holy  place.  It  would  have 
been  almost  dark  were  it  not  that,  in 
place  of  the  original  single  seven- 
branched  candlestick,  ten  now  stood  on 
ten  tables,  five  on  each  side.  1  Kgs.  7  : 
49.  Within  the  chamber  were  the  table 
of  shew-bread  and  altar  of  incense.  The 
holj'  of  holies  was  separated  from  the 
holy  place  by  a  ''wall  of  partition," 
penetrated,  however,  by  folding-doors 
of  olive-wood,  over  which  hung  a  ])arty- 
colored  curtain  embroidered  with  cher- 
ubs and  flowers.  1  Kgs.  6:31.  The 
holy  of  holies  was  a  small  square  cham- 
ber, absolutely  dark  ex('ej)t  by  the  light 
received  through  this  aperture.  In  it 
were  two  huge  golden  figures,  standing 
upright  on  their  feet,  on  each  side  of  the 
ark,  which  rested  upon  a  protuberance 
of  rough  rock.  Above  the  ark  the  wings 
of  these  cherubim  met.  The  wails  of 
the  chambers  which  ran  round  the  rest 
of  the  building  were  not  allowed  to  lean 
against  the  outer  walls  of  this  sanc- 
tuary. 

853 


TEM 


TEM 


The  quarries  of  Solomon  have  recently 
been  discovered  under  the  present  city 
of  Jerusalem,  near  the  Damascus-gate. 
They  are  very  extensive,  and  to-day 
exhibit,  in  partially-excavated  blocks  of 
stone,  the  evidence  of  the  monarch's 
architectural  tastes  and  requirements. 

The  temple  of  Solomon  stood,  alto- 
gether, four  hundred  and  twenty-four 
years,  but  it  was  plundered  by  Shishak, 
king  of  Egypt,  during  the  reign  of  Re- 
hoboam.  1  Kgs.  14 :  25,  26.  After  this 
it  was  frequently  profaned  and  pillaged, 
and  was  at  last  broken  down  and  de- 
stroyed by  the  king  of  Babylon,  and  the 
nation  itself  carried  into  captivity,  2 
Kgs.  25  :  8,  9,  13-17 ;  2  Chr.  36  :  18,  19, 
B.  c.  598. 

2.  The  Temple  of  Zeritbbabel.  —  In 
B.  c.  536,  Cyrus  the  Persian,  conqueror 
of  Babylon,  gave  permission  to  the  Jews 
to  return.  Many  availed  themselves  of 
the  opportunity,  and  returned  in  a  great 
caravan  under  Zerubbabel.  The  latter, 
as  Jewish  governor,  and  Joshua,  the 
high  priest,  superintended  the  people  in 
rebuilding  the  temple.  Cyrus  permitted 
and  encouraged  them  to  do  this  work, 
and  in  the  second  year  after  their  return 
Ihey  laid  the  foundation.  Ezr,  3  :  8. 
Owing  to  the  opposition  of  their  enemies, 
it  was  not,  however,  completed  until 
twenty  years  had  gone  by,  b.  c.  515. 
The  story  of  this  long  struggle  and 
trouble  is  told  in  the  book  of  Ezra. 

This  second  temple,  though  inferior  in 
many  respects  to  the  first — having  no 
ark,  no  mercy-seat,  no  visible  revelation 
of  the  divine  glory,  no  sacred  fire,  no 
Urim  and  Thummim,  and  no  spirit  of 
prophecy,  Ezr.  3 :  12,  13 — still  was  in 
breadth  and  height,  in  almost  every  di- 
mension, one-third  larger  than  Solo- 
mon's. In  three  particulars  the  gene- 
ral arrangements  differed  from  those  of 
the  ancient  sanctuary:  (1)  There  were 
no  trees  in  the  courts;  (2)  At  the  north- 
western corner  was  a  fortress-tower,  the 
residence  of  the  Persian,  afterward  of 
the  Roman,  governor;  (3)  The  court  of 
'the  worshippers  was  divided  into  two 
compartments,  of  which  the  outer  en- 
closure was  known  as  the  court  of  the 
Gentiles  or  heathens.  It  furnished  a 
fixed  place  of  worship  for  the  nation, 
and  ultimately  became  the  theatre  of  far 
more  glorious  illustrations  of  the  divine 
attributes  than  the  first  temple  ever  wit- 
854 


nessed.  Hag.  2  :  6-9 ;  Mai.  3:1;  Col.  2  : 
9;   1  Tim.  3':  16. 

3,  The  Temple  of  Herod. — The  tem- 
ple of  Zerubbabel  had  stood  nearly  five 
hundred  years  and  was  much  decayed 
when  Herod  the  Great,  with  a  view  to 
secure  the  favor  of  the  Jews  and  obtain 
to  himself  a  great  name,  undertook  to 
rebuild  it;  so  that  it  was  not  a  new  edi- 
fice, strictly  speaking,  but  rather  a  com- 
plete repair  of  the  second  temple.  He 
began  the  work  twenty  years  before  tbe 
birth  of  Christ,  and  completed  the  main 
building  in  one  year  and  a  half,  and  the 


BRIOCEOR— 


mi    I 

THE  TtMPLE  O 

COURT0FTHECttTUEs| 


4- 

ACIIAI 

3 □ 

MITOHI& 
BARIS 

.— D             f 

CAUSEWAY            

iTHt  TEMPLE 
BRIDGE      :,.     :   ;r;;:v: 

Reconstruction  ot  the  Temple. 

].  According  to  Wilkinson;  2.  According  to  Fergus- 
son  ;  3.  According  to  Porter ;  4.  According  to  Lewiu. 

adjoining  buildings  in  eight  years.  But 
the  work  was  not  entirely  ended  till 
A.  D.  61,  under  Herod  Agrippa  II.  So 
the  statement  in  John  2  :  20  is  correct. 
We  shall  describe  the  temple  as  it  stood 
in  the  days  of  our  Saviour,  condensing 
in  the  main  the  statements  of  F.  R.  and 
C.  R.  Conder  in  the  Handbook  to  the 
Bible  (N.  Y.,  1879).  The  temple  was 
located  in  the  present  Haram  enclosure, 
the  wall  of  which  has  been  most  care- 
fully and  elaborately  surveyed.  See 
Quarterly  Statement  for  January,  1880, 
of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund. 
The  building  stood  upon  the  top  of 
Mount  Moriah.  but  not  in  the  middle 
of  the  area,  which  was  500  cubits  square 
(cubit  =  16  in.).    Along  the  ramparts  of 


TEM 


TEM 


the  temple-hill  ran  double  cloisters  or 
arcades,  and  there  the  money-changers 
sat.  Matt.  21  :  12.  The  royal  cloister 
was  triple,  and  was  on  the  south  side ; 
Solomon's  Poreli  was  on  the  east.  The 
pillars  could  hardly  be  spanned  by  three 
men  ;  two  of  them  still  exist.  The  en- 
closure was  entered  through  five  gates. 
The  gate  Shushan  was  directly  opposite 
to  the  temple  proper.  There  were  sev- 
eral courts  about  the  temple  which  were 
upon  dififerent  levels.  The  outer  court, 
or  court  of  (he  Gentiles,  came  first,  then 
the  court  of  the  women,  the  court  of  Is- 
rael, the  court  of  the  priests,  and  then 
the  temple  itself.  Between  the  first  two 
came  the  "soreg"  ("interwoven"),  or 
"middle  wall  of  partition."  Eph.  2  :  14. 
It  had  thirteen  openings  ;  upon  it,  at  in- 
tervals, were  square  pillars  with  Greek 
inscriptions,  threatening  death  to  the  un- 
circumcised  intruder.  The  charge  that 
Paul  had  brought  such  a  Greek  into  the 
enclosure  aroused  the  Jerusalem  mob. 
Acts  21  :  28.  The  court  of  the  looinen,  ha,(i 
4  chambers,  and  was  so  called,  notbecause 
it  was  set  apart  exclusively  for  their 
use,  but  because  they  were  not  allowed  to 
come  any  nearer  the  temple.  There  were 
three  gates,  of  which  the  eastern,  cover- 
ed with  gold,  was  the  larger.  The  women 
had  a  gallery  above  the  cloister,  erected 
in  order  to  avoid  the  crowding  at  the 
feast  of  tabernacles.  In  this  court  were 
probably  the  thirteen  money-chests, 
Mark  12  :  41.  The  court  of  Isruel,  10 
cubits  by  135,  was  fifteen  steps  higher 
up,  and  upon  them  the  fifteen  Songs  of 
Degrees  (Ps.  120-134,  inclusive)  were 
sung.  The  musical  instruments  were 
kept  there.  It  was  merely  a  platform, 
and  had  no  cloisters  or  columns.  Only 
men  especially  purified  could  enter  it. 
The  court  of  the  prients,  or  sanctuary, 
135  by  176  cubits,  was  2V  cubits  higher 
than  the  court  of  Israel,  the  wall  being 
\  cubit  high,  with  three  steps  above  it. 
On  the  wall  there  was  a  platform,  from 
which  the  priests  blessed  the  people. 
There  was  no  communication  between 
this  court  and  the  lower,  except  through 
the  side-chambers  of  the  gate  Nicanor, 
which  stood  above  the  fifteen  steps 
already  mentioned.  The  court  of  the 
priests  had  seven  gates.  The  south- 
eastern gate  was  called  the  Water-gate, 
because  the  water  used  in  the  feast  of 
tabernacles    was    brought    through    it. 


There  were  no  cisterns  within  the  court, 
and  the  altar  was  joined  to  tlie  earth, 
having  no  excavations  under  it.  The 
north-western  gate  was  called  Moked 
("  hearth "),  and  was  the  guard-house 
of  the  priests  who  kept  watch  round  the 
fire,  whence  the  name.  The  north-east- 
ern gate  was  called  Nitzotz  ("promi- 
nence"), because  it  was  a  kind  of  out- 
standing tower.  Above  the  Water-gate 
was  a  room  called  Aphtinas,  in  which 
the  incense  was  made.  The  Saniiedriv, 
which  see,  sat  in  the  so-called  Pavement, 
or  chamber  of  hewn  stone,  which  opened 
on  this  court.  In  this  court,  directly 
before  the  temple,  was  the  altar,  which 
was  built  of  solid  stone,  cemented, 
whitewashed  at  intervals,  and  had  a 
line  of  red  paint  drawn  round  it.  See 
Altar.  Lieut.  Conder  points  out  that 
the  Talmudic  description  indicates  a 
much  ruder  structure  than  is  usually 
supposed.  There  were  holes  in  the  foun- 
dation through  which  the  blood  flowed 
into  drains,  and  a  man-hole  to  facilitate 
the  examination  of  the  drains.  To  the 
left  was  the  laver. 

We  come  now  to  the  temple,  and,  con- 
tinuing to  take  the  guidance  of  the 
Handbook,  give  the  following  facts:  The 
facade  of  the  temple  was  a  square  of  100 
cubits,  and  was  gilded.  The  entrance  of 
the  temple  was  20  cubits  wide  and  40 
high.  Over  it  hung  the  golden  vine, 
supported,  probablj',  by  nails.  The 
temple  was  of  two  stories ;  in  the  lower 
there  were  thirty-eight  chambers  in 
three  tiers;  in  the  upper,  none.  The 
holy  house  was  entered  from  the  porch 
by  a  gate  20  cubits  high  and  10  broad, 
with  double  doors,  opening  out  and  in  ; 
before  it  hung  a  veil  of  equal  width 
with  the  doors.  Before  the  entrance  to 
the  holy  of  holies  hung  two  veils  or  two 
curtains,  1  cubit  apart,  and,  inasmuch 
as  the  opening  of  the  outer  curtain  was 
upon  the  north,  while  the  inner  was  on 
the  south,  no  glimpse  of  the  hoi}'  of 
holies  could  be  obtained  by  any  one  but 
the  high  priest.  (See  Handbook  to  the 
Bible,  p.  123.) 

The  allusions  to  the  second  (third) 
temple  are  neither  man}'  nor  important. 
The  scene  of  the  purification  of  Mary, 
Luke  2  :  22,  must  liave  been  at  the  gate 
Nicanor,  since  here  it  took  place.  The 
Child  Jesus  was  found  amid  the  doctors 
of  the  Law,  who  sat  on  the  steps  of  the 

855 


TEM 


TEM 


iHi 


Wmt 


bridge: 


"1=™" 


COURT     OF    GENTILES 


IB 


STOA  BASILICA 


d:kfc: 


Plan  of  Herod's  Temple. 

1.  The  Holy  of  Holies. 

2.  The  Holy  Place. 

3.  The  Court  of  the  Priests. 


4.  Altar  of  Burnt-Offering. 

5.  Inner  Gate  of  Temple. 

6.  Court  of  the  Women. 


temple-courts.  Luke  2  :  46.  The  Beau- 
tiful Gate,  Acts  3  :  2,  was  probably  the 
entrance  from  the  Tyropoeon  bridge  to 
the  beautiful  southern  cloister  built  by 
Herod.  The  castle  of  Antonia,  from 
which,  by  a  secret  passageway,  the 
Roman  soldiery  could  be  poured  down 
into  the  temple-area  to  preserve  order — 
as  notahly  to  rescue  Paul,  Acts  21 :  31,  32 
— was  situated  upon  the  north-western 
corner  of  the  outer  cloister,  and  had  four 
towers  with  a  large  interior  space.  It 
was  arranged  by  John  Hyrcanus  for  a 
residence,  and  enlarged  by  Herod. 

This  third  temple  was  destroyed  by 
the  Romans  on  Friday,  9th  day  of  Ab 
(August),  A.  D.  70,  and  the  prophecy  of 
Jesus  was  literally  fulfilled.  Matt.  24  : 
2.  The  emperor  Julian  endeavored  to 
rebuild  it,  A.  T>.  363.  To  this  end  he 
advanced  funds  from  the  public  treasury 
and  applied  the  contributions  from  the 
8.56 


Jews,  who  were  enthusiastic  over  the 
proposition.  But  the  work  met  with  a 
check  from  an  unexpected  quarter.  God 
used  Nature  to  defeat  the  plan  :  "  As  the 
workmen  dug  down  to  the  foundations 
terrific  explosions  took  place:  what 
seemed  balls  of  fire  burst  forth ;  the 
works  were  shattered  to  pieces  ;  clouds 
of  smoke  and  dust  enveloped  the  whole 
in  darkness,  broken  only  by  the  wild  and 
fitful  glare  of  the  flames.  Again  the 
work  was  renewed  by  the  obstinate  zeal 
of  the  Jews  ;  again  they  were  repelled 
by  this  unseen  and  irresistible  power,  till 
they  cast  away  their  implements  and 
abandoned  the  work  in  humiliation  and 
despair." — Mtlman  :  History  of  Chris- 
tian itif,  vol.  iii.  p.  27. 

There  stands  to-day,  upon  the  site  of 
the  temple,  a  Mohammedan  mosque,  the 
Dome  of  the  Rock,  so  called  from  the 
famous  Sakhrah,  or  Holy  Rock,  which, 


TEM 


TER 


according  to  Mohammedan  tradition,  at- 
tempted to  follow  Mohammed  on  his 
memorable  night-journey  to  heaven,  but 
was  held  back  b}'  the  hand  of  tlie  arch- 
angel Gabriel :  in  proof,  both  the  ''  foot- 
print of  Mohammed"  and  the  ''hand- 
print of  Gabriel "  are  shown.  Some 
consider  that  this  rock  was  the  site  of 
the  great  altar  of  burnt-ofl'ering.  In 
confirmation  is  adduced  the  hole  in  the 
rock,  and  the  cave  under  it,  which,  upon 
this  hypothesis,  was  the  cesspool. 

Up  to  quite  recent  times  the  Haram, 
as  the  enclosure  containing  the  site  of 
the  temple  is  called,  was  closed  to  all 
non-Mohammedans,  but  the  pressure 
brought  to  bear  after  the  Crimean  war 
(1856)  was  too  great,  and  now  travellers 
find  no  difficulty  in  gaining  admittance. 

TEMPLE,  CAP  TAIN  OF. 
See  Captain  of  the  Temple. 

TEMPT,  Matt.  22  :  IS,  TEMP- 
TA'TION.  Luke  4  :  U.  These  words 
are  used  in  various  senses.  The  ordi- 
nary import  of  them  is  allurement  or 
enticement  to  sin.  Hence  our  great  ad- 
versary the  devil  is  called  "  the  tempter." 
Matt.  4  :  3.  They  also  denote  the  trial 
of  a  person's  faith  or  obedience.  Gen. 
22  :  1  ;  Jas.  1  :  2,  ,3,  or  the  trial  of  God's 
patience  and  forbearance.  Ex.  17  :  2  ;  1 
Cor.  10  :  9.  The  prayer.  "  Lead  us  not 
into  temptation,"  Matt.  6  :  13,  does  not 
imply  that  God  leads  us  into  sin,  Ja§. 
1  :  13,  14,  but  it  is  a  prayer  that  he  may 
guard  and  protect  us  from  temptation. 
When  it  is  said  that  the  lawyer  and 
others  tempted  our  Saviour,  Matt.  16  : 
1  ;  19  :  3  ;  Mark  10  :  2  ;  Luke  10  :  25,  it 
is  meant  that  they  tried  to  ensnare  him 
or  lead  him  into  the  commission  of  some 
offence. 

TEN  COMMAND'MENTS, 
THE.  By  this  title  the  writing  con- 
tained on  the  two  tables  of  stone  given 
on  Mount  Sinai  is  usually  designated. 
But  the  phrase,  in  the  original,  is  "the 
ten  words,"  and  it  were  well  to  retain  it. 
The  Greek  word  decalnr/ue  exactly  ex- 
presses the  Hebrew.  "  The  word  of  the 
Lord,"  the  constantly-recurring  term  for 
the  fullest  revelation,  was  higher  than 
any  phrase  expressing  merely  a  com- 
mand, and  carried  with  it  more  the  idea 
of  a  self-fulfilling  power.  Other  phrases 
for  the  ton  words  are  "  the  words  of  the 
covenant,"  "  the  tables  of  testimony,"  or 
more  briefly  "  the  testimony."    Ex.  25  : 


16;  31  :  18,  etc.  The  chest  which  con- 
tained the  two  tables  was  therefore  called 
the  ark  of  the  covenant;  the  tent  under 
whose  cover  the  tables  rested  became  tlic 
tabernacle  of  witness  or  of  testimony. 
Ex.  38  :  21  ;  Num.  17  :  7  ;  2  Chr.  24  :  6, 
etc.  The  ten  words,  originally  spoken, 
Ex.  20  :  1,  were  written  by  the  finger  of 
God  on  two  stone  tablets,  Ex.  24:12; 
but  Moses  having  broken  them  in  his 
anger,  those  the  Jews  possessed  were 
duplicates.  Ex.  34  :  1. 

It  is  common  to  assign  four  "words" 
to  the  first  table  and  six  to  the  second. 
But  the  command  to  honor  parents  is 
based  upon  the  Fatherhood  of  God,  and 
is  a  rcligiouti  duty.  St.  Paul,  in  Rom. 
13  :  9,  enumerates  only  five  commands  as 
applying  to  man  exclusively. 

It  is  at  least  possible  that  all  the  com- 
mandments were  in  the  concise  legal 
form  in  which  some  are  expressed.  The 
"reasons  annexed"  arc  probably  mere 
scholia,  or  notes,  which  crept  into  the 
text,  or  else  verbal  commentary  of  God, 
made  at  the  time.  In  this  way  the 
discrepancy  between  Ex.  20  and  Deut.  5 
is  easiest  removed. 

The  number  ten  symbolizes  the  com- 
prehensiveness and  completeness  of  this 
moral  law.  The  first  table,  with  five 
commandments,  enjoins  the  duties  to 
God ;  the  second,  with  five  command- 
ments, the  duties  to  our  neighbor.  All 
these  duties  are  comprehended  and  sum- 
med up  in  this  :  Thou  shalt  love  God 
supremely,  and  thy  neighbor  as  thyself. 
Love  is  the  fulfilment  of  the  whole  law. 
Matt.  22  :  37,  38  ;  Rom.  13  :  9  ;  Gal.  5  : 
14 ;  Jas.  2:8. 

The  civil  and  ceremonial  law  of  the 
Jewish  theocracy  rested  on  the  Decalogue, 
and  is  divided  into  seven  groups,  each 
with  ten  commandments. 

TENT.     See  Dwellings. 

TENTH  DEAL.    See  Measures. 

TENT-MAKERS.  Acts  18  :  3. 
Tent-making  is  said  to  have  been  Paul's 
trade,  but  the  word  so  translated  is 
supposed  to  refer  to  the  manufacture  of 
tent-cloth  rather  than  to  the  preparing 
of  tents.  Some  suppose  that  he  made 
military  tents,  the  material  of  which  was 
goatskins. 

TE'RAH  {loiterer),  the  father  of 
Abraham,  who  accompanied  him  to  Ila- 
ran,  in  Meso])otamia.  where  lie  died  at 
the  age  of  two  hundred  and  five,  Abraham 

857 


TEE 


TET 


being  then   seventy-five  years   of  age. 
Gen.  11:31,  32. 

TER'APHIM  {(/{vers  of  prosperity). 
The  word  is  sometimes  left  untranslated  ; 
elsewhere  "images,"  Gen.  31 :  19,  34,  35  ; 
1  Sam.  19  :  16;  "idolatry."  1  Sam.  15: 
23.  The  derivation  is  not  settled.  Ge- 
senius  takes  it  from  a  root  meaning  "  to 
be  rich,"  so  the  teraphim  dispensed 
prosperity.  From  the  passages  quoted 
it  is  plain  that  this  word  denotes  house- 
hold idol-gods  or  images.  But  since 
these  were  used  as  means  of  supernatural 
knowledge,  they  might  be  found  in  pos- 
session of  those  who  were  not  idolaters. 
There  is  a  very  remarkable  occurrence 
of  the  word  in  Hos.  3  :  4,  where  teraphim 
are  associated  with  idolatry.    They  were 


Terapliiiii. 

small  images,  resembling  the  human  form, 
and  were  regarded  as  oracles. 

The  use  of  teraphim  came  to  the  He- 
brews from  the  family  of  Laban,  for  they 
were  Aramaic  deities.  But,  once  intro- 
duced, they  were  tenaciously  held  to. 
AVe  find  them  mentioned  in  a  familiar 
way  in  the  historical  books.  Jud.  18  :  1 7 ; 
1  Sam.  19  :  13,  16 :  2  Kgs.  23  :  24,  etc. 
They  were  not  idols  in  the  worst  sense. 
They  were  used  by  Jehovah-worship- 
pers acquainted  with  the  second  com- 
mandment. Thus  we  find  a  Levite 
in  Micah's  family  using  them,  and  in 
David's  house  were  teraphim.  1  Sam.  19  : 
13.  But  in  the  days  of  the  prophets  they 
858 


were  denounced  as  idolatrous,  and  Josiah 
destroyed  them,  2  Kgs.  23  :  24,  margin 
— an  indication  of  the  growth  of  correct 
religious  feeling  and  the  spread  of  know- 
ledge. 

In  regard  to  their  size  and  appearance 
nothing  definite  is  known.  Probably 
they  were  varied.  They  may  best  be 
compared  to  the  household  penates  of  the 
classic  world. 

TER'EBINTH.    See  Teil  Tree. 

T  E  '  R  E  S  H  {severe),  one  of  two 
eunuchs  who  conspired  against  Ahasu- 
erus.  Esth.  2  :  21  :  6:2. 

TER'TIUS  {the  third),  Paul's 
amanuensis,  to  whom  he  dictated  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans.  Rom.  16  :  22. 

TERTUL'LUS  (diminutive  of 
"  Tertius  "'),  a  lawyer,  probably  a  Roman, 
who,  in  consequence  of  their  lack  of 
familiarity  with  Roman  forms  of  law, 
was  hired  by  the  Jews  to  act  as  prosecu- 
tor in  the  case  of  Paul  before  Felix.  Acts 
24 :  1-9. 

TES'TAMENT.  Heb.  9:15.  The 
word  "  testament,"  when  applied  to  our 
Scriptures  (as  "the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments"), is  used  in  the  same  sense  with 
"covenant."  The  old  covenant  is  spoken 
of  in  Ex.  24 : 8,  and  the  new  in  Matt. 
26  :  28.  The  former  was  ratified  by  the 
blood  of  sacrifices,  and  the  latter  (of 
which  the  other  was  a  type)  was  ratified 
by  the  blood  of  Christ. 

TES'TAMENT,  OLD,  NEW. 
2  Cor.  3  :  6.  See  Bible. 

TESTIMONY,  TES'TIMO- 
NIES.  Ps.  119  :  88,  99.  These  terms 
sometimes  denote  the  whole  revelation 
of  God's  will.  They  frequently  occur  in 
this  sense  in  the  above  Psafm.  They 
also  refer  to  the  tables  of  stone,  which 
were  part  of  the  covenant  between  God 
and  the  people  of  Israel,  Ex.  25  :  16; 
and  hence  the  ark  in  which  they  were 
deposited  is  called  "the  ark  of  the  testi- 
mony." Ex.  25  :  22.  See  Ark.  The 
gospel  is  also  called  "the  testimony"  in 
1  Cor.  1:6;  Rev,  1  :  2,  and  elsewhere. 
See  Witness. 

TE'TRARCH.  This  title  was 
given  to  a  sovereign  prince,  and  strictly 
denotes  one  who  governs  the  fourth  part 
of  a  province  or  kingdom.  Matt.  14  :  1. 
In  our  Scriptures,  however,  it  is  applied 
to  any  one  who  governed  a  province  of 
the  Roman  empire,  whatever  portion  of 
the  territory  might  be  within  his  juris- 


THA 


THE 


diction.     The  tetrarch  had  the  title  of 
king;.  Matt.  14  :  9. 

THAD'D.*:US.   Matt.  10  :  3.     See 

JUDE. 

THA'HASH  (o  had(jer,  or  seal),  a 
son  of  Nahor  by  Reuuiah,  his  concubine. 
Gen.  22  :  24. 

THA'MAH.  Ezr.2:53.  SeeTAMAH. 

TIIA'MAR.  Greek  formof  Tamak, 
1.    Matt.  1  :  3. 

THAM'MUZ.     See  Tammuz. 

THANK-OFFERING.  See  Of- 
ferings. 

THA'RA.  Luke  3  :  34.    See  Terah. 

THAR'SHISH  {fortress),  a  Ben- 
jamite.  1  Chr.  7  :  10. 

THAR'SHISH,  a  more  accurate 
form  of  Tarshish,  which  see.  1  Kgs.  10  : 
22  •  22  :  48. 

THE'ATRE,  a  place  of  public 
amusement,  where  poj)ular  assemblies, 
courts,  elections,  etc.,  were  often  held. 
Acts  19  :  29,  31. 

''  The  taste  for  theatrical  amusements 
was  never  strongly  developed  among  the 
Jews,  though  some  of  their  later  rulers, 
especially  the  Herods,  favored  them  and 
established  theatres  in  Palestine.  Herod 
the  Great  introduced  Greek  actors  at 
his  court  in  Jerusalem,  greatly  to  the 
scandal  of  the  Jews,  and  built  a  the- 
atre and  amphitheatre  at  Cgesarea." — 
Hachftt. 

THEBES.     See  No-amon. 

THE'BEZ  {hriijhtHesH),  the  town 
where  Abimelech  was  killed.  Jud.  9  :  50; 
2  Sam.  11 :  21.  It  is  now  Tubas,  a  place 
11  miles  north-east  of  Shechem  [Ndbliis), 
on  the  road  to  Beth-shean  [lieisan).  It 
is  a  handsome  village,  situated  in  the 
midst  of  groves  of  olive  trees,  on  the 
west  slope  of  a  basin,  but  possessing  no 
spring. 

THELA'SAR.  2  Kgs.  19  :  12.  See 
Telassar. 

THELAS'SAR.     See  Telassar. 

THEOPHaLUS  [lover  of  God),  a 
distinguished  individual,  probably  of 
Greece  or  Rome,  to  whom,  as  his  par- 
ticular friend  or  patron,  Luke  addressed 
both  his  Gospel  and  his  history  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles.  Luke  1  :  3.  The 
title  "most  excellent"  probably  denotes 
official  dignity.  Acts  23  :  26  ;  24  :  3  ;  and 
26  :  25. 

THESSALO'NIANS,  EPIS'- 
TLES  TO.  They  were  written  by 
the  apostle  Paul  to  the  church  of  the 


Thessalonians,  and  are  the  earliest  of 

his  writings  and  the  oldest  portions  of 
the  N.  T.  They  were  probably  written, 
near  the  close  of  a.  d.  52  or  the  begin- 
ning of  53,  from  Corinth,  not  from  Athens, 
as  the  subscription  states.  The  first  was 
composed  in  consequence  of  the  recej)- 
tion  of  Timothy's  on  the  whole  cheer- 
ing intelligence  about  the  Thessalonian 
church.  But  Paul  learned  that  his 
favorite  theme  of  the  speedy  coming 
of  Christ  had  given  rise  among  some 
of  them  to  the  erroneous  inij)ression 
that  their  dead  were  separated  from 
Christ  so  much  that  they  could  not  join 
in  the  triumphs  of  his  return.  Others 
of  them  had  grown  careless,  paralyzed 
by  the  hope.  Accordingly,  he  devotes 
his  E])istle  to  the  removal  of  these 
troubles,  the  more  particularly  since  un- 
authorized prophets  had  fanned  their 
enthusiasm  and  occasioned,  on  the  part 
of  the  sober-minded,  contemjtt  for  the 
prophetic  gift.  "  The  apostle  therefore 
wrote  to  confirm  them  in  the  faith,  to 
strengthen  them  against  persecution,  to 
rectify  mistakes,  and  to  inculcate  purity 
of  life."  But,  this  Epistle  not  fully  an- 
swering its  purpose,  Paul  wrote  a  second 
shortly  after.  Some  one  had  forged  a 
letter  in  his  name,  advocating  the  very 
delusion  he  deprecated.  2  Thess.  2  :  2. 
He  therefore  corrected  the  mistake  and 
tried  to  put  a  stop  to  the  ensuing  evils. 

We  thus  analyze  the  Epistles  :  First 
Thessalonians. — I.  After  a  salutation,  1  : 
1,  Paul  gives  thanks  to  God  for  their 
conversion  and  advancement  in  the  faith, 
1  :  2-2  :  1(5,  and  (hen  expresses  his  desire 
to  see  them  and  his  loving  care  over 
them.  2:17-3:13.  II.  In  the  didactic 
and  hortatory  part  he  exhorts  them  to 
holiness  and  brotherly  love,  4  :  1-12;  he 
speaks  of  Christ's  advent,  4  :  13-5  :  11  ; 
and  adds  various  admonitions.  5  :  12-2-1. 
He  then  concludes  with  a  charge  that  the 
Epistle  be  generally  read,  with  greetings 
and  a  benediction.  5  :  25-28. 

Second  Thessalonians.  —  Besides  the 
salutation,  there  are  three  sections,  an- 
swering to  the  three  chapters :  I.  A 
thanksgiving  and  prayer  for  the  Thes- 
salonians. 1  :  3-12.  II.  Instruction  and 
exhortation  in  regard  to  the  "  man  of 
sin."  2.  III.  Sundry  admonitions:  (1) 
To  prayer,  with  a  confident  expression 
of  his  hope  respecting  them.  3  :  1-5  ;  (2) 
To  correct  the  disorderlv.  3  :  fi-lS.     He 

859 


THE 


THE 


then  concludes  with  a  special  remark, 
showing  how  his  letters  were  thereafter 
to  be  identified,  and  the  usual  salutation 
and  apostolic  benediction.  3  :  16-18. 

THESSALONI'CA,  a  city  of 
Macedonia.  It  was  anciently  called 
Thermae  ("hot  baths"),  but  Cassander, 
one  of  the  generals  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  rebuilt  the  city,  and  called  it, 
after  his  wife,  Alexander's  sister,  Thes- 
salonica.  The  city  was  situated  at  the 
north-east  corner  of  the  Thermaic  Gulf. 
It  was  in  Paul's  time  a  free  city  of  the 
Romans,  the  most  populous  city  in 
Macedonia,  and  the  capital  of  one  of 
the  four  Roman  divisions  of  Macedonia, 
which  extended  from  the  river  Strymon 
on  the  east  to  the  Axius  on  the  west. 


Scripture  History. — Paul  and  Silas,  in 
A.  D.  58,  came  to  Thessalonica  from 
Philippi,  which  was  100  miles  north- 
east, on  the  Via  Egnatia.  There  was  the 
synagogue  of  the  Jews.  For  at  least 
three  Sabbaths  the  apostles  preached 
to  their  countrymen.  A  church  was 
gathered,  principally  composed  of  Gen- 
tiles. At  length  the  persecution  became 
so  violent  as  to  drive  the  apostle  away. 
He  desired  to  revisit  the  church  there, 
and  sent  Timothy  to  minister  to  them. 
Among  his  converts  were  Caius,  Aris- 
tarchus,  Secundus,  and  perhaps  Jason. 
Acts  17  :  1-13  :  20  :  4 ;  27  :  2  ;  comp. 
Phil.  4  :  16;  2  Tim.  4  :  10.  Paul  wrote 
two  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonian  church 
from  Corinth.  1  Thess.  1 : 1  ,•  2  Thess.  1 : 1. 


Thessalonica. 


The  "rulers"  of  the  city.  Acts  17  :  6,  8, 
are  called,  in  the  original,  "politarchs." 
This  is  a  peculiar  term,  not  elsewhere 
found  in  the  N.  T.,  but  this  very  word 
appears  in  the  inscription  on  a  tri- 
umphal arch  believed  to  have  been 
erected  after  the  battle  of  Philippi. 
The  names  of  seven  politarchs  are  given. 
During  several  centuries  Thessalonica 
was  an  important  centre  of  Christianity 
in  the  Oriental  Church,  and  from  it  the 
Bulgarians  and  Slavonians  were  reached. 
Present  Conrh'fiov. — Thessalonica  still 
survives  as  a  Turkish  town,  under  the 
name  of  Salonika.  It  has  a  conspicuous 
and  beautiful  situation  on  a  hill  sloping 
back  from  the  gulf,  and  its  palaces  and 
mosques  present  a  fine  appearance.  Its 
walls  are  some  5  miles  in  circumference. 
860 


The  sti'eets  are  narrow  and  irregular. 
Many  of  the  mosques  were  formerly 
Christian  churches.  It  is  also  the  seat 
of  a  Greek  metropolitan,  and  contains 
numerous  churches  and  schools  of  dif- 
ferent denominations.  Its  commerce  is 
extensive;  some  four  thousand  vessels 
visit  its  harbor  every  year,  representing 
the  trade  of  France,  Austria,  Italy,  Eng- 
land, Greece,  Switzerland,  Belgium,  the 
United  States,  etc.  The  population  is 
about  80.000,  of  whom  30,000  are  Jews 
and  10.000  Greeks.  Among  the  most 
important  of  the  ancient  monuments 
are  a  hippodrome,  a  colonnade  built 
under  Nero,  the  triumphal  arch  com- 
memorating the  battle  of  Philippi,  and 
another  triumphal  arch,  of  the  time  of 
Constantine. 


THE 


THI 


THEU'DAS  {thank>i(f{cin;f),  an  in- 
surrectionary chieftain  mentioned  by 
Gamaliel.  Acts  5  :  36,  Joscphus  men- 
tions a  similar  character  of  this  name, 
but  his  insurrection  occurred  some  eleven 
years  after  Gamaliel's  speech.  An  ex- 
planation of  the  ditticulty  is  to  identify 
Theudas  with  Matthias,  an  eloquent  and 
popular  Jewish  teacher,  who  headed  a 
band  in  the  days  of  llerod  and  destroyed 
the  Roman  eagle  set  up  by  the  king  over 
the  great  gate  of  the  temple,  being  out- 
raged by  Herod's  impiety.  "  The  name 
'Matthias'  in  Greek  would  be  '  The- 
odorus,'  and  this  is  equivalent  to  '  Theu- 
das.'" But  perhaps  it  is  best  to  say  that 
this  Theudas  was  an  obscure  individual 
who  is  not  mentioned  elsewhere.  The 
name  was  a  common  one. 

THIEF,  THIEVES,  THE 
TWO.  Theft  is  always  severely  pun- 
ished in  rude  societies.  The  Mosaic  Law 
is  severe.  The  thefts  would  naturally 
be,  among  the  Jews,  of  live-stock  most 
frequently ;  accordingly,  the  Law,  Ex. 
22  :  1-4,  limits  itself  to  only  this  class 
of  cases.  Restitution  was  obligatory — 
five  oxen  in  return  for  one  stolen,  four 
sheep  for  one.  Resistance  to  robbery 
even  to  the  death  was  innocent.  If  the 
thief  did  not  or  could  not  restore,  he  was 
to  be  sold  for  his  theft.  Pro  v.  6  :  31 
mentions  a  sevenfold  restitution,  and 
Lev.  6  :  1-5  also  apparently  conflicts 
with  Exodus,  because  it  lays  down  a 
trespass-offering  and  the  restoration  of 
the  principal  and  the  fifth  part  more. 
Perhaps  the  Law  varied.  It  added  to 
the  ignominy  of  our  Lord's  position  that 
he  was  crucified  between  thieves,  or,  more 
properlj',  robbers.  Tradition  calls  the 
penitent  thief  Demas,  or  Dismas ;  the 
impenitent,  Gestas.  It  is  probable  that 
at  first  they  both  reviled  him,  but  his 
noble  courage  softened  the  heart  of 
"Dismas"  into  admiration,  love,  and 
belief.  Luke  23  :  32,  39-43. 

THIGH.  The  practice  of  putting 
the  hand  under  the  thigh  might  denote 
the  obedience  or  subjection  of  the  in- 
dividual, or  it  might  be  connected  with 
the  rite  of  circumcision  as  a  token  of 
God's  faithfulness.  Gen.  24  :  2.  The 
inscription  upon  the  thigh.  Rev.  19  :  IC), 
alludes  to  the  custom  of  inscribing  the 
names  and  deeds  of  conquerors  on  tlieir 
garments  and  weapons.  The  name  might 
be  inscribed  on  the  sword,  which  was 


girded  on  the  thigh,  or  on  that  j>art  of 
the  dress  which  covered  the  thigh. 
Jacob's  thigh  was  smitten  by  the  angel, 
Gen.  32  :  2.'),  to  show  that  he  had  su])er- 
natural  power,  and  that  he  yielded  in 
mercy  and  not  from  necessity.  See 
Jacob. 

THIM'NATHAH,  now  Tihneh, 
north-east  of  Lydda.  Josh.  19  :  43.     See 

TiMNAlI,  1. 

THISTLES  AND  THORNS. 

Gen.  3  :  18.  Palestine  abounds  in  all 
manner  of  such  ])lants,  as  is  indicated 
by  the  fact  that  about  eighteen  different 
Hebrew  words  for  them  are  found  in  the 
0.  T.  These  arc  translated  by  "  bramble," 
"  brier,"  the  above  terms,  and  a  few 
others,  without  much  method  or  consist- 
ency. 

The  figurative  use  of  these  plants 
denotes  desolation.  Prov.  24  :  31  ;  Isa. 
5:6;  IIos.  2:6:  9:6:  10  :  8  ;  the  visi- 
tations of  Providence,  Num.  33  :  65: 
Jud.  2  :  3  ;  2  Cor.  12:7;  difiiculties  and 
hindrances,  Prov.  15  :  19;  and  troubles. 
Prov.  22  :  5. 

The  "  crowning  with  thorns,"  Matt. 
27  :  29,  was  ])robably  the  wanton  inven- 
tion of  the  Roman  soldiery,  and  made  no 
pait  of  the  established  j)unishment.  Very 
possibly  the  Saviour's  enemies  used  for 
this  purpose  the  twigs  of  the  Christ-thorn 
[ZiziiphuH  tipiiia-Chn'sti),  which  are  slen- 


Palestine  Thorn  (Zizi/phus  Spina-Christi). 

der,  yet  armed  with  terrible  spines,  and 
are  still  found  growing  in  the  vicinity  of 
Jerusalem. 

In  the  Holy  Land  various  kinds  of 
buckthorn,  with  other  allied  and  equally 
formidable  shrubs,  are  abundant,  as  is 
also  the  box-thorn  (  Li/ciuin  Europirum). 
True  thistles  and  thistle-like  centaureas 
are  common.  In  the  Jordan  valley  a 
solanum  (*S'.  uuuctuiu)  grows  from  3  to  5 

S61 


Tito 


THO 


feet  high,  clothed  with  spines.  Tristram  ' 
observed  that  the  common  bramble 
{Rnbns  fructicodits)  was  very  abundant 
between  the  ancient  Beth-shean  and  the 
fords  of  Succoth,  and  these  were  perhaps 
the  thorns  of  Jud.  8  :  7,  16.  The  most 
formidable  of  all  is  that  herbaceous  plant 
the  acanthus,  well  called  by  botanists 
spiyiosus.  These  are  a  few  of  the  multi- 
tude of  thistles  and  thorns  that  cover 
the  land  and  often  choke  the  very  crops. 
Matt.  13  :  7. 

Of  the  shrubby  burnet  Miss  M.  E. 
Rogers  justly  says:  "No  plant  or  bush 
is  so  common  on  the  hills  of  Judaea, 
Galilee,  and  Carmel  as  this.  It  is  used 
extensively  for  fuel,  especially  for  the 
bakers'  ovens,  and  the  '  crackling  of 
thorns  under  a  pot,'  Eccl.  7  :  6,  may  often 
be  heard  in  Palestine." 

This  low  burnet  is  commonly  pulled 
up  and  laid  upon  the  tops  of  the  mud 
walls  enclosing  houses  or  gardens.  Being 
held  in  place  with  clay,  few  animals  or 
men  will  attempt  to  cross  a  wall  thus 
guarded.  Often  the  still  more  formidable 
Christ-thorn  is  used  for  the  same  purpose, 
illustrating  Hos.  2  :  6. 

A  traveller  in  Judaea  remarks:  "As 
we  rode  through  Ri]ihah  we  perceiv- 
ed it  to  be  a  settlement  of  about  fifty 
dwellings,  all  very  mean  in  their  appear- 
ance, and  every  one  fenced  in  front  with 
thorn-bushes,  while  a  barrier  of  the  same 
kind  encircled  the  whole  of  the  town. 
This  was  one  of  the  most  effectual  de- 
fences which  they  could  have  raised 
against  the  incursions  of  horse-riding 
Arabs,  the  only  enemies  whom  they 
have  to  dread,  as  neither  will  the 
horse  approach  to  entangle  himself 
in  these  thickets  of  brier,  nor  could 
the  rider,  even  if  he  dismounted,  get 
over  them,  or  remove  them  to  clear  a 
passage  without  assistance  from  some 
one  within. 

"  There  are  a  great  many  more  thorny 
plants  in  Palestine  than  in  America,  and 
these  plants  love  the  wheat-fields.  The 
farmers  have  a  habit  of  going  out  before 
these  thorns  go  to  seed  and  gathering  them 
with  a  sickle  and  forked  stick,  and  burn- 
ing them  or  threshing  them  out  for  the 
donkeys  to  eat.  But  some  fai'mers  are 
lazy  and  do  not  take  this  trouble,  and 
sometimes  even  an  industrious  farmer 
will  neglect  a  corner  of  his  field,  and  it 
will  presently  be  overrun  with  coarse 
862 


thorns.  But  the  stalks  of  these  thorns 
rot  away  and  disappear  in  the  winter, 
and  only  their  seeds  remain  concealed  in 
the  ground  at  the  season  of  sowing.  The 
earth  looks  like  that  of  the  rest  of  the 
field,  and  the  farmer  ploughs  in  his  seed 
with  a  good  heart  in  hopes  of  an  abun- 
dant return.  But  the  thorns  spring  up 
with  the  wheat,  and,  being  much  stronger, 
their  roots  soon  twine  about  those  of  the 
wheat  and  absorb  all  the  water  from  the 
ground  in  which  they  both  grow  together, 
and  their  branches  overshadow  the  green 
blades,  and  so  the  plants  either  make  no 
seeds,  or  so  few  and  poor  ones  that  the 
farmer  does  not  care  to  pick  out  the 
stalks  from  the  thorns,  and  he  either 
burns  them  together  or  threshes  out  all 
as  food  for  his  donkey.  Matt.  13  :  18-23." 
—Post. 

THOM'AS  {tivin),  one  of  the  twelve 
apostles,  was  also  called  "  Didymus " 
(''the  twin").  We  know  little  of  his 
history.  He  seems  to  have  been  of 
singular  temperament,  cautious,  scepti- 
cal, thoughtful,  and  gloomy,  yet  holding 
fast  tenaciouslv  what  he  once  believed. 
John  11  :  16  ;  ■  14  :  5  ;  20  :  20-29.  He 
represents  the  honest,  truth-loving  scep- 
ticism among  the  apostles;  he  would  not 
believe  in  the  resurrection  till  he  had 
tangible  evidence  of  it,  but  then  he  ex- 
claimed, "  My  Lord  and  my  God !"  Those 
who,  not  having  seen,  yet  believe,  are 
highly  commended.  There  are  various 
traditions  in  regard  to  his  history  after 
the  ascension  of  Christ.  The  earlier  rep- 
resent him  as  preaching  in  Persia;  the 
later,  in  India.    He  suffered  martyrdom. 

THORN  IN  THE  FLESH, 
PAUL'S.  In  two  passages,  2  Cor. 
12  :  7-10  and  Gal.  4:14,  15,  Paul  al- 
ludes to  some  circumstance  or  infliction 
which  hindered  his  ministry  ;  but,  as  he 
does  not  say  what  it  was,  but  calls  it 
merely  a  "  stake  in  the  flesh,"  there  have 
been  numerous  conjectures.  This  is  one 
of  the  questions,  as  Dean  Stanley  well 
says,  "  where  the  obscurity  for  us  is  oc- 
casioned by  the  very  fact  that  it  was 
plain  to  contemporaries."  The  explana- 
tions which  have  at  various  times  been 
advanced  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes  : 

1.  Spiritual  triah.  —  Either  sensual 
temptations,  as  is  the  favorite  view  of 
Roman  Catholic  writers,  or  temptations 
to   unbelief,    doubts    arising    from    the 


THO 


THR 


memory  of  his  sinful  past ;    so  Luther 
and  Calvin  and  other  of  the  Reformers. 

2.  External  citlamitieti. — Either  his 
persecutions  and  sufferings  or  else  his 
Judaizing  opponents,  as  Chrysostom  and 
the  Greek  Fathers  thought,  I3ut  some 
of  the  ancient  and  mediieval  as  well  as 
the  modern  commentators  have  been  dis- 
satisfied with  these  explanations  because 
they  do  not  meet  the  difficulty,  and  ac- 
cordingly have  favored — 

3.  Some  bodili/  ailment. — Almost  every 
disorder — pleurisy,  the  stone,  defect  of 
utterance,  hypochrondria,  headache,  ear- 
ache, epilepsy,  acute  ophthalmia — has 
been  suggested  and  advocated  by  the 
fathers  and  schoolmen.  Tradition  sup- 
ports the  notion  that  the  "  thorn  "  was 
some  sort  of  pain  in  the  head.  Accord- 
ing to  modern  opinion,  the  choice  lies 
between  epilepsy  and  acute  ophthalmia. 
In  favor  of  the  former  is  the  life  Paul  led, 
his  trances,  his  enthusiasm  followed  by 
depression,  his  enormous  nervous  strain; 
this  would  be  enough  to  shatter  his  sys- 
tem. But  against  any  such  notion  is 
Paul's  physical  activity,  his  balanced 
mind,  his  self-control,  and  his  confidence. 
No  such  objection  seems  to  lie  against 
acute  ophthalmia — a  disease  which  is 
quite  common  in  the  East.  It  may  well 
have  been  caused  in  his  case  by  the 
bright  light  which  fell  upon  his  eyes 
at  his  conversion,  and  increased,  or  at 
least  not  lessened,  by  his  wandering,  la- 
borious life.  There  are  many  indications 
that  this  interpretation  of  the  "  thorn  " 
is  correct.  Paul  says  that  theGalatians 
would  have  plucked  out  their  eyes  and 
given  them  to  him,  Gal.  4  :  15  ;  the  very 
word  he  uses,  2  Cor.  12  :  7 — "  stake,"  not 
"thorn" — would,  as  Canon  Farrar  says, 
"most  appropriately  express  the  inci- 
sive pain  of  ophthalmia,  which  is  as  if 
a  splinter  were  run  into  the  eye."  The 
disfigurement  it  causes  would  have  made 
him  the  object  of  contempt  and  loathing 
he  represents  himself  to  have  been.  Gal. 
4:  14;  2  Cor.  10  :  10.  Paul's  failure 
to  recognize  the  high  priest.  Acts  23  :  5 ; 
his  dread  of  being  left  alone,  shown  by 
his  allusions  to  it  as  a  trial,  1  Thess.  3  : 
1;  2  Tim.  4:  16;  his  expression,  "Ye 
see  with  what  large  letters  I  write  unto 
you  with  my  own  hand,"  Gal.  6:11  ;  his 
employment  of  an  amanuensis  for  at 
least  the  major  part  of  his  Epistles,  cf. 
Rom.  16  :  22, — these  are  facts  looking  in 


the  same  direction.  Accepting  this  in- 
terpretation, what  light  it  throws  upon 
the  life  of  Paul  !  llow  it  elevates  our 
conception  of  his  heroism  !  how  it  in- 
creases our  res[)ect  for  his  work  !  We 
see  that  he  was  not  alile  to  move  about 
or  write  as  he  would,  but  was  dependent 
upon  others  ;  and  yet,  notwithstaniling 
his  suffering  and  his  persecutions,  his 
dimmed  vision  and  his  interrupted  t(nl, 
he  struggled  and  labored  for  his  Master 
unto  death. 

THORNS.     See  Trtstles. 
THREE  TAVERNS.     See  Tav- 
erns, Thk  Thrrk. 

THRESH,  THRESH'ING- 
FLiDOR.  The  ancient  threshing- 
places  were  selected  on  the  highest  sum- 
mits, open  on  every  side  to  the  wind. 
Hence  the  point  of  rock  over  which  the 
temple  stood  had  been  used  for  this  pur- 
pose by  Oman.  1  Chr.  21 :  15-28.  Though 
called  "floors,"  they  were  nothing  but 
flats  of  ground  from  50  to  100  feet  in 
diameter,  annually  levelled  and  rolled, 
so  as  to  be  as  hard  as  a  floor.  Often 
there  was,  as  is  still  frequently  the  case, 
but  one  such  place  for  a  village,  and 
each  husbandman,  in  a  fixed  order,  must 
take  his  turn  for  using  it. 

The  sheaves  were  thrown  together  in 
a  loose  heap,  and  the  grain  beaten  out 
by  a  machine  or  by  the  feet  of  oxen. 
Deut.  25  :  4.  The  threshing-machine 
was  formed  of  a  heavy  square  frame 
with  rollers,  each  of  which  was  encir- 
cled by  three  or 
four  iron  rings 
or  wheels  ser- 
rated like  the 
teeth  of  a  saw. 
Isa.  41  :  15.  16. 
T  h  e  machine 
was  drawn  by  a 
pair  of  oxen,  the 
driver  sitting  on 
a  cross-piece 
fastened  into 
the  frame ;  and 
as  the  heavy 
rollers  passed 
over  it  the  grain 

Thresliiiiii-InstnuneiitCup-  waS   crushed   out 

per  view).  on-  every  side, 

an<l  the  straw,  by  being  torn,  was  ren- 
dered suitable  for  fodder.  Sometimes 
this  frame  was  so  constructed  as  to  re- 
semble a  cart,  Isa.  28  :  27,  28,  and  fur- 

868 


THR 


THE 


nishes  a  striking  figure  of  violence  and 
destruction.  Am.  1:8;  Hab.  3  :  12.  As 
the  grain  accumulated  it  was  formed 
into  a  great  heap  in  the  centre  of  the 
floor,  around  which  the  oxen  were  driv- 
en. It  was  customary  for  the  owner  to 
sleep  near  by  to  protect  the  grain  from 
thieves.  Ruth  3  :  2-14.  Tender  cereals 
were  beaten  out  with  a  stick.  Isa.  28  : 
27.  After  the  grain  was  threshed  and 
winnowed  (see  Fan),  the  chaff  was  col 
lected  on  a  neighboring  hill  and  burned. 
Isa.  5  :  24  :  Matt.  3:12.  The  fruits  of 
the  harvest  were  then  doubtless  some- 
times stored  in  caves,  as  is  now  a  com- 
mon Syrian  custom.  Here  grain  is  safe 
partly  by  superstition,  and  partly  by  a 
stifling  gas  which  it  generates  in  such 


Threshing-Instrument  (side  view). 

close  places  ( Underground  Jerusalem, 
p.  481). 

Tristram  says  :  "  When  winnowed  and 
sifted  the  wheat  is  stored  in  underground 
pits.  These  '  silos,'  or  granaries,  are 
hollow  chambers  about  8  feet  deep,  care- 
fully cemented  to  exclude  the  damp,  and 
with  a  circular  opening  about  15  inches 
in  diameter,  which  could  easily  be  con- 
cealed. In  such  receptacles  the  corn 
will  keep  good  for  several  years.  Many 
such  may  still  be  seen  in  different  parts 
of  the  country.  I  have  found  them  on 
Mount  Carmel,  often  close  to  an  ancient 
wine-press,  and  about  many  of  the  de- 
serted cities  of  Southern  Judah.  Such 
a  storehouse  as  those  on  Mount  Carmel 
is  probably  alluded  to  in  Jer.  41  :  8. 

"  Generally,  owing  to  the  insecure  state 
of  the  country,  these  storehouses  are 
made  under  the  house,  especially  under 
the  most  retired  portion,  the  apartments 
of  the  women."  2  Sam.  4:6;  17  :  18,  1 9. 
In  the  latter  passage  the  well  is  prob- 
ably the  storehouse  under  the  women's 
chamber. 

In  the  interesting  passage,  Isa.  41  : 
15,  16,  "  a  new  sharp  threshing-instru- 
ment having  teeth"  is  mentioned.  One 
864 


of  these  instruments  is  thus  described 
by  a  traveller  in  Syria  in  18.37 :  "  The 
threshing-instrument  is  a  board  about  3 


Ji 


Threshiug-Sledge  of  Palestine. 
A,  Upper  side  ;   B,  Lower  side. 

feet  wide,  6  or  8  feet  long,  and  .3  inches 
thick.  On  the  lower  side  many  holes  are 
made,  from  H  to  2  inches  in  diameter,  in 
which  are  fastened  pieces  of  stone,  flint,  or 
iron.  These  project,  it  may  be,  from  a  half 
to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  from  the  face 
of  the  board,  and  serve  as  teeth  to  tear 
the  beards  of  the  grain  in  pieces.  Oxen 
are  fastened  to  the  forward  end  of  the 
board  and  driven  round  the  floor,  draw- 
ing it  after  them.  The  driver  of  the 
oxen  usually  stands  or  sits  on  the  in- 
strument. This  is  the  common  thresh- 
ing-instrument in  these  countries.  I 
saw  it  everywhere,  and  I  have  seen  no 
other.  The  oxen  are  usually  without 
muzzles,  and  are  often,  as  they  pass 
around,  taking  up  from  time  to  time  a 
few  straws  and  feeding  on  them.  I  do 
not  recollect  of  seeing  the  horse  used  in 
any  instance  on  the  barn-floor — the  oxen 
very  often."     See  Agriculture. 

THRONE,  the  seat  of  a  king  on 
state  occasions.  In  the  East  the  usual 
position  is  squatting  or  reclining;  hence 
a  chair  is  a  seat  of  some  dignity.  2  Kgs. 
4:  10.  The  word  ''chair,"  with  the  no- 
tion of  royalty,  is  the  Hebrew  word  for 
"throne,"  the  chair  of  the  king,  such  as 
David,  2  Sam.  3  :  10,  and  Solomon  sat 
upon,  1  Kgs.  2:12:  7:7,  when  they  dis- 
pensed judgment.  The  throne  of  Solo- 
mon was  quite  unique.  1  Kgs.  10  :  20. 
It  was  made  of  wood  inlaid  with  ivory 
and  covered  with  gold,  except  Avhere  the 
ivory  showed.  It  was  approached  by 
six  steps,  each  step  having  upon  it  two 
lions;  thus  the  twelve  lions  symbolized 
the  twelve  tribes.  The  chair  had  arms, 
upon  which  were  lions.  (See  cut.)  The 
back  was  rounded.     When  the  king  sat 


THU 


THY 


upon  his  throne  he  was  clad   in  royal 
robes.  1  Kgs.  22  :  10  ;  Acts  12  :  21. 
Naturally,  the  throne  being  the  sign 


A  Chair   of  State   or   Thiorie.      (From  Assyrian 
Monuments  at  Khorsabad.    After  Layard.) 

of  royalty,  the  word  is  applied  to  the 
centre  of  divine  authority  and  used  in 
other  figurative  waj's. 

THUM'MIM.  Ex.  28  :  30.  SeeTTum. 

THUX'DER  is  very  rare  in  Pales- 
tine from  the  middle  of  April  to  the 
middle  of  September.  Hence  it  was  a 
striking  miracle  when,  in  answer  to 
Samuel's  praj'er,  God  sent  thunder  and 
rain  in  wheat-harvest  (May  18  to  June 
15).  1  Sam.  12:17.  Thunder  was  re- 
garded as  Jehovah's  voice.  Job  37  :  2  ; 
Ps.  18  :  13:  81  :  7;  Isa.  30  :  30,  31. 
When  the  people  heard  God's  voice,  they 
said  that  it  thundered.  John  12  :  29. 
Thunder  accompanied  the  giving  of  the 
Law.  Ex.  19 :  16.  It  was  a  symbol  of 
divine  power,  implying  possible  ven- 
geance upon  wrong-doers.  1  Sam.  2:10; 
2  Sam.  22  :  U  :   Isa.  29  :  6  ;  Rev.  8  :  5. 

TH  YATI'RA,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor, 
on  the  northern  border  of  Lydia,  near 
the  road  from  Pergamo^  to  Sardis,  and 
some  27  miles  from  the  latter  city.  It 
lay  near  the  river  Lycus  and  was  a 
Macedonian  colony,  bearing  successive- 
ly the  names  of  Pelopia,  Semiraiuis.  and 
Euhippia.  Dyeing  was  an  in)portant 
branch  of  its  business  from  Homer's 
55 


time,  and  the  first  N.  T.  mention  of 
Thyatira,  Acts  16:  14,  connects  it  with 
the  purple  seller,  Lydia.  Three  votive 
inscriptions  have  been  found  among 
its  ruins  purporting  to  have  come. from 
the  guild  of  "The  Dyers."  It  has 
been  supposed  that  jierhaps  Lydia  re- 
turned to  her  own  city  and  aided  in  es- 
tablishing Christianity  there.  Thyatira 
was  the  seat  of  one  of  the  seven  churches 
of  Asia.  Rev.  2  :  18-29.  Its  population 
was  made  up  of  various  races,  and  it  is 
a  question  what  is  meant  by  the  refer- 
ence to  Jezebel.  A  shrine  stood  outside 
the  walls,  in  the  midst  of  the  "  Chal- 
dtean's  court,"  dedicated  to  Sambath,  a 
sibyl,  Chaldaean,  Jewish,  or  Persian. 
Grotius  refers  it  to  the  wife  of  the  bishop. 

Present  Condition. — The  city  is  now 
called  uk-HisHitr,  or  "white  castle." 
The  scarlet  cloth  dyed  there  has  the 
reputation  of  being  unsurpassed  for 
brilliancy  and  permanence  of  color. 
The  population  is  estimated  at  from 
17,000  to  20,000.  There  are  a  Greek 
church  and  several  mosques. 

TIIY'INE-WOOD.    This  was  ob- 


Thy ine- Wood  {Thuya  Articulata). 

tained  from  a  small  tree  (Thui/n  articu- 
lata) belonging  to  the  cone-bearing  or- 

865 


TIB 


TIB 


der  and  resembling  our  cedar  and  arbor-  j 
vitae.  It  was  highly  valued  by  the 
Romans,  in  the  days  of  their  luxury, 
for  eabinct-work,  being  very  compact 
and  fragrant  and  of  a  handsome  brown, 
often  variegated  by  knots.  It  was  ob- 
tained in  Northern  Africa,  and  from  it 
is  still  collected  the  true  gum-sanda- 
rach.   Rev.  18  :  12. 

TIBE'RIAS,  a  town  of  Galilee, 
situated  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Sea 
of  Galilee,  which  is  called  ''the  Sea  of 
Tiberias  "  only  by  John,  who  was  the  last 
of  the  N.  T.  writers.  John  6  :  1 ;  21  :  1. 

History. — The  city  is  only  once  men- 
tioned in  the  N.  T.  John  6  :  2'-^.  Although 
it  was  an  important  and  busy  town  in 
Christ's  time,  there  is  no  record  that  he 
ever  visited  it.  It  was  then  a  new  city, 
built  by  Herod  Antipas,  A.  D.  16-22,  and 
named  in  honor  of  the  emperor  Tiberias. 
Josephus,  who  mentions  the  city  very 
frequently,  says  that  Herod  built  it  on 
a  site  where  were  ancient  sepulchres 
belonging  to  an  extinct  and  forgotten 
city.  Thus  it  was  unclean  to  the  Jews, 
and  Herod  brought  in  many  strangers, 
foreigners,  and  slaves.  A  palace  was 
erected,  with  an  amphitheatre,  bath- 
houses, temples,  and  costly  works  of 
art.  An  aqueduct  9  miles  long  brought 
in  fresh  water.  During  the  Jewish  wars 
Josephus  fortified  Tiberias.  After  Jeru- 
salem was  destroyed  the  Sanhedrin  set- 
tled here,  and  for  many  centuries  it  was 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  seats  of  Jew- 
ish learning.  The  Jewish  Mlshna.  or  an- 
cient traditional  law,  and  the  Masorah 
were  compiled  here. 

Present  Condition. — The  modern  city 
called  Tuhariya  stands  on  the  south- 
western shore  of  the  lake,  some  \  miles 
from  its  southern  extremity,  in  lat.  32° 
46'  14".  It  occupies  only  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  ground  covered  by  the  an- 
cient city,  the  remains  of  which  stretch 
southward  for  a  mile  and  a  quarter,  to 
the  hot  springs.  Many  of  the  old  stones 
have  been  removed  for  use  in  the  modern 
buildings,  but  some  very  fine  specimens 
of  polished  marble  and  black  basalt 
remain.    For  view,  see  Galh-ke,  Ska  of. 

The  modern  city  is  surrounded  on  the 
land-side  by  a  wall  much  broken  and  not 
repaired.  The  great  earthquake  on  New 
Year's  day,  18.37,  overthrew  the  city  and 
destroyed  six  hundred  lives.  A  small 
church  standing  on  the  reputed  site  of 


St.  Peter's  house,  and  a  mosquo  half  in 
ruins,  are  the  principal  buildings  to  at- 
tract attention.  Although  the  town  is 
extremely  picturesque  as  seen  from  the 
distance,  with  its  wall,  minaret,  and 
palm  trees,  it  is  found  on  closer  acquaint- 
ance to  be  in  a  state  of  filth  whicli  even 
in  the  East  can  be  scarcely  paralleled. 
This  is  aggravated  by  the  excessive  heat, 
the  temperature  often  attaining  100° 
Fahr.  Tiberias  is  still  one  of  the  four 
holy  cities  of  the  Jews,  and  more  than 
one-half  of  tlie  inhabitants  are  Jews  of  the 
poorer  class,  who  live,  in  great  measure, 
on  the  alms  sent  by  their  coreligionists 
in  various  j)arts  of  the  world.  Many 
of  the  Jews  are  imuiigrants  from  Poland. 
There  are  also  Mohammedans  and  Chris- 
tians. The  j)opulation  is  some  3000  or 
4000.  The  famous  hot  springs,  to  the 
south,  are  still  much  resorted  to  for 
medicinal  purposes.  The  temperature 
ranges  from  131°  to  142°  Fahr.  On  a 
slight  eminence,  1  mile  west  of  the 
town,  lies  the  Jewish  burial-ground,  in 
which  some  of  the  most  celebrated  of 
the  .Jewish  Talmudists  are  interred. 

TIBE  RIAS,    THE    SEA   OF. 
John  6  :  1  ;  21:1.    See  Galilee,  SfiA  of. 


Head  of  Kniiieior  Tiberiii.s.     (From  a  Com.) 


TIBERIUS,      CLAU'DIUS 
NERO  (full  title),  Luke  3  :  1,  was  the 

867 


TIB 


TIM 


step-son  and  successor  of  Augustus,  Luke 
2  :  1,  and,  though  with  some  apparent 
virtues,  was  one  of  the  most  infamous 
tyrants  that  ever  scourged  the  empire 
of  Rome.  All  the  events  of  Christ's 
manhood  took  place  during  this  reign. 
He  began  well,  but  quickly  "degenera- 
ted into  a  gloomy  despot."  Madness  was 
probably  the  excuse  for  his  cruelties. 
He  began  his  reign  a.  d.  14,  reigned 
during  the  eventful  period  of  the  suc- 
ceeding twenty-three  years,  and  was 
finally  murdered  bv  suffocation. 

TIB'HATH  (butchery).  1  Chr.  18  : 
8.     See  Betah. 

TIB'NI  {building  of  Jehovah),  a 
claimant  to  the  throne  of  Israel,  and 
one  who  for  four  years  headed  half  the 
people  in  a  struggle  against  Omri,  whom 
the  army  had  proclaimed  king  after 
Zimri's  death.  Tibni  was  defeated,  and 
probably  killed.  1  Kgs.  16  :  21,  22. 

TI'DALi  {(jreut  son),  a  king  who 
joined  Chedorlaomer.  Gen.  14  :  1-9. 

TIG  LATH-PILE'SER  {my  help 
is  the  son  of  Esarras — i.  e.,  Adar),  "  the 
second  Assyrian  king  mentioned  in  the 
Scriptures  as  having  come  irlto  contact 
with  the  Israelites,"  and  the  second  of 
the  name.  He  invaded  Samaria.  2  Kgs. 
15  :  29,  and  after  some  years  he  returned 
and  did  much  more  damage,  destroying 
Damascus  and  taking  many  captives,  1 
Chr.  5  :  26.  The  occasion  of  the  first 
attack  was  probably  the  refusal  of  Pe- 
kah  to  pay  tribute :  of  the  second,  the 
call  of  Ahaz  upon  him  for  assistance 
against  Pekah  and  Rezin,  the  king  of 
Syria.  Tiglath-pileser  at  Damascus 
met  Ahaz,  who  became  his  vassal.  2 
Kgs.  16  :  10.  His  wars  were  insignifi- 
cant. He  reigned  b.  c.  747-739,  having 
probably  usurped  the  throne. 

TI'GRIS.  Gen.  2:  14.  SeeHiDDEKEL. 

TIK  VAH,  TIK'VATH  {expec- 
tation). 1.  The  father-in-law  of  Hul- 
dah  the  prophetess.  2  Kgs.  22:14;  2 
Chr.  34  :  22. 

2.  The  father  of  Jahaziah.  Ezr.lO:15. 

TIJLE,  TILING.  See  Dwelling,  p. 
243 

TIL'GATH-PILNE'SER,  a  cor- 
ruption of  Tiglath-pileser,  which  see. 

TI'LON  {lofty),  a  descendant  of 
Judah.   1    Chr.  4  :  20. 

TIMiE'US    {polluted?),  the   father 
(taris  Aramaic  for  "son  "}of  aman  whom 
Jesus  cured  of  blindness.  Mark  10  :  46. 
868 


TIM'BRELi,  a  musical  instrument, 
supposed  to  have  resembled  very  nearly 
the  instrument  of  modern  days  called 
the  tambourine.  Ex.  15  :  20.  A  skin  is 
stretched  over  a  rim  like  the  end  of  a 
drum ;    around  the  rim  are  hung  little 


Timbrel.     {After  specimen  in  Kensington  Museum, 
London.) 

bells,  and  the  player  strikes  the  skin  with 
the  knuckles  of  one  hand  and  shakes 
it  with  the  other  hand.  It  was  used  in 
ancient  times  chiefly  by  women. 

TIME.  See  Days,  Hours,  Watches 
OF  THE  Night. 

TIM'NA,  TIM'NAH  (restrained). 
1.  The  concubine  of  Eliphaz,  son  of 
Esau,  and  mother  of  Amalek.  Gen,  36  : 
12,  22  ;   1  Chr.  1  :  39. 

2.  An  Edomite  sheik.  Gen.  36  :  40 ;  1 
Chr.  1:51. 

TIM'NAH  {portion  assigned),  a 
name  of  two  towns. 

1.  A  town  on  the  northern  border  of 
Judah,  Josh.  15  :  10,  occupied  by  the 
Philistines.  2  Chr.  28  :  18.  This  is 
probably  the  same  place  which  is  called 
Thimnathah,  Thamnatha,  and  Timnath, 
and  which  apparently  belonged  to  Dan. 
It  is  now  represented  by  the  modern 
Tibneh,  a  ruin  on  a  hill  740  feet  above 
the  sea-level  and  2  miles  west  from  Beth- 
shemesh. 

2.  A  town  in  the  mountains  of  Judah, 
south  of  Hebron,  Josh.  15:57,-  prob- 
ably a  ruin  called  Tibna,  near  Jeba,  and 
about  9  miles  south  of  west  of  Bethle- 
hem. 

TIMNATH,  AND  TIM'NA- 
THAH  (portion  assigned),  the  name 
of  two  places. 

1.  A  place  to  which  Judah  was  going 
when  he  was  met  by  his  daughter-in- 


TIM 


TIM 


law  Tamar,  Gen.  38:12-14;  perhaps 
identical  with  Timnah,  1. 

2.  The  home  of  Samson's  wife,  Jud. 
14  :  1,  2,  5  ;  probably  also  identical  with 
Timnah,  above,  the  modern  Tibneh,  west 
of  Beth-shemesh.  There  are  traces  of 
ancient  cultivation  and  rock-hewn  wine- 
presses, suggesting  the  vineyards  in 
which  he  slew  the  lion. 

TIM'NATH-HE'RES.    Jud.  2  : 

9.       See    TiMNATH-SKKAII. 

TIM'NATH-SE'RAH      {portion 

of  nhunilatice),  AND  TIM'NATH- 
HE'RES  {portion  of  the  sun),  a  city 
in  Ejjhraim  assigned  to  .Joshua,  and  the 
place  of  his  residence  and  burial.  Jud. 
2:9;  Josh.  19  .  50  ;  24  :  30. 

1.  Christian  tradition  points  to  a  Tibneh 
(not  that  under  Timnath),  on  the  Roman 
road  from  Jerusalem  to  Antipatris  and 
some  14^  miles  north-north-west  of  Je- 
rusalem as  the  site  of  ancient  Timnath- 
serah.  Jerome  speaks  of  this  place  as 
on  the  border  between  the  possessions 
of  Dan  and  Judah.  The  ruin  of  Tibneh 
has  a  remarkable  rock-cemetery,  con- 
taining nine  tombs,  south  of  the  site  of 
the  town;  one  of  these  tombs  is  large, 
with  a  portico  supported  on  rude  piers 
of  rock.  There  are  niches  for  over  two 
hundred  lamps,  once  burning  in  front 
of  the  tomb-entrance.  Within  there  is 
a  chamber  with  fourteen  graves,  or  ko- 
kim,  and  a  passage  leads  into  an  inner 
chamber  with  only  one  koka.  There  is 
no  direct  evidence  of  the  date  of  this 
tomb,  which  some  have  regarded  as  the 
tomb  of  Joshua,  but  this  is  hardly  prob- 
able. Another  curious  fact  is  that  near 
the  tomb  is  a  great  oak  tree  called  xheikh 
et-Teim,  ''the  chief  of  the  servant  of 
God."  There  is  also  a  village,  about  3 
miles  to  the  east,  called  Kefr  lahu'a,  or 
"Joshua's  village." 

2.  Another  site  proposed  for  Timnath- 
heres  or  -serah  is  at  Kefr  Hdris,  9  miles 
south  of  NdfilitH  (Shechem).  The  Samar- 
itans state  that  Joshua,  son  of  Nun,  and 
Caleb  were  here  buried.  The  two  tombs 
of  Caleb  and  Joshua  were  noticed  here 
by  Rabbi  Jacob  of  Paris,  a.  n.  1258. 
Conder  inclines  to  this  as  the  burial- 
place  of  Joshua,  since  Jew  and  Samar- 
itan both  point  to  it.  (See  picture  of 
the  tomb  of  Joshua  under  Joshi:a.) 

TIll'NITE,  THE  (/.  f.,  the  Tim- 
nathite),  Samson's  father-in-law.  Jud. 
15:  6. 


TI'MON  {honoring),  one  of  the  seven 
deacons  ordained  by  the  apostles  on  the 
election  of  the  Jerusalem  church.  Acts 
6  :  5. 

TIMO'THEUS  {honoring  God),  the 
Greek  name  of  Timothy,  used  generally 
in  A.  V.   Acts  16  :  1. 

TIM'OTHY  {honoring  God),  an 
evangelist  and  pupil  of  St.  Paul.  lie 
was  a  Lycaonian,  a  native  of  either 
Derbe  or  Lystra.  His  father  was  a 
Greek  and  a  heathen ;  his  mother, 
Eunice,  was  a  Jewess,  and  a  woman  of 
distinguished  piety,  as  was  also  his 
grandmother,  Lois,  2  Tim.  1  :  5,  and  by 
them  lie  was  earl}'  educated  in  the  holy 
scriptures  of  the  O.T.  2  Tim.  3:  15.  Paul 
found  him  in  one  of  the  cities  above  named, 
and,  being  informed  of  his  good  standing 
among  the  Christians  there,  selected  him 
as  an  assistant  in  his  labors,  and,  to 
avoid  the  cavils  of  the  Jews,  performed 
on  him  the  rite  of  circumcision.  1  Cor. 
9  :  20.  He  afterward  became  the  com- 
panion of  Paul,  and  that  he  was  the 
object  of  the  extraordinary  affection  and 
solicitude  of  that  apostle  his  letters 
plainly  show.  He  was  left  in  charge  of 
the  church  at  Ephesus,  and  that,  prob- 
ably', when  he  was  quite  young,  thirty- 
four  or  thirty-five.  1  Tim.  4  :  12.  The 
post-apostolic  tradition  makes  him  bish- 
op of  Ephesus.  In  that  case  he  would 
be  the  "  angel  "  of  that  church  addressed 
in  Rev.  2  :  1-7,  or  his  predecessor. 

Epistles  of  Paul  to.  These,  with 
that  to  Titus,  are  commonly  spoken  of 
as  the  Pastoral  Epistles  because  they  are 
predominantly  given  up  to  directions 
about  church  work.  The  First  i.s  sup- 
posed to  have  been  written  about  the 
year  64,  and  contains  special  instructions 
respecting  the  qualifications  and  the 
duties  of  sundry  ecclesiastical  officers  and 
other  persons,  and  the  most  affectionate 
and  pungent  exhortations  to  faithfulness. 
The  Second  f]pistle  was  written  a  year 
or  two  later  and  while  Paul  was  in  con- 
stant expectation  of  martyrdom,  2  Tim. 
4  :  6-8,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the 
dying  counsel  of  the  venerable  apostolic 
father  to  his  son  in  the  Lord.  It  con- 
tains a  variety  of  injunctions  as  to  the 
duties  of  Christians  under  trials  and 
temptations,  and  concludes  with  expres- 
sions of  a  full  and  triumphant  faith  in  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  in  all  the  ghtrious 
promises  made  to  his  true  followers. 

869 


TIN 


TIS 


TIN,  a  well-known  metal  in  use  at 
a  very  early  period,  Num.  31  :  22,  and 
an  article  of  Tyrian  commerce,  probably 
obtained  from  Spain  or  England.  Eze. 
27  :  12.  Captain  Burton  has  recently 
found  tin-ore  in  the  land  of  Midian. 

In  Isa.  1 :  25  the  word  ''  tin  "  doubtless 
means  a  sort  of  dross. 

TINK'LING.     See  Bell,  Clothes. 

TIPH'SAH  [ford),  a  name  for  two 
places. 

1.  A  city  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Euphrates.  The  name  connected  with 
the  Hebrew  word  signifies  "  to  pass  over," 
which  is  represented  in  Greek  and  Latin 
by  Thaps<Huis,  a  town  situated  at  one  of 
the  most  frequented  fords  of  the  Euphra- 
tes. The  city  was  large  and  flourishing, 
being  a  great  emporium  of  trade  between 
Assyria  and  the  West,  and  in  a  direct 
line  from  Tadmor.  It  has  been  found 
that  the  only  practicable  ford  of  the 
Euphrates  is  at  Hammam,  181  miles 
higher  up  the  river  than  Deir,  which 
was  formerly  thought  to  be  the  true 
position,  but  where  the  river  is  not 
fordable.    1  Kgs.  4  :  24. 

2.  Menahem,  king  of  Israel,  "smote 
Tiphsah  and  all  that  vere  therein,  and 
the  coasts  thereof."  2  Kgs.  15  :  16. 
This  place  has  been  identified  with  the 
above,  but  some  leading  scholars  would 
put  this  Tiphsah  in  Palestine,  near  to 
Tirzah,  or  a  ford  of  the  Jordan.  Conder 
suggests  its  identity  with  the  ruin  Tafsah, 
south  of  Shechem. 

TI'RAS  {desire  F),  the  voungest  son 
of  Japheth.  Gen.  10  :  2 ;  *1  Chr.  1  :  5. 
Probably  the  Thracians  are  meant. 

TI'RATHITES,  THE  (gate),  one 
of  three  families  of  Levites  at  Jabez. 
1  Chr.  2  :  55. 

TIRES.  This  generally  denotes  an 
ornamental  head-dress,  but  it  may  mean 
other  parts  of  the  attire ;  and  in  Isa.  3  : 
18  the  original  probably  signifies  a  neck- 
lace, the  parts  of  which  might  have 
resembled  the  moon  in  shape. 

TIR'HAKAH  {exalted  n,  king  of 
Ethiopia  and  Upper  Egypt.  2  Kgs.  19  : 
9  ;  Isa.  37  :  9.  In  legends  he  was  one 
of  the  greatest  conquerors  of  antiquity. 
His  triumphs  westward  are  said  to  have 
reached  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  But  in 
the  East  he  seems  to  have  been  twice 
badly  beaten  by  the  Assyrians  and  shut 
up  in  his  own  domains.  Still,  he  Avas 
formidable  enough  to  cause  Sennacherib 
870 


great  uneasiness ;  for  when  the  latter 
heard  of  his  coming  he  demanded  the 
immediate  surrender  of  Jerusalem.  2 
Kgs.  19  :  9.  Tirhakah  reigned,  prob- 
ably, twenty-eight  years.  The  dates  are 
uncertain,  but  perhaps  his  rule  extended 
from  B.  c.  695  to  667. 

TIR'HANAH  {favor),  a  son  of 
Caleb,  son  of  Hezron.  1  Chr.  2  :  48. 

TIR'IA  {f/od/i/  fear),  a  descendant 
of  Judah.  1  Chr.  4:"  16. 

TIR'SHATHA,  THE  {lord  of 
the  province),  the  title  of  the  Persian 
governors.  Ezr.  2  :  63 ;  Neh.  7  :  65,  70  ; 
8  :  9  :  10  :  1. 

TIR'ZAH  {charm),  the  youngest  of 
the  five  daughters  of  Zelophehad.  Num. 
26:33;  27:1:  36:11:  Josh.  17  :  3. 

TIR'ZAH  {deli;/ht),  one  of  the 
thirty-one  cities  of  the  Canaanites  taken 
by  Joshua,  Josh.  12  :  24,  and  for  fifty 
years  the  capital  of  the  northern  king- 
dom of  Israel,  until  Omri  built  Samaria. 
1  Kgs.  14  :  17;  16  :  21,  33;  16  :  6,  23. 
It  is  also  mentioned  in  the  reign  of 
Menahem,  b.  c.  772,  2  Kgs.  16  :  14,  16, 
and  its  fame  for  beauty  appears  from 
Cant.  6:4.  Tirzah  has  been  usually 
identified  with  Telluzah,  situated  on  a 
hill  2  miles  north-east  of  Mount  Ebal,  5 
miles  east  of  Samaria,  and  30  miles  north 
of  Jerusalem.  The  village  occupies  a 
fine  elevation  in  the  midst  of  immense 
olive-groves.  Wilson  and  Conder,  how- 
ever, dispute  this  identification,  and  favor 
instead  that  at  Teidatr,  an  important 
and  ancient  site,  standing  in  the  midst 
of  a  well-wooded  country  on  the  main 
road  from  Aahlun  (Shechem)  to  Beisan 
(Beth-shean),  and  12  miles  east  of  Sa- 
maria. There  are  numerous  ancient 
sepulchres  and  caves  north  of  the  village, 
which  may  perhaps  include  the  tombs  of 
the  first  four  kings  of  Israel,  buried  at 
Tirzah.  1  Kgs.  16  :  6. 

TISH'BAH,  the  birthplace  of  Eli- 
jah, 1  Kgs.  17  :  1,  who  is  therefore  called 
the  Tishbite,  probably  identical  with  El- 
Istib,  or  Listib,  22  miles  in  an  air  line 
south  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  10 
miles  east  of  the  Jordan,  in  the  Wady 
March,  amid  the  hills  of  Gilead.  Parchi, 
a  learned  Jewish  traveller  in  Palestine  in 
the  fourteenth  century,  mentions  El-Istib 
as  the  probable  site,  but  the  credit  of  the 
identification  belongs  to  Dr.  Selah  Mer- 
rill, who  in  1876  found  the  spot. 

TISH'BITE.    SeeTiSHBAH. 


TIS 


TOB 


TIS'RI.     See  Month. 

TITHES,  OR  TE\TIIS,  a  form 
of  tax  known  long  before  the  time  of 
Moses,  Gen.  14  :  20  :  28  :  21'.  and  prac- 
tised under  the  civil  and  religious  gov- 
ernment of  heathen  nations.  It  was 
introduced  into  the  Levitical  code,  and 
consisted  in  rendering  a  fixed  propor- 
tion of  the  produce  of  the  earth,  herds, 
etc.,  to  the  service  of  Hod  their  King, 
whom  they  were  taught  to  consider  as 
the  proprietor  of  all.  One-tenth  of  this 
produce  went  to  the  use  of  the  Levites, 
who  had  no  part  in  the  soil,  and  of  course 
were  dependent  on  their  brethren  for  the 
means  of  subsistence.  One-tenth  of  their 
tenth  thev  paid  in  their  turn  to  the  priests. 
Num.  18':  21-32. 

The  nine  parts  were  tithed  again,  and 
of  this  second  tithe  a  feast  was  made  in 
the  court  of  the  sanctuary,  or  in  some 
apartment  connected  with  it.  If,  how- 
ever, the  Jew  could  not  with  convenience 
carry  his  tithe  thither,  he  was  permitted 
to  sell  it  and  to  take  the  money,  adding 
one-fifth  of  the  amount — that  is,  if  he 
sold  the  tithe  for  a  dollar,  he  should 
bring,  in  money,  a  dollar  and  twenty 
cents — and  to  purchase  therewith  v/hat 
was  required  at  the  feast  after  he  came 
to  the  sanctuary.  Lev.  27  :  31;  Deut.  12  : 
17,  18;  14:22-27. 

At  this  feast  of  thanksgiving  they  en- 
tertained their  families  and  friends,  and 
also  the  Levites,  It  has  been  supposed 
by  some,  from  Deut.  14  :  28,  29,  that  in 
every  third  year  a  third  tithe  was  re- 
quired, but  it  is  more  probable  that  in 
the  third  year  the  second  tithe  above 
mentioned  was  consumed  at  home,  in- 
stead of  at  the  sanctuary,  so  that  the 
poor  neighbors  and  friends,  and  espe- 
cially such  as  were  aged  and  infirm, 
might  partake  of  it. 

The  cattle  were  tithed  by  letting  them 
pass  out  of  an  enclosure,  under  a  rod 
held  by  some  person,  who  touched  every 
tenth  beast,  which  thereupon  became  the 
property  of  the  Levites  ;  so  that,  if  ex- 
changed, both  were  forfeited.  Lev.  27  : 
32,  ;i3. 

It  does  not  appear  that  the  tithe  of 
herbs  was  demanded.  The  Pharisees, 
however,  tithed  their  mint,  anise,  cum- 
min, and  rue;  nor  was  it  for  this  that 
our  Saviour  condemned  them,  but  for 
neglecting  weightier  things,  as  mercy, 
judgment,   and    faith,    while   they   were 


so  scrupulously  exact  in  matters  of  in- 
ferior moment.  Matt.  23  :  23. 

TIT'TLE,  the  very  least  point, 
Matt.  5  :  18;  used  of  the  fine  stroke  by 
which  some  letters  were  distinguished. 
To  omit  this  stroke  condemned  the  entire 
copy  of  the  Law  made  by  the  scribe. 

TI'TUS,  a  (Jentilc  by  descent,  and 
probably  converted  to  Christianity  under 
the  preaching  of  Paul.  Tit.  1  :  4.  lie, 
however,  refused  to  subject  him  to  the 
rite  of  circumcision,  though,  as  some 
have  inferred,  he  was  strongly  urged 
so  to  do.  Gial.  2  :  3-5.  Titus  was  the 
companion  of  Paul  in  manj'^  of  his 
trials  and  missionary-tours,  2  Cor.  8  : 
6,  16,  23,  and  was  entrusted  with  sev- 
eral important  commissions.  2  Cor.  12  : 
18;  2  Tim.  4  :  10;   Tit.  1  :  5. 

EiMSTLK  OF  Paul  to,  was  designed  to 
instruct  Titus  in  the  right  discharge,  of 
his  ministerial  offices  in  Crete,  a  dilficult 
field,  owing  to  the  character  of  the  in- 
habitants, who  were  noted  for  lying, 
idleness,  and  gluttony.  Tit.  1  :  12.  The 
Epistle  was  probably  written  from  Asia 
Minor  in  the  year  65,  when  Paul  was 
on  his  way  to  Nicopolis. 

TI'ZITE,  THE,  the  designation 
given  to  Joha,  one  of  David's  mighty 
men.    1   Chr.  11  :  45. 

TO'AH  {inclined),  a  Kohathite  Le- 
vite,  1  Chr.  6:34;  called  Tohu  in  I 
Sam.  1  :  1. 

TOB  (r/ood),  the  place  or  district  be- 
3'ond  the  Jordan  to  which  Jephthah  fled, 
Jud.  11 :  3,  5  ;  also  called  Ish-tob.  2  Sam. 
10  :  6,  8.  It  lay  beyond  Gilead,  toward 
the  eastern  deserts.  There  is  a  modern 
place  called  Tniyibet,  an  Arabic  form  of 
"  Tob,"  12  miles  south-east  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  which  would  identify  it  with  the 
southern  {lart  of  Bashan. 

TOB-ADONl'JAH  {.jood  is  mij 
Lord  Jehordk),  one  of  the  Levites  sent 
by  Jehoshaphat  to  teach  .ludah  the  law 
of  the  Lord.  2  Chr.  17  :  8. 

TOBI'AH  iifoodnesH  of  Jehovah). 
1.  One  whose  descendants  came  from 
Babylon  with  Zcrubbabel,  but  who  could 
not  prove  whether  they  were  of  Israel, 
owing  to  the  loss  of  their  family-tree. 
Ezr.  2  :  60;  Xeh.  7  :  62. 

2.  An  Ammonite  of  considerable  in- 
fluence, and  a  leader  in  the  opposition 
which  was  made  to  the  rebuilding  of 
the  temple  b}'  Neheiniah.  Being  con- 
nected  by  marriage  with   some   influen- 

871 


TOB 


TOG 


tial  families,  he  became  the  head  of  a 
formidable  party,  and  maintained  a  cor- 
respondence with  the  nobles  of  Judah 
adverse  to  the  interests  of  Nehemiah  and 
his  party,  and  even  descended  to  threats, 
expecting  by  these  to  deter  him  from 
the  prosecution  of  his  purpose.  Dur- 
ing the  absence  of  Nehemiah  from 
Jerusalem,  Tobiah  obtained  apartments 
in  the  temple  for  his  private  residence; 
but  Nehemiah,  as  soon  as  he  returned  to 
Jerusalem,  expelled  him  and  his  furni- 
ture from  the  holy  place,  and  ordered 
the  chamber  which  had  been  thus  dese- 
crated to  be  thoroughly  cleansed.  Neh. 
2  :  10.  etc. 

TOBI'JAH  (i/oodiiess  of  Jehovah). 
1.  A  Levite  sent  out  through  Judah  by 
Jehoshaphat  to  teach  the  Law.  I  Chr. 
17:8. 

2.  One  to  whom  a  memorial  crown  was 
given  by  the  prophet.  Zech.  6:10,  14. 

TO'BIT  (viy  (jooduess ;  contracted 
from  goodness  of  Jehovah),  the  hero  of 
the  book  named  below. 

TO'BIT,  BOOK  OF,  one  of  the 
most  interesting  of  the  Apocrypha  of  the 
0.  T.,  but  devoid  of  historical  value  and 
plainly  a  romance.  The  story  of  Tobit 
may  be  thus  given.  He  was  a  Naphta- 
lite  who  remained  faithful  to  the  temple- 
service  amidst  the  defection  of  his  coun- 
trymen, but,  notwithstanding,  he  shared 
with  them  in  their  misfortunes  and  was 
carried  to  Nineveh  by  Shalmanezer.  His 
wealth  and  his  position  at  court  gave  him 
opportunity  to  help  his  people  and  thus 
win  their  regard,  and  for  a  time  his  life 
was  enviable.  But  a  change  of  rulers 
changed  his  fortune.  When  Sennacherib 
came  to  the  throne,  he  was  compelled  to 
flee  from  the  king's  wrath  at  his  con- 
duct in  burying  the  Jews  whom  the 
king  had  killed.  All  his  property  was 
confiscated.  But  on  the  entreaty  of 
a  nephew,  the  new  king,  Esarhaddon, 
who  succeeded  Sennacherib,  allowed  him 
to  return  to  Nineveh.  Shortly  there- 
after he  lost  his  eyesight  through  the 
injury  his  opened  ejes  received  from 
the  warm  swallows'  dung  which  fell 
upon  them,  causing  albugo — /.  e.,  white, 
hard  flakes  on  the  eyes,  which  are  of 
greater  or  less  extent,  and  not  trans- 
parent. A  quarrel  with  his  wife  about  a 
kid  led  to  her  reproaches,  under  which  he 
wept  grievously  and  in  sorrow  prayed. 
At  this  point  the  episode  of  Sarra,  of 
872 


Ecbatana  in  Media,  is  introduced.  She 
was  the  wife  of  seven  who  were  success- 
ively killed  on  the  wedding-night  by 
Asraodaeus.  Her  prayer  for  death  was 
made  at  the  same  time  with  Tobit's 
pra\'er  for  the  same.  "  And  Raphael 
was  sent  to  heal  them  both  " — that  is,  to 
scale  away  the  white  spots  from  Tobit's 
eyes — "and  to  give  Sarra  for  a  wife  to 
Tobias  the  son  of  Tobit,  and  to  bind 
Asmodfeus  the  wicked  demon."  This 
was  thus  brought  about:  Tobit  sent  his 
son  to  Media  to  recover  some  money  lent 
in  the  days  of  his  prosperity  to  one 
Gabael.  He  improved  the  occasion  to 
give  his  son  much  good  advice.  The 
angel  Raphael,  in  the  guise  of  "  Azarias, 
son  of  Ananias  the  great,"  saluted  Tobias 
and  made  the  journey  in  his  company. 
The  capture  of  a  fish  put  in  Tobias'  hands 
the  means  of  curing  his  father  and  rid- 
ding Sarra  of  the  demon.  His  journey 
was  eminently  successful.  He  recovered 
the  money  loaned,  married  Sarra,  to 
whom  Raphael  introduced  him,  and  re- 
turned home  with  these  treasures,  greatly 
to  the  delight  of  Tobit,  who  had  begun 
to  be  a  little  fearful  for  his  safety.  The 
book  ends  with  the  restoration  of  Tobit's 
eyesight  and  prosperity,  his  consequent 
psalm  of  gratitude,  which  is  a  worthy 
echo  of  the  canonical  Psalms  and  the 
best  piece  of  writing  in  the  book,  and 
mention  of  the  death  of  Tobit  and 
Tobias. 

The  above  narrative  is  plainly  far  be- 
neath the  dignity  of  Scripture,  and  study 
of  the  book  leads  to  the  discovery  of 
many  serious  errors,  not  only  historical, 
but  moral,  such  as  the  meritoriousness 
of  good  works,  a  reliance  upon  angels, 
and  a  belief  in  demons.  The  book  is 
indeed  a  romance,  a  good  specimen  of 
its  class,  but  devoid  of  probability  and 
in  part  based  upon  Job. 

The  author  of  the  book  was  undoubt- 
edly a  Jew.  and  probably  one  who  lived 
in  the  far  East.  Critics  are  much  divided 
in  regard  to  the  time  of  composition. 
Various  dates,  from  B.  c.  333  to  A.  D.  250, 
have  been  assigned  to  it,  but  it  may  per- 
haps with  most  reason  be  set  down  to 
the  period  near  the  close  of  the  Macca- 
ba?an  wars. 

TO'CHEN"  (a  measure),  a  place  in 
Simeon,  1  Chr.  4  :  32  ;  not  identified. 

TOGAR'MAH,  a  descendant  of 
Japheth.  Gen.  10  :  3. 


TOG 


TON 


TOGAR'MAH,  the  name  of  a 
people  descended  from  the  race  of  Gomer, 
the  Cimmerians,  and  remotely  from  Ja- 
pheth.  Gen.  10  :  .} ;  1  Chr.  1  :  (5.  The 
"  house  "  or  race  of  Togarmah  are  men- 
tioned in  Eze.  38  :  0,  with  their  swarms 
of  mercenary  troops,  as  belonging  to  the 
extreme  north.  In  Eze.  27  :  14.  Togar- 
mah is  described  as  furnishing  horses 
and  mules  to  the  Tyrian  markets.  Hence, 
Togarmah  seems  to  be  Armenia,  derived 
from  Thorgom,  a  descendant  of  Gomer, 
according  to  tradition,  and  rich  in  horses. 
See  Armknia. 

TO'HU.  1  Sam.  1  :  1.     See  Toah. 

TO'I  {wauden'iifj),  king  of  Hamath, 
2  Sam.  8:9,  10;  called  Tou  in  1  Chr. 
18  :  9,  10. 

TO'LA  {worm).  1.  Eldest  child  of 
Issachar,  progenitor  of  the  Tolaites. 
Gen.  46  :  13;  Num.  28  :  23 ;  1  Chr.  7  : 
1,  2. 

Israel,    Abimelech's 
twenty-three    years. 


2.  A  judge  of 
successor;  judged 
Jud.  10  :  1 .  2. 

TO 'LAD  (birth 
of  Judah.   1  Chr.  4: 


,  a  city  in  the  South 
29.     See  El-tolad. 

TO'LAITES,  descendants  of  Tola. 
Num.  26  :  23. 

TOLL.  In  Ezr.  4  :  13 ;  7  :  24  there 
is  mention  of  "  toll,  tribute,  and  cus- 
tom "  as  the  three  branches  of  the  Per- 
sian king's  revenue  from  the  Jews.  The 
"  tribute  "  was  the  money-tax  imposed 
on  each  province,  and  apportioned  out 
to  the  inhabitants  by  the  local  author- 
ities. The  "custom,"  or  provision,  was 
the  payment  in  kind,  which  was  an  in- 
tegral part  of  the  Persian  system.  The 
"  toll "  was  probably  a  payment  re- 
quired of  those  who  used  the  bridges, 
fords,  and  Persian  highways.  See 
Taxks,  Tribute. 

TOMB.  Matt.  27  :  60.     See  Burial. 

TONGUES,  CONFU'SION  OF. 
Originally  "the  whole  earth  was  of  one 
language  and  of  one  speech."  Gen.  11 :  1. 
This  biblical  statement  is  confirmed  by 
the  researches  of  philologists,  which 
show  a  great  resemblance  between  the 
different  families  of  languages  spoken  by 
the  descendants  of  the  Babel-builders. 
The  Bible  states  that  the  present  differ- 
ences are  due  to  the  divine  intervention. 
God  confused  the  speech  of  the  builders, 
so  that  they  were  obliged  to  abandon 
their  work,  thus  forestalling  "the  wide 
dialectical  differences   which  ordinarily 


require  time  and  difference  of  place  and 
habits  to  mature." — Fatisset.  See  Lan- 
gua(;k. 

TONGUES,    GIFT   OF,   one  of 

the  mysterious  phenomena  connected 
with  the  work  of  the  apostles.  It  belongs 
to  the  miraculous  gifts  which  adorned 
the  primitive  age  of  the  Church.  Our 
Lord,  immediately  before  his  ascension, 
promised  his  disciples  that  they  should 
speak  with  new  tuiu/iies.  Mark  16  :  17. 
This  promise  had  the  beginning  of  its 
fulfilment  on  the  day  of  Pentecost.  Acts 
2.  We  must,  however,  distinguish  be- 
tween the  proper  eHsence  of  this  speaking 
with  tongues,  as  a  gift  of  the  apostolic 
Church  in  general,  and  the  particular 
form  under  which  it  made  its  first  ap- 
pearance on  that  day.  Only  in  this  way 
can  we  understand  1  Cor.  14.  Luke  does 
not  describe  as  a  common  event  the  phe- 
nomenon of  Pentecost,  nor  was  that  won- 
drous scene  repeated  in  the  house  of  Cor- 
nelius. Acts  10  :  46.  Pentecost  stands 
alone,  and  the  subsequent  gift  of  tongues 
must  be  looked  upon  as  a  different  mani- 
festation of  one  and  the  same  Spirit.  This 
can  be  made  evident. 

1.  The  tongues  of  Pentecost  were 
tongues  like  flames  of  fire.  Their  com- 
ing upon  the  disciples  was  preceded  by 
violent  noises.  It  seemed  a  literal  pos- 
session. They  spoke  involuntarily,  and 
with  strange  power.  But  in  the  Cor- 
inthian church  there  was  no  such  thing. 
The  speaking  took  place  in  the  meetings 
of  the  church.  It  was  done  quietly.  It 
came  in  as  part  of  the  service.  It  could 
be  omitted  or  suppressed.  1  Cor.  14  :  28. 

2.  On  Pentecost  the  disciples  spoke 
strange  languages,  understood  by  those 
to  whom  they  were  native.  Acts  2  :  6. 
The  words  employed  plainly  indicate 
that  the  miracle  was  with  the  disciples. 
But  in  the  Corinthian  church  the  words 
spoken  under  this  influence  were  tiot 
understood  until  the  speaker  had  him- 
self interpreted  his  words  or  been  inter- 
preted.  1  Cor.  14  :  13,  27. 

We  may,  however,  find  resemblances 
between  the  Pentecostal  phenomenon  and 
those  in  the  Corinthian  church.  In  each 
case  the  speaking  with  tongues  was  pri- 
marily an  address  to  God,  and  )i(it  to 
men.  It  was  an  act  of  worship,  per- 
formed, not  to  impress  unbelievers,  but 
out  of  the  joy  of  their  hearts.  Acts  2:4; 
cf.  V.  6  ;    1  Cor.  14  :  26.      Again,  it  ap- 

873 


TOO 


TOP 


peared  to  unfriendly  or  listless  hearers 
as  madness  or  intoxication.  Acts  2:13; 
1  Cor.  14  :  23.  To  those  who  understood, 
however,  the  speaking  was  edifying. 

It  should  be  remarked  that  the  Cor- 
inthians were  by  no  means  the  only 
Christians  who  enjoyed  this  spiritual 
gift  of  utterance.  It  formed,  indeed, 
part  of  the  work  of  the  Spirit  upon  these 
primitive  believers.  See  Acts  10  :  46. 
Nor  did  it  die  out  in  the  first  century. 
Irenaeus,  a  father  of  the  latter  half  of  the 
second  century,  writes  :  '*  We  hear  many 
brethren  in  the  church,  having  propheti- 
cal gifts,  and  by  the  Spirit  speaking  in 
all  kinds  of  languages."  We  define  this 
phenomenon,  in  the  case  of  these  Chris- 
tians, as  an  involuntary  praying  or 
singing  in  an  ecstatic  state  in  which  the 
Holy  Ghost  rules  the  human  mind  and 
plays,  as  it  were,  upon  it  as  an  instru- 
ment. "  Vehemently  boi-ne  along  by  the 
Spirit,  forgetting  the  world  and  himself, 
enraptured  in  the  immediate  enjoyment 
of  the  Deity,  the  speaker  with  tongues 
broke  forth  in  a  communication  of  di- 
vine mj'steries  or  a  song  of  praise  for  the 
wonderful  works  of  eternal  love."  The 
interpretation  of  this  strange  speech 
could  be  made  only  b,y  those  in  a  simi- 
lar ecstasy.  St.  Paul  advises  that  where 
there  is  no  interpreter  there  be  no  such 
speaking. 

It  will  be  seen  that  we  hold  the  ability 
of  speaking  in  a  foreign  language  with- 
out any  study  therein  was  not  part  of 
this  gift  of  tongues;  that  was  done  only 
on  Pentecost.  Paul  was  a  master  in 
speaking  with  tongues,  but  he  was  igno- 
rant of  the  language  of  Lycaonia.  Acts 
14:11-14,  There  is  a  primitive  and 
reliable  tradition  that  Peter  used  Mark 
as  his  interpreter  in  Piome.  The  fact  of 
the  Greek  language  being  so  widespread 
precluded  the  necessity  of  such  miraculous 
power.  The  instances  of  the  "  speaking  " 
cited  in  the  X.  T.  are  all  of  one  descrip- 
tion— not  evangelistic,  but  declarative: 
Christian  to  Christian,  not  to  foreigner. 
Indeed,  the  expression  " '  to  speak  with 
7iew  tongues'  seems  of  itself  not  to  point 
to  foreign  dialects — for  they  were  not 
new — but  to  a  language  different  from 
all  dialects  in  use,  a  language  of  the 
new  Spirit  poured  out  upon  the  dis- 
ciples." 

In  modern  times,  in  the  congregation 
of  the  Rev.  Edward  Irving,  in  London, 
874 


1830,  there  was  a  marvellous  phenomenon 
similar  in  some  respects  to  that  de- 
scribed in  1  Cor.  14.  It  continued  for 
some  time  in  connection  with  prophetic 
utterances.  Out  of  the  excitement  it 
caused  grew  the  so-called  Catholic  Apos- 
tolic Church,  of  which  Mr.  Irving  was 
first  leader,  although  it  was  not  fully 
organized  till  after  his  death. 

TOOTH.  The  law  of  retaliation 
allowed  the  Jewish  magistrate  to  give  to 
one  who  had  been  deprived  of  a  tooth  or 
an  eye  the  tooth  or  eye  of  the  aggressor 
in  revenge.  Ex.  21  :  24.  The  Jews  con- 
strued this  law  to  justify  private  revenge, 
and  this  construction  and  the  whole 
principle  of  the  law  were  condemned  by 
our  Saviour,  and  the  law  of  forJoearance 
and  forgiveness  commended.  Matt.  5  : 
39.  Cleanness  of  teeth  is  a  figurative 
expression  for  famine.  Am.  4  :  6.  Gnash- 
ing the  teeth  indicates  terror,  rage,  and 
despair.  Matt.  8  :  12.  The  phrase  in 
Eze.  18  :  2  denotes  that  the  children 
suffer  for  the  sins  of  their  fathers. 

TO'PAZ.  Eze.  28  :  13  ;  Rev.  21  :  20. 
It  seems  quite  agreed  that  this  was  the 
modern  chrysolite,  a  rather  soft  and 
transparent  or  translucent  gem,  usually 
of  a  pale  green.  It  is  also  caWed  2)eridot 
and  olivine. 

The  true  topaz  is  ordinarily-  pellucid 
and  of  a  yellowish  tint,  but  sometimes 
of  a  brown,  blue,  or  green  hue,  or  even 
colorless.  A  single  gem  of  this  kind  has 
been  sold  (it  is  said)  for  upwards  of 
$1,000,000.  The  finest  specimens  are 
found  in  the  East  Indies, 

The  "  topaz  of  Ethiopia,"  Job  28  :  19, 
or  Southern  Arabia  (see  Ethiopia),  was 
probably  distinguished  for  its  beauty  and 
value.  That  the  most  precious  stones 
were  once  found  there  profane  history 
asserts. 

TO'PHEL  (lime),  a  place  east  of 
the  Arabah.  Deut.  1:1.  It  is  identical 
with  the  TdfUeh  of  Robinson,  a  large 
village  with  about  six  hundred  houses, 
a  little  south-east  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
Numerous  springs  and  rivulets  and 
plantations  of  fruit  trees — apples,  apri- 
cots, figs,  pomegranates,  and  olives — 
make  the  place  very  attractive,  and  it 
might  naturally  be  selected  as   a  land- 

TO'PHET,  and  once  TO'- 
PHETH.  2  Kgs.  23  :  10.  Various  in- 
terpretations are  given:    ''drum,"  *'gar- 


TOR 


TRA 


den,"  "  place  of  burning  "  or  "  burying," 
"abomination."  "  pleasant,"  and  "  tabret- 
grove."  Toj)het  was  in  "  the  valley  of 
the  son  of  ilinnom,"  which  is  "  by  the 
entry  of  the  east  gate."  2  Kgs.  23  :  10. 
Hence  it  \iiy  in  the  valley,  east  or  south 
of  Jerusalem,  and  the  supposition  is 
that  it  was  originally  a  beautiful  place, 
watered  from  the  pool  of  Siloam,  a  part 
of  the  king's  garden,  and  perhaps  a 
music-  or  tabret-garden.  But  afterward 
it  became  polluted  by  abominable  idola- 
trous rites,  sacrifices  to  Baal  and  Moloch, 
Jer.  7  :  31,  32  ;  19  :  13  :  was  made  a  re- 
ceptacle for  all  the  filth  of  the  city  ;  fires 
were  kept  burning  to  destroy  the  refuse; 
and  hence  "Tophet"  became  the  syno- 
nym for  the  place  of  punishment  and  for 
fearful  judgments.  Jer.  19  :  0,  11-14.  In 
the  terrific  wars  waged  around  Jerusa- 
lem, Tophet  became  the  receptacle  for 
innumerable  dead  bodies.  Isa.  30  :  33. 
See  IIiNXOM. 

TORCH'ES.  John  18  :  3.  Resin- 
ous wood,  or  the  twisted  fibres  of  wool 
or  flax  saturated  with  inflammable 
matter,  served  for  torches,  and  in  some 
parts  of  the  Old  World  at  this  day  the 
like  substances  are  borne  aloft  in  iron 
frames. 

TORMENT'ORS.  This  probably 
means  the  keepers  of  the  prison,  who 
were  often  employed  to  torture  criminals 
in  various  wavs.  Matt.  18  :  34. 

TOR'TOISE.  This  translation, 
Lev.  11 :  29,  is  doubtful.  Bochart's  view 
has  most  adherents — that  the  creature 
intended  was  the  dhabb  of  the  Arabs,  a 
slow-moving  lizard,  sometimes  attaining 
the  length  of  2  feet,  and  found  in  the 
Syrian  and  Arabian  wilderness.  The 
Septuagint  has,  in  place  of  ''tortoise," 
"land-crocodile,"  but  this  reptile  seems 
to  be  meant  by  the  ** chameleon"  of  the 
next  verse.  A  large  land-tortoise  is 
found  in  all  these  regions,  and,  like  the 
dhabh.  is  eaten  by  the  natives.  There  is 
also  in  Palestine  a  water-tortoise. 

TO'U.   1  Chr.  18  :  it.     See  Toi. 

TOVV%  the  coarse  part  of  flax.  Jud. 
16  :  9.     See  Flax. 

TOWER.  xMatt.  21  :  33.  Towers 
were  common  in  vineyards,  Isa.  5  :  2, 
and  are  often  seen  at  the  present  day. 
They  are  sometimes  30  feet  square  and 
60  feet  high,  and  are  a  kind  of  pleasure- 
house,  serving  as  a  shelter  for  the  watch- 
men and  as  a  summer   retreat  for  the 


owner,  aff'ording  an  extensive  prospect 
and  fresh  air. 

TOWER   OF    BABEL.     See 

Bahki.,  Towkr  01',  Lan(;ua(;k,  Tonguks, 
com'usion  of. 

TOWER  OF  EDAR,(;en.35:21, 
OR    TOWER  OF  THE    FLOCK, 

as  it  is  called  in  Mic.  4 :  S.  This  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  particular  tower 
about  a  mile  from  Bethlehem,  and  to 
have  been  erected,  like  other  towers,  for 
the  use  of  shepherds  and  herdsmen  to 
superintend  their  flocks  and  descry  the 
approach  of  danger.  2  Chr.  26  :  10.  Some 
have  supposed  that  the  jilirase  ''  tower 
of  the  flock  "  had  prophetic  reference  to 
Betlilehem  as  the  birthplace  of  the 
Saviour. 

TOWER  OF  SHE'CHEM. 
This  seems  to  have  been  a  very  strong 
and  spacious  citadel  overlooking  the 
town  of  Shechem,  to  which  the  inhabit- 
ants fled  for  refuge  when  the  town  was 
besieged  by  Abimelech.  Fearing  that 
this  would  not  protect  them,  they  es- 
caped to  the  temple  of  one  of  tlieir  idol- 
gods,  which  was  also  fortified,  and  the 
supposed  sanctity  of  which  they  hoped 
would  deter  Abimelech  from  attacking 
it;  but  he  surrounded  it  with  fire  made 
of  green  boughs,  and  burned  or  suff'oca- 
ted  the  whole  multitude.  Jud.  9  :  46.  See 
MiLLO,  House  of. 

TOWER  OF  SILOAM,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  high  structure 
erected  near  the  fountain  or  pool  of  Si- 
loam.  Luke  13  :  4.  Christ's  reference  to 
its  destructive  fall  shows  how  far  he  rose 
above  the  current  superstition  which  con- 
sidered individual  misfortunes  as  indi- 
vidual ])unishments. 

TOWN-CLERK,  an  ofiice  of  rank 
and  dignity  in  Ejdiesus,  as  is  evident 
from  the  conduct  of  this  functionary  as 
recorded  in  Acts  19  :  35,  41.  lie  appears 
to  have  been  the  keeper  of  the  archives 
of  the  city,  presided  over  municipal 
gatherings,  put  matters  to  vote,  and 
performed  the  duties  of  the  chief  mag- 
istrate when  the  latter  was  away.  The 
speech  which  the  town-clerk  delivered 
on  the  occasion  referred  to  was  ver3'  in- 
genious, revealing  great  tact  and  ability 
to  subdue  popular  excitement. 

TOWNS.     See  Citiks. 

TRACHONI'TIS  {a  rwjijed  rc- 
f/ioii),  one  of  the  five  Roman  provinces 
into  which  the  district  north-cast  of  the 

875 


TRA 


TRA 


Jordan  was  divided  in  N.  T,  times.  It 
lay  to  the  east  of  Iturfea  and  Gaulonitis 
and  to  the  south  of  Damascus,  and  in- 
cluded the  remarkable  region  of  the 
modern  Lejah  (see  Argob)  and  part  of 
the  western  slopes  of  Jehel  Hauran. 
The  emperor  Augustus  entrusted  it  to 
Herod  the  Great  on  the  condition  that 
he  should  clear  it  of  robbers.  Herod 
Philip  succeeded  to  the  tetrarchy.  Luke 
3  :  1.  He  died  A.  D.  33,  and  the  empe- 
ror Caligula  bestowed  the  province  of 
Trachonitis  upon  Herod  Agrippa  I. 
Later  it  was  part  of  the  dominions  of 
Herod  Agrippa  II.,  A.  D.  53. 

TRADI'TIOIV,  a  precept  or  cus- 
tom not  contained  in  the  written  law, 
but  handed  down  from  generation  to 
generation.  Matt.  15  :  2.  The  Jews 
maintain  that  God  gave  Moses,  besides 
the  law  which  we  have  in  the  0.  T.,  a 
variety  of  precepts,  which  he  made 
known  to  Joshua,  by  whom  they  were 
communicated  to  the  elders,  and  by 
them  to  the  judges,  prophets,  etc. ;  that 
they  were  finally  collected  from  various 
sources  and  recorded  in  what  is  called 
the  Talmud,  which  see.  Many  of  their 
traditions  were  in  direct  opposition  to 
the  law  of  God,  a  striking  example  of 
which  is  given  by  our  Saviour  in  con- 
nection with  the  passage  above  cited. 
There  were,  however,  a  variety  of  tra- 
ditions or  doctrines  and  precepts  which 
persons  divinely  inspired  taught  by 
word  of  mouth.  2  Thess.  2:15  and  3  : 
6.  The  only  way  in  which  we  can  know 
satisfactorily  that  any  tradition  is  of  di- 
vine authority  is  by  its  having  a  place 
in  those  writings  which  are  generally 
acknowledged  to  be  the  genuine  produc- 
tions of  inspired  men.  All  traditions 
which  have  not  such  authority  are  with- 
out value,  and  tend  greatly  to  distract 
and  mislead  the  rninds  of  men. 

TRANCE.  This  word  occurs  only 
twice  in  the  0.  T.,  Num.  24  :  4,  16,  and 
in  both  instances  is  supplied  by  the 
translators,  and  not  found  in  the  orig- 
inal. In  the  A.  V.  of  the  N.  T.  it 
occurs  three  times.  Acts  10  :  10 ;  11  : 
5;  22  :  17.  The  word  is  translated 
elsewhere  by  "  astonishniient,"  "  amaze- 
ment." Mark  5:42;  Luke  5  :  26.  The 
word  fetymologically  denotes  a  state  of 
mind  in  which  external  objects  are  en- 
tirely unnoticed  and  forgotten,  and  the 
soul  seems  for  the  time  to  have  pass- 
876 


ed  out  of  the  body,  and  to  be  occupied 
in  purely  spiritual  contemplations.  This 
state  may  sometimes  be  the  effect  of  nat- 
ural causes ;  but  in  the  case  of  Peter 
there  was  an  interposition  of  supernat- 
ural power. 

TRANSFIGURATION,  THE. 
This  event  marks  the  culminating-point 
in  Christ's  life.  It  is  recorded  almost  in 
the  same  words  by  the  three  svnoptists. 
Matt.  17  :  1-13  :  Mark  9  :  2-13  ;  Luke 
9  :  28-36,  but  John  characteristically 
omits  all  mention  of  it.  The  term  de- 
notes a  change  of  aspect  or  appearance, 
not  of  substance  or  body.  The  change 
was  seen  in  the  face  of  the  Redeemer 
and  in  his  apparel.  It  was  exceedingly 
majestic  and  glorious,  and  is  particularly 
described  bv  the  evangelists  and  alluded 
to  by  Peter.'  2  Pet.  1  :  16-18.  The  design 
of  this  miraculous  event  was  manifold, 
but  chiefly  to  attest  in  the  most  solemn 
and  mysterious  manner  the  divinity  of 
the  Messiah's  person  and  mission ;  to 
support  the  faith  of  the  disciples  by 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  a  separate 
state,  which  was  furnished  by  the  ap- 
pearance and  conversation  of  Moses  and 
Elias  :  and  as  showing,  by  the  audible 
declaration  of  the  Father,  a  broad  dis- 
tinction between  this  Prophet  and  all 
others :  '"  This  is  my  beloved  Son,  hear 
ye  him."  The  j)lace  of  the  Transfigura- 
tion was  probably  the  southern  slope  of 
Hermon,  as  it  occurred  a  few  days  after 
the  confession  of  Peter  at  Caesarea- 
Philippi,  which  lay  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Hermon.  and  on  the  eve  of  Christ's  last 
journej'  to  Jerusalem.  Mount  Tabor,  the 
traditional  site,  does  not  answer  the  con- 
ditions. Its  summit  was  then  a  fortified 
and  occupied  camp. 

The  time  of  the  event  was  most  likely 
the  night,  as  then  it  could  be  better  seen  ; 
besides,  the  disciples  were  awakened  by 
the  light.  Again,  it  was  the  next  day 
before  they  descended.  Luke  9  :  37. 
Peter,  James,  and  John  were  the  sole 
spectators;  our  Lord,  Moses,  and  Elijah, 
the  actors.  It  was  partly  an  objective 
appearance,  partlv  a  spiritual  vision. 

TRANSGRES'SION.  Heb.  2  :  2. 
The  two  words  ''transgression"  and 
"  disobedience  "  used  in  this  passage  are 
by  common  usage  nearly  synonymous. 
The  former  may  be  considered  as  passing 
over  the  bounds  prescribed  by  a  law,  or 
doing  the  things  we  ought  not  to  do,  and 


TRE 


TRI 


"  disobedience  "  as  a  refusal  to  do  what  it 
enjoins,  or  not  doinj;  the  things  wc  ought 
to  do.  The  two  words  are  here  united, 
so  that  every  violation  of  the  command 
may  be  included. 

TREASURE-CITIES.  Ex.  1  : 
11,  TREASURE-HOUSES.  Ezr. 
5  :  17.  The  kings  of  Judah  had  keepers 
of  their  treasure  both  in  city  and  countr}', 
1  Chr.  27  :  25,  and  the  towns  where 
these  treasures  were  deposited  were 
called  "treasure-cities,"  and  the  maga- 
zines or  houses  for  their  safekeeping 
were     called     "  treasure-houses."       See 

PlTHOif. 

TREAS'URY,  John  8  :  20, 
TREAS'URIES,  1  Chr.  9  :  26,  the 
place  in  the  temple  where  gifts  were 
received.     See  Temple. 

TREE  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 
Gen.  2  :  9.     See  Adam. 

TRES'PASS  usually  denotes  an 
offence  committed  against  or  an  injury 
done  to  another.  Lev.  6:2.  It  implies 
a  departure  from  duty  in  respect  to  God 
or  man.  Matt.  6:15. 

TRE  S'P  A S  S-O  F'F  E  R I NG. 
Lev.  5  :  6.     See  Offering. 

TRI'AIj.  Judicial  procedure  was 
usually  very  swift  and  simple ;  no  such 
formalities  as  are  common  with  us  could 
have  existed  in  the  patriarchal  or  the 
Mosaic  days.  The  patriarchs  were  the 
natural  guardians  of  the  public  peace. 
When  the  Israelites  had  multiplied  into 
a  great  nation  and  were  living  in  the 
wilderness,  Moses  found  his  attempted 
imitation  of  the  patriarchal  judgeship 
was  too  laborious,  and  therefore  gladly 
adopted  the  suggestion  of  Jethro  and 
appointed  inferior  judges  for  minor 
cases.  Ex.  18  :  13-26:  Deut.  1  :  9-17. 
There  is  an  appearance  of  appellate 
courts  in  Judah  in  the  days  of  Jehosh- 
aphat.  Originally,  it  is  probable,  each 
man  or  woman  pleaded  for  himself  or 
herself;  but  when  the  Jews  passed  under 
the  Roman  domain,  they  were  required 
to  hire  pleaders.  Acts  24  :  1-9.  Judges 
are  repeatedly  exhorted  to  act  justly. 
Deut.  16  :  18,   19;   Isa.  1  :  2.3,  24;  Luke 

18  :  1-6.  In  criminal  cases  at  least  two 
witnesses  were  necessary.    Deut.  17  :  6  ; 

19  :  15.  If  the  witnesses  swore  falsely, 
then  they  were  to  be  punished  as  the 
accused  would  have  been  had  he  been 
guilty.  Deut.  19  :  16-21.  The  cases  of 
Christ  and  Stephen  illustrated  how  short 


an  interval  elapsed  between  sentence  and 
execution. 

TRIBE.  The  ])ostcrity  of  each 
of  the  twelve  sons  of  Jacob  is  called 
a  tribe.  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  the 
sons  of  Joseph,  founded,  Gen.  48  :  5, 
two  tribes,  and  are  therefore  mention- 
ed in  the  list  of  the  families  in  Num. 
26  :  28.  In  the  distribution  of  the 
Promised  Land,  however,  only  twelve 
shares  were  made,  for  the  tribe  of  Levi 
were  to  minister  in  the  tcmj)le  and  to  be 
supi)orted  by  the  contributions  of  the 
rest.  See  Levites,  Tithes,  etc.  The 
twelve  tribes  continued  to  be  one  people 
until  after  the  death  of  Solomon,  when 
ten  of  them  revolted  and  became  a 
separate  monarchy  under  Jeroboam, 
and  were  called  the  kingdom  of  Israel, 
leaving  the  tribes  of  Benjamin  and  Ju- 
dah under  the  government  of  Rehoboara, 
with  the  name  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah. 
See  Hebrews,  Israel,  Kingdom  of, 
Judah,  Kingdom  of. 

Each  was  headed  by  a  prince — an  ar- 
rangement which  lasted,  it  would  seem, 
during  the  monarchy.  Num.  1  :  16;  cf. 
1  Chr.  27  :  22.  The  tribes  possessed 
considerable  independence  ;  they  were  a 
confederacy  rather  than  a  union.  Thus 
thev  waged  wars  separately.  Jud.  1:3; 
1  Chr.  4  :  41,  43:  5  :  10,  "18-22.  The 
judges  were,  in  some  instances  at  least, 
of  only  local  jurisdiction.  The  period 
preceding  the  monarchy  contained  more 
than  one  outbreak  of  hereditary  jealousy 
between  the  tribes,  especially  between 
the  powerful  tribes  of  Judah  and  Ephra- 
im, 2  Sam.  2  :  4-9  ;  19  :  41-43,  in  so 
much  that  it  was  deemed  best  to  anoint 
Rehoboam  in  Shechem.  1  Kgs.  12  :  1. 
We  see  further  confirmation  of  this  state 
of  feeling  in  the  fact  that  when  the  dis- 
ruption took  place  the  rallying-cry  of 
the  ten  tribes  was  "  0  Israel !"  as  if  this 
shout  was  territorially  understood. 

The  tribal  idea  is  kept  up  in  the  N. 
T.  Our  Lord  appointed  twelve  apostles, 
and  in  the  Revelation  the  seer  of 
Patmos  carries  the  division  into  hea- 
ven itself  in  the  number  of  the  seals, 
the  gates,  and  the  foundation.  Rev.  7  : 
4-8:  21  :  10-21. 

The  names  of  the  twelve  tribes  were, 
arranged  al{)habetically  and  not  accord- 
ing to  seniority  :  Asher,  Benjamin,  Dan, 
Ephraim,  Gail,  Issachar,  .Tudah,  Man- 
asseh, Naphtali,  Reuben,  Simeon,  Zebu- 

877 


TRI 


TRI 


lun.  The  tribe  of  Levi,  as  already  re- 
marked, was  scattered  among  the  other 
tribes. 

TRIBES.  Characteristics  and 
Prnmi)tent  Members  of  each  of  the  Twelve 
Tribes. — In  this  article  will  be  contained 
in  a  condensed  form  information  about 
each  tribe  additional  to  and  of  a  dif- 
ferent kind  from  that  given  under  the 
respective  titles,  which  see. 

Asher. —  The  tribe  of  Asher  was  de- 
scended from  the  eighth  son  of  Jacob, 
the  second  son  of  Zilpah,  Leah's  maid. 
The  name  means  "  happy,"  in  reference 
to  Leah's  feeling  at  his  birth.  Gen.  30  : 

12,  13.  Our  definite  knowledge  of 
Asher  is  of  the  slightest.  Four  sons 
and  one  daughter,  besides  two  grand- 
children, accompanied  him  into  Egypt. 
Gen.  46  :  17,  18.  He  stood  in  the  re- 
markable group  around  Jacob's  death- 
bed, and  received  the  promise  of  a 
fruitful  land :  "  Out  of  Asher  his  bread 
shall  be  fat,  and  he  shall  ^ield  royal 
dainties."  Gen.  49  :  20.  The  tribe  went 
out  of  Egypt  under  Moses,  and  sent 
its  spy  from  Kadesh-barnea.   Num.  13  : 

13.  Its  position  on  the  march  was 
between  Dan  and  Naphtali,  on  the 
north  side  of  the  tabernacle.  Num.  2  : 
27.  The  territory  of  Asher  has  already' 
been  described.  See  Asher.  It  is  notice- 
able that  the  blessing  of  Moses.  Dent. 
33  :  24,  25,  like  that  of  Jacob,  related 
merely  to  fruitfulness  and  general  pros- 
perity, so  the  tribe  was  never  distin- 
guished for  mental  qualities,  although 
it  was  possessed  of  a  rich  territory  and 
increased  very  rapidly.  Comp.  Num.  1  : 
40  with  26  :"47.  With  the  exception 
of  Simeon,  it  is  the  only  tribe  west  of 
the  Jordan  which  furnished  no  hero  or 
judge  to  the  nation;  the  prophetess 
Anna,  however,  was  an  Asherite.  Luke 

2  :  36. 

Benjamin. — As  in  the  case  of  Asher, 
so  with  Benjamin,  the  prophetic  blessing 
of  Jacob  was  fulfilled.  Gen.  49  :  27. 
Fierceness,  courage,  cunning,  and  am- 
bition were  tribal  traits.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  was  not  distinguished  for  zeal 
for  Jehovah,  like  the  tribe  of  Levi.  The 
fact  that  the  tribe  produced  Ehud,  Jud. 

3  :  15;  Saul,  1  Sam.  9:1:  Shimei.  2 
Sam.  19  :  16,  and  the  nameless  hut  in- 
famous libertines  of  Gibeah,  Jud.  19. 
shows  that  Benjamin  was  all  thiongli 
its  history  inclined  to  lawless  conduct. 

878 


But  there  is  a  light  upon  the  dark  cloud. 
Out  of  Benjamin  came  Mordecai,  the 
deliverer  of  the  Jews,  Esth.  2  :  5,  and 
no  Christian  can  utterly  condemn  a 
people  which  produced,  though  late  in 
its  history,  so  grand  a  man  and  so  great 
a  leader  as  the  apostle  Paul.  Rom.  11  : 1  ; 
Phil.  3:5.  As  he  was  proud  of  his  own 
Benjamite  birth,  we  must  give  the  tribe 
credit  for  some  excellence,  inasmuch  as 
it  produced  one  of  Israel's  first  judges, 
her  first  king,  and  the  great  apostle  to 
the  uncircumcision.  The  political  for- 
tunes of  Benjamin  were  linked  with 
those  of  Judah,  and  cannot  well  be 
separated.  But,  although  these  two 
tribes  were  so  closely  united,  they  dif- 
fered greatly.  One  minor  but  distin- 
guishing characteristic  was  the  preva- 
lence of  left-handed  slingers.  Jud.  20  : 
16.  The  citj'  of  Jerusalem  was  partly 
on  Benjamite  territory.  The  tribe  did 
not  at  first  acknowledge  the  kingship 
of  David,  2  Sam.  2  :  8,  9,  although 
afterward  the  situation  of  the  capital 
was  a  strong  reason  for  fidelity  to  the 
Davidic  kings. 

Dan. — These  descendants  of  Jacob's 
concubine  Bilhah  were  admitted  to  full 
tribal  standing.  Gen.  49  :  16.  Their 
great  man  is  Samson.  Jud.  13  :  2,  24. 
In  numbers  in  the  wilderness  they 
ranked  next  to  Judah,  the  largest  of 
the  tribes.  Num.  1  :  38.  It  was  the  last 
tribe  to  receive  its  inheritance.  Josh. 
19  :  48  ;  and,  although  among  the  lar- 
gest tribes,  it  was  assigned  the  smallest 
territory,  and  even  all  of  that  did  riot 
come  to  them.  The  divine  intention  in 
this  may  have  been  to  incite  them  to 
further  conquests :  at  all  events,  this 
was  the  effect,  for  we  soon  find  them 
sending  out  five  men  upon  an  expedition 
to  the  northward  with  a  view  tjo  new  settle- 
ments on  their  report.  The  city  Laish 
was  afterward  taken  by  the  tribe.  Jud. 
18.  The  chapter  explains  "  the  warlike 
and  independent  character  of  the  tribe, 
betokened  in  the  fact,  specially  insisted 
on  and  reiterated,  18  :  11,  16,  17,  of  the 
complete  equipment  of  their  six  hun- 
dred warriors,  and  in  the  lawless  and 
freebooting  style  of  their  behavior  to 
Micah." 

Ephraim. — This  tribe  was  the  great 
rival  to  Judah,  the  chief  fomenter  of 
trouble,  and  the  staunch  supporter  of 
revolt  from  the  voke  of  Rehoboam.     It 


TRI 


TRI 


was  energetic,  restless,  conscious  of  its 
strength,  and  full  of  conceit,  wish- 
ing to  have  the  lead  in  every  matter. 
Ephraim  and  Manasseh  were  usually 
interested  in  the  same  enterprises,  but 
the  former,  though  really  the  smaller 
tribe,  was  the  more  important.  Deut. 
33  :  17.  Ephraim  acted  badly  toward 
every  leader  who  did  not  take  special 
pains  to  please  them — e.  </.,  toward 
Gideon,  Jephthah,  and  David,  Jud.  8  : 
1  ;  12  :  1 ,:  2  Sam.  19  :  41-43.  In  one 
instance,  however,  they  nobly  inter- 
posed to  clothe,  feed,  and  restore  to 
freedom  their  captive  brethren  of  Ju- 
dah.  2  Chr.  28  :  9-15.  The  seventy- 
eighth  Psalm  was  designed  to  soothe 
their  tribal  soreness  at  the  transfer- 
ence of  the  religious  capital  from 
Shiloh  to  Jerusalem.  David  had  nu- 
merous Ephraimites  among  his  state- 
officers— e.  g.,  1  Chr.  27  :  10,  14,  The 
political  history  of  Ephraim  after  the 
disruption  is  treated  under  Israel, 
Kingdom  of. 

Gad. — One  of  the  tribes  on  the  east 
side  of  the  Jordan,  because  predomi- 
nantly shepherds,  but  who  joined,  ac- 
cording to  agreement,  in  the  Conquest. 
Josh.  1  :  16.  They  were  very  warlike, 
men  of  might  and  of  war,  fit  for  the 
battle,  that  could  handle  shield  and 
buckler,  whose  faces  were  the  faces  of 
lions,  and  as  swift  as  the  roes  upon 
the  mountains.  1  Chr.  12  :  8.  The  tribe 
produced  three  men  famous  in  different 
ways — Jephthah,  the  conqueror  and 
judge,  Jud.  11  :  1 ;  Barzillai,  the  noble- 
hearted  friend  of  David,  2  Sam.  17  : 
27-29  ;  19  :  31-40  ;  and  that  meteor,  the 
prophet  of  evil,  who  appeared  and  de- 
jiarted  so  abruptly,  Elijah,  the  man  of 
(Jod.  1  Kgs.  17  :  1.  The  territory  of 
Gad  was  for  a  long  time  the  battlefield 
between  Syria  and  Israel.  2  Kgs.  10  : 
33.  Tiglath-pileser  finally  carried  Gad 
away  ea])tive,  and  the  Ammonites  occu- 
pied their  cities.  2  Kgs.  15  :  29  ,•  1  Chr. 
5  :  26  ;  Jer.  49  :  1. 

hsachar. — The  "blessing"  of  Jacob 
upon  Issachar  was  rather  equivocal  : 
Issachar  is  a  strong  he-ass  crouching 
down  between  the  cattle-jtens,  and  he 
saw  that  rest  was  good,  and  the  land 
that  it  was  pleasant ;  and  bowed  his 
shoulder  to  bear,  and  became  a  slave 
unto  tribute.  The  prophecy  indicated 
an    easy-going    people    who    preferred 


farming  and  agricnltunil  hihors  to  po- 
litical distinction,  and  wlm  would  pur- 
chase ease  at  the  sacrifice  of  liberty. 
And  the  rich  territory  of  the  tribe 
favored  just  this  life.  However,  it 
was  not  without  national  feeling,  for 
it  responded  to  the  call  of  Deborah; 
indeed,  some  have  supposed  the  battle 
took  place  in  its  tribal  limits.  Jud. 
5  :  15,  19.  In  David's  time  it  was 
able  to  furnish  145,000  soldiers.  1  Chr. 
7  :  1-5.  "  The  descendants  of  Issa- 
char," says  Dr.  Kalisch,  "  were  men  of 
prudence  and  wise  calculation.  Hav- 
ing, therefore,  gained  abundant  wealth 
and  resolved  to  enjoy  it,  they  pursued 
a  domestic  and  foreign  policy  calcu- 
lated to  realize  this  end.  Their 
shrewdness  not  only  enabled  them 
safely  to  keep  aloof  from  all  external 
dangers  and  ))eacefiilly  to  yield  them- 
selves to  secure  tranquillity,  but  to 
win  the  esteem  and  deference  of  the 
fraternal  tribes  by  useful  and  valuable 
councils."  Cf.  1  Chr.  12  :  2?,,  32.  Is- 
sachar seems  to  have  put  itself  under 
the  protection  of  Zebulun.  But  the 
tribe  produced  some  men  of  mark. 
Tola,  one  of  the  Judges,  was  of  Issa- 
char. Jud.  10  :  1,  2.  The  Omri  who 
was  prince  of  Issachar  during  David's 
reign  may  have  been  the  forefather  of 
the  Omri  who  usurped  the  throne  of 
Israel.  1  Chr.  27  :  18;  1  Kgs.  16  :  16. 
Baasha,  another  usurper,  and  a  fero- 
cious man,  was  also  of  Issachar.  Some 
men  of  this  tribe  responded  to  the  in- 
vitation of  llezekiah,  and,  although 
not  properly  cleansed,  partook  of  the 
Passover.  2  Chr.  30  :  18.  Shortly 
after  this  came  for  them  the  Assyrian 
captivity. 

Jndah. — See  JiDAH,  Tribe  of,  King- 
dom OF. 

Levi. — See  Levite. 

Maufisneh. — One  of  the  largest  of 
the  northern  tribes,  and  distinguished 
by  its  possession  of  territory  on  both 
sides  of  the  Jordan.  It  did  not,  how- 
ever, play  a  very  prominent  part,  leav- 
ing the  Icadershij)  to  Ephraim,  with 
whom  it  shared.  The  ])r()minent  men 
in  Jewish  history  who  were  Manassites 
are  the  judges  Gideon,  Jud.  6:  11; 
Jair,  10  :  3;  Jephthah.  11  :  1.  Alanas- 
seh  joined  the  side  of  Ish-boshefh,  but 
finally  submitted  to  David.  1  Chr.  12  : 
31.      After    the    disruption    the    people 

879 


TBI 


TRO 


followed  the  example  of  Ephraim,  fell 
into  idolatry,  and  so  prepared  the  wa}"^ 
for  their  downfall.  There  were  some, 
however,  in  the  tribe  of  better  mind, 
who  came  to  Jerusalem  to  take  part 
with  their  brethren  in  the  religious 
revivals  under  Asa,  2  Chr.  15  :  9; 
Hezekiah,  30:1,  10,  11,  18;  31:1.; 
and  Josiah.  34  :  6-9. 

jVuphtali. — "A  hind  let  loose,  he 
giveth  goodly  words;"  so  does  Jacob 
describe  the  tribe,  indicating  grace  and 
eloquence.  Barak  is  the  most  noted 
member  of  the  tribe.  The  "  hind  "  sym- 
bolized a  swift  warrior.  2  Sam.  2:18;  1 
Chr.  12  :  8.  In  Barak  these  qualities 
come  out.  The  song  of  Deborah  is  also 
his  composition,  and,  as  has  been  said, 
"Even  if  the  tribe  gave  no  other  proof 
of  its  poetical  genius,  of  the  careful 
culture  of  the  mind,  and  of  the  artistic 
conceptions  of  which  it  was  capable,  it 
amply  deserved  the  encomium  bestowed 
upon  it  that  it  uttered 'goodly  words ' 
(words  of  beauty)."  The  territory  of 
Naphtali  belonged  to  the  northern  king- 
dom, and  therefore  was  exposed  to  all 
its  foes.  Ben-hadad,  king  of  Syria, 
plundered  it,  1  Kgs.  15:20;  Tiglath- 
pileser  took  the  inhabitants  captive.  2 
Kgs.  16  :  29.  But  upon  God's  book  of 
remembrance  there  stood  his  prophecy 
of  a  better  day  for  Naphtali,  Isa.  9:1, 
2,  and  God,  who  "  watches  the  turning 
of  the  ages,"  at  last  carried  it  out,  and 
upon  the  hills  of  Naphtali  walked  the 
Light  of  the  world.  Matt.  4  :  3-16. 

Reuben. — One  of  the  trans-Jordanic 
tribes,  but  without  a  striking  point  in 
their  history.  They  fell  into  idolatry, 
like  their  neighbors,  were  carried  into 
captivity,  1  Chr.  5  :  26,  and  their  terri- 
tory was  occupied  bv  Moab.  Comp. 
Josh.  13  :  16-21   with  Isa.  15. 

Simeon. — Although  one  of  the  most 
numerous  tribes  at  Sinai,  Num.  1  :  23, 
they  had  become  the  smallest  at  Shittim. 
26  :  14.  They  are  altogether  omitted 
from  Moses'  blessing.  Both  facts  are  to 
be  traced  to  the  same  cause — the  shame- 
less conduct  of  the  tribe  in  the  matter 
of  Baal-peor,  in  which  they  had  the 
example  of  their  chief.  25  :  14.  Ja- 
cob foretold  that  Simeon  would  "  be 
scattered  in  Israel,"  Gen.  49  :  7,  and, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  was  so  small  that 
its  lot  was  assigned  "within  the  inherit- 
ance of  the  children  of  Judah,"  Josh. 
880 


19  :  1-9,  although  the  ostensible  reason 
was  that  "  the  part  of  .  .  .  Judah  was  too 
much  for  them."  "No  eminent  person 
is  recorded  as  of  this  tribe,  though  the 
Jews  have  a  tradition  that  it  furnished 
schoolmasters  to  the  rest  of  the  nation." 
—Ayre. 

Zehulun. — As  already  remarked,  the 
fortunes  of  Issachar  and  Zebulun  were 
closely  united,  as  in  Moses'  blessing : 
"Rejoice,  Zebulun,  in  thy  going  out; 
and,  Issachar,  in  thy  tents."  Deut.  33  : 
18.  The  tribe  of  Zebulun  possessed  the 
fisheries  of  Galilee's  lake.  Their  bravery 
received  the  praise  of  Deborah.  Jud.  5  : 
18.  Their  most  noted  men  were  Elon, 
the  judge,  Jud.  12  :  11,  12,  and  Ibzan, 
his  predecessor,  but  the  great  man  was 
Jonah.  2  Kgs.  14  :  25. 

TRIB'UTE,  that  which  is  paid  to 
rulers  in  token  of  subjection  and  for  the 
support  of  government.  Gen.  49  :  15. 
By  the  Jewish  law,  Ex.  30  :  13,  a  trib- 
ute or  capitation-tax  was  half  a  shekel, 
or  twenty-five  cents,  which  was  expended 
in  the  temple-service.  The  conversation 
of  our  Saviour  with  Peter  on  the  subject 
of  paying  this  tribute-money  was  de- 
signed to  show  him  that,  being  himself 
the  Son  of  God,  the  King  for  whose 
service  the  tribute  was  paid,  he  might 
justly  be  exempted  from  paying  it ;  but, 
to  prevent  any  needless  irritation  on  the 
part  of  the  officers  or  nation,  he  by 
miraculous  power  provided  the  means 
of  paying  the  required  tribute,  which 
amounted  to  fifty  cents  for  both.  Matt. 
17  :  24. 

TRO'AS,  a  city  of  Lesser  Mysia,  in 
the  north-eastern  part  of  Asia  Minor,  on 
the  sea-coast,  6  miles  south  of  the  en- 
trance to  the  Hellespont,  and  4  miles 
south  of  the  Homeric  Troy.  It  stood 
on  a  gentle  eminence,  having  Mount 
Ida  behind  it  and  the  island  of  Tenedos 
in  front.  Alexandria  Troas,  as  its  name 
implies,  owed  its  origin  to  Alexander  the 
Great.  He  chose  the  site  with  his  usual 
happy  discernment,  but  did  not  live  to 
cover  it  with  buildings.  These  were 
built  by  Antigonus,  whose  name  the  city 
consequently^  bore  for  a  short  time.  The 
city  was  improved  by  Lysimachus,  the 
famous  king  of  Thrace,  and  received  a 
Roman  colony  during  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus. It  was  to  the  Romans,  in  fact, 
that  most  of  the  buildings  whose  ruins 
still  remain  were  due.     Even  the  walls 


TRO 


TRU 


were  repaired  and  strengthened  by  them, 
and  it  was  under  their  rule  that  the  cotn- 
mereial  prosperity  of  the  city  reached 
its  height.  Its  port  was  excellent,  and 
made  Troas  for  many  centuries  the  key 
of  the  commerce  between  Asia  and  Eu- 
rope. Paul  visited  Troas  twice,  and 
perhaps  three  times.  The  first  visit 
was  on  his  second  missionary  journey. 
It  was  from  Troas  that,  after  the  visit 
of  the  "  man  of  Macedonia,"  he  sailed 
to  carry  the  gospel  into  Europe.  Acts 
16:8-11.  On  his  return  journey  he 
stopped  at  Troas  for  eight  days  and 
restored  Eutychus  to  life.  Acts  20  :  5- 
10.  Upon  one  visit  he  left  his  cloak 
and  some  books  there.  2  Tim.  4:  13. 
Present  Condition. — Troas  is  now  an 
uf^er  ruin.  The  walls  can  still  be  traced 
for  a  circuit  of  several  miles.  The  ex- 
ploration of  the  ruins  is  souiewhat  fa- 
tiguing, as  the  ground  is  thickly  strewn 
with  stones  and  other  fragments  of  an- 
cient buildings,  and  planted  with  a  for- 
est of  valonia  oaks,  whose  branches 
make  riding  difficult  and  finding  one's 
way  still  more  so.  Without  a  guide 
well  acquainted  with  the  place,  it  would 
be  impossible  to  discover  any  road  at 
all  among  the  mazes  of  the  wood. 
There  are  the  remains  of  a  gymna- 
sium, 413  feet  long  and  224  feet  wide. 
This  structure  Prof.  A.  II.  Sayce  de- 
scribes (1880)  as  ''a  vast  ruin  whose 
desolation  was  only  equalled  by  the  soli- 
tude of  the  forest  in  the  midst  of  which 
it  stood.  It  had  the  shape  of  a  hall, 
with  pilasters  along  the  sides,  in  front 
of  which  must  have  risen  the  columns 
that  supported  the  vaulted  roof.  The 
line  of  the  hall  was  broken  in  the  cen- 
tre by  four  square  apartments  formerly 
adorned  with  marble  pillars  and  cor- 
nices. The  break  had  the  appearance 
of  a  transept  in  a  Gothic  cathedral,  the 
two  cross- aisles  being  ejitereil  through 
lofty  arches,  one  of  which  still  remains 
perfect.  Within,  all  is  a  confused  chaos 
of  stone  and  brick,  of  fallen  columns 
and  disfigured  ornaments.  Only  enough 
is  left  to  tell  us  that  the  building  was  a 
gj'mnasium  with  baths  attached.  The 
Turks,  who  call  it  the  Ihd  Serai,  or 
'honey  palace,'  have  long  used  it  as 
an  inexhaustible  quarry  for  the  neigh- 
boring villages,  and  repeated  earth- 
quakes have  aided  their  endeavors  to 
undermine  the  solid  masonry  of  St. 
56 


Paul's  contemporaries.  At  the  north- 
eastern angle  of  the  building  are  a  few 
ruined  arches,  which  once  supported 
an  aqueduct,  and  at  a  little  distance, 
among  the  trees,  are  the  scanty  reli(rs 
of  a  Doric  temple. 

"  There  are  ruins  of  another  lar^c 
building  of  brick,  which  belongs  to  the 
Roman  period.  All  that  now  remains 
of  it  is  a  vaulted  chamber  of  consiiler- 
able  size,  which  opens  into  smaller 
chambers  on  each  of  its  four  sides. 
Above  are  other  chambers,  similarly 
vaulted,  while  the  whole  structure 
is  surrounded  by  an  enormous  plat- 
form of  brick.  What  its  original  use 
can  have  been  is  a  matter  of  dispute. 
According  to  one  conjecture,  it  wa:;  a 
temple  ;  according  to  another,  a  bath- 
house ;  but  neither  conjecture  is  sup- 
ported by  the  form  and  structure  of  the 
building.  All  we  can  say  with  certainty 
is  that  the  present  ruins  re]»resent  but  a 
small  part  of  the  original  edifice,  the 
foundations  of  which  can  still  be  traced 
among  the  grass  and  brambles." 

The  harbor  is  blocked  by  a  sand-bar. 
The  place  is  now  called  E>!ki  Staniboul, 
or  ''Old  Constantinople,"  and  it  is  said 
that  Constantine  hesitated  between  Troas 
and  Constantinople  as  the  site  of  his 
capital. 

TROGYL'LIUM,  a  town  and  cape 
on  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  be- 
tween Ephesus  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Meander,  opposite  Samos,  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Mycale.  Paul  there  spent  a  night 
on  his  third  missionary  journey.  Acts 
20  :  15.  An  anchorage  a  little  east  of 
the  point  is  still  called  St.  PauCn 
Port. 

TROOP,  BAND,  often  means  a 
small  body  of  marauders,  as  in  (ien 
49  :  lit;  2  Sam.  22  :  30;  Jer.  18  :  22j 
Mic.  5:1. 

TROPH'IMUS  {foHtcr-ohild),  a 
native  of  Ephesus,  Acts  21  :  29,  and  a 
convert  to  the  faith  of  the  gospel,  prob- 
ably under  Paul's  ministry.  Acts  20: 
4.  He  be<^ame  one  of  the  apostle's  com- 
panions and  helpers  in  missionary  trav- 
els and  lal)ors.   2  Tim.  4:20. 

TROW,  in  Luke  17:0,  means  to 
"  think,"   "  believe." 

TRl'M'PET.  The  trumpet  dilTer- 
ed  little  from  the  horn,  antl  in  partic- 
ulars which  are  no  longer  discoverable. 
Ex.  19:  ICi.     The  silver  trumpets  were 

881 


TRU 


TYR 


Trumpets. 

used  by  the  priests  alone  in  publishing 
the  approach  of  festivals  and  giving  sig- 
nals of  war. 

TRUMPETS,  FEAST  OF. 
This  feast — enjoined  Num.  29  :  1-6: 
Lev.  23  :  24 — was  the  New  Year's  day 
of  the  civil  year,  coming  on  the  first 
of  Tisri  (October),  and  was  further 
called  by  the  Rabbins  "the  birthday 
of  the  world,"  because  in  Tisri  the  late 
fruits  were  gathered  and  seed  was  sown. 
It  was  characterized  by  the  use  of  both 
the  straight  trumpet  and  the  cornet  in 
the  temple,  by  the  blowing  of  trumpets 
everywhere,  unless  the  festival  fell  on  a 
Sabbath  (in  this  case  no  trumpets  were 
blown  outside  of  the  temple),  and  by  the 
offering  of  a  young  bullock,  a  ram,  and 
seven  first-year  lambs,  with  meat-offer- 
ings and  a  kid  for  a  sin-offering  in 
addition  to  the  daily  sacrifices  and  the 
eleven  victims  of  the  new  moon,  the 
ordinary  feast  of  the  first  day  of  the 
month.  It  was  one  of  the  seven  days 
of  holy  convocation.  The  feast  differed 
from  the  other  feasts  of  new  moon,  which 
also  had  their  trumpet-blowings  over  the 
burnt-offerings,  by  its  being  a  day  of  rest 
and  service. 

TRYFHE'NA,  and  TRYPHO'- 
SA,  two  women  of  Rome  whom  Paul 
commended  for  their  zeal.  Rom.  16  :  12. 

TSEB'AOTH,  LORDOF.  This 
is  a  transliteration  from  the  Hebrew 
which  is  more  accurate  than  the  com- 
mon form  "  Sabaoth,"  which  occurs  in 
Rom.  9  :  29  ;  Jas.  5  :  4.     See  Sabaoth. 

TU'BALij  fifth  son  of  Japheth,  whose 
descendants  probably  peopled  a  country 
lying  south  of  the  Caucasus,  between 
the  Black  Sea  and  the  Aranes,  whose 
inhabitants  were  the  Tibareni  of  the 
Greeks.  Gen.  10  :  2.  The  Circassians, 
882 


who  inhabit  this  region,  are  slave-deal- 
ers, and  they  of  Tubal  traded  in  the 
"persons  of  men."  Eze.  27  :  13  ;  38  :  2; 
comp.  Rev.  18  :  13. 

TU'BAL-CAIN  (hmnmer-blotcs  of 
the  smith  ?),  a  son  of  Lamech  by  his 
wife  Zillah.  Gen.  4  :  22.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  an  instructor  of  every  artificer 
in  brass  (copper)  and  iron.  Thus  he  was 
the  original  maker  of  tools. 

TUR'BAN.     See  Clothes. 

TURTLE -DOVE.  The  word 
"turtle,"  and  words  of  similar  sound  in 
Latin  and  Hebrew,  are  imitative  of  the 
plaintive  notes  of  several  species  of 
doves.  Ps.  74  :  19.  By  the  Jewish  Law, 
the  poor  who  could  not  afford  a  more 
costly  sacrifice  were  permitted  to  bring 
two  turtle-doves  or  two  j'oung  pigeons. 
Lev.  12  :  6-8.  As  the  former  are  not 
domesticated  and  breed  everywhere  in 
prodigious  numbers,  this  provision  was 
a  great  boon  to  the  needy.  The  outward 
circumstances  of  Christ's  parents  are 
thus  indicated  in  Luke  2  :  24. 

The  turtle-dove  is  a  bird  of  passage. 
Jer.  8:7;   Cant.  2  :  12.     Early  in  April, 
Palestine  everywhere  suddenly  swarms 
with   these  creatures,  while  a  few  days 
before   not  one  was   to  be  found.    The 
most  common   species   ( Turtnr  aitrt'tiis) 
also  breeds  in  England  and  in  many  parts 
of  Europe.     The  palm-turtle  nests  in  the 
tree  from  which  it  is  named,  and  there- 
fore could  have  been  obtained  by  Israel 
I  in    the   valleys    of  the    Sinaitic    desert, 
I  where  this  tree  is  found.     The  collared 
;  turtle  is  the  only  other  species  found  in 
I  Palestine.     By  reason  of  its  pairing  for 
j  life  and  its  unusual  fidelity  to  its  mate, 
this  bird  is  the  symbol  of  purity.     See 
Dove. 

TU'TORS  means  "guardians."  Gal. 
4:2. 

TYCH'ICUS,  a  companion  of  Paul, 
Acts  20  :  4,  and  evidently  a  devoted  and 
faithful  disciple.  Eph.  6':  21,  22;  Col.  4  : 
7  8 
'  TYRAN'NUS  (tyrant),  the  name 
of  the  Greek  rhetorician  of  Ephesus  in 
whose  lecture-room  Paul  delivered  dis- 
courses daily  for  two  years.  Acts  19  : 
9.  Paul  and  he  must  have  occupied 
the  same  room  at  different  hours.  He 
may  have  been  a  convert. 

TYRE,  AND  TY'RUS  (Heb.  Tsor, 
"rock;"  Arabic  Sitr),  a  celebrated  city 
of  Phoenicia,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the 


TYK 


TYR 


Mediterranean  Sea,  21  miles  south  of  Si- 
don,  in  lat.  33°  17'  N. 

Situation  and  Extent. — Tyre  was  situ- 
ated upon  what  was  originally  an  island, 
or  perhaps  two  islands,  about  1  mile 
long,  and  lying  parallel  to  the  shore  at 
the  distance  of  half  a  mile.  There  was 
also  a  city  called  "  Palajtyrus  "  ("Old 
Tyre")  upon  the  mainland.  Pliny 
gives  the  circumference  of  the  island 
Tyre  at  2^  miles,  and  of  the  whole  city, 
including  Palietyrus,  at  17  miles. 

Histori/. — Phoenician  and  Greek  tra- 
ditions make  Tyre  a  very  ancient  city. 
According  to  Herodotus,  the  priests  at 
I'yre  told  him  the  city  was  founded  B.  c. 
2750.  The  first  Scripture  mention  is  in 
the  time  of  Joshua,  b.  c.  1-144,  and  it  was 
then  "  a  strong  city."  Josh.  19  :  29.  It 
was  coupled  with  the  Zidonians.  Jer. 
47  :  4  ;  Isa.  23  :  2,  4,  12  :  Josh.  13  :  6  ; 
Eze.  32  :  30.  The  two  cities  Tyre  and 
Sidon,  being  only  21  miles  apart,  were 
intimately  associated.  Indeed,  Tyre 
must  have  included  not  only  the  city 
proper,  but  some  of  the  adjacent  coun- 
try. See  Phcexicia.  Tyre,  under  King 
Hiram,  held  friendly  relations  with  Is- 
rael, under  David  and  Solomon.  Da- 
vid's census  extended  thither  to  embrace 
the  Jews.  2  Sam.  24  :  7.  Tlie  Tyrians 
furnished  the  timber  for  the  temple  and 
great  buildings  of  Jerusalem.  The  ce- 
dars of  Lebanon  were  floated  from  Tyre 
to  Joppa.  some  85  miles,  and  thence  ta- 
ken to  Jerusalem.  Tyrian  artists  also 
were  skilful  in  the  fine  work  required. 
As  a  reward  for  his  services,  Hiram  was 
presented  with  twenty  cities  in  Northern 
Galilee,  but  he  was  not  well  pleased  with 
them  and  called  them  "  Cabul "  ("dis- 
pleasing" or  "despicable").  2  Sam.  5: 
11;  1  Kgs.  5:1;  7  :  13  ;  9:11,  12;  1 
Chr.  14  :  1 ;  2  Chr.  2:2,  3,  11.  Hiram 
and  Solomon  were  also  associated  in 
commercial  enterprises.  1  Kgs.  9  :  27  ; 
10:11-22:  2  Chr.  8:17,  18;  9:21. 
From  Tyre  came  the  many  fatal  influ- 
ences toward  idolatry  which  corrupted 
the  chosen  people.  See  Zidon  and  Phoe- 
nicia. At  a  later  period  the  friendly  re- 
lations were  changed  to  hostility.  Tyre 
rejoiced  in  the  distress  of  Israel,  and 
God's  prophet  predicted  the  terrible 
overthrow  of  the  proud  heathen  citv. 
Isa.  23  :  1,  5,  8,  15-17  ;  Jer.  25  :  22  ;  27  : 
3:  47:4;  Eze.  26:2-15;  27:2-8,  32; 
29  :  18  ;  Hos.  9  :  13  ;  Joel  3:4;  Am.  1  : 
884 


9.  10  ;  Zech.  9  :  2,  3  ;  comp.  Ps.  45  :  12  ; 
83  :  7  ;  87  :  4.  The  prophecies  Avere  no- 
tably fulfilled.  Shalmaneser,  king  of  As- 
syria, besieged  Tyre  in  B.  c.  721.  The 
siege  lasted  for  five  years,  but  the  city 
was  not  taken.  Nebuchadnezzar  besieg- 
ed it  for  thirteen  years,  ending  with  b.  c. 
592  ;  whether  he  captured  and  destroyed 
this  city  is,  strange  to  say,  a  matter  which 
history  does  not  enable  us  to  determine. 
Josephus  does  not  make  it  clear,  and  the 
passage  in  Eze.  29  :  18,  "Yet  had  he  no 
wages,  nor  his  army,  for  Tj^rus,"  is  dif- 
ferently interpreted,  some  understanding 
that  he  did  not  take  the  city  at  all,  and 
others  that  he  took  it,  but  found  no  ade- 
quate booty  to  compensate  for  the  long 
siege.  At  any  rate.  Tyre  came  under 
the  Persian  dominion  and  furnished 
that  power  with  a  large  fleet.  This  ex- 
cited the  hostility  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  who  determined  to  destroy  the 
power  of  the  city.  Not  being  able  to 
reach  the  walls  with  his  engines,  he  col- 
lected together  all  the  remains  of  the 
ancient  city  Palaetyrus — stones,  timber, 
rubbish — and  threw  them  into  the  nar- 
row channel.  Thus  was  fulfilled  in  a 
most  remarkable  manner  the  prophecy 
of  Ezekiel.  28  :  3,  4,  12,  21.  After  a 
siege  of  seven  months  the  city  was  ta- 
ken. Some  8000  men  were  slain  in  the 
massacre  which  followed ;  2000  were 
crucified,  and  30,000  men,  Avomen,  and 
children  were  sold  into  slavery.  The 
city  was  also  set  on  fire  by  the  victors. 
Zech.  9:4;  Joel  3  :  7.  After  Alexan- 
der's death  Tyre  fell  under  the  dominion 
of  the  Seleucidse,  having  been  besieged 
for  fourteen  months  by  Antigonus  ;  at  a 
later  period  the  Romans  possessed  it. 

In  N.  T.  times  Tyre  was  a  populous 
and  thriving  city.  Christ  referred  to  it 
and  visited  its  "borders."  Matt.  11:21, 
22  ;  15  :  21  :  Mark  7  :  24.  Whether  he 
went  into  the  city  itself  cannot  be  deter- 
mined. The  borders  of  the  territory  of 
Tyre  ("  its  coasts  ")  reached  southward 
to  Carmel  and  eastward  to  Itursea,  ac- 
cording to  Josephus.  Paul  spent  seven 
days  at  Tyre.  Acts  21  :  3,  4,  which  early 
became  the  seat  of  a  Christian  bishop- 
ric. In  the  fourth  century  Jerome 
speaks  of  it  as  the  most  noble  and 
beautiful  city  of  Phoenicia,  and  as  still 
trading  with  all  the  Avorld.  During  the 
Middle  Ages  it  was  a  place  of  some 
consequence,  and  was  regarded  as  well- 


TYR 


TYR 


nigh  impregnable.  On  the  side  next  the 
sea  it  had  a  double,  and  on  the  land  side 
a  triple,  wall.  After  being  subject  to 
the  Romans  for  four  hundred  years, 
Tyre  came  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Saracens  in  the  seventh  century.  In 
A.  D.  1124  the  Crusaders  captured  it.  In 
1291  the  Muslims  gained  possession  of  the 
city,  which  was  destroyed  by  them,  and 
has  never  since  regained  its  prosperity. 

There  is  an  interesting  description  of 
the  siege  of  Acra  (Ptolomais)  and  the 
possession  of  Tjn-e  by  the  army  of  the 
sultan  of  Egypt  and  Damascus.  It  is 
given  by  Marinus  Sanutus,  a  Venetian, 
in  the  century  following  the  capture : 
*'  On  the  same  day  on  which  Ptolemais 
was  taken,  the  Tyrians,  at  vespers,  leav- 
ing the  city  empty,  without  the  stroke  of 
a  sword,  without  the  tumult  of  war,  em- 
barked on  board  their  vessels,  and  aban- 
doned the  city  to  be  occupied  freely  by 
their  conquerors.  On  the  morrow  the 
Saracens  entered,  no  one  attempting  to 
prevent  them,  and  they  did  what  they 
pleased."  About  A.  D.  1610-11  it  was 
visited  by  Sandys,  who  said  of  it:  ''But 
this  once  famous  Tyre  is  now  no  other 
than  a  heap  of  ruins;  yet  have  they  a 
reverent  aspect,  and  do  instruct  the 
pensive  beholder  with  their  exemplary 
frailty.  It  hath  two  harbors,  that  on  the 
north  side  the  fairest  and  best  through- 
out all  the  Levant  (which  the  cursours 
enter  at  their  pleasure),  the  other  choked 
with  the  decayes  of  the  city."  Maundrell 
(1697)  says  of  Tyre  :  "  On* the  north  side 
it  has  an  old  Turkish  castle,  besides  which 
there  is  nothing  here  but  a  mere  Babel 
of  broken  walls,  pillars,  vaults,  etc.,  there 
being  not  so  much  as  an  entire  house  left. 
Its  present  inhabitants  are  only  a  few 
poor  wretches  that  harbor  in  vaults  and 
subsist  on  fishing." — Smith's  Bible  Dic- 
tionary, vol.  iv.,  p.  3337. 

Prexent  Condition. — The  present  town 
lies  at  the  north-west  end  of  the  former 


island,  which  has  an  area  of  about  125 
acres.  The  large  embankment  or  cause- 
way thrown  up  by  Alexander  the  Great 
was  60  yards  wide  and  one-fourth  of 
a  mile  long.  But  this  has  been  widen- 
ed, by  the  gradual  deposit  of  sand,  to 
a  mile  on  the  main  land  and  600  yards 
where  it  reaches  the  old  ramj)arts.  The 
west  and  soutb  sides  of  the  island  are 
now  used  for  gardens  and  burial-grounds. 
Traces  of  tlie  ancient  wall  are  found. 
One  stone*  is  17  feet  long  and  6 J  feet 
thick.  There  are  huge  stones  and  frag- 
ments of  marble  columns  along  the  shore 
and  beneath  the  water.  They  are  bare 
as  the  top  of  a  rock,  and  there  the  fish- 
ermen spread  their  nets — a  wonderful 
fulfilment  of  a  prophecy  uttered  nearly 
twenty-four  hundred  years  ago  :  "  I  will 
make  thee  like  the  top  of  a  rock;  thou 
shalt  be  a  place  to  spread  nets  upon." 
Eze.  26  :  11.  The  most  interesting  of 
the  old  buildings  yet  remaining  is  the 
church  of  the  Crusaders,  which  prob- 
ably' occupies  the  site  of  a  church  con- 
secrated A.  ]).  323,  when  Eusebius  preach- 
ed the  sermon. 

The  modern  city  has  miserable  streets 
and  dilapidated  houses.  Its  shipping 
consists  of  a  few  fishing-boats.  Cotton, 
tobacco,  and  millstones  from  the  Hau- 
ran  are  exported.  The  population  num- 
bers about  5000,  nearly  half  of  whom 
are  Muslims,  while  the  other  half  con- 
sists of  Christians  and  a  few  Jews.  A 
Franciscan  monaster^'  and  a  convent  of 
the  French  order  of  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph  are  established  here,  and  schools 
have  been  founded  by  an  English  mis- 
sion. A  short  distance  from  the  city,  on 
the  main  land,  is  the  traditional  tomb 
of  Hiram  ;  the  remains  of  the  ancient 
aqueduct  by  which  the  city  was  supplied 
with  water  from  Rda  el  'Ain  can  be 
traced. 

TYROPCE'ON.     See  Jerusalem. 

TY'RUS.     See  Tyue. 

885 


UCA 


UNI 


U. 


XJ'CAIi  (/  am  strong)  occurs  only 
once,  Prov.  30  :  1,  as  the  name  of  one 
of  the  persons  to  whom  Agur's  words 
are  spoken. 

U'EL  {will  of  God)  had,  during 
the  Captivity,  married  a  foreign  wife, 
Ezr.  10  :  U;  called  Juel  in  1  Esdr.  9  : 
34. 

UK'NAZ,  in  the  margin  to  1  Chr. 
4:15,  is  the  proper  name  1' Kenaz " 
with  the  copulative  conjunction  pre- 
fixed, but  the  preceding  proper  name 
has  been  omitted. 

U'LAI  [strong  water  ?),  a  river  of  Su- 
siana,  on  whose  banks  Daniel  saw  his 
vision  of  the  ram  and  he-goat.  Dan. 
8  :  2-16.  It  is  doubtless  the  Eulteus  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  a  large  stream 
in  the  vicinity  of  Susa  (Shushan).  Re- 
cent explorations  have  shown  that  the 
river  Choaspes  [Kerkhan)  divides  about 
20  miles  above  Susa.  The  eastern  branch, 
which  received  the  Sha^inr  and  fell  into 
the  Karan,  was  probably  the  Ulai.  This 
bifurcation  of  the  stream  explains  the 
otherwise  difficult  passage,  "  I  heard  a 
man's  voice  between  the  banks  of  Ulai," 
Dan.  8  :  16 — that  is,  between  the  banks 
of  the  two  streams  of  that  divided 
river. 

U'LAM  {porch,  vestibule).  1.  A  de- 
scendant of  Manasseh.  1  Chr.  7:17. 

2.  A  descendant  of  the  house  of  Saul. 
1  Chr.  8  :  39,  40. 

Ufj'LA  {yoke),  an  Asherite  chieftain. 
1  Chr.  7  :  39. 

UM'MAH  {community/),  a  city  of 
Asher.  Josh.  19  :  30.  Dr.  Thomson  as- 
sociates it  with  the  modern  Alma,  north 
of  Achzib,  some  5  miles  from  the  sea- 
shore;   Conder  with    Ummieh. 

UXCIRCUx^CIS'ION.  Rom.  2  : 
25.     See  Cihcumcised. 

UNCLEAN'.  Lev.  5  :  2.  See  Clean 
AND  Unclean. 

UNCLEAN'  MEATS.  Hos.  9  :  3. 
See  Clean  and  Unclean. 

UNCOVERING  the  head  was  a 
token  of  mourning  and  captivity.  Lev. 
10  :  6  ;    Isa.  47  :  2. 

UNCTION  is  used  figuratively  with 
reference  to  the  ceremony  of  anointing,  , 
886 


and  signifying  the  communication  of  a 
divine  grace.   1  John  2  :  20,  27. 

UNDERGIRD'ING  a  vessel 
means  to  pass  a  strong  cable  around  the 
hull  to  prevent  it  from  opening.  The 
ship  which  carried  St.  Paul  to  Italy  was 
undergirded.  Acts  27  :  17.  Lord  Anson 
mentions  a  Spanish  man-of-war  that 
was  saved  by  throwing  overboard  one 
tier  of  guns  and  taking  six  turns  of  a 
cable  around  the  ship. 

UNDERSET'TERS,  projections 
by  which  the  brazen  laver  was  orna- 
mented and  supported.  1  Kgs.  7  :  30. 

U'NICORN  {reem,  or  high),  a  very 
unfortunate  translation  of  a  word  which 
occurs  seven  times  in  the  0.  T.  That 
fabulous  creature  the  unicorn  certainly 
is  not  meant  by  the  reem.  Critics  are 
agreed  that  the  passages  mentioning  it, 
correctly  understood,  require  an  animal 
with  two  horns.  This  animal  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  ferocity,  Isa.  34  :  7, 
strength,  Xum.  23:22;  24:8,  agility, 
Ps.  29  :  6,  wildness.  Job  39  :  9,  as  well 
as  for  being  horned  and  destroying  with 
his  horns.  Deut.  33  :  17  ;  Ps.  22  :  21. 

For  various  reasons,  this  animal  could 
not  have  been  the  rhinoceros.  Probably 
it  was  the  now  extinct  aurochs  {Bos 
jjrimigenins),  a  long-horned  and  pow- 
erful ox,  which  existed  in  the  forests 
of  Europe  nearly,  or  quite,  until  the 
Middle  Ages.  C^sar  found  it  in  the  Her- 
cynian  forest,  and  gives  this  description  : 
"  These  uri  are  scarcely  less  than  ele- 
phants in  size,  but  in  their  nature,  color, 
and  form  are  bulls.  Great  is  their  strength, 
and  great  their  speed  :  they  spare  neither 
man  nor  beast  when  once  they  have  caught 
sight  of  them."  An  allied  species  of  bo- 
vine animals  of  great  size  and  strength 
is  known  to  have  existed  in  Palestine, 
as  the  bison  (Bison  bonasus),  and  some 
of  these,  now  called  aurochs,  are  still 
found  in  the  forests  of  Lithuania. 

The  Scripture  references  will  be  found 
peculiarly  appropriate  to  an  animal  of 
the  ox  kind.  Assyrian  monuments  rep- 
resent the  king  and  his  warriors  hunting 
a  wild  bison,  which  "  appears  to  have 
been  considered  scarcely  less  formidable 


UNI 


Bison.     (Bison  bonofius.    After  T)-istram.) 
and  noble  game  than  the  lion."  In  a  bone-  1  tries  of  Galatia  and 


cave  in  Lebanon  the  teeth  of  the  aurochs 
or  a  similar  ox  have  been  discovered.  Al- 
together, the  above  interpretation  may 
be  regarded  as  quite  established. 

UNITY  OF  THE  SPIRIT  is 
unity  of  judgment,  affection,  and  feel- 
ing among  those  who  constitute  the  one 
body  of  Christ,  Eph.  4  :  3,  and  it  is  the 
gift  of  God.  Jer.  32  :  39.  It  was  re- 
markably enjoyed  in  the  early  ages  of 
the  Church,  John  17  :  21 ;  Acts  4  :  32.  and 
is  to  be  sought  after  as  among  the  chief 
of  Christian  graces.  2  Cor.  13  :  11. 

UN'NI  {depressed).  1.  A  Levite  ap- 
pointed to  play  the  psaltery.  1  Chr.  15  : 
18,20. 

2.  Another  Levite,  living  after  the  re- 
turn from  Babylon.   Neh.  12  :  9. 

UNRIGHTEOUS  MAMMON. 
Luke  16  :  11.     See  Mammo;^. 

UPHAR'SIN.  Dan.  5  :  25.  See 
Mkxe. 

U'PHAZ,  probably  the  same  as 
Ophir,  which  see.  Jer.  10  :  9 ;  Dan. 
10:  5. 

UP'PER  COASTS  are  the  coun- 


Phrygia  through 
which  Paul  passed  at  the  beginning  of 
his  third  missionnrv-tour.  Acts  19  :  1. 

UPPER  ROOM.  Mark  14  :  15. 
See  Dwellings. 

UPPERMOST  ROOMS.  Luke 
12  :  39.     See  Sv.vAGOGrE.s. 

UR  {light),  the  father  of  one  of  Da- 
vid's men,  1  Chr.  11:35;  called  Ahas- 
bai  in  2  Sam.  23  :  34. 

UR  OF  THE  CHAL'DEES 
{l!(jht?,  or,  from  the  rendering  in  the 
Septuagint,  region),  the  place  at  which 
Abraham  resided  with  Terah,  his  father, 
before  he  Avas  called  to  go  into  the  land 
of  Canaan.  Gen.  11  :  28,  31  ;  15  :  7.  It 
is  mentioned  in  the  0.  T.  as  "of  the 
Chaldees,"  and  Josephus  calls  it  "a  city 
of  the  Chaldteans."  Stephen  speaks  of 
it  as  in  Mesopotamia.  Acts  7  :  2.  These 
are  the  only  biblical  clews  to  its  site, 
and  hence  the  identification  has  been  a 
disputed  question.      Among  the  places 


Ur  are — 

1.  The 

Northern 


modern    Or/ah,    or    Urfa,    in 
Mesopotamia,  some  20  miles 

887 


UEB 


UKI 


north  of  Haran  and  a  short  distance 
east  of  the  Upper  Euphrates,  It  is 
about  450  miles  north-north-east  of  Je- 
rusalem in  a  straight  line.  This  is  the 
classic  Edessa.  It  is  now  a  city  of 
about  50,000  to  60,000  inhabitants,  near- 
ly equally  divided  into  Muslims  and 
Christians  (Jacobites  and  Armenians). 
Among  the  arguments  for  making  this 
Ur  are :  (1)  The  resemblance  in  name. 
(2)  The  long-standing  tradition  among 
both  Jews  and  Mohammedans  that  Abra- 
ham dwelt  there.  At  the  base  of  the 
mountain,  to  the  south-east  of  the  town, 
is  the  cave  which  tradition  says  was  his 
birthplace,  and  over  it  is  a  mosque  so 
holy  that  only  Muslims  are  allowed  to 
enter  it.  There  is  a  pool  called  Birket- 
el- Ibrahim,  el  Khaleel,  the  "  pool  of  Abra- 
ham the  beloved."  (3)  The  saying  of 
Josh.  24:2  that  it  was  "on  the  other 
side  of  the  flood " — i.  e.,  east  of  the 
Euphrates.  But  in  opposition  to  this 
identification  it  is  urged,  among  other 
things,  that  Chaldoea  did  not  extend 
into  Upper  Mesopotamia,  that  the  his- 
tory points  to  a  longer  migration  be- 
tween Ur  and  Haran  than  the  20  miles 
between  Orfnh  and  Ilaran.  Uz  is  also 
connected  with  Or/ah  by  tradition. 
See  Uz. 

2.  Warka,  in  south-eastern  Mesopo- 
tamia, 120  miles  south-east  of  Babylon, 
4  miles  east  of  the  Euphrates.  The 
tract  of  land  is  slightly'  raised  above  the 
ordinary  water-level.  Upon  a  sandy 
platform  are  situated  the  remains  of 
numerous  ancient  buildings,  A  ram- 
part of  earth,  nearly  6  miles  in  circum- 
ference and  40  feet  high,  surrounds  the 
area.  This  is  now  commonly  supposed 
to  represent  the  city  of  Erech  of  Scrip- 
ture and  the  Orchoe  of  the  Greeks.  A 
tradition  of  the  Talmud  and  in  early 
Arabic  works  makes  this  Ur.  W<irka 
is  a  city  of  tombs,  and  is  now  utterly 
desolate. 

3.  Mugheir,  "mother  of  bitumen,"  a 
ruined  site  about  6  miles  west  of  the 
confluence  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris, 
and  about  125  miles  north-west  of  the 
Persian  Gulf.  The  ruins  now  cover  an 
oval  space  1000  yards  long  and  800 
broad.  The  Koran  and  the  Talmud 
contain  legendary  accounts  of  the  es- 
cape of  Abraham  from  the  fire  into 
which  idolaters  threw  him  at  Ur.  The 
most   remarkable  ruin   at  Muyheir  is  a 

888 


temple  built  of  bricks  laid  in  bitumen, 
and  many  of  them  inscribed  with  the 
name  of  Urukh,  a  Chalda^an  monarch 
whose  date  is  supposed  to  have  been 
B.  c.  2230.  This  is  perhaps  the  most 
ancient  Chaldaean  site  discovered.  Raw- 
linson.  Porter,  Eadie,  and  others  accept 
this  as  the  most  probable  site  of  Ur  of 
the  Chaldees. 

UR'BANE  (from  the  Latin  urbanna, 
"refined,"  "  polite  "),  one  of  the  Chris- 
tians in  Rome  to  whom  St.  Paul  sent  a 
salutation.  Rom.  16  :  9. 

U'RI  ifien/).  1.  Of  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
dah,  the  father  of  Bezaleel,  one  of  the 
architects  of  the  tabernacle.  Ex.  31  :  2 ; 
35:30;  38:22;  1  Chr.  2  :  20  ;  2  Chr. 
1:  5. 

2.  The  father  of  Geber,  the  commis- 
sariat-officer of  Solomon  in  Gilead.  I 
Kgs.  4:19. 

3.  A  gatekeeper  of  the  temple  who  in 
the  time  of  Ezra  had  married  a  foreign 
wife.   Ezr.  10  :  24. 

URI'AH,  2  Sam.  11 :  3,  or  URI' AS, 
Matt.  1:6,  a  Hittite  by  descent,  but 
probably  converted  to  Judaism,  com- 
mander of  one  of  the  bands  of  David's 
army,  and  the  husband  of  Bathsheba. 
His  death  was  purposely  brought  about 
by  an  understanding  between  Joab  and 
David,  in  order  that  David's  guilt  in  the 
case  of  Bathsheba  might  be  concealed, 
and  that  he  might  obtain  her  for  his  wife. 

U'RIEL  i_fire  of  God).  1.  A  Le- 
vite  of  the  family  of  Kohath.  1  Chr.  6 : 
24. 

2.  The  chief  of  the  Kohathites  in  the 
time  of  David.  1  Chr.  15  :  5,  11. 

3.  The  father  of  Maachah  or  Michai- 
ah,  Rehoboam's  wife  and  mother  of 
Abijah.  2  Chr.  13  :  2.  In  2  Chr.  11 :  20 
Maachah  is  called  "  the  daughter  of 
Absalom,"  which  may  be  explained  by 
her  mother,  Tamar,  being  a  daughter 
of  Absalom. 

URI'JAH  (Jlame  of  Jehovah).  1. 
High  priest  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  2  Kgs. 
16:10-16;  called  Uriah  in  Isa.  8:2; 
complied  subserviently  with  the  demand 
of  the  king  to  make  an  altar  after  the 
idolatrous  pattern  of  that  of  Damascus, 
and  to  offer  sacrifices  on  it. 

2.  The  son  of  Shemaiah  of  Kirjath- 
jearim  :  prophesied  in  the  days  of  Je- 
hoiakim,  and  fled  from  the  king's  wrath 
to  Egypt,  but  was  seized  there,  brought 
back,  and  slain.  Jer.  26  :  20-23, 


URI 


UZA 


3.  A  priest  of  the  family  of  Koz,  the 
ancestor  of  Meremoth,  Neh.  3:4,  21  ; 
perhaps  the  same  as  mentioned  in  Neh. 
8:4. 

U'RIM  AND  THlJM'MIiH  {light 
and  jicrfection)  denote  some  ])art  of  the 
high  priest's  apparel.  In  Ex.  28  :  15- 
30  it  is  prescribed  that  the  lirim  and 
Thummim  shall  be  phiced  beneath  the 
breastplate,  in  order  to  be  on  the  high 
priest's  heart  when  he  goes  in  before  the 
Lord ;  and  when  Aaron  was  arraA'ed, 
Moses  himself  put  the  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim into  the  breastplate.  Lev.  8:8.  In 
the  blessings  of  Moses  he  speaks  of  the 
Urim  and  Thummim  as  the  crowning 
glory  of  the  Levite  tribe ;  and  when 
Joshua  is  solemnly  appointed  to  succeed 
him.  Num.  27  :  21,  the  high  priest,  Elea- 
zar,  is  said  to  ask  counsel  for  him  after 
the  judgment  of  Urim.  But  nowhere  in 
Scripture  are  the  Urim  and  Thummim 
described,  and,  as  Jewish  tradition  can 
give  no  information,  we  do  not  know 
what  they  really  were. 

XJ'SURY,  by  modern  usage,  means 
exorbitant  or  unlawful  interest,  but  in 
the  Scriptures  it  means  simply  interest. 
The  Law  of  Moses  prohibited  the  Jews 
from  taking  any  interest  of  each  other 
for  the  loan  of  money  or  of  anything 
else,  though  they  were  allowed  to  take 
it  of  foreigners.  The  exchangers  of 
money  were  in  the  habit  of  receiving  it 
at  low  interest  and  loaning  it  at  high 
interest,  taking  the  difference  for  their 
gain.  Eze.  22  :  12.  The  practice  of  usu- 
ry is  severely  denounced  in  the  Scrip- 
tures. Neh. '5:7,  10;  Ps.  15:5;  Prov. 
28 : 8.  It  has  sometimes  been  asked 
why  the  Jews  were  permitted  to  take 
usury  of  strangers,  while  they  were  for- 
bidden to  take  it  of  each  other.  It  is 
quite  clear  that  the  civil  economy  of 
the  Jewish  state  excluded  the  general 
use  of  usury  as  a  means  of  gain  in 
a  medium  of  exchange.  They  had  no 
commerce  with  foreign  nations,  as  we 
have  in  modern  times,  or  as  the  Gentile 
nations  had  in  that  age.  They  had 
their  inheritance  apportioned  to  them 
in  the  division  of  the  land,  and  were 
rather  branches  of  the  same  family  set- 
tled together  than  independent  commu- 
nities, and  their  united  business  trans- 
actions were  to  be  of  the  most  friendly 
nature.  In  dealing  with  foreigners 
whose  object  was  gain,  they  were  allow- 


ed to  avail  themselves  of  the  ordinary 
principles  of  trade. 

U'THAI  {.hhovah  snccors).  1.  A 
descendant  of  Judah,  1  Chr.  9:4;  called 
Athaiah  in  Neh.  11  :  4 ;  was  one  of 
those  dwelling  in  Jeru!<alem  after  the 
Captivity. 

2.  A  son  of  Bigvai ;  returned  home  in 
the  second  caravan  with  Ezra,  Ezr.  8  : 
14  :  called  Uthi  in  1  Esd.  8  :  40. 

UZ  {fruitful  in  treen).  1.  A  son  of 
Aram,  and  grandson  of  Shem.  Gen.  10  : 
23:   1  Chr.  1:17. 

2.  A  son  of  Dishan,  and  grandson  of 
Seir.  Gen.  36  :  28. 

UZ,  THE  LAND  OF  {fertile 
land).  Uz,  or,  more  correctly,  "  lluz," 
was  the  country  of  Job.  Job  1:1.  It  is 
mentioned  in  the  ethnographical  tables. 
Gen.  10  :  23,  and  it  was  settled  by  a  son 
of  Aram.  Comp.  1  Chr.  1  :  17.  Job  was 
"  the  greatest  of  all  the  men  of  the  East " 
— in  Hebrew,  Bene-Kedem,  the  people 
who  dwelt  in  Arabia.  Job  1  :  3,  15-17. 
Uz  is  grouped  with  Egypt,  Philistia,  and 
Moab,  Jer.  25  :  20,  and  with  Edom.  Lam, 
4  :  21. 

Situation. — The  position  of  the  land 
of  Uz  has  been  a  subject  of  much  dis- 
pute. According  to  Josephus,  Uz  was 
the  father  of  the  inhabitants  of  Damascus 
and  Trachonitis.  Many  traditions  put 
it  at  Oifah,  on  the  Euphrates.  See  Ur. 
Near  the  Haran-gate  in  that  city  is 
''  Job's  well,"  which  is  a  sacred  shrine 
to  the  people  because  the  patriarch  drank 
of  its  waters.  Porter  found  many  tradi- 
tions of  Job  in  the  Ilauran,  and  numer- 
ous places  named  after  the  patriarch. 
The  land  of  Uz  seems  most  likely  to 
have  been  in  general  that  portion  of 
Arabia  Deserta  east  of  Edom  aTui  south 
of  Trachonitis,  extending  indefinitely 
toward  the  Euphrates. 

U'ZAI  {stronc/),  the  father  of  Palal, 
who  assisted  Nehemiah  in  repairing  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem.  Neh.  3  :  25. 

U'ZAIj,  the  sixth  son  of  Joktan. 
Gen.  10:27;  lChr.l:21.  His  descend- 
ants settled  in  Yemen  and  built  the  city 
of  Uzal,  which  from  the  earliest  times 
was  one  of  the  princi])al  towns  of  the 
country.  Its  name  was  afterward  changed 
to  "  Sana,"  and  it  is  now  the  capital  of 
Yemen.  Niebuhr  describes  it  as  a  beauti- 
ful town,  situated  on  a  plateau,  and 
resembling  Damascus  on  account  of  its 
rippling  waters  and  fine  trees. 

^^  889 


uzz 


uZZ 


UZ'ZA  {strength).  1.  An  inhabitant 
of  Jerusalem  in  whose  garden  Manasseh, 
king  of  Judah,  and  his  son  Amon  were 
buried.  2  Kgs.'21 :  18,  26.  The  location 
of  the  garden  is  not  known. 

2.  A  Benjamite  descending  from  Ehud, 
1  Chr.  8  :  7,  and,  according  to  the  Tar- 
gum  on  Esther,  the  ancestor  of  Mordecai. 

3.  The  ancestor  of  the  family  of 
Nethinim  which  returned  from  Babylon 
with  Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  2  :  49  ;  Neh.  7  :  51. 

4.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Merari. 
1  Chr.  6  :  29. 

UZ'ZA,  GARDEN  OF.  2  Kgs. 
21  :  26.     See  UzzA,  1. 

UZ^ZAH  (strength),  a  son  of  Abin- 
adab,  in  whose  house  at  Kirjath-jearim 
the  ark  had  rested,  was  instantly  killed 
by  the  immediate  action  of  God  for  lay- 
ing his  hands  upon  the  ark,  while  guid- 
ing the  carriage  on  which  it  was  brought 
to  Jerusalem,  in  violation  of  the  express 
provisions  of  the  divine  law.  Num.  4  : 
15 ;  2  Sam.  6  :  3-8.  In  1  Chr.  13  :  7-11 
he  is  called  Uzza. 

UZ'ZEN-SHE'RAH  {ear  of  She- 
rah),  a  city  of  Sherah,  the  daughter  or 
descendant  of  Ephraim.  1  Chr.  7  :  24. 
Probably  it  was  near  Beth-boron,  and 
its  site  may  be  marked  by  Beit  Sira,  3 
miles  south-west  of  the  lower  Beth- 
horon. 

\]7/'L\  {might  of  Jehovah).  1.  A  son 
of  Bukki,  and  the  father  of  Zerahiah,  in 
the  line  of  the  high  priests,  1  Chr.  6  :  5, 
6,  51  ;  Ezr.  7  :  4,  but  not  a  high  priest 
himself. 

2.  The  grandson  of  Issachar.  1  Chr. 
7  :  2,  3. 

3.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Bela.  1  Chr. 
7:7. 

4.  Another  Benjamite,  ancestor  of 
several  families  settled  in  Jerusalem 
after  the  Captivity.    1  Chr.  9  :  8. 

6.  A  son  of  Bani,  a  Levite,  and  over- 
seer of  the  Levites  in  Jerusalem  in  the 
time  of  Nehemiah.  Neh.  11 :  22. 

6.  A  priest  in  the  time  of  Jozakim, 
the  high  priest.  Neh.  12  :  19. 

7.  A  priest  assisting  Ezra  in  dedicat- 
ing the  walls  of  Jerusalem  ;  perhaps  the 
same  as  the  preceding.  Neh.  12  :  42. 

UZZI'A   {strength  of  Jehovah),  one 
890 


of  David's  guard;  surnamed  the  "Ash- 
terathite."  1  Chr.  11  :  44. 

UZZI'AH  {might  of  Jehovah).  1. 
The  son  and  successor  of  Amaziah, 
king  of  Judah ;  called  Azariah  in  2 
Kgs.  14:21  and  elsewhere;  began  to 
reign  at  sixteen,  and  reigned  fifty-two 
years,  b.  c.  808-756.  His  career  was 
most  prosperous.  He  walked  in  the 
ways  of  his  father  David,  and  as  a 
consequence  was  blessed  with  victory 
over  his  enemies  and  great  fame  and 
love.  But  he  was  puffed  up  by  success 
so  long  continued,  and  presumed  to 
burn  incense  on  the  altar  like  the 
priests.  Azariah,  the  high  priest,  and 
eighty  others  opposed  him ;  but  God 
most  effectually  checked  him  by  mak- 
ing him  a  leper,  dwelling  in  a  separate 
house  until  death.  2  Kgs.  15  :  1-7 ;  2 
Chr.  26.  A  great  earthquake  occurred 
in  his  reign.  Am.  1:1;  Zech.  14  :  5. 

2.  A  Levite.  1  Chr.  6  :  24. 

3.  The  father  of  one  of  David's 
officers.  1  Chr.  27  :  25. 

4.  A  priest.  Ezr.  10  :  21. 

5.  A  Judite.  Neh.  11  :  4. 
UZZI'EL    {might    of  Jehovah).      1. 

The  fourth  son  of  Kohath,  Ex.  6  :  18,  22  j 
Lev.  10:4;  the  ancestor  of  the  Uzzielites, 
and,  through  Elizaphan,  also  of  the  Ko- 
hathites,  Num.  3  :  19,  27,  30,  his  house 
numbering  one  hundred  and  twelve 
adults  in  the  time  of  David.  1  Chr. 
15  :  10. 

2.  A  Simeonite  captain  who  in  the 
time  of  Hezekiah  destroyed  the  remnants 
of  the  Amalekites  in  the  valley  of  Gedor. 
1  Chr.  4  :  42. 

3.  A  son  of  Bela  the  Benjamite.  1  Chr. 
7:7. 

4.  A  Levite  musician  in  the  time  of 
David,  the  son  of  Heman.  1  Chr.  25  :  4; 
called  Azareel  in  1  Chr.  25  :  18. 

5.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Jeduthun 
who  was  very  active  in  cleansing  and 
sanctifving  the  temple  after  the  pollu- 
tions of  Ahaz.  2  Chr.  29  :  14-19. 

6.  The  son  of  Harhaiah,  active  in  re- 
pairing the  walls  of  Jerusalem  in  the 
days  of  Nehemiah.   Neh.  3  :  S. 

UZZFELITES,  descendants  of 
UzziEL,  1.  Num.  3  :  27;  1  Chr.  26  :  23. 


VAG 


YEN 


V. 


VAG'ABOND  (from  the  Latin 
vaffabuuduH)  means  a  fugitive,  a  wan- 
derer, and  is  so  used  in  the  A.  V.,  but 
not  opprobriously,  as  we  now  use  the 
word.  Gen.  4  :  12;  Ps.  109  :  10;  Acts 
19:  13. 

VAJEZ'ATHA  (Persian,  strong  as 
the  loiiid),  one  of  the  ten  sons  of  Haman 
slain  by  the  Jews  in  Shushan.  Esth. 
9:9. 

VALE,  VAL'LEY.  Five  Hebrew 
words  are  translated  "  vale  "  or  "  valley." 

1.  Emek,  signifying  a  '"deep"  valley, 
and  iniph'ing  a  long,  broad  sweep  be- 
tween parallel  ranges  of  hills,  as  the 
valley  of  Achor,  Aijalon,  Elah,  Jezreel, 
Succoth,  etc. 

2.  Gai  or  rje,  signifying  a  "bursting" 
or  a  "  flowing  together."  and  used  to 
designate  narrow  ravines  or  glens,  as  of 
Hinnom  or  Salt.  This  name  is  given  to 
the  secluded  spot  where  Moses  was 
buried.    Deut.  34  :  6. 

3.  Nnchal,  meaning  a  "wady-bed," 
filled  with  water  in  winter,  but  dry  in 
summer;  and  hence  it  is  sometimes  ren- 
dered "  brook,"  "  stream,"  "  river,"  etc. 
Such  beds  or  valleys  were  Chereth,  Esh- 
col,  Sorek,  Zered,  etc. 

4.  Bik'ah,  pro})erly  a  ''cleft,"  but 
applied  to  a  broader  space  than  a  cleft 
or  valley,  and  meaning  sometimes  a 
"plain,"  as  that  between  Lebanon  and 
Anti-Lebanon  and  Megiddo.  Josh.  11 : 
17;  13:17;  Zech.  12:11. 

5.  Hn-shephelah,  wrongly  rendered 
"valley,"  meant  a  broad  tract  of  low 
hills  between  the  mountains  of  Judah 
and  the  coast-plain.  Deut.  1:7;  Josh. 
10  :  40. 

VAL'LEY-GATE.  2  Chr.  26  :  9. 
See  Jerusalem. 

VAL'LEY  OF  BACA.   See  Baca. 

VAL'LEY  OF  DECIS'IOX.  Joel 
3  :  14.     See  .Tehosiiaphat. 

VAL'LEY  OF  SALT.    See  Sait. 

VAL'LEY  OF  SOREK.  Jud. 
16  :  4.     See  Sorek,  Valley  of. 

VANI'AH  (irenk),  a  son  of  Bani ; 
had  married  a  foreign  wife,  but  sent  her 
away  on  the  command  of  Ezra.  Ezr. 
10  :  36. 


VASH'NI  occurs  in  1  Chr.  6  :  28  as 
the  name  of  the  first-born  of  Samuel, 
while  in  1  Sam.  8  :  2  the  name  is  Joel. 
As  Vashni,  with  a  very  slight  modifica- 
tion, would  mean  "and  the  second,"  it  is 
probable  that  in  1  Chr.  6  :  28  the  name 
of  Joel  has  dropped  out. 

VASH'TI  (Persian,  a  henntiful 
womait),  queen  of  Persia,  and  the  re- 
pudiated wife  of  Ahasuerus.  Esth.  1 :  9. 
See  Esther, 

VAT.  Isa.  33  :  2.     See  Wixk-Fat. 

VEIL  is,  in  our  translation,  the  ren- 
dering of  several  Hebrew  words  which 
properly  mean  shawls  or  mantles.  Gen. 
24  :  65  :  38  :  14 ;  Ruth  3:15;  Cant.  5  : 
7;  Isa.  3  :  23.  These  shawls  or  mantles 
may  occasionally  have  been  drawn  over 
the  face,  but  they  were  not  designed  for 
that  purpose.  Veils  proper  were  used 
by  the  Hebrew  women  only  on  special 
occasions — as  ornaments.  Cant.  4:  1,  3; 
6:7;  as  a  bridal-symbol,  Gen.  24  :  65  ; 
29  :  25  ;  and  for  the  purpose  of  conceal- 
ment. Gen.  38  :  14.  Generally  the  He- 
brew women  appeared  in  public  without 
veils.  Gen.  12:14;  24:16;  29:10;  1 
Sam.  1 :  12,  and  so  did  the  Egyptian  and 
Assyrian  women,  as  seen  by  the  Egyptian 
and  Assyrian  sculptures  and  paintings. 
The  custom  now  almost  universal  among 
Oriental  women  to  be  veiled  whenever 
they  appear  in  public  dates  from  the 
Koran,  33  :  55,  59,  which  forbids  the 
Mohammedan  women  to  show  themselves 
unveiled  outside  of  the  circle  of  their 
nearest  relatives. 

VEIL  OF  THE  TAB'ER- 
NACLE,  or  temple.  See  Taber- 
nacle an(i  Temple. 

VEN'GEANCE.  Rom.  12: 19.  This 
word  often  denotes  merely  punishment, 
without  any  reference  to  the  state  of 
mind  in  which  it  is  inflicted.  In  the 
passage  cited  and  elsewhere,  Deut.  32  : 
35,  the  exclusive  right  of  God  to  punish 
wrong-doers  and  to  vindicate  the  truth 
is  plainly  asserted.  Hence  every  act  of 
revenge  is  an  interference  with  the  divine 
prerogative.  The  word  is  applied  to  God 
in  the  same  manner  in  which  "  anger," 
"  hatred,"  etc.,  are  applied — not  as  de- 

891 


VER 


VIN 


noting  a  state  or  temper  of  mind,  but  as 
implying  an  act  or  course  of  proceeding 
such  as  usually  indicates  a  particular 
state  of  mind,  when  done  or  pursued  by 
man. 

VERMIL'ION,  a  chemical  sub- 
stance used  for  coloring  red,  and  much 
valued  for  ornamenting  dwellings,  Jer. 
22  :  14,  and  painting  images.  Eze.  23  : 
14.  The  custom  of  painting,  and  some- 
times gilding,  the  ceilings  of  houses  is 
still  prevalent  in  the  East. 

VI'AL.  1  Sara.  10  :  1.     See  Censer. 

VIL'LAGES.  Lev.  25 :  31.  See  City. 

VINE,  VINEYARD.  We  first 
read  of  a  vineyard  in  the  history  of 
Noah.  Gen.  9  :  20.  The  cultivation  of 
the  vine  had  attained  to  some  perfection 
in  vei-y  early  times.  In  the  accounts  of 
Melchizedek,  who  set  bread  and  wine  be- 
fore Abraham,  of  Lot,  who  was  drunken, 
of  aged  Isaac,  when  regaled  by  his  sons, 
in  the  prophecy  of  dying  Jacob,  and  in 
the  book  of  Job,  we  have  the  earliest  ac- 
counts of  wine  as  a  common  drink.  Gen. 
14:  18;  19  :  32;  27  :  25;  49  :  12  ;  Job 
1  :  18  ;  Prov.  23  :  30,  31  ;  Isa.  5  :  11. 

The  original  home  of  the  Eastern 
grape-vine  (  Vitis  vini/era)  was  Armenia 
and  neighboring  countries.  But  Pales- 
tine seems  scarcely  second  to  any  country 
in  the  world  in  adaptation  of  soil  and 
climate  for  its  culture.  Especially  is  this 
true  of  its  southern  districts.  "  Here, 
more  than  elsewhere  in  Palestine,  are 
to  be  seen  on  the  sides  of  the  hills  the 
vineyards,  marked  by  their  watch-towers 
and  walls,  seated  on  their  ancient  ter- 
races, the  earliest  and  latest  symbol  of 
Judah.  The  elevation  of  the  hills  and 
table-lands  of  Judah  is  the  true  climate 
of  the  vine.  'He  bound  his  foal  to  the 
vine,  and  his  ass's  colt  to  the  choice 
vine;  he  washed  his  garments  in  wine, 
and  his  clothes  in  the  blood  of  grapes.* 
It  was  from  the  Judaean  valley  of 
Eshcol,  *  the  torrent  of  the  cluster,'  that 
the  spies  cut  down  the  gigantic  cluster 
of  grapes.  'A  vineyard  on  a  hill  of 
olives,'  with  the  '  fence.'  and  '  the  stones 
gathered  out,'  and  '  the  tower  in  the 
midst  of  it,'  is  the  natural  figure  which, 
both  in  the  yjrophetical  and  evangelical 
records,  represents  the  kingdom  of 
Judah." — Stnnleij. 

Grapevines   were  usually   propagated 
by  layers.    They  were  sometimes  planted 
beside  ridges  of  stones,  upon  which  they 
892 


crept,  and  which  afforded  a  dry  and 
warm  exposure  for  ripening  the  fruit. 
Miles  of  such  stone-heaps  remain  in 
regions  now  utterly  desert  about  Beer- 
sheba  and  east  of  the  Jordan.  At  other 
times  vines  were  annually  trimmed  down 
to  a  permanent  stock,  which  was  fastened 
to  a  stake,  or  a  post  was  erected  with  a 
crosspiece,  or  upon  four  or  more  pillars 
a  trellis  or  arbor  was  supported,  upon 
which  the  boughs  spread.  Very  often, 
however,  the  Syrian  vines  are  trained 
upon  a  perpendicular  trellis  or  frame- 
work in  straight  rows  ;  sometimes  upon 
trees,  and  particularly  the  fig  tree, 
whence  the  proverbial  expression,  ''  To 
repose  under  one's  own  vine  and  fig 
tree,"  as  an  emblem  of  peace  and  se- 
curity. Mic.  4:4;  Zech.  3  :  10.  Vines 
are  found  at  Hebron  trained  in  this 
manner,  and  bearing  clusters  of  ten 
pounds'  weight,  or  even  more.  Some- 
times thev  were  trained  upon  the  side 
of  the  house.  Ps.  128  :  3. 

Vineyards  were  enclosed  with  a  hedge 
or  a  wall,  to  defend  them  from  the 
ravages  of  beasts,  to  which  they  were 
often  exposed.  A  tower  was  also  built 
as  the  station  of  a  watchman.  Num.22: 
24;  Ps.  80  :  8-13:  Prov.  24  :  31 ;  Cant. 
2:15;  Matt.  21  :  33.     See  Tower. 

The  Hebrews  devoted  as  much  care  to 
their  vineyards  as  to  their  agriculture. 
When  Isaiah  predicts  the  invasion  of 
the  Assyrians,  he  declares  that  the  vine- 
yard where  there  were  a  thousand  vines 
for  a  thousand  pieces  of  silver  shall  be 
even  for  briers  and  thorns.  Isa.  7  :  23. 
When  he  would  represent  sorrow,  he 
says,  "  The  new  wine  mourneth,  the 
vine  languisheth,  and  all  the  merry- 
hearted  do  sigh."  Isa.  24  :  7.  So  Zech- 
ariah,  8  :  12,  foretells  future  prosperity 
thus:  ''The  seed  shall  be  prosperous, 
the  vine  shall  give  her  fruit."  See  also 
Hab.  3  :  17:  Mai.  3  :  11. 

The  pruning  of  the  vine  is  a  familiar 
operation,  which  we  all  know  to  be 
necessary  in  order  to  its  fruitfulness. 
The  law  which  forbade  the  Israelites 
to  gather  the  grapes  of  the  first  three 
years,  Lev.  19  :  23,  gave  occasion  to  the 
more  careful  and  unsparing  use  of  the 
pruning-knife ;  hence  the  3'oung  stock 
came  to  much  greater  strength.  A 
traveller  mentions  a  custom  of  the 
vine-dressers  to  prune  their  vines 
thrice  in  the   year ;    the    first    time,  in 


VIN 


VIS 


March.  When  chisters  begin  to  form, 
they  again  lop  off  those  twigs  which 
have  no  fruit ;  the  stock  puts  out 
new  twigs  in  April,  some  of  which 
form  clusters,  and  those  which  liave 
none  are  again  cut  off  in  May.  The 
vine  shoots  a  third  time,  and  the  new 
branches  have  a  third  set  of  clusters. 
See  John  15  :  2,  in  which  passage  the 
word  "  purgeth "  may  be  rendered 
**pruneth." 

What  remains  of  the  culture  of  the 
vine  is  very  simple.  Once  or  twice  in 
the  season  the  plough  was  run  through 
the  vineyard  to  loosen  the  earth  and 
free  it  from  weeds :  the  stones  were 
gathered  out,  and  a  proper  direction 
was  given  to  the  growing  branches. 
Isa.  5  :  2.  The  vine-dressers,  or  keep- 
ers of  the  vineyard,  formed  a  distinct 
branch  of  laborers.    2  Kgs.   25  :  12. 

The  regular  vintage  begins  in  Syria 
about  the  middle  of  September,  and  lasts 
about  two  months.  Lev.  26  :  5  ;  Am.  9  : 
13.  Ripe  clusters,  however,  are  found 
in  Palestine  as  early  as  June  and  July, 
although  the  regular  vintage  begins  in 
September.  This  difference  may  arise 
from  the  threefold  growth  of  the  vine, 
already  mentioned.  The  first  gathered 
in  Canaan  is  probably  meant  in  Num. 
13  :  20. 

The  vintage  was  celebrated  by  the 
Hebrews  with  still  more  festivity  than 
the  harvest,  Isa.  16  :  9,  and  was  some- 
times a  season  of  wicked  mirth.  Jud. 
9  :  27.     See  Grapes. 

VIN'EGAR.  The  Hebrew  word  de- 
notes a  beverage  either  consisting  simply 
of  wine  turned  sour,  and  for  that  reason 
proscribed  to  the  Nazarite,  Num.  6  :  3, 
or  produced  artificially.  Its  excessive 
acidity,  Prov.  10  :  2fi,  made  it  an  un- 
palatable drink,  Ps.  69  :  21  ;  but.  like 
the  Roman  poscn,  it  was  much  used  for 
sopping  bread.  Ruth  2:14.  It  was 
this  beverage  which  was  offered  to  our 
Saviour  in  his  dving  moments.  Matt. 
27:48:  Mark  15:36;  John  19:29. 
The  effervescence  which  it  produced 
when  poured  upon  nitre  was  well 
known  to  the  Hebrews,  and  is  used  to 
represent  in  an  impressive  manner  the 
incongruity  of  mirth  and  sorrow.  Prov. 
25  :  20. 

VINE  OF  SODOM.  There  is 
reference  to  this  plant  only  in  Deut. 
32  :  32.    Josephus  describes  fruits  grow- 


ing near  the  Dead  Sea,  "  which  indeed 
resemble  edible  fruit  in  color,  but  on 
being  plucked  by  the  hand  are  dissolved 
into  smoke  and  ashes."  These  are  the 
apples  of  Sodom  of  which  the  ])oets 
sing,  and  which  are  supposed  to  be 
mentioned  in  the  above  })assage. 

A  surprising  number  of  plants  has 
been  proposed  as  the  vine  of  Sodom, 
while  some  have  supposed  that  there 
was  here  reference  merely  to  a  po])ular 
fiction,  as  perhaps  in  the  case  of  the 
dragon,  satyr,  and  unicorn.  If  we  are 
to  interpret  Deuteronomy  and  Josephus 
literally,  the  colocynth  seems  best  to 
answer  the  conditions,  because  it  is  the 
only  vine  suggested,  and  abounds  in 
these  regions,  while  its  fruit,  though 
beautiful  to  the  eye,  is  exceedingly 
nauseous  to  the  taste,  and  when  ripe 
there  is  nothing  within  it  but  seeds 
and  a  drv  powder.     See  (iouRD. 

VINEYARDS,  PLAIN  OF 
THE,  Abcl-ceramim.  Jud.  11  :  33. 
Possibly  marked  by  the  ruin  Kto-enahi, 
(5  miles  south-east  of  Amman  and  upon 
the  upper  Jabbok,  as  suggested  by  Dr. 
Merrill. 

VI'OL.  This  was  an  instrument  of 
music,  and  supposed  to  be  the  same  with 
the  psaltery.  Am.  6 :  5.  See  Music. 
Chanting  to  the  sound  of  it  was  to  make 
like  sounds  with  the  voice,  so  modulat- 
ing the  tones  as  to  correspond  with  the 
sounds  of  the  instrument. 

VI'PER.  This  word  in  the  0.  T. 
possibly  designates  some  pnrficular  spe- 
cies of  hissing  and  venomous  serpent, 
but  its  exact  application  cannot  be  de- 
termined. In  the  N.  T.  the  Greek  woixi 
thus  rendered  was  used  for  «»y  poison- 
ous snake.  The  viper  which  fastened  on 
Paul's  hand,  Acts  28  :  1-6,  was  doubtless 
the  snake  of  that  name  {  Vipern  rts;>/.s), 
still  common  in  the  Mediterranean  isl- 
ands. It  has  now  disa]ipeared  from 
Malta  with  the  woods  to  which  it  is  par- 
tial. The  viper  is  an  emblem  of  what- 
ever is  deceitful  and  destructive.  Matt. 
3  :  7  :  12  :  34  ;  23  :  33  ;  Luke  3  :  7.  See 
CorKATUicK  and  Asr. 

VIS'ION.  Num.  24:4.  Informer 
times  God  was  pleased  to  reveal  himself, 
and  communicate  his  will  in  visions, 
which  were  caused  either  in  the  night  in 
ordinary  sleep,  Dan.  7  :  1,  or  by  day  in 
a  temporary  trance.  Acts  10:11;  26: 
13.     See  Dreajt,  Trance. 

893 


V01> 


YUt 


V01*H'S1  {my  increase),  father  of 
Nahbi,  the  spy  selected  from  the  tribe  of 
Naphtali.     Num.  13  :  14. 

VOW,  in  the  scriptural  use,  means  a 
solemn  religious  promise  or  covenant  by 
which  one  binds  himself  to  do  or  suffer 
certain  things,  depending  on  God  for 
power  to  accomplish  them.  The  first  in- 
stance of  such  a  vow  recorded  in  Scrip- 
ture is  that  made  bv  Jacob  when  on  the 
flight  to  Padan-araim.  Gen.  28:20-22; 
31  :  13.  As  vows  were  voluntary'  en- 
gagements, not  prescribed  by  the  Mo- 
saic Law,  they  were  made  with  prayer 
and  paid  with  thanksgiving.  Num.  6  :  2- 


21 ;  Jud.  11 :  30,  31 ;  Ps.  61 :  5  ;  Acts  18  : 
18.      See  NAZA.RITES. 

VUL'TURE.  In  Lev.  11 :  14,  Deut. 
14  :  13,  and  Isa.  34  :  15,  in  place  of  this 
word,  we  should  probably  read  "  black 
kite"  {Milvus  mif/rans).  This  is  a  bird 
which,  except  in  the  winter  months,  col- 
lects in  Palestine  in  great  numbers  and 
is  very  sociable  in  its  habits,  according 
to  the  reference  in  Isaiah.  Another  He- 
brew word  rendered  "  vulture "  in  Job 
28  :  7  is  elsewhere  correctly  rendered 
Kite,  which  see. 

It  is  a  striking  instance  of  the  accu- 
racy of  the  Scripture  writers  that,  while 


Egyptian  Vulture,  or  "Pliaraob's  Hen." 


the  peculiar  faculty  for  discovering  their 
food  which  carrion-devourers  possess  is 
popularly  attributed  to  the  sense  of  smell, 
the  Bible  attributes  it  to  sight.  In  the 
book  of  Job  the  characteristic  of  the 
eagle  is  that  "her  eyes  behold  afar  off." 
Job  28 :  7  refers  to  the  same  peculiarity, 
"  There  is  a  path  which  the  vulture's  eye 
894 


hath  not  seen,"  implying  that  its  vision 
is  most  acute  and  penetrating.  It  is  well 
proved  that  birds  of  prey  discern  their 
booty  at  vast  distances,  that  the  eager 
flight  of  one  is  observed  and  followed 
by  another,  and  so  on,  till  many  are 
gathered  together  wheresoever  the  car- 
case is. 


WAF 


WAH 


W. 


WATER,  a  thin  cake  of  fine  flour 
used  in  various  ofi'erings  anointod  with 
oil.  Ex.  16  :  ;n  :  29  :  2,  23  :  Lev.  2:4; 
7:12;  8:26;  Num.  6:15,  19. 

WA'GES.  When  wages  are  first 
mentioned  in  the  0.  T.,  they  were  paid, 
not  in  money,  but  in  kind.  (jien.  29  :  15, 
20;  30:  28;' 31:  7,  8,  41.  But  the  Law 
was  very  strict  in  requiring  daily  pay- 
ment of  wages,  Lev.  19;  13;  Deut.  24: 
14,  15,  and  employers  who  withhold  the 
laborer's  wages  or  refuse  to  give  him 
sufficient  victuals  are  strongly  censured. 
Jer.  22:13;  Mai.  3:5;  Job  24:11. 
Wages  paid  in  money  are  mentioned  in 
the  N.  T.  Matt.  20:2;  Luke  3:14;  1 
Cor.  9  : 7. 

WAG'ON.  The  Egyptian  wagon, 
■which  is  well  known  to  us  from  pictorial 
representations,  consisted  of  two  solid 
wooden  discs  connected  with  an  axle,  on 
which  a  body  very  similar  to  that  of  our 
wheelbarrows  was  placed.  This  primi- 
tive vehicle  was  drawn  by  oxen,  and  it 
was  sometimes  covered.  The  wagons 
mentioned  in  Num.  7  :  3,  8,  for  carrying 
the  tabernacle,  were  no  doubt  built  on 
this  pattern. 

WAIL,  to  mourn  with  loud  and  vio- 
lent expressions  of  distress  and  despair. 
Eze.  32:  18. 

WALL  OF  PARTITION.  Eph. 
2:14.     See  Temple. 

WALLS.  The  walls  with  which,  in 
ancient  times,  all  cities  were  surrounded, 
in  contradistinction  from  open  or  un- 
walled  villages,  were  generally  built  of 
earth  or  clay  or  sun-dried  brick.  Hence 
it  was  necessary  to  build  them  of  great 
thickness,  in  order  to  ensure  their  per- 
manency. Houses  were  often  erected  on 
top  of  them,  or  they  were  provided  with 
fortifications  (fenced  walls).  When  any 
breach  took  place  in  such  a  mass  of 
earth,  either  by  heavy  rains  or  some  de- 
fect in  the  foundation,  the  consequences 
were  very  serious.  Ps.  62  :  3  ;  Isa.  30  : 
13.     See  City. 

WANDERING  IN  THE  WIL- 
DERNESS. See  WILDEKNES.S,  THE, 
OF    THE    WaNDEKKNO. 

WAR.     From  the  nature  of  the  arms 


and  the  customs  of  the  ancients,  their 
battles  were  truly  murderous.  Scarcely 
ever  was  any  quarter  given,  except  where 
the  vanquished  was  retained  as  a  slave, 
and  conscfjucntly  the  number  of  killed 
was  often  iiiiniense.  2  t"hr.  13  :  17.  Al- 
though the  military  art  was  comparative- 
ly simple,  yet  ingenious  stratagems  of 
various  kinds  were  practised.  Enemies 
were  then,  as  now,  surprised  and  over- 
come by  unexpected  divisions  of  the 
forces,  by  ambushes,  and  by  false  re- 
treats. Gen.  14  :  15  ;  Josh.  8:12;  Judg. 
20:36-39;  2  Kgs.  7:12.  In  lack  of 
artillery,  unwieldy  machines  for  casting 
heavy  stones  and  other  destructive  mis- 
siles were  invented.  We  find,  however, 
little  allusion  to  these  in  the  Bilile. 
About  the  end  of  the  ninth  or  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eighth  century  before 
Christ,  Uzziah  "  made  in  Jerusalem 
engines  invented  bj'  cunning  men.  to 
be  on  the  towers  and  u])on  the  bulwarks, 
to  shoot  arrows  and  great  stones  withal." 
2  Chr.  26:15. 

A  siege  was  thus  conducted  :  All  the 
trees  in  the  neighborhood  were  cut  down 
and  used  in  the  construction  of  field- 
fortifications.  Dcut.  20:20.  "Mounts" 
or  *' banks  "  in  the  direction  of  the  city 
were  thrown  uj).  and  gradually  increased 
in  height  until  they  were  half  as  high  as 
the  city's  wall.  2  Sam.  20  :  15  ;  2  Kgs. 
19  :  32.  The  next  step  was  to  erect 
towers  on  the  top  of  these  banks.  2  Kgs. 
25  :  1.  These  steps  taken,  the  siege  was 
commenced  in  earnest.  The  water-sup- 
plies of  tlie  besieged  were,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, cut  ofl":  intercourse  with  neighbor- 
ing towns  or  villages  was  ended.  Thus 
starvation  must  eventually  set  in  in  the 
doomed  city.  But  use  was  made  of  other 
measures  than  these  passive  ones.  The 
towers  s)»oken  of  bristled  with  armed 
men.  Archers  and  slingers  incessantly 
fired  at  the  soldiers  ujion  the  wall. 
Battering-rams,  which  see,  hammered 
against  the  gates  or  walls;  scaling- 
ladders  were  placed  against  the  walls; 
the  gates  were  even  at  times  fired.  Jud. 
9  :  52.  But  the  besieged  had  weapons 
also.       Huge    stones    were    hurled    with 

895 


WAR 


WAB 


terrible  effect  from  the  walls.  Boiling 
oil.  rings  heated  red  hot, — these  were 
emploj'ed  to  cripple  the  foe.  Sallies  were 
made  to  burn  the  besiegers'  works  or  to 
drive  them  away.    Jud.  9  :  53 ;    2  Sam. 

11  :  21. 

But  there  was  no  part  of  the  ancient 
military  preparations  more  terrible 
than  chariots.  Ex.  14  :  7  ,•  Deut.  20  :  1  ; 
Josh.  17:16:  Jud.  4:3.  They  were  in 
common  use  wherever  there  was  any  cav- 
alry. 2  Sam.  10:  18;   IChr.  18:4;  2  Chr. 

12  :  3  ;  14  :  9.  See  Chariot.  Walls  and 
towers  were  used  in  fortifications,  and 
the  latter  were  guarded  by  soldiers,  and 
are  called  "garrisons."  2  Sam.  8:6:  Eze. 
26  :  11.     See  Ward. 

As  to  the  order  of  battle  we  have  no 
certain  knowledge.  The  prophet  alludes 
to  it.  Jer.  12  :  5.  Among  all  ancient  na- 
tions it  was  customary  to  take  previous 
refreshment  of  food,  in  order  to  give 
strength  to  the  army.  The  soldiers,  and 
especially  the  commanders,  arrayed  them- 
selves in  their  costliest  garments  and 
fairest  armor,  except  in  cases  where  dis- 
guise   was    attempted.     1    Kgs.    22  :  30. 


A^arious  passages  lead  to  the  opinion 
that  divisions  of  the  army  were  common, 
as  in  modern  times.  Gen.  14  :  15  ;  Jud. 
7:16;  1  Sam.  11:11.  The  most  fre- 
quent division  of  the  host  was  into  tens, 
hundreds,  and  thousands,  and  each  of 
these  had  its  commander  or  captain. 
Jud.  20  :  10 ;  1  Sam.  8:12;  2  Kgs.  11  : 
4.  Among  the  Hebrews  these  divisions 
had  some  reference  to  the  several  fam- 
ilies, and  were  under  the  heads  of  fam- 
ilies as  their  officers.  2  Clir.  25  :  5  ;  26  : 
12.  The  captains  of  hundreds  and  of 
thousands  were  of  high  rank,  or  (so  to 
speak)  staff-officers,  who  were  admitted 
to  share  in  the  councils  of  war.  1  Chr. 
13  :  1.  The  whole  army  had  its  com- 
mander-in-chief or  captain,  who  was 
over  the  host,  and  its  scribe,  or  keeper 
of  the  muster-roll.  1  Kgs.  4:4:1  Chr. 
18  :  15,  16  :  27  :  32-34  ;  2  Chr.  17  :  14; 
26  :  11.  In  Isa.  33  :  18  the  words  trans- 
lated •'  he  that  counted  the  towers  "  prob- 
ably indicate  what  we  should  call  a  chief- 
engineer. 

Under  David  the  army  of  288,000  men 
was  divided  into  twelve  corps,  each  of 


Egyptian  Troops  in  Ranks.     {From  Monuments  at  Thebes.) 


which  was  consequently  24,000  strong 
and  had  its  own  general.  1  Chr.  27. 
Under  Jehoshaphat  this  was  altered,  and 
there  were  five  unequal  corps,  under  as 
many  commanders.  2  Chr.  17  :  14-19. 
The  cohort  had  five  hundred  or  six  hun- 
dred men,  and  the  legion  embraced  ten 
cohorts. 

896 


The  light  troops  were  provided  with 
arms  which  they  used  at  some  distance 
from  the  enemy,  such  as  bows  and  ar- 
rows. They  are  designated  in  2  Chr.  14: 
8  :  while  the  heavy-armed  were  those  who 
bore  shield  and  spear.  1  Chr.  12  :  24.  The 
light  trooj)S  of  the  army  of  Asa  were  taken 
principally  from  the  tribe  of  Benjamin 


WAR 


WAT 


because  of  their  extraordinary  accuracy 
of  aim.  Jud.  20  :  10.    See  Ahmok,  Arms. 

Kings  and  generals  had  armor- bear- 
ers, selected  from  the  bravest  of  their  fa- 
vorites, who  not  only  carried  their  ar- 
mor, which  was  in  tliose  days  a  neces- 
sary service,  but  stood  by  them  in  the 
hour  of  danger,  carried  their  orders,  and 
were  not  unlike  modern  adjutants.  1  Sam. 
31 :  4. 

The  troops  were  excited  to  ardor  and 
bravery  by  addresses  front  their  priests, 
who  were  commanded  to  apj)eal  to  them. 
Deut.  20  :  2.  In  later  times  kings  them- 
selves were  accustomed  to  harangue  their 
armies.  2  Chr.  13  :  4.  Finally  (perhaps 
after  the  sacrifices  had  been  ottered),  the 
summons  was  given  by  the  holy  trum- 
pets.  Num.  10  :  y,  10  ;   2   Chr.  13':  12-U. 

It  was  the  ])ractice  of  the  Greeks,  when 
they  were  within  half  a  mile  of  the  en- 
emy, to  sing  their  war-song.  A  similar 
custom  probably  prevailed  among  the 
Jews.  2  Chr.  20:21.  Next  followed  the 
shout,  or  war-cry.  which  the  Romans  ac- 
companied with  the  noise  of  shields  and 
spears  struck  violently  together.  This 
war-cry  was  common  in  the  East,  as  it 
is  to  this  day  among  the  Turks.  It  was 
the  "  alarm  "  or  "  shout  "  so  often  men- 
tioned in  Scripture.  1  Sam.  17  :  62  ;  2 
Chr.  13  :  1 5  ;  Job  39  :  25  :  Jer.  4  :  19. 

War,  like  slavery  ahd  all  forms  of 
violence,  is  a  consequence  of  sin;  it  is 
organized  cruelty  and  wholesale  murder  ; 
as  Gen.  Moltke  ("  th^  thinker  of  battles") 
says,  even  a  victorious  war  is  a  great 
national  calamity ;  but  it  is  overruled 
for  good  by  that  all-wise  Providence 
which  maketh  the  wrath  of  man  to  ])raise 
him.  Christianity  was  introduced  into 
the  world  by  the  angelic  announcement 
of  "on  earth  peace,  good-will  toward 
men."  It  has  done  much  to  prevent  the 
passions  of  war,  to  mitigate  its  horrors, 
to  counteract  its  evils  by  individual  and 
organized  care  of  the  sick,  the  wounded, 
and  the  prisoners,  to  encourage  the  settle- 
ment of  international  disputes  by  peace- 
ful arbitration  (as  in  the  Alabama  dif- 
ficulty, which  threatened  war  between 
England  and  the  United  States,  but  was 
peacefully  adjusted  by  the  Geneva  tribu- 
nal Dec,  1871 ).  and  it  looks  forward  to  the 
time  when  men  "shall  beat  their  swords 
into  ploughshares  and  their  spears  into 
pruning-hooks,  when  nation  shall  not 
lift  up  sword  against  nation,  neither 
57 


shall  they  learn  war  anv  more."  Isa.  2: 
4 :   Mic.  4  :  .•? :  Joel  3  :  10  ;   Kev.  21  :  :'..  4. 

WAIID,  a  prison,  or  an  apartment 
thereof.  Gen.  40  :  .S  ;  Acts  12  :  10.  Also 
a  garrison  or  military  post,  \ch.  12  :  2.'), 
or  a  class  or  detachment  of  jtersons  for 
any  particular  service.  1  Chr.  9  :  2li ; 
25:8:   Neh.  13  :  :'.(».     See  Prison. 

WARD'ROBE,  the  place  where  the 
royal  robes  or  priests'  vestments  were  de- 
posited. 2  Kgs.  22:  14. 

WARES.     See  Commkkcr. 

WASH  ING  OF  THE  HANDS 
AND  FEET,  THE,  was  rendered 
necessary  and  refreshing  by  Oriental 
customs  and  climate.  The  hands  should 
be  scrupulously  clean,  inasmuch  as  all 
persons  at  table  put  their  fingers  into  the 
same  dish.  The  feet  should  be  washed 
because  the  sandals  afforded  no  protec- 
tion against  soil ;    and  besides,  the  feet 


Waf^liing  the  Hands. 

would  be  hot.  The  protest  of  Christ 
against  the  handwashings  of  the  Phari- 
sees was  directed  against  their  character- 
istic elevation  of  it  into  a  matter  of 
religious  observance.  Mark  7  :  3.  lie 
and  his  disciples  were  exposed  to  unjust 
insinuations  because  tliey  neglected  the 
Pharisaic  rules.  Matt.  15  :  2  ;  Luke  11  : 
38. 

The  washing,  by  the  host,  of  the  feet 
of  the  guest  was  a  significant  attention, 
1  Sam.  25  :  41  :  Luke  7  :  38,  44  ;  John 
13  :  5-14:  but  usually  water  was  pro- 
vided and  the  guests  washed  their  own 
feet,  or  had  them  washed  bv  servants. 
Gen.  18:  I:   Jud.  19:21. 

WAT(  H'ES  OFTHENIGIFr. 
The  original  division  of  the  night  was 
into  three  watches — "  the  beginning  of 
the  watches,"  from  sunset  to  10  o'clock, 
Lam.  2:  19;  "the  middle  watch,"  from 
10  to  2  o'clock,  Jud.  7:19:    and  "the 

897 


WAT 


WAT 


to 

12; 

3; 

and 

14 

25; 

7;    Isa. 


morning  watch,"  from  2  o'clock  to  sun- 
rise, Ex.  14  :  24;  1  Sam.  11  :  11— but 
after  the  Captivity  the  Jews  adopted 
the  custom  of  Rome  and  Greece,  which 
divided  the  twelve  hours  of  the  night 
into  four  watches,  beginning  with  6 
in  the  afternoon — ''even,'"  from  6  to  9 
o'clock;  "midnight,"  from  9 
"cock-crowing,"  from  12  to 
morning,  from  3  to  6;  Matt. 
Mark  13  :  35 ;  Luke  12  :  38. 

WATCH'MAIV.  Cant.  5  : 
21  :  11.  In  Persia  the  watchmen  were 
required  to  indemnify  those  who  were 
robbed  in  the  streets,  and  hence  they 
were  extremely  vigilant  to  give  the 
alarm  and  protect  the  city  and  its  in- 
habitants from  violence.  Eze.  33  :  2-6. 
The  watchman  was  also  required  to  call 
the  hours  of  the  night  in  a  loud  voice 
as  he  patrolled  the  streets.  This  is 
customary  at  the  present  day  in  some 
large  cities.  In  time  of  danger  the 
watchmen  were  posted  in  towers  over 
the  gates  of  the  city.  Isa.  21  :  8  ;  62  :  6. 

WALTER.  The  scarcity  of  water 
is  one  of  the  calamities  of  the  Eastern 
world,  and  the  distress  which  is  often 
experienced  by  man  and  beast  for  want 
of  it,  is  indescribable.  Thus  the  gather- 
ing of  water  in  cisterns  and  reservoirs 
and  its  distribution  through  canals,  form 
a  conspicuous  feature  of  Eastern  life. 

In  Prov.  21 :  1  the  original  term,  ren- 
dered "rivers,"  signifies  "divisions," 
"  partitions,"  "  sections,"  and  refers  to 
the  ancient  Oriental  methods  of  convey- 
ing water  to  orchards  and  gardens.  This 
was  by  means  of  canals  or  rivulets  flow- 
ing in  artificial  channels,  called  in  He- 
brew "divisions"  —  /.  e.,  "cuts"  or 
"trenches"  —  which  distributed  the 
water  in  every  direction,  to  irrigate 
abundantly  the  otherwise  parched  and 
barren  soil.  With  a  similar  allusion, 
the  Psalmist  (Ps.  1 :  3)  says  of  the  godly 
man,  the  lover  of  the  divine  law,  that 
"he  shall  be  like  a  tree  planted  by  the 
rivers  of  water"  (divisions  or  sections 
of  water),  "  that  bringeth  forth  his  fruit 
in  his  season,  his  leaf  also  shall  not 
wither."  The  reference  is  doubtless  to 
trees  nourished  by  artificial  irrigation, 
and  the  manner  of  this  irrigation  has 
been  elaborately  described  by  several 
modern  travellers.  Generall}',  gardens 
contain  a  large  quadrangular  plat  of 
ground,  divided  into  lesser  squares,  with 
898 


walks  between  them.  The  walks  are 
shaded  with  orange  trees  of  a  large- 
spreading  size.  Every  one  of  these 
lesser  squares  is  bordered  with  stone, 
and  in  the  stone-work  are  troughs,  very 
artificially  contrived,  for  conveying  the 
water  all  over  the  garden,  there  being 
little  outlets  cut  at  every  tree  for  the 
stream,  as  it  passes  by,  to  flow  out  and 
water  it.  In  Deut.  11  :  10  it  is  said  of 
the  Land  of  Promise,  "  The  land  whither 
thou  goest  in  to  possess  it,  is  not  as  the 
land  of  Egypt,  from  whence  ye  came 
out,  where  thou  sowedst  thy  seed,  and 
wateredst  it  with  thy  foot,  as  a  garden 
of  herbs."  The  phrase  "  watering  with 
the  foot "  may  refer  to  the  construction 
or  opening  of  the  channels  and  water- 
courses like  those  above  mentioned, 
which  was  accomplished  by  the  action 
of  the  foot.  So  also  in  2  Kgs.  19  :  24,  "  I 
have  digged  and  drunk  strange  waters 
and  with  the  sole  of  my  feet  have  I 
dried  up  all  the  rivers  of  besieged 
places" — i.  e.,  "I  have  digged  new 
channels  by  the  labors  of  the  spade, 
have  turned  the  rivers  out  of  their  an- 
cient courses  " — which  consequently  were 
dried  up — "  and  thus  have  made  my 
army  to  drink  of  strange  waters,  flow- 
ing in  channels  to  which  they  had  never 
before  been  accustomed."  Another,  and 
some  think  much  more  natural,  opinion 
is  that  allusion  is  made  to  the  machinery 
for  drawing  up  water  by  means  of  a  rope 
or  string  of  buckets  attached  to  a  wheel, 
which  was  turned  like  a  modern  tread- 
wheel.  Besides  its  ordinary  use,  water 
was  employed  sj'mbolically,  as  in  the 
Tabernacles,  Feast  of,  which  see,  and 
once  at  least  on  a  fast-day.  1  Sam.  7  :  6. 
Water  indicates  cleansing,  and  therefore 
is  used  in  baptism  and  also  of  spiritual 
blessings.  John  3:5;  7  :  37-39 ;  Rev. 
22:  17. 

WATER  OF  JEAL'OUSY. 
Num.  5  :  11-31.     See  Adultery. 

WATER  OF  SEPARA'TIO?*', 
OR  WALTER  OF  UNCLEAN'- 
NESS,  was  sprinkled  upon  a  person 
defiled  by  contact  with  the  dead.  See 
Num.  19. 

WA'TER-POT.  The  custom  of 
washing  the  feet  necessitated  the  use 
of  a  large  amount  of  water  on  festive 
occasions.  Hence,  in  John  2  :  6  there  is 
mention  made  of  six  stone  water-pots 
which    held   about    25    gallons    apiece. 


WAV 


WEE 


The  water-pot  of  the  woman  of  Samaria, 
John  4  :  28.  was  much  smaller. 

WAVE-OF'FERING,  a  peculiar 
feature  of  the  rite  of  peace-offering,  the 
right  shoulder  of  the  victim,  considered 
the  choicest  piece,  being  *'  heaved,"  and 
eaten  only  by  the  priests,  while  the  breast 
was  "  waved,"  and  eaten  by  the  wor- 
shippers. On  the  second  day  of  the 
Passover  a  sheaf  of  corn  was  waved  to- 
gether with  an  unblemished  lamb  of  the 
first  year.  From  this  ceremony  the  days 
were  to  be  counted  till  Pentecost,  on 
which  feast  the  first-fruits  of  the  ripe 
corn  and  two  lambs  of  the  first  year 
were  waved.  Ex.  29  :  24,  27  ;  Lev.  7  : 
30,  34:  8  :  27:  9  :  21  :  10  :  14,  15:  23: 
10,  15,  20;  Num.  6:20:  18  :  11,  18,  26- 
29. 

WAX,  a  well-known  substance  made 
from  the  combs  of  bees,  easily  softened 
and  dissolved  by  heat,  is  often  used  in 
Scripture  as  a  means  of  illustration.  Ps. 
68  :  2  :  97  :  5 ;  Mic.  1  :  4. 

WEAN.  As  a  daily  portion  was  not 
allotted  to  Levite  children  until  they 
reached  the  age  of  three  years,  2  Chr. 
31  :  16,  it  has  been  inferred  that  among 
the  Jews  children  continued  to  suckle 
up  to  that  time.  The  weaning  was  cele- 
brated by  a  feast.   Gen.  21  :  8. 

WEAP'ONS.  Neh.  4  :  17.  See 
Arms. 

WEA'SEL,  generally  agreed  to 
mean  the  mole.  See  Mole.  Lev.  11  : 
29. 

WEAVE.  Various  woven  fabrics 
are  spoken  of  as  having  been  produced 
by   the  Israelites  during  their  wander- 


ings— such  as  curtains  of  goats'  hair, 
Ex.  26  :  7  ;  woollen  garments,  Lev.  13  : 
47;  twined  linen,  Ex.  26  :  1  ;  and  the 
embroidered  raiment  of  the  priests. 
Ex.  28  :  4,  39.  Afterward  the  art  of 
weaving  is  often  mentioned,  1  Chr.  4  : 
21;  2  Kgs.  23  :  7:  Prov.  31  :  13,  24: 
also  the  various  tools — such  as  the 
shuttle,  the  beam,  the  thrum,  etc.  Job 


Ancient  Roman  Loom. 

7  :  6;   1  Sam.  17  :  7  :   Isa.  38  :  12.     The 
loom  itself  is  not  mentioned,  however. 
WED'DING-GAR']>IENT.    The 

wedding-garments  were  furnished  by  the 
host,  and  were  required  to  be  worn  by 
those  who  were  admitted  as  guests  at 
marriage-suppers.  Matt.  22  :  11. 

WEEK.  The  division  of  time  into 
portions  of  seven  days  found  among 
many  different  nations  which  cannot 
have  ado])ted  it  from  one  another — 
such  as  the  Chinese.  Peruvians,  etc. — 
is  by  some  referred  back  to  the  order 
of  the  creation,  and  by  others  to  the 
"  seven  planets,"  the  principal  fact  in 
ancient  astronomy. 

The  Jews  gave  no  special  names  to  the 
days  of  the  week,  but  simply  distin- 
guished them  by  their  number,  as  the 
first,  second,  or  third  day.  The  names 
of  the  days  now  in  use  in  the  English 
language  are  derived  from  the  Saxon,  in 
which  they  had  a  mythological  signifi- 
cation. 

Besides  weeks  of  seven  days,  which 
were  rendered  from  one  Sabbath  to  an- 
other, the  Jews  had  a  week  of  years,  or 
seven  years,  and  a  week  of  seven  times 
seven  years,  which  brought  in  the  fiftieth 
or  iuhilee  vear. 

WEEKS,  FEAST  OF.  See 
Pentecost. 

899 


WEI 


WHI 


WEIGHTS.     See  Measures. 

WELLS  were  very  essential  in  a 
dry  and  hot  country  like  Palestine,  and 
were  generally  provided  at  each  place 
of  pasturage  with  a  great  outlay  of 
labor.  They  were  deep,  John  4  :  11, 
and  difficult  both  to  dig  and  preserve, 
and  hence  were  a  valuable  part  of  the 
husbandman's  property.  Num.  20  :  17- 
19.  They  were  sometimes  owned  in 
common.  Gen.'29:2,  3.  To  protect 
them  from  the  sand  and  from  being 
used  by  others,  they  were  covered, 
usually  with  a  stone,  and  surrounded 
with  a  low  wall.  Gen.  29  :  2,  8.  To 
stop  them  up  was,  and  still  is,  regarded 
as  an  act  of  hostility.  Gen.  26  :  15,  and 
to  invade  the  right  of  property  in  them 
was  often  the  cause  of  sharp  contention. 
Gen.  21  :  25.  The  water  was  sometimes 
drawn  by  a  well-sweep  and  bucket,  some- 
times by  a  windlass,  but  generally  by 
pitchers  and  a  rope.  In  a  country  where 
water  was  so  valuable  and  so  difficult  to 
be  procured,  the  well  naturally  became 
the  centre  of  many  scenes  of  actual  life 
— the  halting-place  of  the  traveller.  Gen. 
24:  11;  the  camping-place  of  armies, 
Jud.  7  :  1,  etc. — and  it  furnished  an 
appropriate  emblem  of  rich  blessings. 
Jer.  2  :  13  ;  17  :  13.  See  Jacob's  Well 
and  Brrr-sheba. 

WHALE.  In  the  Mosaic  account 
of  the  creation,  when  we  are  told  that  on 
the  fifth  day  God  created  great  whales, 
sea-monsters  in  general  are  doubtless 
meant.  Gen.  1  :  21.  The  original  of 
"  whale  "  is  often  translated  "  dragon  " 
or  "leviathan,"  and,  according  to  the 
derivation  of  the  Hebrew,  the  word  de- 
notes a  creature  of  great  leiu/th,  without 
being  restricted  to  marine  animals. 

Neither  the  0.  T.  nor  the  N.  T.,  when 
correctly  rendered,  affirms  that  it  was 
a  whale  which  swallowed  Jonah,  but 
*'  a  great  fish."  Jon.  1:17;  Matt.  12  :  40. 
The  creature  referred  to  is  very  likely 
to  have  been  the  white  shark,  which  is 
abundantly  capable  of  such  a  feat. 
The  whale  is,  however,  occasionally 
found  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The 
skeleton  of  one  was  to  be  seen  in  Bey- 
rout  in  1^77.     See  Jonah,  Leviathan. 

WHEAT.  In  Palestine  this  most 
important  of  all  grains  was  sown  after 
barley,  late  in  the  fall.  It  was  not  only 
scattered  broadcast  and  then  ploughed, 
harrowed,  or  trodden  in,  Isa.  32  :  20,  but 
900 


it  seems,  according  to  the  Hebrew  of 
Isa.  28  :  25,  to  have  been  planted  in  rows 
or  drills,  as  it  certainly  often  is  at  pres- 
ent in  Syria.  Wheat-harvest  is  about  a 
month  later  than  barley-harvest,  usually 
in  May. 

Sixty,  or  even  one  hundred,  grains 
may  sometimes  be  counted  in  an  ear  of 
this  cereal,  according  to  Tristram,  and, 
as  several  stalks  may  spring  from  a 
single  seed  with  thorough  cultivation, 
the  increase  of  Matt.  13  :  8  is  not  at  all 
incredible. 

Wheat  is  still  produced  for  export 
east  of  the  Jordan,  where  probably 
Minnith,  Eze.  27  :  17,  was  located.  The 
whole  land  once  produced  vast  quantities 
of  this  cereal,  and  will  again  when  agri- 
culture is  protected  and  encouraged. 
Deut.  8:8.  In  the  days  of  Jacob  this 
grain  was  already  so  much  cultivated  in 
Mesopotamia  that  "  wheat-harvest  "  de- 
noted a  well-known  season.  Gen.  30  :  14. 

The  many-eared  variety,  or  mummy- 
wheat,  still  sometimes  cultivated  in 
Egypt  and  represented  on  its  monu- 
ments, is  referred  to  in  Pharaoh's  dream. 


Egyptian  Wheat. 

Gen.  41  :  22.  In  our  translation  this 
grain  is  often  mentioned  under  the 
general  name  of  ''  corn."  See  Corn, 
Thrksh. 

WHIT'ED      SEPULCHRES. 
Matt.    23  :  27.      It   was   customary   to 


WID 


WIL 


whitewash  the  Jewish  sepulchres  annu- 
ally, that  they  might  be  distinctly  seen 
and  avoided,  inasmuch  as  coming  in 
contact  with  them  was  the  occasion  of 
ceremonial  defilement.  Num.  19  :  16. 
This  practice  gave  them  a  clean  and 
beautiful  appearance,  and  presented  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  dark  and  offen- 
sive mass  of  putrefaction  within. 

WID'OW.  By  the  Jewish  law,  Deut. 
25  :  5,  if  a  married  man  died  leaving  no 
children,  his  brother  was  required  to 
marry  the  widow,  in  order,  first,  that  the 
estate  might  be  kept  in  the  family,  and, 
second,  that  he  might,  in  their  descend- 
ants, perpetuate  the  name.  This  ])re- 
scription  refers  only  to  the  family  and 
the  estate,  and  paj's  no  regard  to  the 
individual ;  but  there  are  other  prescrip- 
tions in  the  Mosaic  Law  which  show 
great  kindness  and  circumspection  in 
behalf  of  the  widowed  woman.  Ex.  22  : 
22;  Deut.  14:29;  16:11,14;  24:17, 
19-21;   26:12;   27:19. 

WIFE.     See  Marriage. 

WILD  BEASTS.     See  Beast. 

WIL'DERNESS,  Ex.  14  :  8,  and 
DESERT.  These  words  do  not 
necessarily  imply  a  mere  waste,  but 
rather  extensive  tracts  not  under  culti- 
vation and  affording  rich  and  abundant 
pasturage.  Josh.  15  :  61  ;  Isa.  42  :  11. 
The  principal  tracts  of  this  description 
were  the  wilderness  of  Jericho,  those  of 
Judah,  En-gedi,  Ziph-maon,  Beer-sheba, 
Tekoa,  Gibeon,  and  Bethaven.  See  these 
under  their  respective  heads. 

WILDERNESS  OF  SIN.  Ex. 
16  :  1.  See  AVii.derness.  the,  of  the 
Wandering,  and    Zin.  Wilderness  of. 

WILDERNESS,  THE,  OF 
THE  WANDERING,  usually 
spoken  of  as  THE  WIL'DERNESS, 
the  region  in  which  the  Israelites  spent 
forty  5'ears,  between  Egypt  and  Canaan. 
It  is  called  sometimes  the  "great  and 
terrible  wilderness"  by  wav  of  eminence. 
Deut.  1:1;  8:2;  Josh.  5  :  6  ;  Neh.  9  : 
19,  21  ;  Ps.  78  :  40,  52  :  107  :  4  ;  Jer.  2  : 
2.  In  general,  it  may  be  identified  with 
the  great  peninsula  of  Sinai,  the  tri- 
angular region  between  the  Gulf  of 
Akabah,  Seir,  and  Edom  on  the  east, 
and  the  Gulf  of  Suez  and  Egypt  on  the 
west.  See  Sinai.  In  this  region  there  are 
several  smaller  wildernesses,  as  Etham, 
Paran,  Shir,  Zin,  which  see.  What  is 
known  distinctively  as  the  ''wilderness 


of  the  Wandering,"  Badiet  et-  Tih,  is  the 
great  central  limestone  plateau  between 
the  granite  region  of  Sinai  on  the  south, 
the  sandy  desert  on  the  north,  and  the 
valley  of  the  Arabah  on  the  east.  The 
explorations  of  travellers  and  the  British 
Ordnance  Survey  have  made  this  region 
quite  well  known. 

The  route  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt 
to  Kadesh  can  be  traced  with  reasonable 
accuracy.  Instead  of  entering  the  Prom- 
ised Land  immediately  from  Kadesh, 
they  were  driven  back  into  the  wilder- 
ness for  their  disobedience,  and  there 
wandered  for  forty  years.  It  need  not 
be  supposed  that  they  were  continually 
on  the  move  or  that  they  were  unable  to 
find  their  way.  They  probably  lived  a 
nomad  life,  as  do  the  Bedouin  Arabs  of 
the  present  day,  moving  from  place  to 
place  and  pitching  their  tents  wherever 
they  could  find  pasture  for  their  flocks. 
Some  of  the  stations  named  cannot  be 
identified,  though  the  line  of  march 
may  be  traced  until  they  left  the  wil- 
derness and  advanced  toward  the  Prom- 
ised Land  by  Mount  Seir  and  Edom. 
See  Map  at  end  of  book. 

It  is  said  of  those  composing  the 
British  Survej'^  :  "  Not  a  single  member 
of  the  expedition  returned  home  without 
feeling  more  firmly  convinced  than  ever 
of  the  truth  of  that  sacred  history  which 
he  found  illustrated  and  confirmed  by 
the  natural  features  of  the  desert.  The 
mountains  and  valleys,  the  very  rocks, 
barren  and  sun-scorched  as  they  now 
are.  only  seem  to  furnish  evidence  which 
none  who  behold  them  can  gainsay  that 
this  was  that  '  great  and  terrible  wilder- 
ness' through  which  Moses,  under  God's 
direction,  led  his  jieople." — Recovery  of 
Jerumleiii,  p.  429.  (See  also  Palmer's 
Desert  of  the  E.rndiiM.)  See  SiNAI,  Ex- 
onrs.  Jrn.EA.  Wilderness  of. 

WILL,  in  the  sense  of  a  testament- 
ary writing,  does  not  occur  in  Scripture, 
and,  with  respect  to  landed  property, 
such  a  disposition  must  have  been  very 
limited,  on  account  of  the  right  of  re- 
demption and  general  re-entry  in  the 
I  jubilee  year.  With  respect  to  houses  in 
walled  towns  such  difficulties  did  not 
exist,  and  it  is  ap])arent,  from  2  Sam. 
17  :  23  ;  2  Kgs.  20  :  1  ;  Isa.  38  :  1.  that 
property  of  this  kind  was  bequeathed  by 
will. 

WIL'LOW,    a    familiar    tree,   often 

901 


WIL 


WIN 


referred  to  in  the  Bible,  which  flourishes 
best  in  marshy  ground  and  on  the 
borders  of  watercourses.  Several  species 
grow  in  Palestine.  The  beautiful  weep- 
ing willow  is  also  called  the  Babylonian 
willow,  in  allusion  to  Ps.  137  :  2  ;  and, 
as  this  tree  flourishes  on  the  banks  of 
the  Euphrates,  the  name  is  otherwise 
appropriate.  Before  the  Captivit}'  the 
willow  was  an  emblem  of  joy,  Lev.  23  : 
40,  but  afterward,  through  the  influence 
of  the  Psalm  mentioned  above,  it  ceased 
to  be  associated  with  the  palm,  and,  like 
the  cypress,  became  significant  of  sorrow. 
The  oleander  of  our  conservatories  is 
indigenous  in  the  Holy  Land  and  fringes 
many  of  its  waters  with  living  green,  the 
lower  Jordan,  however,  being  too  warm 
for  it.  Sometimes  it  grows  to  such  size 
that  travellers  encamp  under  its  shade. 
On  the  western  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee 
it  is  especially  abundant,  as  the  poet 
Keble  beautifully  sings : 

"Where  Gennesaret's  wave 
Delights  the  flowers  to  lave, 
That  o'er  her  western  slope  breathe  airs  of 
balm. 
All  through  the  summer's  night 
Those  blossoms,  red  and  bright, 
Spread  their  soft  breasts,  unheeding,  to  the 
»  breeze, 

Like  hermits  watching  still 
Around  the  sacred  hill. 
Where  erst  our  Saviour  watch'd  upon  his 
knees." 

As  the  oleander  resembles  the  willow 
in  leaf,  general  appearance,  and  love  of 
water,  it  may  be  sometimes  referred  to 
under  that  name.  Dean  Stanley  has  sug- 
gested that  it  may  be  the  tree  ''planted 
by  the  rivers  of  water,"  mentioned  in 
Ps.  1  :  3.  But  the  oleander  was  a  wild 
shrub,  and  was  not  planted.  The  palm 
meets  the  conditions  better. 

WIL  LOWS,  BROOK  OF 
THE,  on  the  southern  boundary  of 
Moab.  Isa.  15  :  7.  It  is  now  the  Wddy 
el-AJcKn. 

WIM'PLES,  supposed  by  some  to 
mean  a  broad,  full  mantle  or  shawl,  like 
the  veil  which  Ruth  had,  Ruth  3:15, 
and  by  others  a  veil,  coif,  or  hood.  Isa. 
3:22. 

WIND.  The  east  wind  was,  in 
Palestine,  injurious  to  vegetation.  Its 
general  character  may  be  inferred  from 
Gen.  41:6;  Job  1  :  19  ;  Ps.  11  :  6 ;  Isa. 
27  :  8  :  Jer.  4  :  11-13  :  Eze.  17  :  10  :  19  : 
12  ;  27  :  26  ;  Hos.  13  :  15.  The  south 
902 


wind  brought  heat,  Luke  12  :  55,  coming 
from  Arabia ;  the  simoom,  however,  did 
not  reach  Palestine.  The  south-west  and 
the  north  gave  fair  weather.  Job  37  :  9, 
22  ;  Prov.  25  :  23.  The  west  wind,  com- 
ing from  the  Mediterranean,  gave  rain. 

WIN'DOW,  In  Eastern  houses  the 
windows  are  single  apertures  in  the 
wall,  opening  upon  the  court  within,  not 
upon  the  street  without,  which  gives  a 
melancholy  aspect  to  the  streets.  There 
is,  however,  sometimes  a  projecting 
balcony  or  porch  in  front  of  the  house, 
carefully  closed  by  lattice-work,  and 
opened  only  at  the  occasion  of  some 
festival.  From  such  a  place  Jezebel  is 
supposed  to  have  been  looking  out  when 
she  was  seized  and  put  to  death  by  Jehu. 
2  Kgs.  9  :  30.  And  this  was  probably 
called  the  "casement."  Prov.  7:6;  see 
also  Cant.  2  :  9.  Glazed  windows  were 
entirely  unknown  among  the  Hebrews, 
and  are  scarcely  ever  seen  in  the  East 
at  the  present  day.  Before  the  Christian 
era,  and,  indeed,  for  several  centuries 
after,  glass  was  too  costly  to  come  into 
general  use. 

WINE.  There  has  been  some  con- 
troversy as  to  the  nature  and  qualities 
of  the  liquor  which  is  called  wine  in  our 
Scriptures.  Various  words  are  used  in 
the  Hebrew  text,  and  no  doubt  various 
products  are  thus  denoted,  but  the  cha- 
racteristic common  to  them  all  seems  to 
be  that  of  an  intoxicating  drink.  Lev.  10  : 
9:  Num.  28  :  7  :   Prov.  3  :  10  ;  Dan.  5  :  1. 

Like  all  other  countries,  Canaan  had 
wines  of  various  strength  and  character. 
The  vine  grew  luxuriantly  in  Palestine, 
bearing  immense  clusters  of  grapes,  and 
various  kinds  of  wine  produced  in  Pal- 
estine were  remarkable  both  for  their 
power  and  their  flavor,  such  as  the  wine 
of  Lebanon  and  that  of  Helbon,  near 
Damascus.  Eze.  27:18;  Hos.  14:7. 
Often  mentioned  in  connection  with  corn 
and  oil  as  one  of  the  great  gifts  of  Na- 
ture to  man,  it  was  kept  in  every  house- 
hold and  produced  on  occasions  of  hos- 
pitality or  festivals.  Gen.  14:  18;  John 
2  :  3.  But  by  the  Jews,  as  by  other  peo- 
ple, it  was  often  misused,  and  its  misuse 
is  most  severely  condemned  not  only  in 
the  N.  T.,  but  also  in  the  0.  T.,  Prov. 
20  :  1  ;  23  :  29-35 ;  Isa.  5  :  22  ;  28  : 
1-7  ;  56  :  12  ;  Hos.  4:11,  and  in  some 
cases  it  is  expressly  forbidden.  Lev.  10  : 
9;  Num.  6  :  3.     In  the  Mosaic  ritual  it 


WIN 


WIN 


formed  the  usual  drink-offering  at  the  I 
daily  sacrifices,  Ex.  29  :  40,  at  the  pres- 
entation of  the  first-fruits.  Lev.  23  :  \'^, 
and  at  other  offerings,  Num.  15  :  5,  and 
a  tithe  was  paid  of  it.  Deut.  18  :  4.  The 
Nazarite  was  forbidden  to  drink  wine 
during  the  continuance  of  his  vow,  Nuui. 
6  :  3,  and  the  priest  before  performing 
the  services  of  the  temple.  Lev.  10  :  9. 

The  "mixed  wine"  often  mentioned 
by  the  sacred  writers,  Ps.  75  :  S  ;  Prov. 
23  :  30,  was  not  diluted  withMvater,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  was  increased  in  strength 
or  improved  in  flavor  and  color  by  a  mix- 
ture of  drugs,  herbs,  and  spices.  Cant.  8  : 
2.  Some  suppose,  however,  that  the 
phrase  "mixed  wine"  denotes  wine  ren- 
dered stronger  by  being  shaken  up  and 
mingled  with  the  lees. 

WINE-FAT,  WINE-PRESS. 
An  excavation  (probably  rectangular) 
was  made  in  the  rock,  or  was  formed  in 
the  ground  and  lined  with  mason-work, 
in  which  to  crush  the  grapes.  This  was 
the  press  (Heb.  f/^tfh),  and  another  cavity, 
arranged  to  catch  the  juice,  was  the  fat 
or  vat.  Ancient  excavations  of  this  kind 
remain  in  Palestine,  and  one  of  them  is 
thus  described  by  Robinson  with  his 
usual  accuracy  :  "  Advantage  had  been 
taken  of  a  ledge  of  rock ;  on  the  upper 
side  a  shallow  vat  had  been  dug  out,  8 
feet  square  and  15  inches  deep.  Two 
feet  lower  down  another  smaller  vat  was 
excavated,  4  feet  square  by  3  feet  deep. 
The  grapes  were  trodden  in  the  shallow 
upper  vat,  and  the  juice  drawn  off  by  a 
hole  at  the  bottom  (still  remaining)  into 
the  lower  vat."     Both  these  vats  are  re- 


ferred to  in  Joel  3:13.  By  the  larger  or 
upper  receptacle  Gideon  threshed  wheat 
for  the  sake  of  concealment.  .Tud.  6  : 
11.  Such  rook  presses  as  these  are  still 
used  in  some  parts  of  Syria. 

Travellers  tell  us  that  the  first  vin- 
tage usually  begins  in  the  latter  part  of 
August;  that  they  often  see  the  black 
grapes  spread  on  the  ground  in  beds,  ex- 
posed to  the  sun  to  dry  for  raisins,  while 


\\\\\\\\\\\\\\m\ili//IW//illllllllllll'/, 


Til 


Treading  the  Wine- Press. 

at  a  little  distance  one  or  two,  and  some- 
times as  many  as  five,  men  are  seen,  with 
feet  and  legs  bare,  treading  the  fruit  in  a 
kind  of  cistern,  or  vat,  usually  about  8 
feet  square  and  4  feet  high,  with  a  grated 
aperture  near  the  bottom,  through  which 


Ej^yptians  expressing  the  Juice  of  the  Grape. 


the  expressed  juice  runs  into  a  vessel  be- 
neath. Isa.63:3;  Hag.  2: 16.  Thetread- 
ers  sung  and  shouted,  Isa.  16  :  10,  while 
the  red  blood  of  the  grapes  flowed  around 


them  and  thoroughly  stained  their  flesh 
and  garments.  Isa.  63  :  1-3  :  Jcr.  25  : 
30  ;  48  :  33 ;    Lam.  1:15;    Rev.  19  :  13- 

15. 

903 


WIN 


WIT 


The  ancient  Egyptian  mode  of  express- 
ing the  juice  of  grapes  may  be  learned 
from  the  preceding  cut.  The  fruit  is 
placed  in  a  cloth,  which  is  twisted  and 
strained  until  the  liquor  is  wrung  out 
into  a  vessel  below. 

"  Gath,"  a  wine-press,  is  of  common 
occurrence  in  the  names  of  Hebrew  lo- 
calities. "Gethsemane"  means '•  an  oil- 
press." 

WmE-VES'SELS.  The  Hebrews, 
as  well  as  the  Greeks,  preserved  their 
wine  in  large  earthen  vessels  or  jars, 
which  were  buried  up  to  their  necks  in 
the  ground.  These  jars  were  quite  large, 
containing  often  as  much  as  one  of  our 
barrels.  The  must,  or  new  wine,  after 
being  poured  into  such  vessels, was  stirred 
thrice  a  day  for  about  twenty  days  with 
wooden  rods.  When  wine  was  to  be  trans- 
ported, the  Persians  sometimes  decanted 
it  into  flasks  or  bottles,  but  skins  are  now 
in  common  use,  as  they  were  among  the 
ancients.  The  Hebrews  poured  even  the 
must,  or  new  wine,  into  skins,  but  for 
this  purpose  they  used  such  as  were 
fresh  and  flexible,  and  therefore  not  lia- 
ble to  be  broken  by  the  fermentation  of 
the  liquor.  Matt.  9:17. 

By  "new  wine,"  Joel  1  :  5,  is  intended 
sweet  wine,  which  was  purer  and  strong- 
er and  more  capable  of  preservation,  and 
of  course  more  inebriating.  Isa.  49  :  26; 
Acts  2  :  13. 

Drinking  wine  in  bowls.  Am.  6  :  6,  is 
supposed  to  refer  to  the  richness  and 
magnificence  of  the  vessels,  and  not  to 
the  quantity  of  wine  drank. 

WIN'NOVV.  The  process  of  win- 
nowing among  the  Hebrews  was  much 
like  that  sometimes  in  use  at  the  present 
day.  The  grain  was  taken  upon  a  shovel 
and  thrown  up  in  the  wind,  and  the  light- 
er chaff  and  straw  separated,  sometimes 
by  the  help  of  a  fan.  Isa.  30 :  24 ;  41  : 
15,  16  ;  Matt.  3  :  12.  It  was  common  to 
winnow  grain  at  evening,  when,  in  Pal- 
estine, the  sea-breeze  usually  blows. 
Ruth  3  :  2.     See  Fax,  Thresh. 

WIN'TER  lasts,  in  Palestine,  from 
the  beginning  of  December  to  the  begin- 
ning of  February,  and  is  characterized 
by  severe  winds,  frost,  and  snow-falls  in 
the  mountains,  and  by  vehement  winds, 
rain,  and  hail-storms  in  the  lowland. 
Cant.  2:11.     See  Seasons. 

WISDOM    OF    SOLOMON, 
THE   BOOK   OF,  one  of  the  most 
904 


interesting  and  valuable  or  the  Apocry- 
pha, gives  a  glowing  exposition  and 
commendation  of  true  wisdom  as  de- 
scribed in  Job  28:12  et  seq. ;  Prov.  8 
and  9.  ^yisdom  is  represented  as 
emanating  from  God  as  the  highest 
good,  and  as  the  fountain  of  all  true 
virtue  and  happiness.  It  was  with  God 
when  he  created  the  world,  8  :  24-o0  ;  is 
initiated  in  his  secret  counsels,  8:22; 
emanates  from  him  and  accompanies  all 
his  actions,'  rules  and  governs  the  world, 
and  renews  all  things.  8:15.  This  idea 
prepared  the  way  for  the  Logos  doctrine 
of  Philo  and  St.  John.  The  literary 
form  of  its  exposition  resembles  that  of 
the  Ecclesiasticus  and  the  Proverbs. 
The  Solomonic  authorship  is  assumed, 
8:10:  9:7,  but  only  in  the  sense  of 
personation.  The  author  was  probably 
a  Jewish  philosopher  or  theologian  of 
Alexandria.  He  was  a  full  believer  in 
the  0.  T.  revelations,  but  also  acquaint- 
ed with  Hellenic  culture.  From  his 
school  proceeded  Philo,  to  whom  the 
book  has  sometimes  been  ascribed;  but 
the  author  was  no  doubt  older,  and 
stands  between  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach, 
and  Philo,  about  B.  c.  100.  The  book, 
which  was  composed  in  Greek  and  is 
somewhat  artificial  in  style,  is  not 
quoted  before  Irena?us. 

WISE  MEN.  Matt.  2  : 1.    See  MacxI. 
WIST,  identical  with  ''knew."  Ex. 
16  :  15;  Acts  12  :  9;  23  :  5. 

WIT,  from  the  A.  V.  wifan,  to  know. 
Gen.  24  :  21  ;  Ex.  2  :  4.  Hence  "  to  do 
to  wit"  is  "to  cause  you  to  know."  2 
Cor.  8  :  1. 

WITCH'CRAFT,  1  Sam.  15  :  2.3, 
WITCH,  Deut.  18  :  10,  WIZARD. 
Lev.  20  :  27.  A  man  who  pretends  to 
supernatural  power,  so  that  he  can  fore- 
tell future  events,  cure  diseases,  call  up 
or  drive  away  spirits,  or  disclose  infor- 
mation beyond  the  reach  of  the  natural 
powers,  is  called  a  wizard.  A  woman 
of  like  practices  is  called  a  witch,  and 
the  evil  art  itself  is  called  witchcraft. 
Not  only  those  who  made  such  foolish 
and  wicked  pretensions,  but  also  those 
who  sufi'ered  themselves  to  be  duped 
thereby,  are  most  severely  denounced 
both  in  the  0.  T.  and  in  the  N.  T.  Ex. 
22  :  18  ;  Deut.  18  :  11,  12  ;  Lev.  20  :  6; 
Nah.  3:4:   Gal.  5  :  20. 

WITHERED  HAND.  Matt.  12  : 
10  ;  Mark  3:1..''.;   Luke  6  :  6,  8.     The 


WIT 


WOR 


man's  hand  was  not  only  paralyzed,  but 
dried  up. 

WITHS,  a  band  of  pliable  twigs 
(as  of  the  willow  or  osier  kind),  twisted 
closely  together  while  green,  and  u?ed 
instead  of  ropes.  The  marginal  reading 
of  Jud.  16  :  7  is  '•  small  cords." 

WIT'NESS,  one  who  gives  testi- 
mony. Two  or  more  witnesses  were 
required  by  the  Mosaic  Law  in  judicial 
investigations,  Deut.  17  :  6,  7;  and  when 
the  sentence  of  stoning  was  pronounced, 
they  were  required  to  commence  the  pro- 
cess of  execution.  Acts  7  :  58.  A  false 
witness  was  to  suffer  that  penalty  which 
his  testimony  might  have  brought  over 
the  accused. 

The  witness  of  the  Spirit  with  our 
spirit,  Rom.  8:16,  denotes  the  con- 
sciousness, more  or  less  distinct,  of  the 
operations  of  the  Spirit  u{)on  the  mind, 
enlightening  the  understanding  and  in- 
clining the  subject  of  them  to  do  the  will 
of  God. 

John  often  exhibits  the  gospel  in  the 
light  of  a  testimony,  1  John  5  :  9,  and 
Christ  himself  is  called  "the  faithful  and 
true  Witness,"  Rev.  1:5;  3:14,  not  only 
to  the  glory  and  perfection  of  the  Father, 
but  also  to  his  own  divine  mission  and 
to  the  universality  and  perpetuity  of  his 
kingdom. 

WIZ'ARD.     See  Witchcraft. 

WOE.  Num.  21 :  29.  This  term  often 
denotes  a  feeling  of  compassion  or  S3'm- 
pathy,  Matt.  24  :  19,  or  a  simple  lamen- 
tation as,  "Alas  for  me  !"  Ps.  120  :  5.  In 
other  connections  it  is  equivalent  to  the 
threatening  of  punishment.  Ilab.  2  :  6, 
9,  15.  19:   Zech.  11  :  17. 

WOLiF,  a  fierce,  cruel,  ravenous 
animal,  in  size  and  general  appearance 
resembling  a  dog,  and  a  most  terrible 
enemy  to  sheep.  Isa.  65  :  25  ;  Matt.  7  : 
15 :  10  :  16 ;  John  10  :  1  2  ;  Acts  20  :  29. 
The  rapaciousness  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin was  foretold  by  Jacob  by  a  com- 
parison with  the  wolf.  Gen.  49  :  27.  See 
Jud.  20  and  21  and  comp.  1  Sam.  9  : 
1  and  20  :  31  and  Acts  9:1;  Rom.  11  : 
1  ;  rhil.  3  :  5.  The  Bible-writers  also 
illustrate  the  cruelty  of  Israel's  oppress- 
ors hy  an  allusion  to  the  wolf.  E/.e.  22  : 
27,  and  the  sallying  forth  of  the  evening 
wolf  in  search  of  prey,  Ilab.  1  :  8,  is 
emblematical  of  the  destruction  which 
awaits  wicked  men.  Jer.  5  :  5,  6.  The 
allusion    Zeph.  3:3   is   to   the   circum- 


stance that  the  wolf  in  its  greediness 
often  seizes  on  more  than  it  can  con- 
sume. The  wolf  still  lurks  in  Palestine, 
the  dread  of  shepherds.  As  there  found, 
it  is  of  a  pale  fawn-color,  but,  although 
thus  lighter  than  the  common  European 
species  {Vaiiin  litijim),  seems  to  be  only  a 
variety  of  it. 

WO'MAN,  the  companion  and  helper 
of  man.  and  by  ex|)rcss  command  nuide 
subject  to  him.  (ien.  3:  16.  The  social 
position,  however,  of  the  Hebrew  women 
contrasted  very  favorably  with  thnt  now 
occupied  by  Oriental  women,  esjiocially 
among  Muslims.  They  managed  the  af- 
fairs of  the  household,  bringing  the  water 
from  the  well,  Gen.  24  :  15;  1  Sjim.  9  : 
11,  attending  to  the  flocks.  Gen.  29  :  6  ; 
Ex.  2:16,  preparing  the  meals,  (>en.  18  : 
6;  2  Sam.  13  :  8,  si)iniiing,  Ex.  35  :  26  ; 
Prov.  31  :  19,  and  making  clothes.  1 
Sam.  2:19:  Prov.  31:21.  Women 
mixed  very  freely  in  social  life,  ])ar- 
taking  in  festivals  both  as  hostess  and 
guest.  Job  1:4;  John  2:3;  12:2. 
See  also  Miriam,  Ex.  15  :  20,  21  ;  Jeph- 
thah's  daughter,  Jud.  11  :  34  ;  the  maid- 
ens of  Shiloh  dancing  in  the  vineyards, 
Jud.  21  :  21  ;  the  woman  feting  Saul  and 
David.  1  Sam.  18  :  6,  7,  etc.  They  even 
held  positions  in  public  life.  See  Mir- 
iam, Ex.  15  :  20  :  Iluldah,  2  Kgs.  22  : 
14;  Noadiah,  Neh.  6  :  14 ;  Anna,  Luke 
2  :  36  ;  and  Deborah. 

The  word  "  woman,"  when  used  as  a 
term  of  salutation,  as  in  Matt.  15  :  28: 
John  2  :  4,  implies  no  disrespect,  but 
great  tenderness  and  courtesy.  It  was 
thus  that  our  Saviour  addressed  Mary 
under  the  most  touching  circumstances. 
John  20  :  15. 

WOOL,  as  the  principal  material  for 
the  manufacture  of  clothing,  was  highly 
valued  bv  the  Jews,  Lev.  13  :  47  ;  Deut. 
22  :  11  ;  Job  31 :  20  ;  Prov.  31  :  13  ;  Eze. 
34  :  3  ;  Hos.  2  :  5,  and  the  wool  of  Da- 
mascus enjoyed  a  great  reputation  in 
the  market  of  Tvre.   Eze.  27  :  18. 

WORD  (Lo:iox),  THE,  is  one  of 
the  titles  of  Jesus  Christ.  Just  as  we 
express  ourselves  by  words,  so  God  ex- 
presses his  mind  to  the  world,  his  bound- 
less love,  his  inflexible  justice,  through 
Christ,  his  Word.  The  term  occurs  only 
in  the  writings  of  John.  John  1  :  l-Il  :  1 
John  1:1;  Rev.  19  :  13.  It  has  been 
made  a  question  whether  John  borrowed 
the    term    from    Philo,    who    also    uses 

905 


WOR 


WOR 


it,  or  whether  he  used  it  independently. 
But  they  do  not  mean  the  same  thing. 
The  "Word"  of  Philo  was  an  abstrac- 
tion ;  the  ''Word"  of  John  was  the  Son 
of  God. 

WORD  OF  GOD.     See  Bible. 

WORKS.  Good  works,  Eph.  2  :  10, 
are  such  as  proceed  from  love  to  God 
and  are  done  in  obedience  to  liis  law  and 
from  a  regard  to  his  gloi-y.  We  are  saved 
by  faith, "butfaithwithoutworks  is  dead" 
— i.  e.,  it  is  without  any  evidence  of  life. 
Works  constitute  the  evidence  and  deter- 
mine the  strength  and  character  of  faith. 
Jas.  2  :  17,  18,  26.  In  some  places  the 
word  is  used  in  our  translation  to  de- 
note miracles.  Num.  16  :  28;  John  5  : 
20;  10  :  25. 

WORLD.  This  word  in  the  A.  V. 
is  the  translation  of  five  Hebrew  and  four 
Greek  words.  It  is  therefore  not  always 
plain  in  what  sense  it  is  used.  The  He- 
brew terms  have  these  literal  meanings  : 
"  The  earth,"  "  rest,"  "  the  grave,"  Isa. 
38  :  11;  "the  world,"  corresponding  to 
nion  in  the  N.  T.,  or  that  which  is  finite, 
temporary.  Job  11 :  17 ;  "  the  veiled,"  un- 
limited time,  whether  past  or  future;  used 
very  frequently,  and  generally  translated 
"for  ever  ;"  and  finally,  the  poetical  term 
for  "  world,"  which  occurs  some  thirty- 
seven  times,  but  in  various  meanings 
which  are  easily  understood.  When  the 
Hebrews  desired  to  express  the  universe, 
they  employed  a  phrase  like  "  heaven  and 
earth  and  the  sea,  and  all  that  in  them 
is."  Ex.  20  :  11. 

In  the  N.  T.  the  Greek  words  are 
equally  diverse : 

1.  Aion,  "  duration,"  thus  used  of  time 
past,  Luke  1  :  70,  of  time  present,  with 
the  idea  of  evil,  both  moral  and  physical. 
Mark  4:19.  Hence  "children  of  this 
world,"  or  worldly  men,  Luke  16  :  8;  and 
so  Satan  is  called  "  the  god  of  this  world." 
2  Cor.  4  :  4.  Aion  is  also  put  for  endless 
duration,  eternity,  1  Tim.  6  :  16,  to  signify 
the  material  world  as  created  by  the  Deity, 
Heb.  11  :  3 ;  also  the  world  to  come,  the 
kingdom  of  the  Messiah. 

2.  Ge,  the  earth,  in  contrast  to  the 
heavens.  Rev.  13  :  3. 

3.  Knsmns,  used  in  several  senses:  {n) 
the  universe,  the  heavens,  and  the  earth. 
Matt.  13  :  35,  and  thence  for  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  universe,  1  Cor.  4  :  9,  and  an 
aggregate.  Jas.  3  :  6.  {h)  This  lower 
world  as  the  abode  of  man,  John  16  :  18 ; 

906 


the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  or  mankind. 
Matt.  5  :  14.  (c)  The  present  world,  as 
opposed  to  the  kingdom  of  Christ.  John 
12  :  25;  specifically,  the  wealth  and  en- 
joyments and  cares  cf  this  world.  Matt. 
16  :  26,  and  so  for  those  who  seek  the 
opposite  things  to  the  kingdom  of  God, 
the  worldlings.  John  15  :  19. 

4.  Oikonmeite,  the  inhabited  earth, 
Matt.  24  :  14,  the  people  of  it.  Acts  17  : 
31,  sometimes  the  Roman  empire  (the 
then  civilized  world),  Acts  17  :  6,  in- 
cluding Palestine  and  adjacent  parts. 
Luke  2:1;  Acts  11  :  28. 

The  Jews  distinguished  two  worlds, 
or  Eeons,  the  present  aon  to  the  appear- 
ance of  the  Messiah,  and  the  future 
ason,  or  the  Messianic  era,  which  is 
to  last  for  ever.  The  closing  days  of 
the  present  order  of  things  were  called 
"the  last  days."  Isa.  2:2;  Mic.  4:1; 
Acts  2  :  17.  The  same  pliraseology  is 
found  in  the  N.  T.,  but  the  divid- 
ing-line is  marked  by  the  second  in- 
stead of  the  first  advent  of  the  Mes- 
siah. Matt.  12  :  32  ;  1  Cor.  10  :  11 ;  Gal. 
4:3:   Heb.  1:2;  6:5:  9  :  26. 

WORM.  Several  Hebrew  words  are 
thus  translated  which  seem  to  designate 
indefinitely  caterpillars  or  maggots, 
either  as  destructive,  as  loathsome,  or 
as  helpless  and  insignificant.  For  the 
larva  of  the  clothes-moth,  evidently 
mentioned  in  Isa.  51  :  8,  see  Moth.  In 
Mic.  7:17,  "worm"  should  be  "ser- 
pent "  or  "  reptile."  From  the  circum- 
stance that  maggots  are  found  in  putre- 
fying flesh,  we  have  the  figurative  ex- 
pressions in  Job  19  :  26 ;  21  :  26 ;  24  : 
20  ;  Isa.  14  :  11.  Owing  to  the  constant 
accumulation  of  filth  and  putrefaction 
in  a  valley  near  Jerusalem  it  was  always 
alive  with  worms,  and  fires  were  main- 
tained day  and  night  to  consume  the 
sources  of  pestilence.  Hence  the  allu- 
sion Isa.  66  :  24  ;  Mark  9  :  44,  46,  48. 
At  an  advanced  stage  of  some  diseases 
worms  are  bred  in  the  flesh  from  the 
eggs  of  the  insect.  Job  7:5;  17  :  14; 
Acts  12  :  23.  The  meanness  of  these 
creatures,  and  their  liability  to  be  trod- 
den under  foot,  afford  the  illustrations 
in  Job  25  :  6 :  Ps.  22  :  6 :   Isa.  41  :  14. 

WORM'WOOD.  At  least  five 
species  of  this  plant  (Artemisia)  are 
found  in  the  Holy  Land,  and  are  dis- 
tinguished for  intense  bitterness.  Hence 
this  word  is  often  joined  with  or  used  in 


WOR 


WRI 


the  same  sense  as  "gall"  and  "hem- 
lock "  to  denote  what  is  offensive  and 
nauseous.  Deut.  29:  IS;  Prov.  5:4; 
Am.  5  :  7  ;  6  :  12.  To  be  obliged  to  use 
it  as  food  expresses  the  extreme  of  suf- 
fering. Jer.  9  :  If);  23:15;  Lam.  3:  1.^,19. 

WOR'SHIP.  This  word,  as  used 
in  our  Bible,  has  various  significations. 
In  most  instances  it  means  sitnply  an 
act  of  respect,  Matt.  9  :  IS  ;  Acts' 10  : 
25,  and  does  not  imply  any  religious 
emotion.  Where  the  act  respects  the 
divine  Being,  the  only  proper  object 
of  religious  worship,  the  connection 
shows  it.  John  4  :  24 :  Heb.  1:6;  Rev. 
22  :  9.  It  becomes  idolatry  when  ten- 
dered to  anv  other  person  or  thing. 
Dan.  3  :  5,  12.  14;  Acts  19  :  27. 

WORSHIPPER,  in  Acts  19  :  35, 
should  be  "  temple-keeper,"  a  term  ap- 
plied to  cities  devoted  to  the  worship  of 
some  special  idol,  as  Ephesus  was  to  that 
of  Diana. 

WOT,  WOT'TETH,  indicative 
present  of  the  old  verb  "  to  wit  " — i.  e., 
"to  know."  Gen.  39  :  8. 

WREST'LIIVG.     See  Games. 

WRIT'ING  is  either  ideographic  or 
phonetic.  In  ideographic  writing  the 
signs  used  represent  the  ideas  them- 
selves, either  pictorially  by  direct  imi- 
tation of  the  object,  or  symbolically,  as 
when  the  picture  of  an  eye  is  used  to 
convey  the  idea  of  sight  or  knowledge, 
and  the  picture  of  a  lion  the  idea  of 
courage.  In  phonetic  writing  the  signs 
simply  represent  the  sounds  of  which  a 
word  is  composed,  sometimes  encompass- 
ing them  in  whole  syllables,  sometimes 
dissolving  them  in  single  letters.  Ideo- 
graphic writing — that  is,  writing  by 
pictures  or  in  hieroglyphics — is  an  art 
of  very  ancient  date,  and  is  even  now 
common  in  many  savage  nations.  In 
its  most  unimproved  form  it  is  found 
among  our  American  aborigines,  and 
was  the  common  method  used  by  the 
Mexicans,  some  of  whose  ancient,  pic- 
tures of  this  kind  are  preserved. 

The  most  numerous  and  remarkable 
specimens  of  hieroglyphic  writing  exist 
in  Egypt ;  they  have  been  sought  out  by 
travellers  and  copied  in  drawings  and 
copperplates,  but  have  baffled  the  in- 
genuity and  labor  of  many  ages.  A 
distinguished  French  antiquary,  Cham- 
poUion,  was  the  first  who  succeeded  in 
deciphering   a  great  number   of   them,  I 


and  his  labors  have  thrown  great  light 
upon  the  Scriptures  and  vindicated  the 
Mosaic  history  from  a  multitude  of  ob- 
jections. Now  a  hieroglyphic  inscrip- 
tion can  be  read  as  accurately  as  a  class- 
ical one. 

As  an  example  of  an  old  method  of 
phonetic  writing  may  bo  mentioned  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions  found  on  old  As- 
syrian, Babylonian,  and  Persian  monu- 
ments. The  characters  very  much  re- 
semble arrow-heads,  and  the  key  to 
decipher  them  was  not  found  until  be- 
tween 1800  and  1815,  by  Grotefend.  It 
is  evident  also  that  the  Jews  were  very 
early  in  possession   of  phonetic  writing. 

Through  all  the  Mosaic  history  books 
and  writing  are  mentioned  as  in  familiar 
use.  Ex.  17  :  14;  2  Sam.  11  :  14  :  1  Kgs. 
21  :  8,  9,  1 1  ;  2  Kgs.  10  :  1,  2,  6,  7.  The 
alphabet  which  the  Jews  used  was  a  de- 
velopment of  the  Phoenician  alphabet, 
and  underwent  various  changes  in  course 
of  time.  The  materials  used  in  writing 
were  tablets  of  stone,  Ex.  31  :  18;  32  : 
15,  16,  19;  34  :  1,  4,  28,  29,  or  box-wood 
and  brass,  or  plaster,  Deut.  27  :  2  ;  Josh. 
8  :  32,  or  skin,  which  was  made  into  the 
finest  parchment  or  vellum.  For  hard 
materials  an  iron  stylus  or  engraver's 
tool  was  used.  Job  19  :  24 ;  Ps.  45  :  1  ; 
Isa.  8:1;  Jer.  8:8;  17  :  1,  but  for 
parchment  a  reed  pen  and  ink.  2  Cor. 
3:3;  2  John  12:  3  John  13.  The 
parchment  was  not  cut  in  leaves,  form- 
ing a  book,  but  put  together  in  long 
rolls.     See  Pen. 

The  practice  of  employing  an  aman- 
uensis was  much  more  common  in  an- 
cient days  than  now.  Hence,  Paul 
gives  as  an  authentication  of  his  letters 
a  few  words  written  with  his  own  hand. 
1  Cor.  16  :  21  :  Col.  4:18;  2  Thess.  3  : 
17.  This  fact  also  explains  Rom.  16  : 
22.  The  size  of  the  apostle's  writing  is 
indicated.   Gal.  6:11. 

The  luk  of  the  ancients  was  made  of 
pulverized  charcoal  or  the  black  of  burnt 
ivory  and  water,  with  the  addition  of 
some  kind  of  gum.  The  ink  of  the 
East  at  the  present  day  is  a  much 
thicker  substance  than  ours,  but  is  not 
permanent;  a  wet  sponge  will  obliterate 
the  finest  of  their  writing.  The  iii/chorx 
was,  an<l  is,  a  long  tube  containing  the 
reed  pens,  with  a  little  case  fastened  at 
the  side  to  hold  the  ink.  The  whole  is 
thrust  into  the  girdle.     See  Book. 

907 


YAR 


YOK 


Y. 


YARN,  LINEN.  1  Kgs.  10  :  28. 
There  is  a  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the 
meaning  of  this  term.  There  is  very 
strong  reason  to  doubt  the  correctness 
of  the  rendering  in  our  translation,  and 
to  substitute  for  it  '"the  drove" — i.e., 
of  horses.     See  Eze.  27  :  7. 

YEAR.  The  Jewish  year  had  two 
commencements.  The  religious  year  be- 
gan with  the  month  Abib  (April),  the 
civil  with  Tisri  (October).  The  year  was 
solar.  There  were  two  seasons,  summer 
and  winter,  Ps.  74  :  17;  Zech.  14  :  8 ; 
Jer.  36  :  22;  Am.  3  :  15.  The  months 
were  lunar,  of  thirty  days  each,  and 
twelve  in  number,  although  a  thirteenth 
was  sometimes  necessarily  intercalated. 
It  was  called  Ve-adar.  The  festivals, 
holy  days,  and  fasts  of  the  year  were  as 
follows : 

1.  The  feast  of  the  Passover,  the  14th 
day  of  the  first  month. 

2.  The  feast  of  unleavened  bread,  in 
the  same  month,  from  the  15th  to  21st, 
inclusive. 

3.  The  feast  of  Pentecost,  called  also 
feast  of  harvest  and  '*  day  of  first 
fruits,"  on  the  day  which  ended  seven 
weeks,  counted  from  the  16th  of  the 
first  month,  that  day  being  excluded. 

4.  The  feast  of  trumpets,  on  the  first 
day  of  the  seventh  month, 

5.  The  day  of  atonement,  a  fast,  on 
the  Iflth  day  of  the  seventh  month. 

6.  The  feast  of  tabernacles,  or  of 
gathering,  from  the  15th  to  the  22d 
day,  inclusive,  of  the  seventh  month. 

The  post-Mosaic  festivals  are  Purim, 
in  the  twelfth  month  of  Adar,  loth  to 
15th  day,  and  dedication,  on  the  25th 
day  of  the  ninth  month. 

YEAR  OF  JUBILEE.  Lev.  25  : 
8-10.     See  Jtbilee,  Year  of. 

YEAR,  SABBAT'ICAL.  In  the 
seventh  year  all  agricultural  labor  was 
suspended,  and  spontaneous  productions 
were  left  to  the  poor,  the  traveller,  and 
the  wild  beasts.  Lev.  25  :  1-7.  This  was 
(1)  For  the  sake  of  the  ground;  (2)  For 
the  preservation  of  wild  beasts  ;  and  (3) 
To  make  the  people  provident  and  sen- 
sible of  dependence.  The  people  could 
908 


fish,  hunt,  take  care  of  bees  and  flocks, 
repair  buildings,  manufacture  clothes, 
and  carry  on  commerce.  This  year  was 
religiously  observed,  Deut,  31  :  10-13. 
There  was,  moreover,  a  general  release-, 
no  debt  to  a  Jew  was  allowed  to  stand,  but 
must  be  forgiven.  Deut.  15  :  1-1 1. 

It  has  been  inferred  from  2  Chr.  26  : 
21  that  this  sabbatical  year  was  neglect- 
ed during  seventy  Sabbatical  cycles — 
/.  e.,  four  hundred  and  ninety  years. 
Whether  it  was  ever  observed  is  not  a 
matter  of  certain  record,  but  there  is  an 
allusion  to  it  in  1  Mace.  6  :  49,  and  Luke 
6  :  1  has  been  interpreted  to  refer  to  the 
"  first  Sabbath  of  the  second  year  in  the 
cycle." 

YOKE.  This  was  much  lighter  than 
ours,  and  probably  much  larger,  so  that 
the  cattle  stood  farther  apart  and  the 
plough  could  more  easily  be  made  to 
avoid  obstructions.  It  was  simply  a  stick 


Yoke  in  Use  in  Palestine. 
a,  h,  tiniVier  of  the  yoke ;  c,  d,  the  bows  ;   e,  e,  pegs 
between  which,  at  g,  tlie  end  of   the  shaft  comes,  the 
shaft  itself  having  been  run  through  the  rope  between 
/  and  the  cross-piece  of  wood  h,  i. 

laid  upon  the  necks  of  the  cattle,  to 
which  it  was  held  by  thongs  instead  of 
wooden  bows,  and  in  a  similar  manner 
it  was  attached  to  the  plough-beam.  In 
modern  Syria  wooden  pins  are  sometimes 
used  instead  of  thongs,  the  lower  ends 
of  which  are  held  by  a  parallel  stick 
under  the  necks  of  the  oxen. 

The  yoke  was  an  appropriate  emblem 
of  subjection  and  of  slavery,  imprison- 
ment, and  severe  rule,  while  the  removal 
of  it  indicated  the  corresponding  deliver- 
ance. Gen.  27  :  40  :  Jer.  2  :  20  ;  Matt.  11 : 
29,  30.  Breaking  the  yoke  also  represents 
the  rejection  of  authority.  Nah.  1  :  13. 


ZAA 


ZAC 


z. 


ZAANA'IM     (reworrt^s),     THE 

PLAIN  OF,  more  accurately  "the  oak 
of,"  where  Heber  the  Ktnite  pitched  his 
tent.  Jud.  4:11.  This  has  been  identi- 
fied with  a  phiin  some  2  or  8  miles 
north-west  of  the  Waters  of  Merom  [Lake 
Hiileh),  in  the  line  of  the  hills  which 
form  the  western  boundary  of  the  Jordan 
valley.  The  plain  is  about  2  miles  long 
and  1  mile  wide,  and  completely  sur- 
rounded by  hills.  The  hills  are  well 
wooded  and  have  many  "  oaks."  In  the 
middle  of  the  western  side  of  this  plain 
is  the  site  of  Kedesh-naphtali,  or  Kedesh. 
Conder  says  that  Kedesh-uaphtali  is  30 
miles  from  Tabor,  over  a  difficult  country. 
He  suggests  another  Kedesh,  and  the 
identification  of  Zaanaim  with  Jiensuin, 
east  of  Tabor.     See  Zaananxim. 

ZA'ANAN  {place  of  flocks).  Mic.  1 : 
11.  Conder  suggests  for  it  Khurhet 
S&meli.     See  Zenan. 

ZAANAN'NIM  {removaU),  a  place 
on  the  border  of  Naphtali,  not  far  from 
Kedesh.  Josh.  19  :  33.  Identical  with 
Zaaxaim.  which  see. 

ZA'AVAN  idinqnieted),  a  Horite 
chief.   Gen.  36  :  27  :   1  Chr.  1  :  42. 

ZA'BAD  {qift).  1.  One  of  David's 
mighty  men.   1  Chr.  2  :  36,  37  ;  11  :  41. 

2.  An  Ephraimite  slain  by  the  Gath- 
ites.  1  Chr.  7:21. 

3.  Oneof  the  murderers  of  King  Joash, 
2  Chr.  24  :  26  :  called  Jozachar  in  2  Kgs. 
12  :  21,  probably  the  more 'correct  form. 

4.  5,  6.  Three  who  had  foreign  wives. 
Ezr.  10  :  27,  33,  43. 

ZAB'BAI  {pure).  1.  One  who  had 
a  foreign  wife.  Ezr.  10  :  28. 

2.  The  father  of  a  repairer  of  the 
wall.  Neh.  3:20. 

ZAB'BUD  (ffireu),  one  who  returned 
with  Ezra.  Ezr.  8:14. 

ZAB'DI  (f/>Yt  of  Jehovah).  1.  A 
Judite.  Josh.  7:1,  17,  18. 

2.  A  Benjamite.  1  Chr.  8:19. 

3.  The  superintendent  of  David's  vint- 
age. 1  Chr.  27  :  27. 

4.  A  mnsif*a1  Lcvite.  Neh.  11  :  17. 
ZAB'DIEL  dfi/'t  of  (l„d).     1.  The 

father  of  the  chief  of  David's  guard.  1 
Chr.  27 : 2. 


2.  A  prominent  priest  who  returned. 
Neh.  11:14. 

ZA'BIJD  iqlvrn),  "the  friend"  of 
Solomon.    1   Kgs.  4  :  5. 

ZAB'UIiOIV,  the  Greek  form  of 
Zkuihn,  which  see.  Matt.  4:13,15; 
Rev.  7  :  8. 

ZACCAI  (pure),  the  ancestor  of 
seven  hundred  and  sixty  persons  who 
returned  with  Zerubbabel.  Ezr.  2:9; 
Neh.  7:14. 

ZACCH.E'US  (pure).  The  story 
of  his  conversion  is  related  only  by 
Luke.  19  :  2-10.  He  was  a  rich  Jew, 
resident  in  Jericho,  and  chief  officer  of 
the  tax-  or  tribute-collectors  in  that 
place,  and  hence  "a  sinner,"  for  the 
Jews  regarded  all  publicans  or  tax- 
gatherers  in  this  light.  The  revenue  in 
Jericho  was  doubtless  considerable,  and 
mainly  derived  from  taxes  on  the  balsam 
so  abundantly  produced  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, all  along  tb.z  banks  of  the  Jordan. 
His  desire  to  see  Christ  was  so  much 
excited  that  he  took  pains  to  climb  into 
a  tree  by  the  roadside  that  he  might 
have  a  fair  view  of  him  as  the  crowd 
passed.  Jesus,  knowing  his  character 
and  motives,  proposed  to  sjiend  the  day 
with  him,  to  which  Zaccha}us  gladly 
assented.  His  mind  was  probably 
brought  at  once  under  the  influence  of 
the  Spirit  of  God.  and  on  that  very  day 
he  and  his  family  became  interested  in 
the  salvation  of  the  gospel.  He  gave 
the  best  evidence  of  the  sincerity  of  his 
conversion  by  declaring  his  intention  to 
give  half  his  goods  to  the  poor  and  to 
restore  fourfold  for  every  illegal  exaction 
he  had  made.  Our  Lord  probal)ly  passed 
the  night  in  his  house,  and  on  the  next 
morning  passed  on  with  the  Passover  pil- 
grims to  Jerusalem.  The  name  Zacehaus 
appears  in  the  0.  T.  in  the  form  "  Zaccai." 

ZACTIIE'lTS.     See  Zxcru.r.is. 

Z  AC'CHUR  (hi/;u//'i</),  a  Simeonite. 
1  Chr.  4:26. 

ZAC'CUR  imiudfnl).  1.  A  Rcu- 
benite.  the  fither  of  the  spy  from  that 
tribe.  Num.  13  :  4. 

2.  A  Merarite  Levite.   1  Chr.  24:27. 

3.  A    son    of  Asaph,  and    head   of  a 

909 


ZAC 


ZAL 


course  of  singers.  1  Chr.  25  :  2,  10;  Neh. 
12  :  35. 

4.  One  who  helped  to  build  the  wall. 
Neh.  3  :  2. 

5.  A  Levite  who  sealed  the  covenant. 
Neh.  10:12. 

6.  A  Levite,  father  of  a  treasurer  under 
Nehemiah.  Neh.  13  :  13. 

ZACHARI'AH  (remembered  by 
Jehovah).  The  name  is  the  same  in 
Hebrew  as  Zechariah,  which  also  see. 
1.  Son  and  successor  of  Jeroboam  II., 
king  of  Israel,  and  the  last  of  the  house 
of  Jehu.  2  Kgs.  14  :  29.  He  reigned  only 
six  months,  and  then  fell  by  the  hand 
of  Shallum,  who  took  the  throne.  2  Kgs. 
15  :  8-11  ;  comp.  Am.  7  :  9. 

2.  The  father  of  Abi  or  Abijah,  King 
Hezekiah's  mother,  2  Kg?.  18  :  2  ;  called 
Zechariah  in  2  Chr.  29  :  1. 

ZACHARI'AS,  properly  ZACH- 
ARI'AH (remembered  by  Jehovah).  1. 
Our  Lord  mentions  a  Zacharias,  son  of 
Barachias,  as  having  been  slain  between 
the  ''  sanctuary  "  (not  •'  altar,"  but  the 
inner  shrine)  and  the  temple,  Matt.  23  : 
35;  Luke  11  :  51:  probably  the  person 
of  that  name  whose  death  under  such 
circumstances  is  mentioned  in  2  Chr.  24: 
20-22.  It  is  true  that  not  this  Zachariah, 
but  Urijah,  was  the  last  0.  T.  martyr, 
Jer.  26  .•23 ;  but  inasmuch  as  Second. 
Chronicles  was  the  last  book  of  the  canon 
according  to  the  Jewish  arrangement, 
our  Lord  took  an  instance  from  it,  as  he 
took  Abel  from  Genesis,  the  first.  The 
principal  objection  to  this  identification 
is  that  this  Zacharias  is  stated  to  have 
been  the  son  of  Jehoiada,  and  not  of 
Barachiah;  but  the  word  "son"  may  be 
used  in  its  usual  lax  sense,  and  Barachiah 
may  have  been  his  grandfather. 

2.  The  father  of  John  the  Baptist,  and 
husband  of  Elisabeth,  which  it  is  inter- 
esting to  remark  is  the  same  name  as 
**  Elisheba,"  the  name  of  the  wife  of 
Aaron.  Ex.  6  :  23.  He  was  a  priest  of 
the  course  of  Abia,  which  was  the  eighth 
of  the  twenty-four  classes  into  which  the 
descendants  of  Eleazar  and  Ithamar,  the 
sons  of  Aaron,  were  divided.  1  Chr.  24. 
Each  of  these  ministered  in  the  temple 
one  week.  But  this  fact  does  not  enable 
us  in  any  wise  to  determine  the  date  of 
the  occurrence  mentioned  in  Luke  1. 
Of  Zacharias  and  Elisabeth  we  read : 
"  They  were  both  righteous  before  God, 
walking  in  all  the  commandments  and 
910 


ordinances  of  the  Lord  blameless.  And 
they  had  no  child,  because  that  Elisa- 
beth was  barren,  and  they  were  both 
noiv  well  stricken  in  years."  It  was 
while  Zacharias  served  one  day  in  the 
temple  that  an  angel  appeared  to  him 
and  prophesied  the  birth  of  a  son.  But, 
although  for  this  he  had  long  been  pray- 
ing, he  did  not  believe  that  God  would 
thus  signally  answer  his  praj^er.  He 
required  a  sign,  and  he  received  one — 
dumbness  up  to  the  time  of  the  circum- 
cision of  the  child.  To  the  wonder  of 
the  attendant  people  he  silently  dis- 
missed, but  conveyed  by  action  enough 
to  let  them  know  he  had  seen  a  vision, 
he  was  a  deaf-mute  until,  in  obedience 
to  the  angelic  direction,  he  had  named 
the  infant  born  to  him  John.  Then 
he  not  only  spoke,  but  was  filled  with 
the  Holy  Ghost,  and  in  a  strain  of  the 
most  devout  gratitude  and  praise  he 
poured  out  his  soul.  And,  thus  singing, 
he  passes  out  of  history. 

ZA'CHER  (memorial),  a  Benjamite, 

1  Chr.  8:31;  called  Zechariah  in  1  Chr. 
9  :  37. 

ZA'DOK  (jitst).  1.  SonofAhitub, 
of  the  family  of  Eleazar,  and  one  of  the 
two  high  priests  in  the  time  of  David, 
Abiathar  being  the  other.  2  Sam.  8:17. 
He  joined  David  at  Hebron,  1  Chr.  12  : 
28,  and  was  always  faithful  to  him, 
staying  behind  in  Jerusalem  at  his  re- 
quest during  Absalom's  rebellion,  and 
subsequently  anointed  Solomon  king,  1 
Kgs.  1  :  39,  and  was  rewarded  by  Solo- 
mon for  his  faithful  service  by  being 
made  sole  high  priest.     See  Abiathar. 

2.  A  priest  in  the  time  of  King  Ahaz- 
iah.  1  Chr.  6:12. 

3.  The  father  of  King  Uzziah's  wife. 

2  Kgs.  15:33;  2  Chr.  27:1. 

4.  One  who  repaired  a  part  of  the 
wall.  Neh.  3  :  4. 

5.  6,  7.  Three  other  persons.  Neh.  3  : 
29;  10:21;  13:13. 

ZA'HAM  (loathing),  son  of  Reho- 
boam.  2  Chr.  11:19. 

ZA'IR  (small),  a  place  in  Idumgea 
where  Joram  overcame  the  Edomites. 
2  Kgs.  8  :  21.  The  name  does  not  occur 
elsewhere.  It  has  been  regarded  as 
equivalent  to  Zoar,  and  again  to  Seir, 
but  more  probably  is  identical  with 
Zueirah,  on  the  south-western  side  of 
the  Dead  Sea. 

ZA'LAPH    (bruise),  the   father   of 


ZAL 


ZAR 


one  who  helped  to  build  the  wall.  Neh. 
3  :  HO. 

ZAL'MON  {sluuhi),  one  of  David's 
guard,  2  Sam.  23:2.Sj  called  Ilai  in  1 
Chr.  11 :  20. 

ZAL'3IOX  [shndu),  MOU\T,  a 
hill  near  Shechem  from  which  Abimelech 
cut  boughs  to  burn  the  citadel.  Jud.  9  : 
48.  Possibly  the  same  as  Salmon.  Ps. 
68  :  14.  Mount  Ebal  is  now  called  Jehel 
Sahimuyeh,  in  which  some  trace  a  resem- 
blance to  "  Zalmon." 

ZALMO'NAH  {shady),  2i  station  of 
the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness.  Num. 
33  :  41,  42.  It  lay  to  the  east  of  Edom. 
Palmer  and  Raumer  suggest  its  identity 
with  Ma' an,  a  short  distance  east  of 
Petra.  Another  suggested  site  is  in 
Wddri  el-Ithm. 

ZALMUN'NA  {shelter  denied  to 
one/),  one  of  the  two  kings  of  Midian 
slain  by  Gideon.  Jud.  8  :  5-21  ;  Ps.  83  : 
11. 

ZAMZUM^MIMS.  Deut.  2  :  20.  See 

ZUZIMS. 

ZANO'AH.  Jekuthiel  is  called,  in 
the  A.  V.  of  1  Chr.  4  :  18,  the  father  of 
Zanoah,  but  this  means  he  was  the 
founder  of  the  village  of  that  name. 
See  Z  A  NOAH,  2. 

ZANO'AH  {marsh,  bog),  a  name  for 
two  towns, 

1.  A  town  in  Judah,  in  the  lowlands 
or  ''valley."  Josh.  15:34;  Neh.  3:13; 
11  :  SO.  Robinson  fixed  its  site  up  the 
valley  of  Sorek,  east  of  Bcth-shemesh, 
at  Zdiiud,  on  the  sIojjc  of  a  hill,  14  miles 
west-south-west  of  Jerusalem.  The  Pal. 
Memoirs  also  accept  this  large  ruin  as 
the  site  of  Zanoah. 

2.  A  town  in  the  highlands  of  Judah. 
Josh.  15  :  56.  Robinson  proposed  Za'un- 
tnh,  10  miles  south-south-west  of  Hebron, 
and  Conder,  after  proposing  and  aban- 
doning another  site,  appears  to  accept 
Robinson's  identification. 

ZAPH'NATH-PAANE'AH,  the 
name  or  title  given  by  Pharaoh  to  Joseph 
immediately  after  his  elevation.  Gen.  41 : 
45.  The  etymology  of  the  word  is  un- 
certain, some  deriving  it  from  a  Hebrew 
root,  "  the  revealer  of  mysteries,"  others 
from  an  Egyptian  root,  "  the  preserver 
of  the  age." 

ZA'PHON  {the  north ),  a  city  of  Gad, 
east  of  the  Jordan.  "  in  the  valley."  Josh. 
13:27.  The  word  translated"  "  north- 
ward "  in  Jud.  12  :  1    is  rendered  in  the 


Septuagint  "to  Zaphon."  The  Talmud 
identifies  it  as  Amathus,  and  it  is  now 
represented  by  the  ruined  site  Amateh, 
south-east  of  the  Sea  of  Galileo. 

ZA'RA  (n'sinif  of  light),  the  son  of 
Judah.   Matt.  1  ■' 3.     See  below. 

ZA'RAH  (risiuij  of  light),  a  son  of 
Judah  by  Tamar.  Gen.  38  :  30;  46  :  12; 
called  Zerah  in  Num.  26:2(1;  Josh.  7  : 
1,  18  ;  22  :  20  ;  1  Chr.  2  :  4,  (i :  9:0;  Neh. 
11  :  24,  and  Zara.  Matt.  1  :  3.  The  name 
is  properlv  Zerah. 

ZA'REAH  (hornets'  town).  Neh.  11  : 
29.     See  Zokah. 

ZA'REATIIITES,  the  inhabitants 
of  Zareah  or  Zorah.   1  Chr.  2  :  53. 

ZA'RED  {exuberant  groivth).  Num. 
21  :  12.     See  Zered,  Valley  or  Brook 

OF. 

ZAR'EPHATH  {smeItinr,-hou8e), 
AM)  SAREP'TA.  Luke4:2'fi.  Zar- 
ephath  Avas  a  town  of  Plianiicia,  on  the 
shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  between 
Tyre,  which  is  14  miles  southward,  and 
Sidon,  which  is  7  miles  north. 

Scripture  History. — At  Zarephath,  Eli- 
jah found  shelter  witli  a  widow-woman 
during  the  great  famine  in  Israel.  1  Kgs.. 
17  :  8-24.  The  prophet  Obadiah  men- 
tions it  as  marking  the  limits  of  Israel's- 
victory.  Ob.  20.  Jesus  made  reference 
to  this  incident  in  Elijah's  life.  Luke  4:: 
26. 

Present  Appearance. — Not  a  house  now 
remains:  only  ruins  mark  the  site.  They 
extend  for  a  mile  along  the  seashore, 
and  contain  many  fragments  of  columns. 
A  little  chapel,  or  ndy.  bears  the  name 
of  El-A'hiuh,  the  ^lohammedan  title  of 
Elijah,  and  possibly  marks  the  site  of 
the  chapel  erected  by  the  Crusaders  over 
the  s})Ot  where  the  widow's  house  is  sup- 
posed to  have  stood.  There  is  no  totub 
within,  because,  as  the  Mussulmans  say, 
Elijah  is  not  yet  dead  :  he  "flies  round 
and  round  the  world."  Tradition  also 
claims  this  as  the  s})ot  where  our  Lord 
rested  when   he  visited  these  coasts. 

On  the  slope  of  a  hill  more  than  a  mile 
back  from  the  coast  is  the  modern  village 
of  Sdra/end,  which  represents  the  ancient 
ZarejJiath. 

ZAR'ETAN  (roolinr,  ?).  Josh.  3  :  16. 
See  Zkhii! ATii  or  Zkrkda. 

ZA'RETH-SHA  IIAR  {splmdnr 
of  the  dfiirn),  a  city  in  Reuben,  on  a  bill 
in  a  valley.  Josh.  13  :  19.  About  a  mile 
and    a   half  east  of  the   Dead   Sea,  near 

911 


ZAR 


ZEB 


the  mouth  of  the  Wddi/  Zerica  Main,  is 
a  place  called  Zaru,  or  Sara,  a  heap  of 
stones  in  a  little  green  plain,  which  may 
mark  the  site. 

ZAR'HITES,  THE,  the  descend- 
ants of  Zarah,  the  son  of  Judah.  Num. 
26  :  13,  20 ;  Josh.  7  :  17  ^  1  Chr.  27  :  11, 
13. 

ZAR'TANAH  {cooling),  probably 
the  present  ruin  Sarein,  near  Beth- 
shean ;  but  Drake  would  identify  Sarem 
with  Zarthan.   1  Kgs.  4  :  12. 

ZAR'THAN  {cnolinf/),  a  town  in  the 
Jordan  valley.  1  Kgs.  7  :  46.  Between 
it  and  Succoth  were  the  clay-grounds  in 
which  Solomon  cast  the  brass  utensils 
for  the  temple-services.  Drake  mentions 
a  very  conspicuous  mound,  3  miles  south 
of  Bethshean,  called  Tell  Sarem — a  name 
identical  with  ^lapa^t,  which  the  Alexan- 
drine Codex  has  for  Zarthan.  This  may 
be  the  same  as  Zereda,  which  see. 

ZAT'THU,  OR  ZAT'TU  {a  sprout), 
one  whose  descendants  returned  with  Ze- 
rubbabel,  Ezr.  2:8;  Neb.  7:13,  and 
married  foreign  wives.  Ezr.  10  :  27. 

ZA'VAN  {disquieted).      See  Zaavax. 

ZA'ZA  (plenty),  a  son  of  Jonathan, 
and  a  descendant  of  Judah.  1  Chr.  2  : 
33. 

ZEAL'OTS,  the  name  of  a  party 
among  the  Jews,  half  religious  and  half 
political,  founded  by  Judas  the  Galilean 
or  the  Gaulanite,  Acts  5  :  37,  and,  aften- 
the  death  of  him  and  his  sons,  led  by 
Eleazar,  one  of  his  descendants.  Con- 
tending that  God  was  the  only  king  of 
Israel  and  refusing  to  pay  the  tribute  to 
the  Romans,  they  broke  out  into  open 
rebellion  under  the  lead  of  Judas,  but 
were  soon  dispersed,  and,  while  after- 
ward attempting  to  maintain  themselves 
by  a  kind  of  guerilla-warfare,  they  grad- 
ually sunk  into  mere  bands  of  robbers 
and  brigands,  and  -were  called  Sienrii, 
from  the  Latin  .s/.-r/,  "a  dagger." 

ZEBADI'AH  (fjift  of  Jehovah).  1, 
2,  3.  Three  Benjamites,  sons  of  Beriah, 
1  Chr.  8  :  15,  Elpaal,  1  Chr.  8  :  17,  and 
Jeroham  of  Gedor.  1  Chr.  12  :  7. 

4.  A  Korhite  Levite.   1  Chr.  26  :  2. 

5.  A  Levite  teaching  the  Law  in  the 
cities  of  Judah  during  the  reign  of  Je- 
hoshaphat.  2  Chr.  17  :  8. 

6.  A  son  of  Asahel,  the  brother  of  Joab. 
1  Chr.  27  :  7. 

7.  A  son  of  Ishmael,  of  the  house  of 
Judah.  2  Chr.  19  :  11. 

912 


8.  One  who  returned  with  Ezra.  Ezr 
8:8. 

9.  A  priest  who  had  married  a  foreign 
wife  after  the  return  from  Babylon.  Ezr. 
10  :  20. 

ZE'BAH  {sacrifice),  a  Midianite 
king  captured  and  killed  by  Gideon. 
Jud.  8  :  5-21;   Ps.  83  :  11. 

ZEBA'IM  {the  gazelles).  In  Ezr.  2  : 
57 ;  Neh.  7 :  59  we  read  of  a  person 
named  "  Pochereth  of  Zebaim,"  Some, 
and  Grove  among  them,  suppose  this 
name  to  be  identical  with  "  Zeboim." 
Others  translate  '"  Zebaim  "  as  the  plu- 
ral of  the  Hebrew  word  signifying  "  an- 
telope" or  "gazelle,"  and  render  it  "  Po- 
chereth-zebaim,"  '•  snaring  the  ante- 
lopes," as  the  name  of  some  mighty 
hunter. 

ZEB'EDEE  (Jehovah's  gift),  the 
husband  of  Salome,  Matt.  27  :  56  ;  Mark 
15  :  40,  and  father  of  the  apostles  James 
the  Great  and  John,  Matt.  4  :  21  ;  lived 
as  a  fisherman  in  or  near  Bethsaida. 
When  his  two  sons  left  him  to  follow 
Jesus,  he  made  no  objections.  Matt.  4 : 
21,  22 :  Mark  1:19,  20,  and  his  wife  was 
one  of  the  women  who  were  in  constant 
attendance  on  our  Saviour,  but  he  him- 
self is  not  mentioned  as  being  among 
the  disciples,  although  doubtless  friend- 
ly to  Christ. 

ZEBI'lVA  {bought),  one  who  had 
taken  a  foreign  wife  after  the  return 
from  Babylon.   Ezr.  10  :  43. 

ZEBO'IIVI,  AND  ZEBOI'IM  (roes). 
1.  One  of  the  **  five  cities  of  the  plain  ;" 
grouped  with  Sodom  and  Gomorrah.  Gen. 
10  :  1 9  ;  14  :  2,  8  ;  Deut.  29  :  23  :  Hos.  11 : 
8.  The  question  of  the  site  of  these  cities 
is  more  fully  discussed  under  SiDonr,  Sod- 
om, and  ZoAR,  which  see. 

2.  A  place  inhabited  by  the  Benjamites 
after  the  Captivity.  Neh.  11:34.  Its 
site  is  unknown. 

ZEB O' III  (valley  of  hyenas),  THE 
VALLEY  OF.  It  was  a  gorge  or 
ravine  apparently  east  of  Michmash,  and 
mentioned  only  in  1  Sam.  13  :  18.  The 
"wilderness"  is  the  wild  tract  between 
the  central  hills  and  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan.  There  are  two  ravines,  4  miles 
apart,  near  Jericho,  called  Shukh  ed 
Duhu,  "ravine  of  the  hvfena,"  which  is 
the  equivalent  of  the  Hebrew. 

ZEBU'DAH  (given,  bestowed),  wife 
of  Josiah  and  mother  of  Jehoiachim.  2 
Kgs.  23  :  36. 


ZEB 


ZEC 


ZE'BULi  {h((bit<t(i<>n),  Abimelech's 
officer  in  the  city  of  Sheehem  during  his 
contest  with  the  Canaanites.  Jud.  9  :  28- 
41. 

ZEB'ULONITE,  Jud.  12  :  II.  ok 
ZEB'ULUNITES,  Num.  26  :  27, 
the  descendants  of  Zebulun. 

ZEB'ULUN  {habitation),  (^en.  30  : 
20;  Rev.  7  :  8,  the  sixth  son  of  Jacob 
and  Leah,  Gen.  49  :  13,  and  the  father 
of  three  sons  who  became  the  heads  of 
large  families. 

ZEB'ULUX  (a  habitation),  the  ter- 
ritory possessed  by  the  tribe  of  Israel 
descended  from  the  sixth  and  last  son 
of  Leah  and  the  tenth-born  of  Jacob, 
Gen.  30  :  20  ;  35  :  23,  lay  in  the  North 
of  Canaan  and  between  those  of  Issachar, 
Asher,  and  Naphtali.  At  the  census  of 
the  wilderness  Zebulun  numbered  57,400. 
Num.  1 :  30,  31.  In  the  encampmenttheir 
position  was  to  the  east  of  the  tabernacle. 
Num.  2  :  7,  8,  and  on  the  march  they  fol- 
lowed third  under  the  standard  of  Judah. 
Num.  10  :  14-16.  At  the  second  census 
their  number  was  60,500.  Num.  26  :  26. 
Zebulun  was  one  of  the  six  tribes  sta- 
tioned on  Ebal  to  pronounce  the  curses. 
Deut.  27  :  13.  They  joined  Barak  and 
Deborah  against  the  army  of  Jabin.  Jud. 
5  :  18. 

Situation  and  Extent. — In  the  propbet- 
ic  blessing  upon  Zebulun.  Jacob  declared 
that  "his  border  should  be  unto  Zidon." 
Gen.  49  :  3.  The  boundaries  of  the  tribe 
are  given  in  Josh.  19  :  10-16,  but  many 
of  those  landmarks  cannot  be  traced, 
and  hence  the  exact  limits  of  Zebulun 
are  hard  to  determine.  Asher  la}^  to  the 
west  and  north-west.  Naphtali  to  the 
north-east,  the  Sea  of  Galilee  and  the 
Jordan  on  the  east,  and  Issachar  on  the 
south.  Some  writers  suppose  that  Zeb- 
ulun did  not  touch  the  Sea  of  Galilee  at 
any  point,  but  others  are  of  the  opposite 
opinion,  and  suppose  the  borders  of  Zeb- 
ulun and  Naphtali  to  have  met  on  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  not  far  from  Capernaum. 
Matt.  4  :  13.  16.  The  territory  included 
the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon  and  Mount 
Carmel  and  the  plain  of  Acre,  thus 
bringing  it  into  imme<liate  connection 
with  the  trade  of  Phoenicia  and  fulfill- 
ing the  prophecy  of  Jacob.  Gen.  49  :  13. 
The  territory  was  rich  and  fertile.  It 
belonged  to  the  hill-country,  but  the 
hills  are  lower  and  the  stri})s  of  plain 
more  productive  than  in  the  district  of 
58 


Naphtali,  to  thi>  uoi  tli.  The  phiiiis  and 
ridges  toward  the  north  melt  away  into 
the  great  plain. 

I/istiiri/. — Zebulun  was  one  of  the  four 
northern  tribes  which  bore  little  jiart  in 
the  great  events  of  Jewish  history,  being 
comparatively  isolated  from  Israel,  and 
at  the  same  time  thrown  into  more  inti- 
mate association  with  the  adjoining 
heathen  nations,  especially  with  the 
Phoenicians.  They  did  not  drive  oiit 
the  natives.  Jud.  1  :  30.  However.  Zeb- 
ulun bore  a  jtroniinent  jiart  in  the  great 
victory  celebrated  by  Deborah  and  Ba- 
rak. Jud.  5:14.  18;  assisted  Gideon, 
Jud.  6  :  35.  and  David.  1  Chr.  12  :  33.  40. 
This  tribe  became  involved  in  gross  idol- 
atry, and  some  mocked  the  messengers 
of  llezekiah,  although  others  united  in 
the  penitential  services.  2  Chr.  30  :  10- 
18.  The  territory  of  this  tribe  was  de- 
populated in  the  captivity  of  Israel  un- 
der Tiglath-pileser,  2  Kgs.  15  :  20.  and 
after  that  had  no  distinct  tribal  history. 
The  tribe  produced  Elon,  one  of  the 
judges,  Jud.  12  :  12,  and  also  Jonah. 
2  Kgs.  14  :  25. 

In  N.  T.  times  the  territory  once  occu- 
pied by  Zebulun  was  a  part  of  Galilee 
and  honored  by  the  presence  and  works 
of  Jesus.  Within  its  limits  were  Naz- 
areth, Capernaum,  Cana,  and  Tiberias. 
The  great  prophecy  of  Isaiah,  9:1.  2. 
was  fulfilled  by  Jesus.  Matt.  4  :  13-16. 
The  tribe  is  mentioned  in  Rev.  7  :  8. 

ZEB'ULUN  (habitation),  a  place 
named  in  tracing  the  southern  bound- 
ary of  Asher.  Josh.  19  :  27  ;  according  to 
Josephus.  "city  of  men."  Perhaps  the 
modern  Sha'ab. 

ZECHARI'AH  (Jehovah  remem- 
bers). 1.  The  eleventh  of  the  twelve 
minor  prophets,  of  priestly  descent,  and 
a  contem])orary  of  Ilaggai,  returning 
from  exile  with  Zerubbabel  and  the  high 
priest  .Joshua.  Ezr.  6:1.  He  was  the  son  of 
Berechiah.  was  born  in  Babylon,  and  was 
both  a  priest  and  a  ])rophet.  Scarcely 
anything  is  known  of  his  life.  His 
prophecies  may  be  set  down  between 
B.  c.  520  and  518. 

Thk  Book  of  Zkciiariah  consists  of 
two  divisions:  T.  Chs.  1-8  :  II.  Chs.  9- 
14.  The  first  division  contains  visions 
and  prophecies  from  the  second  year  of 
the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspes.  while  the 
temple  was  rebuilding,  exhortations  to 
turn  to  Jehovah,  and  warnings  against 

913 


ZED 


ZED 


the  enemies  of  the  people  of  God.  About 
the  authorship  of  this  part  of  the  book 
there  is  no  doubt.  The  second  division 
gives  a  prophetic  description  of  the  fu- 
ture fortunes  of  the  theocracy  in  conflict 
Avith  the  secular  powers,  the  sufferings 
and  death  of  the  Messiah  under  the  figure 
of  the  shepherd,  the  conversion  of  Israel 
to  him,  and  the  final  glorification  of  the 
kingdom  of  God.  About  the  author- 
ship of  this  part  of  the  book  doubts  have 
been  raised,  some  ascribing  it  to  Jere- 
miah because  in  Matt.  27  :  9,  10  a  pas- 
sage is  quoted  under  the  name  of  Jere- 
miah, while  others  have  put  it  at  a  much 
earlier  or  much  later  period  on  account 
of  the  peculiarities  of  the  style. 

Of  all  the  prophets,  Zechariah  is  the 
most  obscure,  owing  to  the  brevity  and 
conciseness  of  the  diction,  the  predomi- 
nance of  symbolical  and  figurative  lan- 
guage, and  the  peculiar  character  of  the 
subject — the  suffering  Messiah.  But  he 
has  a  profound  insight  both  into  the 
spiritual  meaning  and  object  of  the  Mo- 
saic dispensation  as  a  schoolmaster  lead- 
ing to  Christ,  and  into  the  character  of 
the  Messiah  and  the  universality  of  his 
kingdom.  The  book  contains  six  spe- 
cific references  to  Christ:  3:8;  6  :  12; 
9:9;  11  :  12 ;  12  :  10 ;  13  :  7,  represent- 
ing him  as  a  lowly  servant,  a  priest  and 
king  building  Jehovah's  temple,  the 
meek  and  peaceful  but  universal  mon- 
arch, the  shepherd  betrayed  for  the 
price  of  a  slave  (thirty  pieces  of  sil- 
ver), the  leader  to  repentance,  and  the 
Fellow  of  Jehovah  smitten  by  Jehovah 
himself,  at  once  the  Redeemer  and  the 
Pattern  of  his  flock. 

Besides  the  prophet,  twenty-seven  other 
persons  of  the  name  Zechariah  are  men- 
tioned in  Scripture,  among  whom  are — 

2.  Seven  Levites.  1  Chr.  9  :  21 ;  15  : 
18;  24:25;  26:11;  2  Chr.  20:14;  29: 
13;  34:12. 

3.  Four  priests.  2  Chr.  35  :  8  ;  Neh.  11  : 
12;  12:16,35,41. 

4.  The  son  of  the  high  priest  Jehoi- 
ada,  stoned  in  the  court  of  the  house  of 
the  Lord  on  the  command  of  Joash,  king 
of  Judah.  2  Chr.  24  :  20. 

5.  Two  chiefs  who  returned  with  Ezra 
from  Babylon.  Ezr.  8  :  3,  11. 

6.  The  father  of  Iddo,  ruler  of  Ma- 
nasseh  in  Gilead.  1  Chr.  27  :  21. 

7.  The  son  of  Jeberechiah,  whom  the 
prophet  Isaiah  took  as  one  of  the  faith- 

914 


ful     witnesses    when     he    wrote    about 
Maher-shalal-hash-baz.  Isa.  8  :  2. 

ZE'DAD  (mountainside) ,  a  city  on 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  Israelites, 
as  described  by  Moses  and  Ezekiel.  Num. 
34  :  8  ;  Eze.  47  :  15.  It  has  been  identi- 
fied with  the  modern  Sndud,  some  70 
miles  north-east  of  Damascus,  and  35 
miles  south-south-east  of  Hums,  the  an- 
cient Emesa.  Sudud  is  still  a  large  vil- 
lage, though  it  does  not  contain  any 
relics  of  antiquity  except  a  few  frag- 
ments of  columns  built  into  the  mud 
walls  of  the  modern  houses.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  gardens  and  cultivated  fields. 
The  inhabitants  are  all  members  of  the 
Jacobite  Church,  and  constitute  the  only 
remnant  of  that  ancient  sect  in  Syria. 

ZEDEKI'AH  {justice  of  Jehovah). 
1.  The  last  king  of  Judah,  the  son  of  Josi- 
ah,  and  the  uncle  of  Jehoiachin.  His  prop- 
er name  was  ''Mattaniah,"  but  Nebuchad- 
nezzar changed  it  to  "  Zedekiah"  when 
raising  him  to  the  throne.  He  commenced 
his  reign  at  twenty-one,  and  reigned  elev- 
en years,  598-588  b.  c.  2  Chr.  36  :  11. 
He  was  a  weak  man,  and  the  people 
were  completely  demoralized.  He  had 
not  courage  to  vindicate  Jeremiah,  but 
allowed  the  people  to  be  led  astray  by 
false  prophets  ;  and  the  consequence  was 
disastrous.  In  the  ninth  year  of  his  reign 
he  revolted  against  Nebuchadnezzar,  in 
consequence  of  which  the  Assyrian 
monarch  marched  his  army  into  Judaea 
and  took  all  the  fortified  places.  In  the 
eleventh  year  of  his  reign,  on  the  ninth 
day  of  the  fourth  month  (July),  Jerusa- 
lem was  taken.  The  king  and  his  peo- 
ple endeavored  to  escape  by  night,  but, 
the  Chaldaean  troops  pursuing  them,  they 
were  overtaken  in  the  plain  of  Jericho. 
Zedekiah  was  seized  and  carried  to 
Nebuchadnezzar,  then  at  Riblah,  in 
Syria,  who  reproached  him  with  his 
perfidy,  caused  all  his  children  to  be 
slain  before  his  face  and  his  own  eyes 
to  be  put  out,  and  then,  loading  him 
with  chains  of  brass,  ordered  him  to  be 
sent  to  Babylon.  2  Kgs.  25  : 1-11 ;  2  Chr. 
36  :  12,  20.  Thus  the  double  prophecy 
concerning  him — that  he  should  be  car- 
ried to  Babvlon,  but  never  see  it — was 
literally  fulfilled.  Jer.  32  :  4,  5 ;  34  :  3; 
comp.  Eze.  12  :  13. 

2.  A  false  prophet  in  the  reign  of 
Ahab.  1  Kgs.  22  :  11,  24,  25;  2  Chr. 
18  :  10,  23,  24. 


ZEE 


ZEP 


3.  A  false  prophet  who  was  put  to 
death  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  Jer.  29  : 
21     '2'2. 

4.  One  of  the  ))rinocs  at  the  court  of 
Jehoiakini.    Jer.  36  :  12. 

ZEEB  (u'ol/),  a  Midianite  prince 
who  was  slain  by  the  Ephraiinites  after 
the  srreat  victory  of  Gideon.  Jud.  7  :  25  ; 
Ps.  '83  :  11. 

ZEEB,  THE  WINE-PRESS 
OF,  where  Zeeb  was  slain.  Jud.  7  :  25. 
It  was  near  a  ford  of  the  Jordan  as  one 
comes  down  from  the  mountains  of 
Ephraim. 

ZE'LiAH  (a  rib),  a  city  of  Benjamin, 
Josh.  18  :  28,  the  site  of  the  family  tomb 
of  Kish,  the  father  of  Saul,  2  Sam.  21  : 
14,  and  probably  Saul's  birthplace.  Con- 
der  suggests  Enmmun  as  its  site.  See 
also  Zklzah. 

ZE'LEK  ( fiNsiire),  one  of  David's 
warriors.  2  Saiii.  23  :  37 ;  1  Chr.  11  :  39. 

ZELO'PHEHAD  (frst-bom),  a 
descendant  of  Manasseh  who  died  in 
the  wilderness  and  left  only  daughters. 
It  was  then  ordained  that,  in  want  of 
male  heirs,  females  should  succeed  to 
the  inheritance,  but  not  be  allowed  to 
marry  out  of  the  tribe.  Num.  26  :  33; 
27  :  1.  7  :  36  :  2,  6.  10,  11  ;  Josh.  17  :  3; 
1  Chr.  7:  15. 

ZELO'TES.     See  Simon,  Zealots. 

ZEX.'ZAH  {shade  front  the  siin),  a 
place  in  Benjamin  not  far  from  Rachel's 
tomb.  1  Sam.  10  :  2  ;  identified  by  sev- 
eral writers  (although  Grove  disputes 
the  identification)  with  the  little  village 
of  Jieif  JnJiu  about  a  mile  west  of 
Rachel's  tomb  and  3  miles  south-west 
of  Jerusalem.  Perhaps  Zelah  was  the 
same  place. 

ZEMARA'IxlI  {donhle  vwnnt  ?),  a 
name  of  two  places. 

1.  A  town  in  Benjamin.  Josh.  18:  22. 
It  has  long  been  identified  with  e»  Snm- 
rdh,  in  the  Jordan  valley,  4  miles  north 
of  Jericho.  The  name  is  in  the  plural, 
and  two  ruins  bearing  the  name  en  Siini- 
rdh  have  been  found  close  together. 

2.  Mount  Zemaraim,  in  the  highlands 
of  Ephraim,  2  Chr.  13  :  4  ;  possibly  the 
name  survives  in  the  modern  Tal'at  e«- 
Snmrn. 

ZEM'ARITES,  THE,  descend- 
ants "f  Canaan.  Gen.  10  :  18;  1  Chr. 
1:  16. 

ZEMI'RA  («  i^onfj),  a  descendant  of 
Benjamin.  1  Chr.  7  :  8. 


ZE'NAN  (place  of  flocks),  a  place  in 
the  ])lain  of  Judah,  apparently  near  the 
western  coast,  .Tosh.  16  :  37  ;  perhaps  the 
same  as  the  "  Zaanan"  of  Micah.  1:11. 
Among  the  suggested  sites  are  Jem'n,  a 
little  village  south-cast  of  Ascalon  ;  Zan- 
(ihra,  2^  miles  south-east  of  Mareshah 
(Schwartz)  ;  and  Kirhcteii  Seiiat,  a  little 
north  of  Beit  Jibriu  (Knobel). 

ZE'NAS,  a  Christian  whom  Paul 
wished  Titus  to  bring  along  with  him. 
Tit.  3:13. 

ZEPHANI'AH  {Jehovah  hides).  1. 
The  ninth  of  the  minor  prophets,  was  the 
son  of  Cushi,  and  lived  in  the  days  of 
Josiah.  His  proj)hecy  was  uttered  in 
the  early  part  of  the  ministry  of  Jer- 
emiah, between  B.  c.  020  and  609.  It 
is  mainlj-  designed  to  excite  the  Jewish 
nation  to  re})entance,  in  view  of  threat- 
ened judgments,  and  to  comfort  the 
people  of  God  with  promises  of  the 
final  triumph  of  righteousness.  The 
description  of  the  judgment  in  ch.  1:14, 
15,  "  The  great  day  of  Jehovah  is  near" 
(in  the  Latin  version  Dies  iric,  dies  ilia), 
has  furnished  the  keynote  to  the  sub- 
limest  hj'mn  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the 
Dies  Irie  of  Thomas  a  Celano  (1250) — 
so  often  translated,  but  never  equalled 
— which  brings  before  us,  with  most 
thrilling  effect,  the  final  judgment  as 
an  awful  impending  reality. 

2.  A  ])riest  in  the  reign  of  Zedekiah. 
2  Kgs.  25  :  18-21  ;  Jer.  21  :  1  ;  29  :  25- 
29 ;  37  :  3  ;  52  :  24-27. 

.3.  A  Kohathite  Levite.  1  Chr.  6  :  36. 

4.  The  father  of  Josiah.  Zech.  6  :  10. 

ZE'PHATH  {watch-toirer),  a  city 
and  tower  in  the  mountains  of  the 
Amorites,  near  Kadesh,  Jud.  1:17; 
identified  by  Palmer  and  Drake  with 
the  ruins  of  a  city  called  Sehaita,  in 
the  midst  of  a  fertile  plain.  It  was  the 
same  as  IIormah,  which  see. 

ZEPH'ATHAH  (  wafeh  -  tower  ), 
VALLEY  OF,  near  Mareshah.  2  Chr. 
14:  10.  A  deep  valley  is  found  near  the 
site  of  Mareshah,  running  down  to  Jhit 
Jibriu  (Eleutheropolis),  and  thence  into 
the  plain  of  Philistia,  which  Porter 
identified  with  Zepliathah.  See  Mare- 
shah. 

ZE'PHI.    1  Chr.  1  :  36.     See  Zkpiio. 

ZE'PHO  {u-ntrh-tower).  Gen.  36  : 
11,  15,  OR  ZE'PHI,  1  Chr.  1  :  30,  a 
son  of  Kliphaz,  the  son  of  Esau. 

ZE'PHON  («  lookiny-out),  a  son  of 

916 


ZEP 


ZIB 


Gad,  Num.  26  :  15 ;  called  Ziphion  in 
Gen.  46  :  16. 

ZEPH'ONITES,  the  descendants 
of  Zephon.  Num.  26  :  15. 

Z£R  (flint),  a  place  in  Naphtali ; 
probably  near  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret. 
Josh.  19  :  :55. 

ZE'RAH  (a  rising  of  light).  1.  An 
Ethiopian  or  Cushite  king  who  with  an 
immense  army  invaded  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  in  the  reign  of  Asa,  but  was  com- 
pletely routed  at  Mareshah,  in  the  valley 
of  Zephathah,  2  Chr.  14  :  9  ;  has  by  some 
been  identified  with  Uraken  I.  or  II.  of 
the  twenty-second  dynasty  of  Egypt. 

2.  A  son  of  Reuel,  and  grandson  of 
Esau.  Gen.  36  :  13,  17,  33  ;  1  Chr.  1  : 
37,  44. 

3.  A  son   of  Simeon,    Num.   26  :  13; 

1  Chr.  4  :  24;  called  Zohar  in  Gen.  46  : 
10. 

4.  A  Gershonite  Levite.  1  Chr.  6  :  21, 
41. 

ZERAHI'AH  [whom  Jehovah 
caused  to  he  born).  1.  A  priest  of  the 
line  of  Eleazar.  1  Chr.  6:6,  51 ;  Ezr. 
7:4. 

2.  One  whose  descendants  returned 
from   Babylon   with   Ezra.  Ezr.  8  :  4. 

ZE'RED  {exuberant  (jj-oirth — i.e.,  of 
trees),  VALLEY  or  BROOK  OF,  a 
valley  separating  Moab  from  Edora.  Deut. 

2  :  13,  14  ;  called  "  Zared  "  in  Num.  21  : 
12.  Robinson  identified  it  with  Wd'li/ 
el-Aksi ;  others,  including  Tristram,  pro- 
pose Wadxj  Sidiyeh  or  the  Seil  Gharabi, 
a  branch  of  the  Sedij'eh,  down  which 
runs  a  fine  stream  that  empties  into  the 
south-eastern  corner  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
This  loddy  most  likely  constituted  the 
boundary  between  Moab  and  Edom,  as 
it  is  now  the  recognized  boundary  be- 
tween Kerak  and  Petra. 

ZER'EDA  {coolincff),  a  place  in 
Ephraim.in  the  plain  of  Jordan.  1  Kgs. 
11 :  26.  Possibl}'  it  is  the  saoie  as  Zare- 
tan.  Josh.  3:16;  Zererath,  Jud.  7:22; 
Zartanah,  1  Kgs.  4:12;  Zeredathah, 
2  Chr.  4 :  17  ;  and  Zarthan,  1  Kgs.  7  :  46. 
There  seems  to  be  much  confusion  about 
these  names,  but  the  Pal.  Memoirs  sug- 
gest as  the  site  of  Zereda,  Siirdah,  2^ 
miles  north-west  of  Beitin  (Bethel). 

ZERED'ATHAH.  2  Chr.  4:17. 
Conder  identifies  it  with  Zartanah  and 
the  modern  I'ell  es  Sdrem,  3  miles  south 
of  Beisan. 

ZER'ERATH.  Jud.  7  :  22.  This 
916 


would  appear  to  be  the  name  of  a  dis- 
trict, and  is  generally  connected  with 
the  Zarthan  and  Zaretan  of  other  pas- 
sages of  the  0.  T.  Conder  formerly 
placed  it  below  Jezreel  and  near  Beisan, 
but  later  investigations  have  afforded 
little  confirmation  of  this  identification 
of  Zererath.     See  Zerkda. 

ZE'RESH,  the  wife  of  Haman,  and 
his  counsellor  and  instigator  in  iniquity. 
Esth.  6  :  10. 

ZE'RETH  (splendor),  a  descend- 
ant of  Judah.   1  Chr.  4  :  7. 

ZE'Rl  (built),  a  son  of  Jeduthun.  1 
Chr.  25  :  3. 

ZE'ROR  (a  bundle),  one  of  Saul's 
ancestors.    1  Sam.  9  :  1. 

ZERU'AH  (le2)rous),  the  mother  of 
Jeroboam  I.    1  Kgs.  9  :  26. 

ZERUB'BABEL  (begotten  in  Bab- 
ylon), 1  Chr.  3  :  19,  OR  ZOROB'- 
ABEL,  Matt.  1:12.  was  the  leader 
of  the  first  colony  of  Jews  that  returned 
from  the  captivity  in  Babylon,  Ezr.  2  : 
2,  and  was  of  the  family  of  David,  a  son 
of  Salathiel  or  Shealtiel,  Hag.  1:1;  Matt. 
1  :  12,  but  called  a  son  of  Pedaiah,  the 
brother  or  son  of  Salathiel,  in  1  Chr.  3  : 
17-19.  To  him  Cyrus  committed  the 
sacred  vessels  that  were  returned  to 
Jerusalem.  He  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  temple,  Zech.  4:  6-10,  and  was  chiefly 
instrumental  in  restoring  the  religious 
rites  of  the  nation.  The  advances  of  the 
mixed  population  of  Samaria,  who  wish- 
ed to  participate  in  the  building  of  the 
temple,  he  refused,  and  their  intrigues 
at  the  Persian  court  caused  the  work  to 
be  stopped,  but  only  for  a  short  time; 
finally,  he  succeeded  in  completing  the 
building.  Ezr.  5:2;  Hag.  1  :  12,  14;  2: 
2,  4;  Zech.  4  :  6,  10.  He  was  the  gov- 
ernor of  Judsea.  Neh.  12  :  47. 

ZERUI'AH  (cle/f,  wounded),  a  sister 
of  David,  and  the  mother  of  Joab.  1  Sam. 
26:6;   1  Chr.  2:16. 

ZE'THAM    (olive   tree),    a    Levite. 

1  Chr.  23  :  8  ;  26  :  22. 
ZE'THAN,   a   Benjamite   chief.    1 

Chr.  7:10. 

ZE'THAR  (star?),  a  eunuch  of 
Ahasuerus.  Esth.  1  :  10. 

ZI'A  (motion),  a  Gadite.  1  Chr.  5:  13. 

ZI'BA    (statue),   a   servant    of   Saul, 

2  Sam.  19  :  17,  whom  David  appointed  a 
sort  of  steward  to  Mephibosheth.  2  Sam. 
9  :  2-12. 

ZIB'EON  (di/ed),  a  son  of  Seir  the 


ZIB 


ZID 


Horite,  but  called  a  Hivite  himself.  Gen. 
36  :  2,  14,  20,  24,  29  ;  1  Chr.  1  :  :\S. 

ZIB'IA  {a  roe),  a  Benjauiite.  1  Chr. 
8  :  9. 

ZIB'IAH,  the  mother  of  Joash.  2 
Kgs.  12:  1  :  2  Chr.  24  :  1. 

ZICH'KI  {re»ici)ibercd,  reitowued). 
1.  A  Levite.   Ex.  6:  21. 

2,  3,  4.  Three  Bcnjamite  chiefs.  1  Chr. 
8  :  19,  23,  27. 

5.  A  Levite,  1  Chr.  9:15;  called  Zabdi 
in  Neh.  11  :  17. 

0.  A  Levite  who  descended  from  Moses. 
1  Chr.  26  :  25. 

7.  A  Reubenite.  1  Chr.  27  :  16. 

8.  The  father  of  one  of  Jehoshaphat's 
captains.  2  Chr.  17  :  16. 

9.  One  instrumental  in  making  Joash 
king.  2  Chr.  23  :  1. 

10.  An  Ephraimite  who  distingilished 
himself  in  the  war  between  Pekah  and 
Ahaz.  2  Chr.  28  :  7. 

11.  A  Benjamite.  Neh.  11  :  9. 

12.  A  priest  during  the  reign  of  Joia- 
kim.  Neh.  12  :  17. 

ZID'DIM  {(he  sides),  a  place  in 
Naphtali,  Josh.  19  :  35  ;  perhaps  the  vil- 
lage of  Kefr-Hattin,  5  miles  west  of 
Tiberias. 

ZIDKI'JAH  {justice  of  Jehovah), 
one  who  sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehe- 
miah.  Neh.  10  :  1. 

ZI'DON  {huntimj ;  Heb.  Tnidon). 
"  Sidon,"  the  Greek  form,  is  found  in 
Gen.  10  :  15,  19,  in  the  Apocrypha  gener- 
ally, and  in  the  N.  T.  Zidon  was  a  rich 
and  ancient  Phoenician  city. 

Situation.  —  It  was  situated  on  the 
Mediterranean  coast,  on  the  northern 
slope  of  a  small  promontory  which  juts 
out  from  a  low  plain,  less  than  2  miles 
broad,  between  the  Lebanon  and  the  sea. 
The  city  was  25  miles  south  of  the 
modern  Beirut,  25  miles  north  of  Tyre, 
and  123  miles  in  a  direct  line  north-west 
of  Jerusalem.  Its  latitude  is  33°  34' 
north. 

Scripture  References.  —  Zidon  is  one 
of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  the  world. 
The  person  after  whom  it  is  named  was 
the  '"first-born"  of  Canaan,  the  grand- 
son of  Noah.  Gen.  10  :  15  ;  1  Chr.  1  :  13. 
This  was  B.  c.  2218.  In  Joshua's  time 
it  was  "great  Zidon,"  Josh.  11  :  8  ;  19  : 
28,  and  seems  to  have  been  the  metrop- 
olis of  Phoenicia.  Zidon  was  one  of 
the  limits  of  the  tribe  of  Asher,  Josh. 
19  :  28,  but  was  never  possessed  by  the 


Israelites.  Jud.  1  :  31  ;  3  :  .'..  In  fact, 
the  Zidonians  oppressed  Israel,  .lud.  10  : 
12,  seeming  themselves  to  be  secure  from 
all  attacks  and  living  "careless."  .hid. 
18:7.28. 

Tyre  was  one  of  the  colonies — a  "vir- 
gin daughter."  L-a.  23  :  12— of  Zidon,  but 
subsequently  became  the  more  important 
town.  The  two  names  frequently  recur 
together  as  denoting  not  only  tlie  cities, 
but  the  adjacent  country' ;  but  the  name 
of  Zidon  alone  was  sometimes  used  to 
denote  the  Pha'nicians  in  general.  Jud. 
3  :  3.  The  Zidonians  were  famous  for 
commerce,  manufactures,  and  arts.  Their 
sailors  and  workmen  were  noted.  Zidoni- 
ans assisted  in  the  work  of  building  the 
temple.  1  Chr.  22  :  4  ;  1  Kgs.  5  :  6  ;  Eze. 
27  :  8.  From  Zidon  also  came  idolatrous 
abominations  to  corrupt  Israel.  1  Kgs. 
11:5,33:  2  Kgs.  23:13.  The  city 
was  mentioned  frequently  in  prophetic 
threatenings.  but  with  much  less  severity 
than  Tyre.  Isa.  23  :  2.  4,12;  Jer.  25  :  22  : 
27  :  3  ;  47  :  4  ;  Eze.  27  :  8  ;  28  :  21.  22  ; 
32  :  30  ;  Joel  3:4:  Zech.  9  :  2. 

In  N.  T.  times  Zidon  (called  "Sidon") 
was  visited  by  Jesus,  Matt.  15  :  21  ;  Mark 
7:24;  Luke  4  :  26,  although  the  "  coasts  " 
of  Tj're  and  Sidon  denoted  the  adjacent 
region  as  well  as  the  cities  themselves, 
and  some  think  that  the  Saviour  did  not 
enter  the  cities.  Hearers  from  among 
those  people  were  drawn  to  his  preach- 
ing. Mark  3:8;  Luke  6  :  17:  comp. 
Matt.  11  :  22  ;  Luke  10  :  14.  Herod's 
dis])leasure  with  this  region  is  noted. 
Acts  12  :  20.  The  apostle  Paul  touched 
at  Zidon  on  his  way  to  Rome,  and  visited 
the  Christians  there.  Acts  27  :  3. 

Seru/ar  Jfistori/. — Homer  makes  special 
mention  of  the  skill  of  the  Zid(»nian 
workmen.  The  embroidered  robes  of 
Andromache,  the  silver  bowl  given  as  a 
])rize  by  Achilles  at  the  games  in  honor 
of  Patrocles.  the  bowl  which  Menelaus 
gave  Telemachus,  the  purple  of  fierce 
Achilles,  were  specimens  of  Zidonian 
handicraft.  Zidonian  ships  were  pres- 
ent at  the  siege  of  Troy,  and  Herod- 
otus declares  that  the  Zidonian  ships 
in  the  fleet  of  Xcr.xes  were  the  best  and 
the  most  renowned  of  the  famous  ar- 
mada. Xerxes  sat  in  a  Zidonian  ship, 
and  the  king  of  Zidon  sat  near  to  him 
in  council.  Zidon  flourished  under  the 
Chaldiean  and  Persian  dominion.  It 
revolted  against  the  Persians  in  the  time 

917 


ZID 


ZIM 


of  Artaxerxes  III.  Ochus,  but  was  sub- 
dued, and  40,000  of  its  citizens  perished 
in  the  conflagration  of  the  city,  the  tire 
being  kindled  by  the  people  themselves. 
The  gates  of  the  city  were  willingly 
opened  to  Alexander  the  Great  after  the 
battle  of  Issus,  B.  c.  333.  During  the 
Roman  period  it  had  its  own  archons, 
senate,  and  national  council.  A  bishop 
of  Zidon  attended  the  council  of  Nic;ea, 
A.  D.  325.  After  the  conquest  of  Syria 
by  the  Muslims,  a.  d.  636,  Zidon  sur- 
rendered to  these  new  masters.  During 
the  crusades  it  experienced  terrible  vicis- 
situdes. Baldwin  I.  took  it,  after  a  six 
weeks'  siege,  in  A.  d.  1111  ;  Saladin  razed 
the  town  and  its  fortifications  in  1187; 
the  Crusaders  again  gained  possession 
of  it  in  1197,  but  could  not  retain  the 
town,  which  was  once  more  destroyed. 
It  was  rebuilt  and  razed,  refortified  and 
again  devastated.  In  1291  it  became  the 
permanent  possession  of  the  Muslims, 
and  was  destroyed.  For  several  centuries 
it  was  neglected,  but  gradually  revived 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  still 
continues  to  exist. 

Present  Coiulitioit. — The  site  of  ancient 
Zidon  is  occupied  by  the  modern  Saidn, 
beautifully  situated  on  a  promontory  in 
front  of  which  lies  an  island.  The 
northern  harbor,  protected  by  a  ledge 
of  rocks,  is  now  used ;  the  southern  one 
is  abandoned.  The  anchorage  is  bad, 
and  the  trade  of  the  city  is  unimportant. 
Around  the  island  are  the  remains  of 
quays  built  of  large  hewn  stones.  The 
ruins  of  the  ancient  castle  are  approached 
by  a  causeway.  The  burying-grounds 
are  extensive,  and  many  curious  sarco- 
phagi have  been  discovered.  One  was 
the  sarcophagus  of  King  Ashmanezer  ; 
it  has  been  placed  in  the  Museum  at 
Paris,  and  antiquarians  fix  its  date  at 
from  B.  c.  300  to  b.  c.  1000.  The  ancient 
ruins  are  few.  There  are  fragments  of 
marble  and  granite  columns,  mosaic 
pavement,  pottery,  etc. 

In  its  situation  and  surroundings 
Zidon  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque 
cities  in  Syria.  The  gardens  and  or- 
chards environing  it  are  charming  and 
afford  a  great  variety  of  fruits,  such  as 
oranges,  lemons,  citrons,  bananas,  and 
dates.  The  oranges  of  Zidon  are  very  j 
famous  and  better  than  those  of  .Jaffa. 
The  population  is  estimated  at  10,000, 
of  whom  about  7000   are   Muslims  and 


[  the  rest  Greeks,  Catholics,  Maronites, 
and  Jews.  There  are  nine  mosques  in 
the  town.  The  American  Presbyterian 
Board  has  established  a  flourishing  I'rot- 
estant  mission  there. 

ZIDO'NIANS,  the   inhabitants  of 

Zidon.  .lud.  10  :  12. 

I       ZIF  (/-Zoom).  1  Kgs.  6  : 1.   See  xMonth. 

ZI'HA  (</;-y).    1.  One  whose  dcscend- 

!  ants  returned  with  Zerubbabel.    Ezr.  2  : 

j  43  ;  Neh.  7  :  46. 

I  2.  A  ruler  among  the  Nethinim.  Neh. 
11:21. 

ZIK.'LAG  {outpouring  of  a  fonn- 
[  tain?),  a  city  in  the  South  of  .Judah, 
Josh.  15  :  31 ;  afterward  given  to  Simeon. 
19  :  5.  It  was  at  times  held  by  the 
Philistines.  Achish,  king  of  Gath,  gave 
it  to  David,  and  it  subsequently  belonged 
to  Judah.  Its  chief  interest  is  in  con- 
nection with  the  life  of  David.  1  Sam. 
27  :  6;  30  :1,  14,  26;  2  Sam.  1  :1;  4: 
10  ;  1  Chr.  4:30;  12  :  1-20.  It  was  also 
inhabited  after  the  return  from  the 
Captivity.  Neh.  11  :  28.  Wilton  sug- 
gested its  identification  with  'Anlnj,  or 
Kdnluj,  in  a  deep  valley  among  the  hills 
of  the  south  country,  some  12  miles 
south  of  Beer-sheba.  Conder  suggested 
its  identification  with  Znheilihdh,  11 
miles  south  of  east  from  Gaza,  and  19 
miles  south-west  of  licit  Jihriti.  The 
site  is  in  the  open,  rolling  plain,  some 
distance  from  the  low,  open  hills  of  the 
Shefalah.  The  ruins  occur  on  three 
small  hills,  in  the  form  of  an  equilateral 
triangle,  nearly  half  a  mile  apart.  There 
is  a  number  of  ancient  ruined  cisterns, 
of  which  the  stones  have  been  removed 
and  the  sites  ploughed  over.  Neither  of 
the  above  has  been  accepted  as  the  site 
of  Ziklag. 

ZIL'LAH  (shade),  one  of  the  wives 
of  Laniech.   (^en.  4  :  19,  22,  23. 

ZIL'PAH  {dropping),  the  hand- 
maid of  Leah,  and  the  mother  of  (j!ad 
and  Asher.   Gen.  30  :  9. 

ZIL'THAI  {shade).  1.  A  Benjam- 
ite.   1  Chr.  8  :  20. 

2.  A  chieftain  of  Manasseh.  1  Chr. 
12  :  20. 

ZIilI'MAH  (mischief),  a  Gorsbonite 

Levitc.   1  Chr.  6  :  20.  42;  2  Chr.  29  :  12. 

ZIM'R.AX     (rrlehrated),    a     son     of 

Abraham    by    Keturah.     Gen.  25  :  2 ;    1 

Chr.  1  :  32. 

ZIM'lil  (snug).  1.  A  Siraeonite 
chief.  Num.  25  :  14. 

919 


ZIN 


ZIO 


2.  A  captain  under  Elah,  and  a  king 
of  Israel.   1  Kgs.  16  :  9-20. 

3.  A  descendant  of  Judah,  1  Chr.  2:6; 
called  Zabdi  in  Josh.  7  : 1,  17,  18. 

4.  A  descendant  of  Saul.  1  Chr.  8  :  36  ; 
9  :  42. 

ZIN  (rt  low  palm  tree).  The  wilder- 
ness of  Zin  was  a  part  of  the  Arabian 
desert  south  of  Palestine.  Num.  13  :  21, 
22  ;  34  :  3.  It  joined  the  territory  of 
Judah,  Josh.  15:  1,  ''>,  and  lay  west  of 
rdam£ea.  Num.  20  :  1 :  27  :  14  :  33  :  36. 
Kadesh  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  in  the 
wilderness  of  Zin,  Num.  33  :  36,  and 
again  as  in  the  wilderness  of  Paran. 
Num.  13  :  26.  This  is  explained  by  the  fact 
that  "  Paran  "  was  the  general  name  for 
the  whole  desert  of  et-Tih,  while  Zin  was 
the  south-eastern  corner  of  that  desert, 
between  the  Gulf  of  Akabah  on  the  south 
and  the  head  of  Wdchj  Garaiijeh.  It 
was  south  and  south-west  of  'Azazimeh 
Mountains,  and  east  of  the  Ghor  and 
Arabah. 

Zl'NA.     See  Zizah. 

ZI'ON,  AND  SI 'ON  {dry,  sunmi 
mount).  '*  Zion  "  is  sometimes  used  to 
denote  the  whole  of  Jerusalem,  but  in 
its  literal  and  restricted  meaning  it  was 
the  south-western  hill  of  Jerusalem. 
This  hill  was  surrounded  on  every  side 
but  the  north  with  deep  valleys  having 
precipitous  sides.  To  the  east  was  the 
valley  of  the  Tyropoeon,  separating  Zion 
from  Moriah,  the  temple-mount,  and 
from  Ophel.  On  the  south  and  west  was 
the  deep  valley  of  Hinnom,  called  on  the 
west  the  **  valley  of  Gihon."  Upon  the 
north  only  is  the  boundai-y  of  Zion  in- 
definite. Some  authorities  think  it 
extended  to  the  tower  of  David,  near  the 
Damascus-gate,  and  suppose  the  Tyro- 
poeon valley  to  have  ended  here.  Others 
would  extend  Zion  farther  northward 
toward  the  .Jaffa-gate.  Zion  was  the 
higher  hill,  being  105  feet  above  Moriah 
and  2539  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
Mediterranean.  It  was  in  the  shape  of 
a  parallelogram.  The  valleys  were  orig- 
inally much  deeper  than  at  present,  so 
that  Zion  was  really  compassed  on  three 
sides  by  precipices.  It  was  also  guarded 
by  a  strong  wall. 

Scripture  Histon/.  —  The  hill  is  first 
mentioned  as  a  stronghold  of  the  Jebus- 
ites.  Josh.  15  :  63.  It  remained  in  their 
possession  until  captured  by  David,  who 
made  it  "  the  city  of  David,"  the  capital 
920 


of  his  kingdom.  He  built  there  a  citadel, 
his  own  palace,  houses  for  the  people, 
and  a  place  for  the  ark  of  God.  2  Sam. 
5:7;  1  Kgs.  8:1;  2  Kgs.  19  :  21,  31  ; 
1  Chr.  11  :  5  ;  2  Chr.  5  :  2.  The  foregoing 
six  passages  are  all  in  the  historical 
books  of  the  0.  T.  in  which  the  name 
of  Zion  appears.  But  in  the  prophetical 
and  poetical  books  it  occurs  no  less  than 
one  hundred  and  forty-eight  times — viz., 
in  Psalms,  38  times;  Canticles,  1 ;  Isaiah, 
47;  Jeremiah,  17;  Lamentations,  15; 
Joel,  7;  Amos,  2  ;  Obadiah,  2;  Micah,  9  ; 
Zephaniah,  2;  Zechariah,  8.  In  the  N. 
T.  it  occurs  seven  times  as  '*Sion,"  mak- 
ing the  total  number  of  times  the  name 
occurs  one  hundred  and  sixty-one.  It 
was  in  the  later  books  no  longer  confined 
to  the  south-western  hill,  but  denoted 
sometimes  Jerusalem  in  general,  Ps. 
149  :  2 ;  87  :  2  ;  Isa.  33  :  14 ;  Joel  2  :  2, 
etc. ;  sometimes  God's  chosen  people, 
Ps.  51  :  18  ;  87  :  5,  etc. ;  sometimes  the 
Church,  Heb.  12  :  22, etc.;  and  sometimes 
the  heavenly  city.  Rev.  14 :  1 ,  etc.  Hence, 
Zion  has  passed  into  its  present  common 
use  in  religious  literature  to  denote  the 
aspirations  and  hopes  of  God's  children. 

Josephus  does  not  use  the  word  "  Zion," 
but  speaks  of  that  quarter  of  the  city  as 
the  "  city  of  David,"  "the  upper  city," 
and  the  "  upper  market-place."  Jt  was 
then  the  aristocratic  quarter  of  the  city, 
and  contained  the  mansions  of  the  great. 
At  the  north-west  corner  stood  the  mag- 
nificent palace  erected  by  Herod  the 
Great  and  afterward  called  "  Prgetorium," 
the  residence  of  the  Roman  procurator. 
Mark  15  :  16.  On  the  north  of  this  were 
three  famous  towers  or  fortresses,  of 
which  one  is  now  the  "  tower  of  David." 

Present  Condition. — Ijcss  than  one-half 
of  the  ancient  hill  of  Zion  is  enclosed 
within  the  wall  of  modern  Jerusalem. 
In  this  part  are  now  the  Armenian  con- 
vent with  its  extensive  grounds,  syna- 
gogues of  the  Ashkenasim,  St.  James' 
church  of  the  Armenians,  the  English 
Protestant  church  and  school,  the  tower 
of  David,  etc.  The  only  building  out- 
side the  walls  is  the  mosque  and  tomb 
of  David,  supposed  to  contain  the  tombs 
of  David,  Solomon,  and  other  kings  of 
Judah.  In  the  upper  part  is  the  tradi- 
tional "  upper  room''  in  which  the  Lord's 
Supper  was  instituted  and  the  disciples 
waited  for  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
Upon  the  slope  of  the  hill   are   several 


ZIO 


ZTZ 


cemeteries  of  different  Christian  denom- 
inations and  nationalities,  includin";  the 
American  and  English.  A  part  of  tlie 
hill  is  cultivated,  and  thus  tiie  traveller 
is  frequently  reminded  of  the  i)roj)hci\v. 
"  Zion  shall  be  ploughed  like  a  field."' 
Jer.  26  :  18  ;  Mic.  3  :  12.  The  hill  sinks 
into  the  valley  of  Ilinnom  in  steep  ter- 
raced slopes  covered  with  grain-fields, 
vineyards,  and  olive  trees.  The  excava- 
tions of  the  British  Ordnance  Survey 
brought  to  light  many  interesting  facts 
in  regard  to  the  original  levels,  the 
ancient  walls,  etc.,  etc.    8ee  Jerusalem. 

Conder  notes  the  fact  that  the  name 
''Zion"  has  not  been  recovered,  and 
says  :  "  According  to  Gesenius,  it  means 
'  sunny,'  and  the  proper  equivalent  in 
Arabic  or  Syriae,  according  to  this  same 
authority,  is  Sdhjidn.  It  is  a  remarkable 
fact  that  about  IJ  miles  west  of  the  Jaffa- 
gate  there  exists  a  valley  having  exactly 
this  name,  Wddi/  Sahi/iin.  .  .  .  This  dis- 
covery may  perhaps  lead  students  to 
consider  the  name  '  Zion  '  .as  a  name  of 
a  district  rather  than  that  of  a  particular 
mountain,  but  it  would  not  accord  with 
the  scriptural  representations  of  Zion."' 

ZI'OR.  {sma/hie-sfi),  a  place  in  the 
mountains  of  Judah,  near  Hebron.  Josh. 
15  :  54.  Its  probable  site  is  at  Siair,  a 
ruin  on  a  hill  o  miles  north-north-east 
of  Hebron. 

ZIPH  (a  floioin<i),  a  descendant  of 
Judah.  1  Chr.  4  :  16. 

ZIPH  («  /lowing),  a  name  for  two 
places. 

1.  A  city  in  the  South  of  Judah.  Josh. 
15  :  24. 

2.  A  town  in  the  highlands  of  Judah, 
Josh.  15  :  55  :  fortified  by  Rehoboam.  2 
Chr.  11 :  8.  When  pursued"  by  Saul,  David 
hid  himself  "in  the  wilderness  of  Ziph." 
1  Sam.  23  :  14,  15,  24;  26  :  2.  The  site 
is  7\U  cs  Z\/\  about  4  miles  south-east 
of  Hebron,  on  the  road  to  En-gedi.  It 
is  a  conspicuous  mound,  and  shows  at 
the  present  day  no  trace  of  buildings, 
but  there  are  large  Jewish  tombs  and  a 
quarry.  On  a  low  hill  half  a  mile  east 
are  the  remains  of  a  town. 

As  to  the  *' wood  of  Ziph,"  1  Sam. 
23  :  15,  Conder  asserts  that  in  all 
probability  it  never  had  any  real  exy 
istence  as  a  "  wood."  but  was  rather  a 
town.  "  The  existence,"  he  says,  "  at 
any  time,  of  a  wood  in  this  part  of  the 
country   is   geologically  almost  an   im- 


possibility. From  Hebron  to  Beer- 
sheba  not  a  single  spring  of  any  im- 
portance exists  in  the  eastern  liills. 
.  .  .  The  country  is  emjihatically  a  dry. 
land.  Looking  down  on  the  barren 
wastes  whieh  lie  above  the  Dead  Sea 
between  Masada  and  En-gedi,  tliere  is 
no  moisture  capable  of  supporting  vege- 
table growth.  The  cistus  and  the  belan 
bushes  grow  among  the  ledges,  but  not 
a  single  tree  exists  in  the  whole  coun- 
try." The  translation  in  Joseplius  is 
said  to  be  "in  the  new  place  belonging 
to  Ziph,"  and  the  Vatican  and  Alexan- 
drine manuscripts  support  this.  One 
mile     south    of     Tell    Zif    is    Khuihet 

:  Khoreiaa,  an  ancient  locality  of  which 
Conder  says :  "  We  can  have  little 
hesitation  in  identifying  with  Choresh 
of  Zif  a  village  or  hamlet  belonging  to 
the  larger  town  of  Tell  Zif."  Tristram, 
however    {Land   of  Moub,  pp.    19,   20), 

;  says :  "  How  far  the  forest  of  Ziph  ex- 
tended it  is  not  easy  to  say,  but  there 

I  are    traces  of  it  in   an   occasional   tree, 

'  and  there  seems  no  reason,  from  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  why  the  woods  may 
not  have  stretched  nearly  to  the  barren, 
sandy  marl  which  overlies  the  limestone 
for  a  few  miles  west  of  the  Dead  Sea." 

ZI'PIIAII,  a  descendant  of  Judah. 
1  Chr.  4  :  It). 

ZIPH'IMS,  the  inhabitants  of  Ziph. 

I  Ps.  54. 

'  ZIPII'ITES,  the  inhabitants  of 
Ziph.  1  Sam.  23  :  li»;  26  :  1. 
ZIPII'ROX.  See  Zrimiov. 
ZI'PHROX,  OR  ZIPH'ROX 
(sircet  (idor),  a  city  on  the  northern 
frontier  of  the  dominions  of  Israel. 
Num.  34  :  y.  There  is  a  place  called 
Zitfeiiineh  on  the  road  from  Hnmn 
(Emesa)  to  Humnh  (Ilamath),  and 
about  si.x  hours'  journey  south-south- 
east of  the  latter,  which  may  be  the 
ancient    Ziphron. 

ZIP'POR  («  little  bird),  the  father 

,  of  Balak.  king  (.f  Moab.  Num.  22  :  2.  4. 
10,  1 6 ;  23  :  1  S  ;   Josh.  24  :  '••  :  .1  ud.  11  :  25. 

I       ZIPPO'RAH,  adaughter  of  a  .Mid- 
ianite  j)riest.  who  was  married  to  Moses 
and  bore  him  two  sons.   Ex.  2  :  21.  22. 
ZITH'RI   (protection  of'  Jehovah),  a 

1  Levite.   Ex.  6  :  22. 

I  ZIZ,  THE  CLIFF  OF.  2  Chr. 
20  :  16.  The  paraphrase  of  this  pas- 
sage is  "the  going  uj)  of  Ila-Zi/.."  and 

;  Grove    suggests   the  name   niav  survive 

921 


ZIZ 


ZOA 


in  Husasnh.  The  Pal.  Memoirs  note  a 
Wadi/  Hnndsfih,  8  miles  north  o{'  A  in  Jtdij 
(En-gedi).  The  similarity  of  the  name  is 
striking,  but  the  site  seems  too  far  from 
En-gedi.  Others  have  identified  Ziz  with 
the  pass  and  cliff  near  En-gedi,  a  route 
how  taken  by  Arab  marauding- parties. 
This  pass  was  the  ascent  through  which 
invaders  from  the  south  and  east,  after 
doubling  the  south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
entered  the  hill-country  of  Judaea.  Ziz 
was  the  key  of  the  pass. 

ZI'ZA  {(ibundance).  1.  A  chieftain 
of  Simeon.  1  Chr.  4  :  37. 

2.  A  son  of  Rehoboam.  2  Chr.  11  : 
20. 

ZI'ZAH  (ahinidance),  a  Gershonite 
Levite,  1  Chr.  23  :  11 ;  the  same  as  Zina. 
1  Chr.  23:10. 

ZO'AN  {low  region?  or  place  of  de- 
parture f),  a  city  of  Lower  Egypt:  called 
by  the  Greeks  Tanis  ;  now  San.  Zoan 
was  situated  in  Lower  Egypt,  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  ancient  Tanitic  branch 
of  the  Nile.  It  stood  in  lat.  31°  N.  and 
long.  31°  55'  E.  To  the  east  was  a  great 
plain,  representing  "the  field  of  Zoan." 

History. — Zoan  was  an  exceedingly 
ancient  city,  built  seven  years  after 
Hebron.  Num.  13  :  22.  Manetho  gave 
an  account  of  a  city  called  "Avaris," 
fortified  by  the  Shepherd-kings  and 
garrisoned  by  240,000  men.  Avaris  and 
Zoan  are  supposed  to  have  been  iden- 
tical. Tradition  makes  it  the  town  in 
which  Moses  had  his  memorable  inter- 
views with  Pharaoh,  recorded  in  the 
book  of  Exodus.  The  "field  of  Zoan" 
was  the  place  of  God's  wonders.  Ps. 
78  :  12,  43.  "When  Isaiah  wrote,  it 
would  appear  to  have  been  one  of  the 
chief  cities  in  Egypt,  as  he  speaks  of 
"the  princes  of  Zoan."  Isa.  19  :  11,  13; 
30  :  4.  Ezekiel  foretells  the  fate  of  the 
city  in  the  words:  "I  will  set  fire  in 
Zoan."  Eze.  30  :  14.  There  are  no 
other  Scripture  references  to  Zoan. 

Present  Condition. — Zoan  has  been 
satisfactorily  identified  with  the  ancient 
Avaris  and  Tanis  and  the  modern  San. 
Very  interesting  discoveries  have  been 
made  there  within  a  few  years  past 
by  Brugsch  Bey  and  others.  Among 
the  inscriptions  has  been  found  one 
with  the  expression  Sechet  Tanef,  which 
exactly  corresponds  to  the  "  field  of 
Zoan."  Ps.  78  :  43.  Several  colossal 
statues  of  kings  of  the  various  dynas- 
922 


ties  and  a  number  of  sphinxes  have 
been  brought  to  light  by  excavations. 
The  mounds  which  mark  the  site  of 
the  town  are  remarkable  for  their 
height  and  extent,  and  cover  an  area 
a  mile  in  length  by  three-fourths  of  a 
mile  in  width.  The  sacred  enclosure 
of  the  great  temple  was  1500  feet  long 
and  1250  feet  wide.  This  temple  was 
adorned  by  Barneses  II.  There  are 
some  dozen  obelisks  of  great  size,  all 
fallen  and  broken,  with  numerous  stat- 
ues. "  The  whole  constitutes,"  says 
Macgregor,  "one  of  the  grandest  and 
oldest  ruins  in  the  world."  The  "  field 
of  Zoan"  was  a  rich  plain  extending 
some  30  miles  to  the  east.  It  is  now 
almost  covered  by  the  great  Lake 
Menzeleh,  but  some  portions  exhibit  a 
rich  black  loam  without  fences  or 
towns,  and  with  only  a  few  trees  in 
sight.  Brugsch-Bey  is  of  the  opinion 
that  Zoan  was  identical  with  Rameses, 
but  this  location  was  made  to  fit  his 
theory  that  the  Israelites  crossed  the 
Serbonian  bog  instead  of  the  Red  Sea. 
An  English  Exploration  Society  is  en- 
gaged in  making  explorations  in  San. 
It  promises  rich  historical  results  in  this 
ancient  land. 

ZO'AR{8maU7ie88),one  of  the  "cities 
of  the  plain,"  Gen.  13  :  10;  originally 
called  "Bela."  Gen.  14:2,  8.  This 
"  little  city "  was  spared  from  the  de- 
struction which  overtook  Sodom  and  the 
other  cities,  and  made  a  refuge  for  Lot. 
Gen.  'S  :  20-30.  Zoar  was  included  in 
the  view  Moses  had  from  Pisgah.  Deut. 
34  :  3.  The  prophets  Isaiah,  15  :  5,  and 
Jeremiah,  48  :  34,  reckon  Zoar  among 
the  cities  of  Moab. 

Situation. — The  situation  of  Zoar,  like 
that  of  the  other  cities  of  the  plain,  has 
been  much  discussed.  The  great  major- 
ity of  scholars,  from  Ptolemy,  Josephus, 
Eusebius,  and  Jerome  to  the  present 
time,  have  located  it  near  the  south- 
eastern shore  of  the  Dead  Sea.  The 
shore  of  the  bay,  which  extends  from 
the  Dead  Sea  into  the  Lisan  Peninsula, 
has  been  regarded  as  a  probablesite  for 
Zoar.  For  the  general  discussion  as  to 
the  relative  merits  of  the  sites  at  the 
northern  and  at  the  southern  ends  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  see  Siddim  and  Sodom. 
Tristram  was  confident  that  he  had  dis- 
covered the  site  of  Zoar  at  Ziara,  some 
3  miles  north-west  of  Nebo  and  11  miles 


ZOB 


ZOP 


west  of  the  northern  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  Among  the  points  he  urges  for 
this  special  identification  are  the  strong 
resemblance  of  the  names  and  the  fact 
that  this  place  would  be  in  plain  view 
of  Moses  from  Nebo.  Deut.  34  :  '^.  He 
cites  also  several  arguments  for  putting 
all  the  cities  at  the  upper  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  This  seems  to  be  among  the  moun- 
tains, and  too  far  from  the  other  to  be  a 
likely  position  for  Zoar.  Merrill  sug- 
gests, as  the  site  for  Zoar,  7\l(  Ektauu, 
in  the  Shittim  plain,  north-east  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  near  to  the  mountains  of 
Moab,  although  it  cannot  be  reckoned 
as  one  of  the  foot-hills.  There  are  ru- 
ins here  of  great  age,  and  the  name 
EktnuH,  which  has  no  meaning  in 
Arabic,  appears  to  be  the  Hebrew 
word  Kafitii,  which  means  "little,"  or 
"the  little  one."  The  site  would  be  in 
the  direction  Lot  would  naturally  take 
in  hastening  to  the  neighboring  city, 
and  its  distance  from  other  mounds  in 
the  Shittim  plain  (which  Dr.  Merrill 
would  identify  with  the  plain  in  which 
stood  Sodom  and  Gomorrah)  corresponds 
well  with  the  time  allowed  the  fugitive — 
namely,  from  dawn  to  sunrise.  Conder, 
who  would  place  the  lost  cities  at  the 
north  ''  end  "  of  the  Dead  Sea,  suggests 
Tell  esh-Sharfhur  as  the  site  of  Zoar. 
It  is  at  the  foot  of  the  eastern  moun- 
tains, immediately  north  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  about  6  miles  south  of  Nim- 
^in. 

ZO'BA,  AND  ZO'BAH  {station),  a 
portion  of  Syria.  It  was  one  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Aram,  known  as  Aram- 
zobah.  See  Aram.  It  embraced  the 
country  between  the  north-east  of  Pal- 
estine and  the  Euphrates.  It  was  the 
home  of  a  powerful  nation,  whose  kings 
were  engaged  in  frequent  wars  with  Is- 
rael during  the  reigns  of  Saul,  David, 
and  Solomon.  Saul  "vexed  them."  1 
Sam.  14  :  47.  David  defeated  King  Ha- 
dadezer  and  the  Syrians  who  came  to  his 
assistance  with  great  loss.  2  Sam.  8  :  3- 
8,12;  1  Chr.  18  :  .3-8 ;  Ps.  60,  title. 
Again,  in  David's  time,  they  and  the 
"Syrians  beyond  the  river,"  their  allies, 
were  defeated  by  Joab.  2  Sam.  10  :  6-13  ; 

1  Chr.  19  :  6.  One  of  David's  mighty 
men  was  "  the  son  of  Nathan  of  Zobah." 

2  Sam.  23  :  36.  The  nation,  though  se- 
verely punished,  was  not  destroyed,  and 
we  read  of  a  Hadadezer,  king  of  Zobah, 


in  Solomon's  time,  1  Kgs.  11 :  23,  and 
Solomon  took  Hamath-zobah.  2  Chr.  8  : 
3.  See  Ham  ATM.  Other  towns  of  Zo- 
bah are  mentioned — Hetah,  Herothai, 
and  perhaps  Helam.  2  Sam.  8:8;  10  : 
(i.  Porter  suggests  it  as  just  ])ossible 
that  the  biblical  Zi)bah.  which  was  sit- 
uated between  Hamath  and  Damascus, 
may  be  identical  with  Emesa,  the  mod- 
ern Iliuns.  The  region  ])0ssesses  a  rich 
soil,  abundant  water,  and  a  genial  cli- 
mate, but  the  towns  and  villages  are  in 
ruins  and  the  Bedouins  are  the  ])rinci- 
pal  inhabitants.  The  cities  of  Zobah 
are  forsaken. 

ZOBE'BAH  {Hlou'-moriiii]),  a  de- 
scendant of  Judah.  1  Chr.  4  :  8. 

ZO'HAR  {u-hiteucs8).  1.  The  fa- 
ther of  Ephron.  Gen.  23  :  8  ;  25  :  9. 

2.  See  Zerah,  3. 

ZO'HELETH  {serpent),  a  stone 
by  "  En-rogel,"  by^  which  Adonijah 
"  slew  sheep  and  oxen  and  fat  cattle." 
1  Kgs.  1 :  9.  M.  Ganneau  found  the 
steep  rock-cut  steps  by  which  people 
from  the  village  of  Siloam  pass  down  to 
the  "Virgin's  Fount,"  in  the  Kedron 
valley,  bear  among  the  Arabs  the  name 
of  Zdhireileh.  This  he  would  identify 
with  the  stone  of  Zoheleth.  and  En-ro- 
gel would  be  the  Virgin's  Fount  instead 
of  the  Well  of  Job  {liir  Eyitb),  as  has 
been  usually  supposed. 

ZO'HETH  (derivation  unknown), 
a  descendant  of  Judah.   1  Chr.  4  :  20. 

ZO'PHAH  (a  cntse),  an  Asherite 
chief.  1  Chr.  7  :  Zf>,  36. 

ZO'PHAI  (honei/roMh).  a  Kohathite 
Levite,  ancestor  of  Samuel.  1  Chr.  6  : 
26. 

ZOPHAR,  one  of  Job's  three  friends, 
Job  2  : 1 1 ,  is  called  the  Naamatliite,  ])rob- 
ably  because  he  belonged  to  Naamah, 
Josh.  15  :  41.  a  town  assigneil  to  Judah. 

ZO'PHI.>I  {>ratrl,erx).  The  field  of 
Zophim  was  the  place  on  the  "  top  of 
Pisgah "  to  which  Balak  brought  Ba- 
laam that  the  false  proj)het  might  see 
the  camp  of  Israel.  Num.  23  :  14.  (^rove 
says  that  if  the  word  rendered  "field" 
be  taken  in  its  usual  sense,  then  the 
"  field  of  Zophim  "  was  a  cultivated  spot 
high  up  on  the  top  of  Pisgah.  The  po- 
sition of  the  field  must  of  course  depend 
upon  the  site  assigned  for  Pisgah.  If 
Jcbel  Sid;/fiiih  be  Pisgah,  as  supposed  by 
Paine  (but  not  confirmed),  then  Zophim, 
or  "the  top  of  Pisgah,"  was  the   third 

923 


ZOK 


zuz 


summit  of  Stdghah,  running  westward 
from  Nebo,  which  is  a  little  higher  than 
the  others  and  appears  to  look  down 
upon  them.     See  Pisgah. 

ZO'RAH,  AND  ZORE'AH  {hor- 
nets' town).  AND  ZA'REAH,  Neh.  11: 
29,  a  town  in  the  low-country  of  Judah; 
afterward  assigned  to  Dan,  Josh.  15  :  33; 
19  :  41 ;  the  birthplace  and  burialplace 
of  Samson.  Jud.  13  :  2,  25  ;  16  :  31.  From 
Zorah  the  Danites  sent  spies  to  search 
the  land  for  a  place  of  inheritance.  Jud. 
18  :  2.  Zorah  was  fortified  by  Reho- 
boam,  2  Chr.  11  :  10,  and  inhabited  af- 
ter the  return  from  captivity.  Neh.  11  : 
29.  The  place  still  exists  as  SurnJi,  13 
miles  west  of  Jerusalem,  23  miles  south- 
east of  Joppa,  and  2  miles  north  of  Beth- 
shemesh.  It  is  situated  on  the  crest  of 
a  hill,  1150  feet  above  the  sea.  It  over- 
loolis  the  valley  of  Sorek.  Timnah 
stands  some  2  or  3  miles  to  the  south- 
west, across  the  valley. 

ZO'RATHITES,  a  family  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  probably  inhabitants 
of  Zorah.  1  Chr.  4  :  2. 

ZO'REAH.  Josh.  15  :  33.  See  Zo- 
rah. 

ZO 'RITES,  probably  inhabitants 
of  Zorah.   1  Chr.  2  :  54. 

ZOROB'ABEL.  See  Zerubbabel. 

ZUAR  (stualliiess),  father  of  Neth  an - 
eel.  Num.  1:8;  2:5;  7  :  18,  23 ;  10  : 
15. 

ZUPH  {honeycomh),  a  Kohathite 
Levite,  an  ancestor  of  Samuel  the  prophet. 
1  Sam.  1  :  1;   1  Chr.  6:35. 

ZUPH  {flog,  sedge).  Deut.  1 : 1,  mar- 
gin. From  the  Hebrew  Suph,  signify- 
ing a  kind  of  sea-weed,  and  the  Hebrew 
name  for  the  Red  Sea,  which  see. 

ZUPH,  THE  LAND  OF,  the 
farthest  point  of  the  journey  of  Saul, 
and  where  he  encountered  Samuel  at  a 
certain  city,  the  name  of  which  is  not 
given.  1  Sam.  9  :  5.  6.  The  whole  of 
this  journey  has  been  a  curious  puzzle 
in  Scripture  topography,  "  for  the  start- 


ing-point is  unknown,  the  point  to  which 
he  returned  doubtful,"  and  the  interme- 
diate places  have  not  been  satisfactorily 
identified.  Some  resemblance  to  Zuph 
was  thought  to  be  found  in  Sola,  7  miles 
west  of  Jerusalem  and  5  miles  south- 
west of  Nehy  Samwil.  Conder  notes 
that  the  Targum  on  the  passage  connects 
the  name  "Zuph"  with  the  root  zephah, 
meaning  *' to  shine,"  and  hence  "to  be 
conspicuous,"  whence  come  the  words 
"  Zephathah,"  "  Zophim,"  "  Zephir," 
and  '  Mizpeh."  In  other  Targums  the 
words  "  Zophira "  and  "Mizpeh"  are 
used  indiscriminately  in  speaking  of 
one  place,  both  words  being  applicable 
to  a  "' watch-tower "  or  city  in  an  ele- 
vated situation.  "Zuph"  was,  howev- 
er, also  the  name  of  a  man,  and  it  is  not 
impossible  that  the  land  of  Zuph  may 
have  been  named  after  him.  1  Sam.  1  : 
1.  In  the  first  case  the  city  in  the  land 
of  Zuph  would  possibly  be  Shu/a:  in 
the  second  it  would  be  Bethlehem,  the 
home  of  Zuph.     See  Mizpeh. 

ZUR  {rock).  1.  A  Midianitish  prince. 
Num.  25:15:  Josh.  13:21,  who  was 
slain,  with  others,  by  the  Israelites 
when  the  Midianites  suflTered  the  judg- 
ments of  God  for  their  sins.  Num.  26  : 
18. 

2.  Son  of  the  founder  of  Gibeon.  1 
Chr.  8  :  30  :  9  :  36. 

ZU'RIEL  {my  rock  is  God),  a  chief 
Levite  in  the  time  of  the  Exodus.  Nunv 
3  •  35 

ZU'RISHAD'DAI  (?»y  rock  is  the 
Almighty),  the  father  of  the  chief  of 
Simeon  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus. 
Num.1  :  6:   2  :  12:  7  :  36.  41;  10  :  19. 

ZU'ZIMS,  the  Ammonite  name.  Gen. 
14  :  5,  of  doubtful  derivation,  for  a  tribe 
of  gigantic  stature  and  strength  which 
inhabited  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan 
and  the  Dead  Sea,  probably  between  the 
Arnon  and  the  Jabbok.  They  were  at- 
tacked and  routed  by  Chedorlaomer,  and 
afterward  expelled  by  the  Ammonites. 


"  All  scripture  is  given  by  inspiratiox  of  God,  and  is  profitable  for 
doctrine,    for   reproof,   for    correction,   for    instruction   in    righteousness  : 
that    the   man   of   god  may   be    perfect,   thoroughly   furnished   unto   all 
GOOD  WORKS." — 2  Tim.  3  :  16,  17. 
924 


APPENDIX 


COiNTENTS  OF  APPENDIX. 


Chronological  Tables:  page 

1.  Of  the  Old  Testament 927-931 

2.  Between  the  Testaments 932-933 

3.  Of  the  New  Testament 934-936 

Origin  of  Nations 936 

Herodian  Family 937 

Weights,  Measures,  and  Money 938 

Time  and  Jewish  Year 939 

Miracles  in  the  Old  Testament 940 

Our  Lord's  Miracles 941 

Parables  in  the  Old  Testament 941 

Our  Lord's  Parables 942 

Names,  Titles,  and  Offices  of  Christ 942-943 

Prophecies  Kelating  to  Christ 943 

Special  Prayers  in  the  Bible 944 

Summary  of  the  Mammalia  in  the  Bible 945 

Birds  in  Palestine 946-947 

Reptiles  in  Scripture 948 

Insects  in  Scripture 949 

Fisheries  in  Palestine 949 

Table  of  Obsolete  Words  in  Scripture 950-954 

Books,  Chapters,  and  Verses  in  the  Bible 955 

Index  of  Illustrations  in  Bible  Dictionary 957-960 

926 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLES. 


INTRODUCTORY   NOTE. 


The  chronology  of  the  Bible,  up  to  the  building  of  Solomon's  temple,  is  very  largely 
a  matter  of  conjecture.  Tlio  usual  dates,  which  are  hero  given,  were  computed  by  Arch- 
bisiiop  Ussher  and  Dr.  Hales.  The  ditference  between  them  arises  from  their  dillt-rent 
source.  Archbishop  Usslier  took  tiie  ages  of  tlie  patriarclis  at  the  birth  of  their  eldest 
sons,  as  given  in  tlie  Hebrew  original  text,  and  adtied  tliem  togetiier,  and  thus  arrived 
at  the  conchision  that  the  Deluge  came  in  the  sixteen  liundred  and  fifty-sixtli  year 
after  the  Creation.  Dr.  Hales  made  the  Septuagiut  Version  (see  Biiu.K)  bis  basis,  and,  add- 
ing these  ages  as  given  in  it,  put  the  Deluge  at  two  tliousaiid  two  hundnd  and  tifiy-si.x. 
years  after  the  Crtation,  tlie  two  texts  ditfering  by  this  amount.  .Toseplius,  it  is  worthy 
of  note,  has  the  hitter  date  for  the  event.  The  dates  from  the  Dehige  to  the  entrance 
into  Canaan  are  found  and  differ  in  the  same  way.  It  is  nianifest  ihat  neither  table  can 
be  implicitly  relied  upon.  The  longer  Chronology  of  Dr.  Hales  is  probably  nearer  the 
fact,  inasmuch  as  it  allows  more  time  for  the  spread  of  population  and  the  development 
of  kingdoms;  as,  for  instance,  Egypt. 

The  tables  wo  give  are  those  of  Mr.  J.  Gurney,  revised  in  1878  by  the  Rev.  S.  G.  Green, 
D.  D.,  and  added  to  Xhe  Bible  for  Bible-Teachers  printed  by  Eyre  &  Spot tiswoode,  Queen's 
Printers,  London.  But  the  table  relating  to  the  New  Testament  times  has  been  again 
revised  and  materially  altered  and  enlarged  by  the  editor  of  this  Dictionary  on  the 
basis  of  bis  History  of  the  Apostolic  Church. 


1.  THE  PRINCIPAL  EPOCHS  FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  ENTRANCE 

INTO  CANAAN,  ACCORDING  TO  THE  DATES    GIVEN  BY 

USSHER  AND  BY   HALES. 


Yr.  of 

B.  C. 

the 

Wld. 

4004 

3874 

180 

3769 

235 

3679 

325 

3609 

395 

3544 

460 

3382 

622 

3317 

687 

3130 

874 

3074 

930 

3017 

987 

2948 

1056 

2348 

1656 

2346 

1658 

2311 

1693 

2281 

1723 

2247 

1757 

2233 

1771 

EVENTS. 

HALES. 

USSHER. 

Yr.of 

Yr.of 

B.  C. 

the 
Wld. 

B.  c. 

the 
Wld. 

The  Creation 

5411 
5181 
4976 

230 
435 
625 

2217 
2185 

1787 
1819 

Birth  of  Seth 

Birtii  of  Enos 

Birth  of  Cainan 

4786 

Birth  ofMahalaleel....4616 

795 

2155 

1849 

Death        of       Adam 

2126 

1878 

(.Hales) 14481 

930 

1998 

2006 

Birth  of  Jared... 14451 

960  . 

1996 

2008 

Birth  of  Enoch '4289 

1122 

1921 

2083 

Birth  of  Methuselah...  4124 

1287 

Birth  of  Lamech 3937 

1474 

1896 

2108 

Death        of        Adam 

1836 

2168 

( Ussher).                       \ 

Translation  of  Enoch.  3914 

1487 

1728 

2276 

Birth  of  Noah 3755 

1656 

1706 

2298 

The  Deluge 3155 

2256 

Birth  of  Arphaxad 3153 

2258 

1619 

2315 

Birth  of  Salah ,3018 

2393 

1635 

2369 

Birth  of  Heber 2888 

2523 

1571 

2433 

Death  of  Noah  (Hales).  2805  2606  i 

1491 

2513 

Birth  of  Peleg 2754 

2657 

1451 

2553 

Dispersion     of    man-; 

kind  (Ussher). 

EVENTS. 


Birth  of  Reu 

Dispersion  of  man- 
kind (//rt/ra) 

Birth  of  Sorug 

Birtli  of  Nahor 

Birth  of  Terah 

Death  of  Noah  ( Ussher) 

Birth  of  Abram 

Abram  arrives  in 
Canaan 

Birth  of  Isaac 

Birth  of  Jacob  and 
Esau 

Joseph  goes  to  Egypt.. 

Jacob  and  all  his  fam- 
ily go  to  Egypt 

Death  of  Jacob 

Death  of  Josei)h 

Birth  of  Moses 

The  Exodus* 

Deatii  of  Moses;  En- 
trance of  Israel  into 
Canaan 


HALES. 


I  Yr.  of 

B.C.I    the 
Wld. 

2624  2787 

2554  2857 

2492  2919 

2362  3049 

2283  3128 

2153  3258 

2078  3333 
2053'  3358 

I 
1993  3418 
1885,  3526 

1863'  a'548 
1846  2365 
1792  3619 
1728  3683 
1648  3763 


1608 1  3803 


*  There  are  two  prominent  dates  for  the  Exodus :  The  old  view  that  it  occurred  under 
Thothmes  or  Tutraes  II.,  who  reigned  about  u.  c.  1485.  But  the  best  Egyptologists  now 
consider  Menephthah  I.,  the  son  of  Rameses  II.  the  (ireat,  to  be  the  Pharaoh  of  the 
Exodus,  and  ptit  the  event  in  the  year  b.  c.  1317.  See  Exodus.  This  change  of  date  of 
course  alters  the  subsequent  dates,  but  the  time  thus  apparently  lost  is  regained  by 
shortening  the  period  of  the  Judges;  which  is  allowable,  inasmuch  as  it  is  not  known 
how  many  of  the  Judges  were  contemporaries. 


CHKONOLOGICAL  TABLES. 

2.  EVENTS  FROM  THE   ENTRANCE  INTO  CANAAN,  WITH  CONTEMPORA- 

NEOUS PERSONS  AND  EVENTS  IN  HEATHEN  COUNTRIES,  TO 

THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 

Ybq-ts 

contemporaneous  persons 

B.  C. 

EVENTS  IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  ISRAELITES. 

AND   events  in  HEATHEN 

COUNTRIES. 

1429 

Joshua  dies.    From  that  time  till  1169,  Othniel, 

Chusan,  kingof  Mesopotamia; 

Ehud,  Deborah  and  Barak,  Gideon,  Abime- 

Eglon,  king  of  Moab;  Jabin, 

LECH,  Tola,  Jair,  Jephthah,  Ibzan,    Elon, 

king  of  Canaan,  etc. 

Abdon,  Samson. 

1169 

Eli. 

1129   Samuel. 

1099    iSAUL. 

Nahash,  king  of  Ammon. 

1058 

David   reigns  at  Hebron,  and  Ish-Bosheth  at 
Malianaim. 

1050 

David  reigns  at  Jerusalem  over  all  Israel. 

Hiram  I.  (Al.ihalli),  king  of 

Prophets  Nathan  and  Gad. 

Tyre;  HadaiiEzer  of  Aram- 

David  brings  up  the  ark,  and  places  it  in  Zion ; 

zobah  ;  Toi  of  Hamath  ;  Ha- 

extends    his    kingdom    from    Egypt    to    the 

NUN  of  Ammon. 

Euphrates. 

1017 

Solomon  succeeds. 

Psinaches  in  Egypt;   Hadad 

Prophet  Nathan. 

and  Genubath  "in  Edom  (?); 
Rezon  in  Damascus. 

1014 

Commencement  of  the  building  of  the  temple. 

Hiram  of  Tyre;  Pseusennesi 
IL  in  Egypt.                               i 

1007    Completion  of  the  temple,  and  beginning  of  the 

palace-building. 

Prophet  Ahijah. 

977 

Solomon  dies.    Division  of  the  kingdom. 

Sesonchis  (Shishak)  in  Egypt, 
first  king  of  the  22d  dynasty. 

Kingdom  of  Judah. 

Kingdom  of  Israel. 

977 

Rehoeoam  (reigns  17 

years). 
Prophet  Shemaiah. 

Jeroboam  (reigns  22 

years). 
Prophet  Ahijah. 

973 

Jerusalem    plundered 

959 

by .;. 

Shishak. 

Tabrimmon  in  Damascus. 

Abijah,  or  Abijam  (3 

years'). 

War  between  Judah 

956 

and 

Israel. 

Nadab  (2  years). 

Zerah  (Osorkon  II.)  in  Egypt. 

Asa  (41  years). 

956 

943 

Victory  over  Zerah. 

954 

Baasha  (24  years). 
Prophet  Jehu. 

Ben-hadad  I.  in  Damascus. 

932 

Repulseof 

Baasha  by  the  aid  of... 

the  Syrians  under  Ben-hadad. 

Prophets  Azariah  and 

"936 

Elah  (2  years). 

Hanani. 

931 

929 
926 

918 

Zimri.     Civil  war  (4 

years). 
Omri  alone  (6  years). 
Samaria      made     the 

capitiil. 
Ahab       (22       years) 

marries      Jezebel, 

daughter  of. 

1 
1 

Ethbaal  (Itobal)  of  Tyre  and 

916 

Jehoshaphat         (25 
years)  tights  in  alli- 
ance with 

Ahab    unsuccessfully 
against 

Sidon. 

Ben-hadad  II.  of  Damascus. 

900 

conquers      Ammon 
and  Moab ; 

897 
896 

Prophets    Elijah    and 

Micaiah. 
Ahaziah  (2  years). 
Revolt  of  Moab. 

JeHORAM,     or     JORAM 

(12  years). 

fights  in  alliance  with 
Prophets  Jehu,  Jaha- 

Jehoram  against 

Moab. 

ziel,  and  Eliezer. 

928 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES. 


Years 

I    B.C. 


892 


885 


EVENTS  IN  THE  HISTORY  OP  TIIK    ISK AKI.ITKS 


CONTEMPORANEOl'S    rKUSf>NS 

AND  EVENTS   IN   HICATHEN 

COUNTRIES. 


Jehoram  (8  years); 
having  previously 
niarriL-d  Athaliali, 
daugliter  of 

Edom  revolts. 

Ahaziaii      (1      year) 

fights     in     alliance 

with 


A  hah. 
! Prophet  E/ishn. 

1 

Jorani  unsuccessfully 


884    Ahaziah  and 

Athali  All's     usurpa- 
tion (t)  years). 

878   IjEHOASH.'or  JOAS1I(40 

1    years).  I 


against. 


Hazael  of  Damascus. 


Jorain  killed  by  Jehu, 

884  jKiiu  (28  years). 


856 


840 
838 


809 


757 
742 


Repairing  of  the  tern-; 

pie.  ! 

Gath  taken,  Jerusalem 

threatened,  j 

The    Syrians    invade] 
I     Judah.  I 

IAmaziah  (29  years).     [ 

I    conquers  Edom,        j 
is  defeated  by ' 


726 


The    country    east   of 

Jordan  contjuered  by'Hazael. 

Pro))lu't  Joiinh.  I 

i Prophet  Joe/ (?).  i 

856  Jehoahaz  (17  years).  I 

I  I 

847      and    Israel    greatly 

i     reduced  by Hazael. 

I  Close  of  the  22d  dynasty  in 

839  Jehoash  (16  years)      '     Egypt, 
defeats  the  Syrians 
!     three  times  under...  Ben-hadad  III.  of  Damascus. 


Azariah,  or  UzziAH 

(52  years), 
fortifies  the  Edoraite 
seaport  I^lath. 
Prophet  Amos. 


JOTHAM  (16  years). 
Prophets   Mlcah    aud 

Isaiah. 
Ahaz  fl6  years) 

obtains  against..  . 

the  help  of  the..  . 


823 


782^ 

772 
771 


760 
758 


Jehoash,    who   enters 
Jerusalem.  1 

Jeroboam  II.  (41  years);   restores  the  boundary  of 
Israel  by  war  with  the  Syrians. 


Interregnum 

(10  years). 
Prophet  Ilosea. 
Zechariah 

(6  months). 
Siialt.um  (1  month). 
Menahkm  (10  years). 
Israel  tributary  to  the 
Pekahiah  (2  years). 
Pekah  (20  years). 


Israel  and  the — 


Prophet  Oded. 
Ahaz  is  dependent  on 
Assyria. 


Hezekiah  (29  years) 
conquers  the  Philis- 
tines. 

59 


740 
730 


Many  of   the   peopk 
transported  to 


776  The  first  Olympiad. 

Assyrians  under  Pul. 

752'Founding  of  Rome. 


747  Nabonassar  in  Rabylon. 
Syrians,  under  PiK/.lN, 

Assyrians  under  Tuii.ATH' 
PILKSKU  II. 

Era  of  Nabonassar. 


Assyria. 


Interregnum  (9  years).    734  Syracuse  founded 
Ho.sHKA  (9  years)  trib-j 

utary  to  the \ Assyrians. 

attempts  to  free  hira- 

self  by   an   alliance 

with 


So,  kingof  EK'vpt  (Shebek 
I.),  first  king  of  the  25th 
dynasty.  


929 


r 


CHKONOLOGICAL  TABLES. 


Years 
B.  c. 


726 


697 


642 


640 
628 


609 

609 
606 


598 
697 
594 
589 


586 


574 


561 


EVENTS  IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  ISRAELITES. 


!   CONTEMPORANEOUS  PERSONS 
AND  EVENTS  IN   HEATHEN 
COUNTRIES. 


723!Samaria  besieged  by... Shalmaneser  IV.  of  As- 


721 


I     syna. 

Samaria  taken  by 'Sargon. 

Israel  led  captive  into Assyria. 

The   land  peopled    bv  I 

Assyrian  colonists. 


713  iTbe  surviving  kingdom  of  Judah  invaded  by. 


712    Destruction  of  the  Assyrian  army.     Embassy  to 
Hezekiah  from 


Manasseh  (55  years). 

More  Assyrian  colonists  are  sent  into  the  land  of 
Israel  by 


Amon  (2  years).    Prophet  Nahum  (?). 


Josiah  (31  years). 

Prophets  Jeremiah  and  Zephaniah. 


Josiah  falls  in  battle  against  Necho,  king  of  Egypt. 

Jehoahaz  (3  months). 
Jehoiakim  (11  years). 
Judaii  made  tributary  by  Nebuchadnezzar.    Date 

usually  fixed  for  commencement  of  the  seventy 

years'  subjection  to  Babylon. 


Prophet  ITaha'k'kuk. 

Jehoiachin  (3  months).  Jerusalem  taken  by  the 
Chaldeans.    Jehoiachin  in  exile. 

Zedekiaii  CMattaniah)  reigns,  under  the  Chal- 
deans fll  years). 

Ezal-iel  appears  as  prophet  at  the  river  Chebar,  in 
Babylonia. 

Zedekiah  applies  for  help  to 

Commencement  of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Chaldeans. 

Jerusalem  destroyed;  the  king  taken  prisoner; 
many  of  the  people  transported  to 

Gedaliaii  is  appointed  governor  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and  is  killed  by  Ishmael ;  the  remnant 
of  the  .Fews  flee  to  Egypt. 

Prophet  Obndiahd). 

Ezekiel's  visions,  fifty  years  after  Josiab's  refor- 
mation. 


Jehoiachin's  captivity  at  Babylon  relieved  by. 


.  Sennacherib.* 
ITirhakah   (Tearkon)  of 
I     Egypt;    war   with   Sen- 
I     nacherib. 

I 

.  MERODACH-r>ALADAN      in 

I     Babylon. 


ESAR-HADDON. 

jEgypt  sul'ject  to  Assyria 
664  PSAMMETICHUS    in    Egvpt, 

j     first  king  of   the    2*61  h 

I     dynasty. 
633  Cyaxares,    the    Median 

I     king. 
630  Egypt  regains    independ- 


625  Nabopolassar  independ- 

j     ent  in  Babylon. 

I  Fall  of  Nineveh. 
610  Necho  reigns  in  Egypt. 

610  Eclipse  of  Thales. 


605  Necho    defeated    at    Car 
j     chemish    by  Nebuchad- 
I     nezzar. 
604  Nebuchadnezzar,     king 

of  Babylon. 
595  HoPHR.i  (Apries),  king  of 

Egypt. 
594  Solon  at  Athens. 


the  king  of  Egypt. 


Babylon. 

Nebuchadnezzar  captures 
Tyre  under  Ethbaal  II. 


570  Birth  of  Pythagoras. 
569  Amasis,  king  of  Egypt. 
561  Death    of    Nebuchadnez- 
zar. 

Evil-merodach. 

559  Neriglissar  at  Babylon. 


*  According  to  Schrader,  who  is  an  authority  upon  Assyriology,  the  dates  of  Shal- 
manezer,  Sargon,  and  Sennacherib  should  be:  Sbalmanezer,  B.  c,  727-722;  Sargon,  b.  c. 
722-705;  Sennacherib,  b.  c.  705-682. 

930  ^  ~ 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES. 


Years 

B.C. 


561 


EVENTS  IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  ISRAELITES. 


Daniel's  prophetic  visions. 


Palestine,  a  province  of  Persia. 


536  i Return  of  first  company 
I  of  exiles  to  Jerusalem 
!     under  Zerubbabel    in 

!     the 

Rebuilding  of  the  temple 
begun. 


522 


520 


517 


Building  of  the  temple 
stopped  by 


Temple  recommenced  in 
the 

Prophets  Haggai  and 
Zechariak. 

The  temple  completed 


1st  year  of  Cyrits. 

Cambyses  (Ahasuerus  of 
Ezra  iv.). 

Pseudo-Smerdis  (Arta 
xerxes  of  Ezra  iv.). 

Darius  Hystaspes  (Da- 
rius of  Ezra  iv.  24 ;  v. ; 
vi.). 

2d  year  of  Darius. 


Darius  invades  Greece. 


Xerxes  I.  (Ahasuerus  of 
book  of  Esther)... 
Invasion  of  Greece.. 


457 


444 


Return  of  second  large 
company  of  Jews  to 
Jerusalem,  under  Ezra, 
with  a  commission 
from 

Neheniiah,  at  Jerusalem, 
governor  for  twelve 
years,  till  the  year  432. 


7th  year,  return  from 
Greece. 

Esther  made  queen... 

12th     year,     Haman's 
plot  and  death 

Feast  of  Purim  estab- 
lished. 
Artaxer.xes  I.  or  LoN- 

GIMANUS    (Artaxerxes 

of  Ezra  vii.) 


the  king  of  Persia. 


Xerxes  II.  (45 days).... 

SOGDIANUS  (6  numths). 
The     Prophet    i»/a/aeAM>ARius  II.  (Nothus).... 
concludes  the  Old  Tes-I 
tament  Scriptures.*      I 


CONTEMPORANEOUS    PERSONS 

AND  EVENTS  IN  HEATHEN 
COUNTRIES. 

555  Nahonadius  or  Lahvnk- 
TUS,  last  kiiiK  ot  Haby- 
loll ;  associated  with  his 
sou  Hklshazzar. 

538;Capture  of  Haby  ion  by 
I    Cyrus. 


Darius  (Astynges?)  rules 
in  Babylon. 


534  Tarquin  at  Rome. 

529 

525  Cambyses  conquers  Egypt. 


521 


509  Rome's   first  treaty  with 

I     Carthage. 
490  Battle  of  Marathon. 
486  Egypt  revolts  from  Persia, 
and  is  reconquered,  484. 

486 

480Battles     of    Thermopylae 

and  Salaniis. 
479, Battle  of  Platea;  sea-fight 

of  Mycale. 


478 
474 


465 
461 


Pericles  at  Athens. 


Herodotus  the  historian 
431 1  Pelopou  nesian  war  begi  ns, 

425 
425 

424  Socrates,   Xenopbon,   and 
I    Thucydides  at  Athens 


*  See  chronological  list  of  the  prophets  under  Prophets. 


931 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES. 

3.  EVENTS  BETWEEN  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  OLD  AND  THE  BEGINNING 

OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

Years 

CONTEMPORANEOUS   PERSONS 

B.  c. 

EVENTS  IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  ISRAELITES. 

AND  EVENTS  IN  HEATHEN 

COUNTRIES. 

409 

Manasseh      the     priest 

Artaxerxes  II. 

builds    a    temple     on 

(Miiemon) 

405 

DiONYSlus  in  Sicily. 

Mount  Geriziiu. 

366 

Jesliua     killed     in     the 
temple  by  his  brother 

Battle  of  Cunaxa 

401 

• 

Johanan,     the      high 

priest. 

Artaxerxes  III. 
(Ochus) 

359 
342 

1st  Samnite  war. 

Arses  (or  Arogus) 

338 
337 

Battle  of  Chseronea. 
Philip    of   Macedon    aj> 

Darius  III.  (Codoman- 

pointed  general  of  the 

nus) 

336 

Greeks. 
Alexander         succeeds 

Philip. 

332 

Jaddua  the  high  priest 

defeated  by 

334 
333 

Alexander  at  Granicus; 

at  Issus ; 

again 

averts        Alexander's 

anger  from  Jerusalem. 

and  again 

331 
326 

at  Arbela. 

2d  Samnite  war. 

Death  of  Alexander 

323 

Palestine  under 

Alexander's     success- 
ors and  the  Romans. 

320 

Palestine  seized  by 

Ptolemy  Soter,  king  of 

Egypt. 
Egypt     and    settled    at 

Many  Jews  carried  to.... 

Alexandria. 

314 

Palestine  seized  by 

Antigonus  of  Syria. 
Ptolemy. 

312 

Era  of  the  Seleucidse. 

301 

reverts  to 

298 

3d  Samnite  war. 

Ptolemy       Philadel- 

PHUS 

284 

The  Hebrew  Scriptures 

translated  into  Greek 

about  this  time. 

280 

The  Achaean  League. 

Ptolemy  Euergetes.... 

247 

1st  Punic  war,  264-241. 

Ptolemy  Philopator... 

221 
212 

2d  Punic  war,  218-201. 
Capture  of  Syracuse. 

Ptolemy  Epiphanes 

204 

203 

Palestine  seized  by 

Antiochus  of  Syria. 

197 

Battle  of  Cynocephalse. 

Seleuous  Philopator... 

187 

176 

The    temple    preserved 
from  the  attempts  of.. 

Seleucus  general. 
Antiochus  Epiphanes.. 

175 

170 

Jerusalem  captured,  and 
the  temple  plundered 
and  pollutt^d,  hy 

Many  Jews  slain  or  sold 

Antiochus. 

as  slaves. 

168 

Defeat  of  Perseus. 

167 

Martyrdom  of  the  Mac- 
cabees. 

End   of  the   kingdom   of 
Macedon. 

165 

Jerusalem   recovered  by 
Judas  Maccab.?':us. 

3d  Punic  war,  149-146. 

161 

Jonathan  succeeds  Ju- 

das. 

932 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES. 

Years 

CONTEMPORANEOUS  PERSONS 

B.C. 

EVENTS  IN  THE  HISTORY  OP  THE  ISRAELITES. 

AND  EVENTS  IN   HEATHEN 
COUNTRIES. 

146 

Carthage  and  Corinth  de- 
stroyed. 

141 

Simon    frees    the   Jews 

from  foreign  rule. 

135 

.John  Hvrcanus. 

129 

subjugates  the  Edom- 
ites ; 

109 

takes  Samaria,  and  ob- 
tains Galilee. 

107 

Aristobulus. 

106 

AlEXANDKR  jANNiEUS 

90 

1st  ^rithridatic  war. 

94 

subdues  the  Gileadites 
and  Moabites. 

82 

2d  Mithridatic  war. 

79 

Alexandra. 

70 

Hyrcanus  and  Aristobu- 
lus contend  for  the  su- 

premacy. 

66 

3d  Mithridatic  war. 

63 

Tliey  appeal  to 

PoMPEY,  who  subjugates 
Judaja. 

60 

1st  triumvirate. 

54 

The   temple    plundered 
by 

Crassus. 

47 

Antipater      appointed 
governor  by 

CiESAR. 

48 

Battle  of  Pharsalia. 

43 

Herod  and  Phasael. 

43 

2d  triumvirate. 

40 

Jerusalem  taken  by  the 

Parthians. 

42 

Battle  of  Philippi. 

37 

Herod    retakes    Jerusa- 

lem. 

31 

Battle  of  Actium. 

17 

Herod  begins  to  rebuild 

the  temple. 

27 

Augustus  made  Emperor. 

5or4 

Birth  of  CHRIST  (the  common  era  of  A.  D.  com- 
mences four  years  later). 

Note.— In  the  first  part  of  the  above  tables,  coniprisins;  the  principal  epochs  in  the 

Pentateuch,  the  dates  assigned  by  Ussher  and  Hales  respectively  are  ^'iven  in  s<'parate 

columns,  Ussher  following  in  the  main  the  present  Hebrew  text,'and  Hal<s  the  Septua- 

gint.    After  the  entrance  upon  Canaan,  the  dates  given  in  the  tables  differ  from  both 

systems,  and  are  the  result  of  careful  computation,  together  with  a  comparison  of  the 

best  authorities.    Although  it  must  be  admitted  that  in  the  earlier  parts  of  the  history 

there  are  few  instances  in  which  perfect  exactness  can  be  asserted,  there  are  so  many 

checks  upon  any  serious  mistake  as  to  give  a  reasonable  degree  of  probability  to  the 

general  line  of  the  chronology. 

It  will  be  observed  that  no  dates  of  contemporary  events  in  heathen  countries  are 

given  before  the  first  Olympiad,  B.  c.  776,  secular  chronology  before  that  era  tieini;  un- 

certain.   And  some  of  the  later  dates  which  appear  in  the  table  have  been  placed  there 

according  to  the  usual  chronology,  without  reference  to  the  questions  which  have  been 

raised  as  to  the  events  themselves. 

933 


CHKONOLOGICAL  TABLES. 


4.  PRINCIPAL  EVENTS  OF  NEW  TESTAMENT  TIMES. 


A.  D. 


B.C.  5 

or  4 


SCRIPTURE  HISTORY. 


A.  D. 


30 


37 


40 


44 


Birth  of  Christ  (see  above). 
His  return  from  Egypt. 
(B.  c.  3.) 


45 


His  visit  to  the  Temple 
at  twelve  years  of  age. 


For  chronological  table 
of  the  gospel  history, 
see  article  Christ. 


EVENTS  in  PALESTINE. 


Death  of  Herod. 

(B.  c.  4.) 

Archelaus  in  Judaea, 
Samaria,  and  Idumea; 
Herod  Antipas  in 
Galilee  and  Persea, 
and  Philip  in  Auran- 
itis,  Trachoiiitis,  Pan- 
eas,  and  Batanea. 

Archelaus  deposed,  and 
Judaea  made  a  Roman 
province 

Cyrenius  (Quirinius), 
Governor  of  Syria  for 
the  second  time.  The 
registration,  or  "tax- 
ing." Acts  5 :  37. 

Revolt  of  "Judas  of  Gal- 
ilee." 

CoPONius  Procurator  of 
Judaea. 

Marcus  Ambivius  Pro- 
curator  , 


His  Crucifixion,  Resur- 
rection, and  Ascension. 

Descent  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  at  Pentecost. 

Martyrdom  of  Stephen. 

Conversion  of  Saul. 


Saul's  escape  from  Da- 
mascus, and  first  visit 
to  Jerusalem.  Gal.  1 :  18. 


Admission  of  Cornelius 
into  the  Church. 

James  the  Elder,  the  son 
of  Zebedee,  beheaded, 
and  Peter  delivered. 
Acts  12  :  2,  23. 

Paul's  second  visit  to  Je- 
rusalem, with  alms 
from  the  church  at 
Antioch.  Acts  11 :  30. 

Paul  is  set  apart  as  an 
apostle.  Acts  13 :  2. 


Annius  Rufus  Procura- 
tor (about) , 

Valerius  Gratus  Pro- 
curator  


Pontius    Pilate    Pro- 
curator  


Marcellus  Procurator 
Pilate  sent  to  Rome  by 

the  Prefect  of  Syria.... 
Maryllus       appointed 

Hipparch. 


Herod  Agrippa  I.,  king 
of  Judaea  and  Samaria. 


contemporaneous 

events  in  the  ROMAN 
EMPIRE. 


Augustus      Emperor     of 
Rome,  B.  c.  27-A.  d.  14, 


Tiberius     colleague     of 
Augustus 


Augustus  dies,  Tiberius 
sole  Emperor  (14-37; 


Herod  Agrippa  I. 
at  Caesarea 


dies 


Cuspius  Fadus  Procura- 
tor. 


Caligula  Emperor  (37-41) 


Philo  at  Rome 

Claudius  Emperor  (41-54) 


War  in  Britain,  43-51. 


9 
12 
13 
14 
U 
26 

36 
36 
37 


37 
40 
41 


44 


934 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES. 


45 


50 


51 

53 
54 
56 

57 

58 
58 


60 
61 

61-63 

63 
64 

64-67 


SCRIPTURE  HISTORY. 


EVENTS  IN  PALESTINE. 


CONTEMl'OKANKOLS 

EVENTS  IN  THK  ROMAN 

KMI'IRK. 


Paul's  first  missionary 
journey,  occupying 
about  a  vear. 

The  Epistle  of  .Tames  (?). 

Paul's  third  visit  to  Jeru- 
salem, respecting  the 
obligations  of  the  Mo- 
saic Law  on  Gentile 
converts.  The  apos- 
tolic council  of  Jeru- 
salem. Peaceful  ad- 
justment of  the  ques- 
tion of  circumcision. 
Acts  ch.  15;  Gal.  2: 1-10. 

Paul  sets  out  on  liis  sec- 
ond missionary  jour- 
ney, occupying  rather 
more  than  3  years,  and 
including  his  fourtli 
visit  to  Jerusalem. 

He  enters  Europe. 

Paul  writes  First 9.nd  Sec- 
ond Epistles  to  the  Thes- 
salonians  from  Corinth. 

begins  his  third  mis- 
sionary journey, occu- 
pying about  four 
years. 

writes  to  the  Gala- 
tians  (?)  from  Ephesus, 
or  from  some  part  of 
Greece  on  his  journey 
to  Corinth  (57). 

Paul  writes  First  Epistle 
to  the  Corinthians  from 
Ephesus;  Second  Epistle 
from  Macedonia. 

Paul  writes  to  the  Ro- 
mans from  Corinth. 

He  visits  (the  fifth  time) 
Jerusalem  ;  is  appre- 
hended,brought  before 
Felix,  and  imprisoned 
for  two  years  at  Csesa- 
rea.    Acts  21  :  17-26,32. 

Paul  appears  before  Fes- 
tus,  and  is  sent  to  Italy. 

Paul  arrives  a  prisoner 
at  Rome  in  spring. 

Epistle  of  James  the 
Lord's  brother  (?).  His 
martyrdom  (or  69). 

Paul  writes  to  the 
Ephesians,  Colossians, 
Philemon,  Philippians 
from  Rome. 

Paul  is  supposed  to  have 
been  released  (?). 

Epistle  to  the  Hebrercs. 
Timothy  set  free  (13: 
23). 

First  Epistle  of  Peter. 

Jude  writes  his  Epistle  (?) 

Peter  writes  bis  Second 
Epistle  (?). 


TiBKRius     Alexander 
Procurator ' 


Ventidius       Cumanus 
Procurator 


Antonius  Felix  Pro- 
curator  

The  Tetrarchy  of  Tra- 
chonitis  given  to 
Herod  AciRipPA  IL 
(the  last  of  the  Hero- 
dian  family). 


Revolt  of  the  Sicarii, 
headed  by  an  Egyptian 
(Acts  21:  38) 


PoRCius  Festus  Pro- 
curator  

Embassy  from  Jerusalem 
to  Rome  respecting  the 
wall. 


Albinus  Procurator. 


Gessius    Florus    Pro- 
curator. 


lA.D. 

I  46 
47 


51 


Decree  of  Claudius  ban-] 
isbing  the  Jews  from' 
Rome I  .52 


Nero  Emperor  (54-68). 


54 


60 

War    with    Boadicea     in' 
Britain 61 


Apollonius    of  Tyana    at 
the  Olympic  games. 


Great  fire  at  Romo;  first 
imperial  persecution  of 
tliu  Christians 


63 


64 


935 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES. 


64-«7 


SCRIPTURE  HISTORY. 


67 


Paul  writes  First  Epistle 
to  Timothy  and  Epistle  to 
Titus{'!).  After  visiting 
Crete  and  Maoedonia(?) 

'Paul  writes  Second  Ep.  to 
Timothy  from  second 
Rdiuan  captivity  (?).* 

Paul's  and  Peter's  mar- 
tyrdom in  Rome  (?j. 


68    The  R&velation of  John(?). 


80-90 


95 


John   writes  his  Gospel 

and  Epistles  (?). 
John  writes  the  Revela- 
tion (?). 
9&-100'Death  of  John. 


EVENTS  IN  PALESTINE. 


Beginning  of  the  great 
war  between  the  Ro- 
mans and  Jews 

Vespasian  General  in 
Palestine 


CONTEMPORANEOUS 

EVENTS  IN  THE  ROMAN 

EMPIRE. 


Galea  Emperor i 

Otho  and  Vitellius  Em- 


Destruction    of  Jerusa- 
lem by  Titus , 


perors 

Vespasian  Emperor., 


Titus  Emperor 

Domitian  Emperor 

Persecution  of  Christians. 

Nerva  Emperor 

Death  of  ApoUonius 


Trajan  Emperor. 


66 

67 
68 


98 


*  Those  who  deny  a  second  Roman  captivity  of  Paul  and  put  his  martyrdom  in  a.  D. 
64,  assign  First  Timothy  and  Titus  to  the  period  of  his  three  years'  residence  in  Ephesus, 
A.  D.  54  to  57,  and  Second  Timothy  to  a.  d.  63  or  64.  For  fuller  chronology  of  Paul's  life 
see  Paul.  . 

ORIGIN  OF  NATIONS. 

NOAH'S  SONS. 


Sons  of  Japheth.-f 

Gomer 

Magog 

Madai 

Javan 

Tubal 


Meshech . 


Tiras. 


Sons  of  Shem. 

Elam 

Asshur 

Arj)haxad 

Lud 

Aram 


Sons  of  Ham. 

Cush 

Misraira 

Phut. 

Canaan 


PRINCIPAL  countries 

peopled  by  them. 


Asia  Minor,  Armenia, 
Caucasus,  Europe. 


PRINCIPAL  nations  SPRUNG  FROM  THEM. 


Assyria,  Syria,  Persia, 
Arabia,  Northern  Mes- 
opotamia. 


Arabia,  Egypt,  North 
coast  of  Africa. 


Russians,  Germans,  Gauls,  Britons. 

Scythians — i.  e.,  peoples  north  of  Mt.  Caucasus. 

Medes. — Josephus. 

lonians,  and  Greeks  generally. 

Iberians  (between  Black  and  Caspian  Seas). — 
Josephus. 

Probably  Moschi  (between  Black  Sea  and  Ar- 
menia). 

Thracians  (so  classical  writers;  no  biblical 
clew). 


Elamites  of  Susiana:  north  of  Persian  Gulf. 
Assyrians. 

'"Chaldseans  are  Arphaxadeans."— t/bsfpAus. 
Lydians. — So  Bishop  Watson. 
Syrians  (and  Northern  Mesopotamians:  Pada?i- 
aram). 


Ethiopians  or  Abyssinians. 

Egyptians. 

Libyans. 

Canaanites. 


t  Gen.  10 :  5 :  "  By  these  were  the  isles,"  etc.  The  word  translated  "  isles  "  rather  means 
countries,  especially  those  washed  by  the  sea. 

936       ' 


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937 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  MONEY,  AND  TIME. 

(Ih'om  the  Oxford  Sunday-School  Teacher^s  Bible,  with  Additions.) 


WEIGHTS. 

Avoirdupois. 

lbs.  oz.             drs. 

A  gerah —  —           .439 

10  gerahs     =  1  bekah —  —         4.39 

2  bekahs     =  1  shekel —  —         8.9 

60  shekels    =  1  inaneh 2  0  14.628 

SOmauebs    =  1  talent 102  13  11.428 


D-oi/. 


lbs. 

oz. 

dwt. 

grs 

12 

0 





5 

— 

— 

10 

0 

2 

6 

0 

0 

125 

0 

0 

0 

MEASUKES. 

Long  Measure. 

ft. 

A  digit,  or  finger  rjer.  52  :  21) — 

4  digits       =  1  palin  (Ex.  25  :  25) — 

3  palms      =  1  span  (Ex.  28  :  16) — 

2  spans       =  1  cubit  (Gen.  6  :  15) 1 

4  cubits      =  1  fathom  (Acts  27  :  28) 7 

1.5  fathoms  =  1  reed  (Eze.  40  :  3,  5) 10 

13.3  reeds        =  1  line  (Eze.  40  :  3) 145 

Land  Measure. 

Eug.  miles,  paces. 

A  cubit —  — 

400  cubits      =  1  furlong  (Luke  24  :  13) —  145 

10  furlongs  =  1  mile  (Matt.  5  :  41) 1  403 

15  furlongs  =  1  Sabbath-day's  journey   (John   11:18;    Acts 

1  :12) 2  132 

24  miles       =  1  day's  journey 33  172 

Liquid  Measure. 

gals. 

A  caph — 

1.3  caph        =  1  log  (Lev.  14  :  10) — 

4  logs         =  1  cab — 

3  cabs         =  1  bin  (Ex.  30  :  24) 1 

2  bins         =  1  seah 2 

3  seahs       =  1  bath  or  ephah  (1  Kgs.  7  :  26;  John  2  :  6) 7 

10  ephahs    =  1  kor  or  homer  (Isa.  5  :  10;  Eze.  45  :  14) 75 

Dry  Measure. 

pecks,     gals. 

A  gachal —  — 

20gachals    =  1  cab  (2  Kgs.  6  :  25;  Rev.  6  :  6) —  — 

1.8  cabs         =  1  om3r  (Ex.  16  :  36) —  — 

3.3omers      =  1  seah  (Matt.  13  :  33) 1  0 

3  seahs       =  1  ephah  (Eze.  45  :  11) 3  0 

5  ephahs    =  1  letech  (Hos.  3  :  2) 16  0 

2  letechs    =  1  kor  or  homer  (Num.  11  :  32 ;  Hos.  3  :  2) 32  0 


m. 

0.912 

3.648 

10.944 

9.888 

3.552 

11.328 

11.04 


ft. 
1.824 
4.6 
1 


pts. 
0.625 
0.833 
3.333 
2 
4 

4.5 
5.25 


pts. 

0.1416 

2.8333 

5.1 

1 

3 

0 

0 


MONEY. 

ROMAN    MONEY. 

Amite  (Mark  12  :  42) =  $0  01.87 

2  mites        =  1  farthing  (Mark  12  :  42) =    0  03.75 

4  farthings  =  1  pennv  (Matt.  22  :  19) =    0  15 

100  pence        =  1  pound  (Matt.  18  :  24) =  15  00 


938 


JEWISH  MONEY, 

Wiffi  its  value  in  American  money. 

A  gerah  (Ex.  30  :  13) =  SO  02.73 

10  gerahs     =  1  bekah  (Ex.  38  :  2r.) =  0  '2iM7 

2  bekahs    =  1  shekel  (Ex.  30  :  13;  Isa.  7  :  23  ;  Matt.  17  :  27) =  0  54.74 

SOshekels    =  1  minah*  (Luke  19  :  13) =  27  37.o0 

60  mlnahs    =  1  talent =  1,642  50 

A  gold  shekel =  8  76 

A  talent  of  gold =  26,280  00 

N.  B.— A  shekel  would  probably  purchase  nearly  ten  times  as  much  as  the  same 
nominal  amount  will  now.  Remember  tliat  one  Roman  penny  (15  cents)  was  a  good 
day's  wages  for  a  laborer. 


TIME. 

The  naiural  day  was  from  sunrise  to  sunset. 

The  natural  night  was  from  sunset  to  sunrise. 

The  civU  day  was  from  sunset  one  evening  to  sunset  the  next. 


Day  (Ancient). 
Morning,  till  about  10  a.  m. 
Heat  of  day,  till  about  2  p.  M. 
Cool  of  dav,  till  about  6  p.  M. 


Night  {Ancient). 

First  watch  (Lam.  2  :  19),  till  midnight. 
Middle  watch  (Jud.  7  :  19),  till  3  a.  m. 
Morning  watch  (Ex.14:  24) till  6  A.  M. 

Night  {New  Testament). 

First  watch,  evening        =   6  to    9  P.  m. 

Second  watch,  midnight  =    9  to  12  p.  M. 

Third  watch,  cocAf/ow     =  12  to    3  a.m. 

Fourth  watch,  morning  =    3  to    6  a.  m. 

N  B   Our  Lord's  predictions  of  his  resurrection  are  in  accordance  with  the  usual  ex- 
pressions respectingthe  civil,  not  the  natural,  day.  Thus,"  ♦••'jee  days  and  three  nights 
is  in  the  Greek  all  one  word,  which  would  be  more  correctly  translated,    three  cnil 
days." 

THE  JEWISH   YEAR. 


Day  {New  Testament). 

Third  hour      =    6  to    9  a.  m. 
Sixth  hour      =    9  to  12  midday. 
Ninth  hour      =  12  to    3  p.  M. 
Twelfth  hour  ^    3  to    6  P.  m. 


Month  of 

Sacred    Civil 
year.     year. 


I. 

II. 
III. 
IV. 
V. 
VI. 


VII. 


VIII. 

IX. 
X. 

XT. 

XTI. 
XIII. 


VIT. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 
XII. 


II. 
III. 

IV. 
V. 
VI. 


Name. 


No.  of 
days. 


Abib  or  Nisan 
(Ex.  12:2;  13:4). 

Jyar  or  ;-  ;. 
Sisan  or  Sivan. 

Thammuz. 

Ab  (Ezr.  7  :9). 

Lhil  (Neh.  6  :  15). 


Tizri  (1  Kgs.  8  :  2). 


Bui  (1  Kes.  6  :  38). 
Chisleu  (Zech.7:  1). 
Thebeth(Estli.2:16) 
Shebat (Zech.  1 :7). 
I  Adar  (Ezr.  6  :  15). 
i  Ve-  Adur,  Intercalary 


30 

29 
30 
29 
30 
29 


30 


29 
30 
29 
30 
29 


English 
months. 


March,  April. 

April  and  May. 
May  and  June. 

June.  July. 
Julv,  August. 
August,  &ept. 


Sept.,  Oct. 


Oct.,  Nov. 
Nov.,  Dec. 
Dec,  Jan. 
Jan.,  Feb. 
Feb.,  March. 


Products. 


Barley  ripe. 
Fig  in  blossom. 

Barley  harvest. 

Wheat  harvest. 

Early  vintage. 

Ripe  figs. 

General  vintnge. 

Ploughins  and 
sowing. 

Latter  grapes. 

Snow. 

Grass  after  rain. 

Winter  fig. 
Almond  blossom. 


Jewish 
Festivals. 


Passover. 

Unleavened 

bread. 

Pentecost. 


,  Feast  of  Trum- 
I      pets. 
.;  ,\tonenient. 
I     Feast  of  Taber- 
L     nacles. 

Dedication. 
Purini. 


*  The  wirwA  or  Tnnncfc,  according   to  1   Kgs.  lOj  17  compared  with  2  Chr  9; 
shekels  ;   but 
50.    The  passac 

your  maneb."     -  ,        .         , 

coins  in  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  bearing  tlie  same  name. 


16.  contained  100 


."     This  is  variously  interpreted.     (\)  Ji)  +  i-'y  +  la  —  wi.     ^-;  i",  ^>,  ••' 


939 


PKINCIPAL  MIRACLES  IN  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


MIRACLES. 


Destruction  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah 

Lot's  wifp  turned  to  a  pillar  of  salt 

Biith  of  Isaac 

The  burning  bush  not  consumed 

Aaron's  rod  clianged  into  a  serpent 

The  Plagues  of  Egypt.— (1.)  Waters  made  blood. 
(2.)  Frogs.  (3.)  l-ice.  (4.)  Flies.  (5.)  Murrain. 
(6.)  Boils.  (7.)  Thunder,  etc.  (8.)  Locusts.  (9.) 
Darkness.     (10.)  Death  of  the  first-born 

Red  Sea  divided  by  E.  wind;  Israel  passes  through. .Moses 

Marah's  waters  sweetened do. 

Manna  sent  daily— the  Sabbath  excepted 

Water  from  the  rock Moses. 

Part  of  Israel  burned  lor  ungrateful  and  faithless  dis- 
content  

Nadab  and  Abihu  consumed  for  offering  "  strange 
fire" Mo.-ies 

The  earth  swallows  Korah,  eic— fire  and  plague  follow.. 

Aaron's  rod  budding  shows  his  choice  by  God 

Water  from  the  rock  (smitten  by  Moses  twice) Moses 

Brazen  serpent;  Israel  healed do. 

Balaam's  ass  speaks 

The  river  Jordan  stopped  ;  Israel  crosses  dryshod.. Joshua 

Walls  of  Jericho  fall  down  do. 

Sun  and  moon  stayed  ;  hail-storm  in  aid  of  Israel,    do. 

Strength  of  Samson 

Water  flows  from  hollow  place  "  in  Lehi."  (Heb.)  Samson 

Dagon  falls  twice  before  the  ark ;  emerods  on  Philis- 
tines  


WKOUGHT  AT 


Men  of  Beth-shemesh  smitten  for  looking  into  the  ark... 
Tliunder-storm  causes  a  panic  in  the  Philistines'  army... 

Thunder  and  rain  in  harvest Samuel 

Sound  in  tlie  mulberry  trees — i.e.  God  goeth  before. .David 

Uzzah  struck  dead  for  toucliinu  the  ark 

Jeroboam's  hand  withered  and  his  new  altar  destroyed... 

Widow  of  Zarepliath's  meal  and  oil  increased Elijah 

Widow's  son  raised  from  death do. 

Drought,  fire,  and  rain  at  Elijah's  prayer  ;  Elijah  fed  by 

ravens Elijah 

Ahaziah'9  captains  consumed  by  fire do. 

River  Jordan  divided  by  Elijah  and  Elislia  successively.. 

Elijah  carried  up  into  heaven 

Waters  of  Jericho  healed  with  salt Elisha 

Bears  destroy  42  mocking  "young  men"  (Heb.)...    do. 

Water  foi-  Jeliosl):iphai  and  the  allied  army do. 

The  widow's  oil  multiplied do. 

Shunammite'n  son  given,  and  raised  from  the  dead    do. 

The  deadly  pottage  cured  with  meal do. 

Hundred  men  fed  witn  twenty  loaves do. 

Naaman  cured  of  leprosy  ;  it  is  inflicted  on  Gehazi    do. 

The  iron  axe-head  swims do. 

Benhadad's  plans  discerned;  Hazael's  thoughts, etc.    do. 

Syrian  army  smitten  with  blindness do. 

Syrian  army  cured  of  blindness 

Elisha's  bones  revive  the  dead 

Sennacherib's  army  destroyed  by  a  blast 

Sun's  shadow  goes  back   10  degrees  on  the  sun-dial  of 

Ahaz 

Uzziah  struck  with  leprosy 

Shadrach,  Meshach,  Abednego,  delivered  from  the  fur- 


Daniel  saved  in  the  den  of  lions 

Jonah  saved  by  a  great  fish  and  safely  landed. 

940  ~~ 


End  of  Dead  Sea... 
End  of  Dead  Sea... 

Gerar 

Mt.  Horeb 

Egypt 


Egypt. 


Egypt 

Marah 

Wilderness  of  Sin. 
Rephidim 


Taberah . 


EECOEDKD  I» 


Sinai. 


Kadesh 

Desert  of  Zin 

Desert  of  Zin 

On  road  from Pethor 

River  Jordan 

Jericho 

Gibeon 

Philistia 

En-hakkore 


Gen.  19 :  24. 

19  :  26. 

21:  1. 
Ex.  3:  3. 
7:  10-12. 
7 :  20-25. 

8:5-14,16-18,20-24. 
9  :  3-6,  8-11,  22-26. 
10  :  12-19,  21-23. 
12 :  29,  30. 

14  :  21-31. 

15  :  23-25. 
16:  14-35. 
17  :  5-7. 

Num.  11:  1-3. 


Lev.  10 : 
Num.  16 


.2. 

32. 

1,  etc. 

7-11. 

8,9. 

21-35. 


Ashdod , 

Beth-shemesh. 

Ebenezer , 

Gilgal 

Rephaim 

Perez-uzzah 

Beth-el 

Zarephatn 

Zarepliath 


Carmel,Cherith,etc. 

Near  Samaria 

Near  Jericho 

East  of  Jordan 

Jericho 


Land  of  Moab.. 


Shunem 

Gilcal 

Gilgal 

Samaria 

River  Jordan. 


Dothan... 
Samaria. 


Jerusalem . 


Jerusalem , 
Jerusalem . 


Babylon. 
Babylon.. 


17 
20 
21 
22 

Josh.  3 :  14-17. 
6:  6-20. 
10:  12-14. 
Jud.  14  to  oh.  16. 
15 :  19,  margin, 

1  Sam.  5  :  1-12. 

6:  19. 
7:10-12. 
12:  18. 

2  Sam.  5  :  23-25. 

6:7. 

1  Kgs.  13  :  4,  6. 

17:  14-16. 
17-24. 

17  and  ch.  18. 

2  Kgs.  1  :  10-12, 

2  :  7,  8,  14. 

11. 

21,  22. 

24. 
3:  16-20. 
4:  2-7. 
32-37. 
38-41. 
42-44. 
5:  10-27. 
6:  5-7. 

12,  etc. 

18. 

20. 
13:  21. 
19:  35. 

20:  9-11. 
2Chron.  26:  16-21. 

Dan.  3 :  19-27. 

6  :  16-23. 

Jonah  2 :  1-10. 


OUK  LOKD'S  MIRACLES. 


MIRACLES. 


I.  Narrated  only  in  one  Gospel. 

Two  blind  men  liealod 

A  dumb  demoniac  lieaied 

Stater  in  tlie  month  of  tlie  fisli '. 

The  deaf  and  dumb  man  healed 

A  blind  man  healed 

When  Christ  passed  unseen  through  the 

multitude 

Draught  of  tish 

Raising  the  widow's  son 

Healing  the  woman  with  an  infirmity 

Healing  the  man  with  the  dropsy ' 

Healing  the  ten  lepers 

Healing  the  ear  of  Malthus,  servant  of  the 

high  priest 

Turning  water  into  wine 

Healing  the  nobleman's  son  (of  fever) 

Healing  the  impotent  man  at  Bethesda 

Healing  the  man  born  blind 

Raising  of  Lazarus 

Draught  of  fish 

II.  Narrated  in  two  Gospels. 

Healing  the  daughter  of  theSyrophcenician 

Feeding  the  four  thousand 

Cursing  the  fig  tree 

Healing  the  centurion's  servant  (of  palsy). 

The  blind  and  dumb  demoniac 

The  demoniac  in  a  synagogue 

III.  NarralPd  in  three  Gospels. 

Stilling  the  storm 

The  legions  of  devils  entering  the  swine... 

Healing  Jairus'  daughter 

Healing  the  woman  with  an  issue  of  blood. 

Healing  the  man  sick  of  the  palsy 

Healing  the  leper 

Healing  Peter's  motber-in-law 

Healing  the  man  with  a  withered  hand 

Healing  demoniac  child 

Healing  blind  Bartimajus 

Walking  on  the  sea 

IV.  Narrated  in  four  Gospels. 
Feeding  the  five  thousand 


LOCALITY. 


Capernaum. 
Cajiernauiu. 
Capernaum. 
Decapolis.... 
Bethsaida.... 


Matt.  Mark.  iLuKE.'jouN 


9 

9 

17 


Nazareth..., 
Bethsaida.. 

Nain 

Jerusalem. 
Jerusalem. 
Samaria.... 


Gethseniane. 

Cana 

Cana 

Jerusalem 

Jerusalem.... 

Bethany 

Bethsaida 


Tyre 

Cennesaret  (?) 
Mount  of  Olives 

Capernaum 

Galilee 

Capernaum 


Sea  of  Galilee... 

Gadara 

Capernaum 

Gennesaret 

Capernaum 

Gennesaret 

Bethsaida 

Capernaum '     12 


15 
15 
21 
8 
12 


7 

8 

11 


Mount  Hermon 

Jericho 

Sea  of  Galilee 


Bethsaida. 
(Julias.) 


17 
20 
14 


14 


5 
5 
2 
1 
1 
3 
9 
10 
6 


4 
5 

7 

13 
14 

17 

22 


7 

11 

4 


8 
8 
8 
8 
6 
5 
4 
6 
9 
18 


2 
4 
5 
9 

I     11 
!     21 


CHIEF  PAEABLES  IX  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


SPOKEN  AT 


SECOSDED  IV 


Jb^Aam.— Trees  making  a  king (to  men  of  Shechern)    Mount  Gerizim Jiul.  9  :  7-l.'5. 

Samson.— JiuhUe (to  liis  rnarri.Tse-gnests*)  Timniitli Jud.  H:  M. 

Nathan.— Vonv  man '.';  ewe  lamb (to  t).'ivia)   Jeiusak-n) 2Sain.  12!.'>-11. 


do. 


Jerusalem 2.Siun.  14 


6-11. 
;»-40. 


Woman  of  Tehoah.— Two  brothers'  suite,    and 

avenger  of  blood 

The  smitten,  proijhet  .—The  escaped  pri.-onei (loAliab)   Near  Apliek 1  Kps.  20 

Jficata/i.— His  vi.-ion „ do.         Hanuuia I  Kps.  22  :  19-2.3 

Je/»')a«;i,  Jhn.i7o/'/.'^-ae;.— Thelliislleandcedai(toAniaziah)   Jerusalem 2  Kps.  14  :  9. 

/«atift.— Vinevard  viekting  wild  grapes (lo  Israel)    Jernsjilem Isn..5:  1-6. 

jE:^e^•^eL—l.ion•s  whelps do.       i  Babylonia Eze.  14:2-9. 

The  great  eagles  and  the  vine do.         Babylonia Eze.  17  :  »-10. 

The  boiling  pot do.      |  Babylonia |  Eze.  24  :  3-5. 

-  — 


OUK  LOKD'S  PAEABLES. 


PARABLES. 


T.  Recorded  in  one  Gospel  only. 

The  tares 

The  liid  treasure 

The  goodly  pearl 

The  draw  net 

The  unmerciful  servant 

Tlie  laborers  in  the  vineyard.... 
The  two  sons  in  the  vineyard... 
The  marriage  of  the  king's  son. 

The  ten  virgins 

The  ten  talents 

The  sheep  and  goats 

The  seed  growing  secretly 

The  houseliolder 

The  two  debtors 

The  good  Samaritan 

The  friend  at  midnight 

The  rich  fool 

The  wedding-feast 

The  wise  steward 

The  barren  fig  tree 

The  great  supper 

The  piece  of  money 

The  prodigal  son 

The  unjust  steward 

The  rich  man  and  Lazarus 

The  unprofitable  servants 

The  unjust  judge 

The  Pharisee  and  publican 

The  pounds 


LOCALITY. 


II.  Recorded  in  hvo  Gospels. 

House  on  rock  and  sand 

The  leaven 


Gennesaret.. 
Gennesaret.. 
I  Gennesaret.. 
'Gennesaret.. 
jCapernaum.. 
Jerusalem.... 
Jerusalem .... 
Mt.  of  Olives, 
Mt.  of  Olives, 
Mt.  of  Olives, 
Mt.  of  Olives. 
Gennesaret... 
Gennesaret... 

Galilee 

Jerusalem 

Jerusalem  .... 
Jerusalem.... 

Jerusalem 

Jerusalem.... 
Jerusalem.... 

Jerusalem 

Jerusalem 

Jerusalem 

Jerusalem 

Jerusalem.... 
Jerusalem.... 
Jerusalem.... 
Jerusalem.... 
Jerusalem 


H 

■a 

H 

H 

» 

M 

< 

< 

n 

19 

s 

A 

LESSONS. 


Galilee 

Gennesaret... 
The  lost  sheep Jerusalem.... 


III.  Recorded  in  three  Gospels. 

New  cloth  and  old  garment 

New  wine  in  old  bottles 

The  sower 

The  mustard-seed 

The  wicked  husbandmen 

The  tig  tree  and  all  the  trees.... 


Good  and  evil  in  life  and  judgment, 
Value  of  gospel. 
iChristlan  seeking  salvation. 
[Visible  Church  of^  Christ. 
Danger  of  ingratitude. 
Call  at  various  epochs. 
Insincerity  and  repentance. 
Need  of  righteousness. 
Watchful  and  careless  profession. 
Use  of  advantages. 
Final  separation  of  good  and  bad. 
Gradual  growth  of  religion. 

Gratitude  for  pardon. 
Compassion  to  suffering. 
Perseverance  in  prayer. 
Worldly-mindedness. 
Vigilance  toward  second  advent. 
Conscientiousness  in  trust. 
Unprofitableness  under  grace. 
Universality  of  divine  call. 
Joy  over  penitence. 
Fatherly  love  to  penitent  son. 
Preparation  for  eternity. 
Recompense  of  future  life. 
God's  claim  to  all  our  services. 
Advantage  of  persevering  prayer. 
Self-righteousness  and  humility. 
Diligence    rewarded,    sloth    pun- 
ished. 


6  Consistent  and  false  profession. 
SiPervading  influence  of  religion. 
15|Joy  over  penitent. 


Capernaum...    9;  2    5  New  doctrine  on  old  prejudices. 
Capernaum, ..j  9!  2|  5  New  spirit  in  unregenerate  heart, 
Gennesaret...  1.3    4    8  Hearers  divided  into  classes. 
Gennesaret...  13    4  13  Spread  of  Gospel. 

Jerusalem 21  12  20  Rejection  of  Christ  by  Jews. 

iMt.  of  Olives.  24  13  21  Indications  of  second  advent. 


N.  B.— These  miracles  and  parables  in  the  N.  T.  are  grouped  according  to  their  record 
by  the  evangelists. 


THE   NAMES,   TITLES,   AND  OFFICES  OF  CHKIST. 


Adam,  The  Second.  1  Cor.  15  :  45,  47. 

Advocate,  An,  1  John  2:1. 

Alpha  rind  Omega,  Rev.  1:8;  22  :  13. 

Amen,  Rev.  3  :  14. 

Author  and  Finisher  of  our  faith,  Heb.  12  :  2. 

Beginning  of  the  creation  of  God,  Rev.  3  :  14. 

Blessed  and  only  Pofentate,  \  Tim.  6  :  15. 

Branch,  Zech.  3:8;  6  :  12. 

Captain  of  salvation,  Heb.  2:10. 

Corner-stone,  1  Pet.  2  :  6. 

David,  Jer.  30  :  9 ;  Eze.  34  :  23 ;  37 :  24 ;  Hos. 

3  :  5. 
Day-spring,  Luke  1  :  78. 

942 


Deliverer,  Rom.  11 :  26. 

Desire  of  all  stations.  Hag.  2  :  7. 

Bmmanvel,  Isa.  7:14;  Matt.  1  :  23. 

Everlastinq  Father,  Isa.  9  :  6. 

Faithful  Witness,  Rev.  1  :  5  ;  3  :  14. 

First  and  Last,  Rev.  1  :  17. 

First-begotten  of  the  dead,  Rev.  1 :  5. 

God,  Isa.  40  :  9  ;  John  20  :  28  ;  1  John  5  :  20. 

God  blessed  for  ever,  Rom.  9  :  5. 

Good  Shepherd,  John  10  :  11. 

Governor,  Matt.  2  :  (i. 

Great  High  Priest,  Heb.  4  :  14. 

Holy  One,  Luke  4 :  34 ;  Acts  3  :  14 ;  Rev.  3 : 7. 


PROPHECIES   RELATING  TO  CHRIST. 


Horn  of  salratioity  Luke  1  :  ()9. 

/  AJI,'Kx.  3  :  14.  with  Jolin  8  :  58. 

Image  of  God,  2  Cor.  4  :  4. 

Jehovah,  Isa.  26  :  4. 

Jesus,  Matt.  1  :  21 ;  1  Thess.  1  :  10. 

Just  One,  Acts  8  :  14;  7  :  52;  22  :  14. 

King  everlasting,  Luke  1  :  33. 

Kin(f  of  Israel,  John  1  :  49. 

King  of  the  Jews,  Matt.  2  :  2. 

King  of  kings.  Rev.  17  :  14  ;  19  :  16. 

Lanib  o/  God,  John  1  :  29,  36. 

Lawgiver,  Isa.  33  :  22. 

Lig/it  of  the  world,  .John  8  :  12. 

Li(/ht,  True,  John  1 :  8,  9  ;  3  :  19  ;  8  :  12 ;  9:5; 

12:  So,  46. 
Li07i  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  Rev.  5  :  5. 
Living  stone,  1  Pet.  2  :  4. 
Lord,  Matt.  3:3;  Mark  11 :  3. 
Lord   God  Almighty,   Rev.   15:3;    of  holy 

prophets,  22 :  6. 
Lord  of  all.  Acts  10:36. 
Lord  of  glory,  1  Cor.  2  :  8. 
Lord  of  lords.  Rev.  17:14;  19  :  16. 
Lord  our  righteousness,  Jer.  23  :  6. 
Maker  and  Preserver  of  all  thinqs,  John  1  :  3, 

10 ;  1  Cor.  8:6;  Col.  1 :  16  ;  Heb.  1  :  2,  10 ; 

Rev.  4:11. 
Mediator,  1  Tim.  2  :  5. 
Mediator  of  the  new  covenaiit,  Heb.  12  :  24. 
Messiah,  Dan.  9  :  25  ;  John  1  :  41. 
Mighty  One  of  Jacob,  Isa.  60  :  16. 


Morning  Star,  Rev.  22: 16. 

Nazare'ne,  Matt.  2  :  23. 

Our  Passover,  1  Cor.  5  :  7. 

Prince,  Acts  5  :  31. 

Prince  of  life,  .\rts  3 :  15. 

Prince  if  f inter,  Isa.  9  :  6. 

Prince  of  the  kinqs  of  the  earth.  Rev.  1  :  5. 

Prophet,  Deut.  18  :  15;  Luke  24  :  19. 

Redeemer,  Job  19  :  25  :  Isa.  59  :  20. 

Poot  and  off'sjiring  of  David,  Rev.  22  :  16. 

Root  of  David,  Rev.  5  :  5. 

Ruler  in  Israel,  Mic.  5  :  2. 

Same  yesterday,to-day, and  for  ever,  Heb.  13  : 8. 

Saviour,  Luke  2:11  ;  Aclis  5  :  31. 

Shepherd  and  Bishoj)  of  souls,  1  Pet.  2  :  25. 

Shepherd  in  the  land,  Zech.  11:16. 

Shepherd  of  the  sheep,  Great,  Heh.  13  :  20. 

Shiloh,Cu'h.  49:  10. 

Son  of  David,  Matt.  9  :  27 ;  21  :  9. 

Son  of  God,  Matt.  3:17;  8  :  29  ;  Luke  1 :  .35. 

Son  of  man.  Matt.  8  :  20  ;  John  1 :  51 ;  Acts 

7:56. 
Son  of  the  Highest,  Luke  1  :  32. 
Sm,  'Onhx-hegotlen,  Jolin  1  :  14,  18;  3  :  16,  18. 
St<ir  and  Sceptre,  Num.  24  :  17. 
Triie  Vine,  John  15  : 1. 
Way,  Truth,  and  Life,  John  14  :  6. 
Wiines.i,  Faithful  and  true.  Rev.  3  :  14. 
Wonderful,  Counsellor,  Mighty  God,  Isa.  9  :  6. 
Word,  ,tohn  1:1. 
Word  of  God.  Rev.  19  :  13. 


PROPHECIES  RELATING  TO  CHRIST. 


Adoration  by  magi,  Ps.  72 :  10, 15 ;  Isa.  60  :  3,  6. 
Advent,  Gen.  3  :  15  :  Deut.  18  :  15  ;  Ps.  89  :  20 ; 

Isa. 2:2;  9:6;  28 : 16 ;  32 : 1 ;  35 : 4 ;  42  :  6 ; 

49  : 1  :  55  :  4  ;  Eze.  34  :  24 ;  Dan.  2  :  44  ;  Mic. 

4:1;  Zf'ch.  3:8. 
Advent,  Time  of.  Gen.  49:10:  Num.  24  :17; 

Dan.  9  :  24  ;  Hap.  2:7;  Mai.  3:1. 
Ascension  and  exaltation,  Ps.  16  :  11 ;  24  :  7 ; 

68:18;  110:1;  118:19. 
Betrayal  by  own  friend,  Ps.  41  :  9 ;  55  :  13. 
Betrayal  for  thirty  pieces,  Zech.  11  :  12. 
Beirayefs  death,  Ps.  55  :  15,  23 ;  109  :  17. 
Bone  not  to  be  broken,  Ps.  34  :  20. 
Burial  with  the  rich,  Isa.  53  :  9. 
Casting  lots  for  vesture,  Ps.  22  :  18. 
Conversion  of  Gentiles,  Isa.  11  :  10  ;  42  : 1. 
Crvcifij-ion,  Ps.  22  :  14,  17. 
Deat/'i  with  malefactors,  Isa.  53  :  9,  12. 
Death  in  prime  of  life,  Ps.  89  :  45  ;  102  :  24. 
Death  attested  by  convulsions  of  nature,  Am. 

5:20:  8:9;  Zech.  14:4,  6. 
Descent  into  Egypt,  Hos.  11:1. 
Desertion  by  discijiles,  Zech.  13  :  7. 
Divinity,  Ps.  2  :  11 ;  45  :  7 ;  72  :  8  ;  1 10  : 1 ;  Tsa. 

9:6;  25  :  9 ;  40  :  10 ;  Jer.  23  :  6 ;  Mic.  5  :  2  ; 

Mai.  3:1. 
Dominion  universal  and  everlasting,  Ps.  72  :  8 ; 

Isa.  9:7;  Dan.  7:  14. 
False  accusation,  Ps.  27  :  12 ;  35  :  11  :  109  :  2. 
Forerunner  of  Christ,  Isa.  40  :  3 ;  Mai.  3:1; 

4:5. 
Galilee,  Mini.itry  in,  Tsa.  9:1,2. 
Gall  and  vinegar.  Offer  of,  Ps.  CO  :  21. 
Generation,  Human,  Geii.  12  :  3 ;  IS  :  IS  ;  21  : 

12 ;  22  :  18 ;  26  :  4  ;  28  :  14  ;  49  :  10  ;  Ps.  18  : 


:  14; 
Mic. 


Isa. 


50 ;  89  :  4,  29,  36 ;  132  :  11 ;  Tsa.  11:1;  Jer. 

23:5;  33:15. 
Insult,  buffetinq,  spitting,  scourging,  Ps.  35  :  15, 

21;  Isa.  50:' 6. 
Massacre  of  innocents,  Jer.  31  :  15. 
Miraculous  poiver,  Tsa.  35  :  5. 
3Iission,  (Jen.  12  :  3;  49  :  10;  Num.  24  :  19; 

Deut.  18:18;  Ps.  21:1;  Isa.  59:20;  Jer. 

33 :  16. 
Mocking,  Ps.  22  :  16 ;  109  :  25. 
Nativity  from  virgin,  Gen.  3  :  15;  Lsa.  ' 

Jer.  :31 :  32. 
Nativity,  Place  of.   Num.   24:17,   19; 

5:2. 
Patience  under  .luffering,  Tsa.  53  :  7,  9. 
Persecution,  Ps.  22  : 6 ;  35 :  7,  12  ;  109 :  2 

49  :  7  ;  53  :  3. 
Piercing,  Ps.  22 :  16 ;  Zech.  12  :  10 
Prayer  for  enemies,  Ps.  109  :  4. 
Preacher,  Ps.  2  : 7  ;  Isa.  2  :  3 ;  61  :  1 
Priest  like  Melchizedik,  Ps.  110:4. 
Prophet  like  Moses,  I)(miI.  18  :  15. 
Purchase  of  potter's  Jield,  Zi-cii.  11 
Purification  of  temple,  Ps.  69  :  9. 
Rejection  by  jews  and  Gentiles,  Ps.  2  :  1 ;  22  : 

12;  41  :.5. 
Resurrection,  Ps.  16  :  10 ;  .30  :  3  ;  41  :  10  ;  118  : 

17;  Hos.  6:  2. 
Silence  against  accusation,  Ps.  38  :  13 ;   Isa. 

53  :  7. 
Spiritual  graces,  Ps.  45  :  7  ;  Isa.  11:2;  42 

61  :  1. 
Ti'iumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem,  Ps.  8 

Zech.  9  :  9. 
Vicarious  suffering,  Isa.  53 : 4-6,12;  Dan.  9 :26 

943 


13  :  6. 
Mic.  4: 


13. 


1 


2; 


SPECIAL  PEAYERS. 


Persons. 


Recorded. 


Subjects. 


Aaron  and  priests.. 

Abraham 

Abraham , 

Abraham 

Abraham's  servant. 

Asrnr 

Apostles 

Asa 


Daniel 

David 

David 

David 

David 

P^aiiv  Church. 

E  ijah 

Elijah 

Elijah 

Elisha 

Elisha 


'Num.  6:22-26.. 

Gen.  15:2 

Gen.  17:17,  18... 

Gen.  18:2:i 

Gen.  24:12 

Prov.30:  1 

Aetsl  :24 

2  Chr.  14:  11 

Dan.  9:4 

2  yam.  7:  18 

IPs.  51 

!2  Sam.  24:17 

1  Chr.  29:10-19. 

Acts  4:24 

1  Kgs.  17:20 

1  Kgs.  18:36 

1  Kgs.  19:4 

2  Kgs.  6: 17 

2  Kgs.  6:  18 


Jeremiah Jer.  14  :  7 

Jeremiah Jer.  15:  15-18... 

Jesus...  Matt.  11:  25,  26. 

Jesus John  11  :41,  42. 

Jesus John  12:27 

Jesus John  17 , 


Ezekiel 'Ezek.  9:  8. 

Ezra Ezra.  9  :  6. 


Habakkuk iHab.  3:1-16 

Hannah 1  Sam.  1 :  11 

Hezekiah 2  Kgs.  19:  15;  Isa.  37:16. 

Hezekiah 2Kg.s.  20:3;  Isa.  38:  3 

Hezekiah 2  Chr.  30:18 

Israel Deut.21 :6-8 

Israel Dent.  26:5-10 

Israel Deut. 26: 13-15 

Jab-z 1  Chr.  4  :  10 

Jacob Gen.  32  ;  9 

Jehoshaphat 2  Chr.  20:  6 


Jesus Matt.  26:39;  Luke22:42 

Jesus Luke  23:34 

Jesus Matt.  27  :  46 

Jonah Jonah  2:2 

Joshua Josh.  7  :7-9 

Levites Neh.  9:  5 

Lord's  Prayer Matt.  6:9;  Luke  11:2. 


Manoah Jud.  13:8,  9 

Moses Ex.  32:11;  Deut.9  :26.... 

Moses Ex.  33:12 

Moses Num.  10:. 35,  36 

Moses Num.  11  :  11-15 

Moses 'Num.  12:  13 

Moses !Num.  14:  13-19 

Moses Num.  27:  15 

Moses Deut.  3:  24 

Nehemiah Neh.  1  :  5 

Nehemiah Neh.  4:  4 

Penitent  thief Luke  23: 42 

Pharisee's  prayer.  ...Luke  18:11 

Publican's  prayer...  Luke  18:  13 

Samson  Jud.  16  :  28 

Solomon 1  Kgs.  3:5-9 

Solomon |1  Kgs.  8:23;  2Chr.6:  14. 

Stephen 'Acts  7:59,  60 


The  Aaronic  blessing  of  Israel. 

For  a  son. 

For  Ishmael's  acceptance. 

For  mercy  on  Sodom.  [wife  for  Isaac. 

Success  in  his  mission  when  sent  to  find  a 

For  moderation  in  his  desires. 

On  choosing  an  apostle.  [oplan. 

When  going  to  battle  with  Zerab  the  Ethi- 

For  the  restoration  of  Jerusalem. 

For  a  blessing  on  his  house. 

After  his  sin  wiiii  Bath-siieba. 

After  numbering  the  people. 

Thanksgiving  at  close  of  life. 

For  support  under  persecution. 

For  the  restoration  of  the  widow's  sou. 

For  divine  attestation  of  his  mission. 

For  death. 

For  his  servant's  eyes  to  be  opened. 

That  the  army  sent  to  take  him  may  be 
blinded. 

Intercession  for  the  people. 

IConfession  of  sin  in  the  people's  alliances 

I     with  the  heathen. 

For  revival  of  God's  work. 
iFor  the  gift  of  a  son. 

For  protection  against  Sennacherib. 
'When  dangerously  ill.  [Passover. 

For   the    unprepared   who   had   eaten   of 
lExpiiition  of  undiscovered  murder. 

Confession  on  presenting  first-fruits. 

JThe  prayer  of  the  tithing  year. 

I  For  the  divine  blessing. 

(For  deliverance  from  Esau. 

'For  protection  against  the  armies  of  the 

I     Moabites  and  Ammonites. 

Iln  a  great  famine. 

I  For  comfort. 

[Thanksgiving.  [of  his  prayer. 

iTlianksgiving  for  the  Father's  acceptance 

[Imploring  his  Fatlier's  aid. 

For  himself,  his  apostles,  and  all  believers. 

[     For  unity. 

Under  sufiering  in  Gethsemane. 

For  his  murderers. 

Under  suspension  of  divine  consolation. 
For  deliverance  from  the  great  fish. 
After  Achan's  sin.  [nation's  sins. 

Confession    of    God's  goodness    and   their 
The  model  of  supplication  for  relief  of  hu- 
man needs. 
For  divine  guidance  in  training  his  child 
Forgiveness  for  the  people's  idolatry. 
For  the  divine  presence. 
At  the  setting  forth  and  stopping  of  the  ark. 
For  divine  help  to  govern  the  Israelites. 
For  Miriam,  for  cure  from  leprosy,  [report. 
P'or  the  peofile,  disappointed  at  the  spies' 
For  a  successor. 
To  enter  Canaan. 

For  the  remnah         f^iptivity.  [biab. 

For  protection  agai  "t  Sanballat  and  To- 
To  be  remembered  by  Jesus. 
Thanksgiving  for  his  own  righteousness. 
For  divine  mercy. 
To  be  avenged  on  his  enemies. 
For  wir^d(mi  to  govern  Israel. 
Dedication  of  temple.  [his  murderers. 

Commendation  of  bis  soul ;  forgiveness  of 


944 


SUMMARY  OF  MAMMALIA  OF  THE  BIBLE. 

Grounded  on  the  Rev.  W.  Houghton's  Paper  ("  Transactions  of  Society  of 
Biblical  Archeology  "). 

(Fi-om  ike  Oxford  Edition  Sunday-School  Teacher's  Bible.) 


Animal  de-        English 
noted.        Translation. 


Antelope 

Antelope 

Ape 

Ass  {tame)... 
Ass  [wild)... 

Bear 

Bull  (domes- 
tic)  

Bull  {ivild)... 

Camel 

Cat 

Deer 

Dolphin 

Dog 

Fallow  deer 

Gazelle 

Gazelle 

Goat  {he) 

Goat.... 

Goat  {wild).. 


Pygarg... 
Wild  ox.. 

Ape 

Ass 

Wild  ass.. 
Bear 


Hebrew      Septuagint 
Original.     Translation. 


Assyrian 
Inscrip- 
tions. 


Dishon \irvyapyo<; Da-as-su... 

To,  or  Teo....  eAa(/>os Burkhiis.. 

Koph TridriKO<; Udunui.... 

Khamor buo^ Iiniru 

Pereh TJju.t7r7ros Tseii 

Dob apKTos Dabuu 


Zoological  Genus 
or  Species. 


Cattle,  oxen. 
Unicorn 


Eleph KTT^vT] Alap 

Re'eni ixovoKeprng  ...  Ri-i-mu. 


Camel Gamal. 

Cat 

Fallow  deer... 


None 

Yachmur.. 


KflLjunjAo? Gammalu. 

alAovpo? ':  None 


Dog 

Hart,  hind., 


Roe,  roebuck 

He-goat 

He-goat , 

Chamois 


^oii^aAos 

Nakhiru  .. 

Keleb Kvuiv Kalbu 

eAa(|)09 Ailu 

'Utsaluv  ... 

SopKOii; Tsabii 

Atudu 

Tsapparu. 


!  Avgai 
'Azul.. 
Tsebi. 

,  Yatud.., Tpayog 

|Ts;lphir rpa-yo? 


Goat 'Wild  goat. 


Zemer. 
Ya'el , 


Greyhound.  Greyhound. 
Hare 'Hare 


(ca/ArjA6rrap- 
6ts. 


Ditanu. 


Horse. 'Horse 

Hippopota- 
mus  Behemoth 

Hysena Doleful    crea- 

I     tures 

Jackal Fox 

Leopard Leopard 

Lion Lion 

Mole-rat Mole 

Mouse Mouse 

Mule Mule 

Ox Young  bull.... 

Ox Oxen 


Tsartsir aAeVrtop 

Arnebeth 


Sus. 


Behemoth... 

[Oach 

pi.  Okhim]. 

Sliual 

Namer 

Aryeh 

Tinshemeth 

Yakhbar 

Pered 

Shor 

Bakar 


;^otpo-ypu'A- 

Ato?. 
ITTTrOS 


OripCa. 

None lAkhu 


None 

Annabu.. 


Susu , 


Ram Ram... 

Rhinoceros   

Sheep Sheep., 

Sheep  (ivild)  

{See  Wild     I 

Goats.; 
Unicorn  (see] 
Wild  Bull).! 

Wolf. Wolf... 

Wolf. 


Ayil.. 
ifson. 


aKdJnri^ Asi  (?) 

TTtxpSaAis [Niimru.... 

\e(i}v Ne-essu ... 

acrndya^ 

MV? I •. 

■qfxiovo^ |Parie. 

fi6(rxo<; ' 

Tttupos Buchal 

rinii. 

(cpi'o? Ailur 

AlapNahr 

Trpd/Sara Tsieni 

Arnu 


Zeeb Ziibu... 

,Rt.  acal,  de-  \vKo<; [Aciluv, 

vour.  I 


Addax. 

Oryx  leucoryx. 
Presbytes  entellus. 
Asinus  vulgaris. 
Asiuus  hemippus. 
Ursus  Syriacus. 

Bos  taurus. 

Bos  primigenius. 

(Camel us  Arabicus. 

(Camelus  Ractrianus. 
Felis  domestica. 
Alcephahis  bubalis. 
Delphinus. 
Canis  familiaris. 
Cervus  Mesopotamicus. 
Gazi'lla  dorcas. 
Gazella  gutturosa. 
Capra  hircus. 
Capra  segagrus. 
Rupicapra  tragus. 

Ibex  Bedeanus,  or  Capra 

Sinaitica. 
Doubtful. 

I  Lepus  Sinaiticus. 

I  Lepus  Caspius. 

Equus  caballus. 


Hysena  striata. 

Canis  Vulpes. 
Leopardus  varius. 
Felis  leo. 
Spalax  typhlus. 
Dipus,  and  Alactaga. 

Bos  taurus. 


Ovis  aries. 

Rhinoceros  unicornis. 
Ovis  latieaudatus. 
Capra  segagrus. 


I- Canis  lupus. 


60 


945 


BIKDS    FOUND    IN    PALESTINE, 

AND  REFERRED  TO  IN  SCRIPTURE. 
(I<)-om  Oxford  Bible.) 


English  name. 


Avocet. 


Bat  {Lev.  11  :  19) 

Bee-eater 

Bittern  (Zepli.  2  :  U). 


Blackbird. 
Blackcap.. 
Blue  Jay. 

Biilbul 

Chat 


Cock  (Mark  14  :  30).... 

Cormorant   (Lev.    11 

17) 


Corn-bunting 

Cretciiniaker's    bunt- 
ing  

Crane  (Isa.  38  :  14) 


Cuckoo  (Lev.  11 :  16)... 


Crow  (Prov.  30  :  17).... 

Dove  (Isa.  38:14) 

Dunlin 

Ducks 

Eagle  (Deut.  32:11)... 

"     gier(Lev.ll:18) 

Fowl,  faded  (1  Kgs.  4 

23) 

Glede(Deut.  14:13)... 


Goldfinch. 

Grakle 

Grouse 

Harrier..., 


Hawk  (Job  39  :  26) 

"      night  (Lev.  11 

16) 

Hpn  (Luke  13  :  34). 
Heron  (Lev.  11:19).... 


Hoopoe 
Jar 


Kestrel. 


Kingfisher 

It 

Kite  (Lev.  11:14).' 
946 


Hebrew. 


Greek. 


Atalleph . 


i/v /crept?. 


Specimens  found  by| 
Palestine  explorers. 


Where  found. 


Kippod e^ivos 


Recurvirostra    avo-l 

cetta !Sur. 

Vesperugo  Kuhlii.    I 

Merops  apiasier j Anti-Libanus. 

Botaurus  stellaris. 

Ardeola  minuta... 

Merula. 

Silvia  atricapilla.. 


(?) 
Jericho. 


Slialak. 


aAeKTwp. 
*caTopa(CT7js , 


Ixus  xanthopygins.  Beit  Atab. 
Saxicola  libanotica..  Bethlehem. 
Praiiiicola  rubicola. 
Dromolsea   leucopy- 
gia Ain  Feshkah. 


Phalacrocorax    car- 
bo. 
Emberiza  miliaria... 


Agur IxeAiSwi'. 


Shachaph. 


Aapo;. 


'Oreb Kopa^. 

Yoiiah 'irepL<rTepd. 


Nesher.. 
Racham. 


(Barburini. 
(  Abusim...... 

Raah 


aCTOS  

iTop^vpC(av., 


yvxjj. 


Netz 

Tachraas.., 
Anaphah. 
Dukipath. 


Netz. 


tepa| 

y\av^ 

XapaSpio^.. 
eTTOif/ 


Emberiza  csesia 

Grus  cinerea.     {See 

Stork.) 

Cuculus  canorus 

Oxylophus    glanda- 

rius 

Corvus  umbrinus. 
(See  Pigeon.) 
Tringa  cinclus. 


Circaetus  Gallicus... 
Gypsfulvus. 
Neophron     percno- 
pterus. 

Geese. 

Buteo    ferox    (buz- 
zard). 

Carduelis  elegans....  Bethlehem. 
AmydrusTristrami.  Mar-Saba. 
Pteroeis  Senegallus.  Desert. 
Circus  cCruginosus...  Dead  Sea. 

C.  cineraceus i  Jericho. 

Accipiter  nisus. 


Ain  Fasail. 


Jordan  Valley. 
Ain  Fasail. 


Everywhere. 
Yebua. 


Ayah(generic)  iKTH'os. 


Caprimulgus  (?) 


Ardeola  comata Jordan  Valley. 

Ardea  cinerea.  | 

TJpupa  epops |Bludan. 

Caprimulgus   Euro-| 

pteus Beit  Atab. 

Tinnunculus     alau- 

darius |        " 

T.  Cenchris Ramleh. 

Alcedo  ispida Jericho. 

Ceryle  nidis 

Alcyon  Smyrnensis. 
Milvus  regalis. 


BIRDS    FOUND    IN    PALESTINE. 


English  name. 


Lark. 


Hebrew. 


Greek. 


Speoimens  found  by 
Palestine  explorers. 


Where  found. 


Lapwiiiij  (Lev.  11:  19).  Ditkipath cTroi// 

Nut li:i toll I 

Owl  (Isa.  34  :  13) Batli-haya'a-  I 

I     nail.  |<TTpouflds. 

'•    great(Lev.  11  :  17)  Yanshoop i/3ei? 

Isa.  34:  In Kippos e^tt'o?. 

"    little  (Lev.  11  :  17).  Kos vvKTiKopa^... 

"    of  desert  (Ps.  102:  i 

6) Kos 'vvKTiKopa^. 

"    screech  (Isa.  34  :  t 

14) Lilith o»'OK€i'Tavpoi 

Osprey  (Lev.  11  :  ]3)...'Asniyali aAiatero? 

Ossifrage  (Lev.  11  :  13). Peres vpi'"/' 


Galerida  cristata lafTa. 

Ototoris  penicillata.  Aiiii-Libanus. 
(6>e  Hoopoe.) 
Sitta  Syriaca 


Bubo  Ascalaphus. 


Jeridio. 


AthenfE     meridion- 
alis Belhlibera. 


Ostricli  (Lam.  4  :  13)... 
Partridge  (Jer.  17:11). 


Ya'anah [crTpovOiov. 

Kor6 TTepSi^ 


"      (1  Sam. 26:  20) 

Peacock  (1  Kgs.  10:22).  Tucciyim rdvop 

Pelican  (Ps.  102  :  6)....  Kaath 7reAe/ca5. 

Pigeon  (dove)  (Ps.  68 


13;  Matt.  3:  16). 

"      (Gen.  15:9) 

Plover , 


Yonah Treptcrrepa. 

Gozai Treptcrrepa. 


Quail  (Ex.  16: 13) 'Selav opTvyo/MriTpa 

Raven  (Prov.  30  :  17)...  'Oreb Kopa^ 

Redstart 


Otus  vulgaris (Jericho. 

Pandioii      lialiaetus 

(ti^li-cater). 
(iy pact  us    barbatus 

(l)oiu'-breaker). 
St  rut  bio  caiiielus. 
Caccabis        Graecus 

(Greek  partridge).! 
Amnioperdix  beyii.. 
Pavo  eristatus. 


Jericho. 


Robin. 


Sandpiper. 
Shrike 


Sparrow  (Ps.  102:7).. 


Starling 

Stork  (Jer.  8  :  7) 

Sunbird 

Swallow  (Prov.  26:2; 

Ps.  84:.3) 

Isa.  38:  14 


'Tzippor (TTpovBiov 


Kbasidab oio-is. 


Cbaradrius       hiati- 

ciila Jaffa. 

Coturnix  vulgaris. 

{See  Crow.) 

Ruticillaplioenicura  Jordan  Valley. 

"        titliys Bhidan. 

Erytbseus  rufiicula..  Jericho. 

Ruticilla  Suecica |      " 

Coracias  garrula Gaza. 

Triugoides       bypo- 

leucos .' Solomon's  Pools. 

Lanius  hit  bora Jericho. 

"       auriculatus..  Jordan  Valley. 

"       niiliicus "  " 

Passer  salicarius Ain  Fasail. 

Fringilla  pat ronia...  Jericho. 
Sturiuis  vulgaris.. 

Cicouia  altia 

Ciniivris  osea 


Deror. 
Agur... 


<7TpOV06?. 

^(eAi'Swv.., 


Swan  (Lev.  11  :  18) Tinshemeth...  kvkvo<; 

Swift  (Isa.  38:14) Sis,  sus n-epicrrepa. 


Thrush. 


Tit,  groat 

Turtledove  (Gen.  15 
9;  Lev.  1:14) 


Hirundo  rusfica 

[Agfir  =  crane  ;  stls 
=  swift.] 


Jordan  Valley. 


Tor-yonah Wpvymv 


Vulture  (Lev.  11  :  14)...  Dayah y^^-- 

Ex.  19:4 Racham aero?. 

Wagtail 


Cypsellusmelba... 

"         apis. 

"         affiuis. 
Petrocincta  cyatius.  Mar-Saba. 
Trateropus      cbaly- 

beus Jericho. 

Parus  major Beit  Atab. 

'Turtur  auritus Yehua. 

1       "        risorius 'Jericbo. 

Plentiful. 


Water-rail. 


Motaoilla  alba iRaiiileh. 

I        '•         sulpburea.  Jericho. 
Rallus  aquaticus |      " 


947 


EEPTILES  OF  SCEIPTURE. 

N.  B. — The  names  printed  in  italics  do  not  occur  in  the  A.  V.,  though  the  reptiles  so 
called  are  now  found,  and  probably  were  intended  by  the  Hebrew  writers. 


English  Name. 


Hebrew. 


Greek. 


Adder  (Ps.  58:  4) \.  Pethen ao-Trc? 

Gen.  49:  17 2.  Shephiphon oc^to- 

Ps.  140:  3 3.  'Achsub jSao-iAtV/cos. 

Proy.23:  32;  Job  20:  14-16....  4.  Tziph'oni a(TnL<; 


Zoological  Species. 


Asp  (Isa.  11 : 

Caterpillar, 

Chameleon  (Lev.  11:  30). 


Cockatrice  (Isa.  59 :  5). 


Crocodile  {Lev.  11:  29). 
Dabba  {Lev.  11:29) 


Dragon  (Isa.  34 :  13 ;  Eze.  29 :  3) 
Frog  (Ex.  8:2;  Rev.  16 :  13)... 


Pethen do-n-t's 

1,  Coach j^a/u.atAe'a 


Gecko  (Lev.  11 :  30) , 

(Ferret  in  A.  V.). 
Horseleech  (Prov.  30:  15). 


2.  Tinsheraeth a<nrd\a$ 

(Mole,  A.  V.)     I 

Tzeph'a [aaniq 

Tziph'oni.  I 

'KpoKoSeiXo^. 

Tzab AcpoKoSeiAo? 

Tan i 

Tannin [ 

Tzepharde'a /Sarpaxo?.... 


Anakah /av-ydAij. 


.} 


'Alnkah 

LXX.  (?) 
Leviathan    (Ps.  74:   14;    Job  I 

41  :  1) Livyathan SpaKoiv 

Lizard  (Lev.  11:  30) Letaah x'^^'^^^'''V'* ■ 

Mole iTinshemeth aandAa^ .... 

Scorpion   (Deut.  8:  15;  Luke  | 

10:  19) lAkrabim crKopnloi;..., 


Serpent  (Ps. .58:4;  Prov.  30: 19) 
Ex.  7  :  9,  10 

Ps.  58:  4 

Gen.  49 :  17 


Job  20:  16. 
Ps.  140:3.. 


Prov.  23:  .32;  Isa.  11 :  8 7.  Tsepha do-jri? 


1.  Kacbash o<f)i<;. 

2.  Tannin SpaKuiv. 

.3.  Pethen do-n-is.... 

4.  Shephiphon b(f)i.s 


5.  Epheh do-Trt? 

6.  Achshub )3ao-iAt(r/cos. 


Serpent.  Fierv  (Num.  21 :  6-8).. 
Fiery  flying  (Isa.  14:29) 


Snail  (Lev.  11:  30). 

Ps.  58:  8 

Snake. 

Toad 


Tortoise  (Lev.  11 :  29).. 


Viper  (Job  20 :  16 ;  Isa.  30 :  6 ; 
59:5) 


Saraph \o<f>L<;  BavaTujv.. 

dcTTTl?,   6(|)IS      ) 

Trerdfjievo^  j 

1.  Chomet aavpa 

2.  Shablul Ktjpos 


Cobra. 

Cerastes  Hasselqulstii. 
jVipera  Eupbratica. 
JDaboia  xantliina. 
iEgyptian   cobra    {Naja 
I     haje). 

Psaramosaurus  scincus. 
jHydrosaurus  Nilolicus. 
jChameleo  vulgaris. 

Daboia  xanthina. 


Uroraastis  spinispes 
i     (Lizard). 
1  Probably  crocodile. 

Eana  esculenta. 
jHyla  arborea. 
Ptyodactylus  gecko. 

iHcemopis  sanguisuga. 
jHirudo  medicinalis. 

Crocodilus  vulgaris. 
Generic  (?). 
See  Chameleon, 

I  Numerous. 
Generic  term, 

! 

Cobra  Ji^gyptiaca. 
jCerastes   Hasselqulstii 

(Adder). 
JEchidna  Mauritanica. 
jVipera   Euphralica,  or 
j     Vipera  ammodytes. 
Daboia  xanthina  (?). 


Tzab. 


Worm  (Isa.  51:  8) 

Ex.  16:  20;  Job  25:6;  Isa. 

14:  11 

Job  25:  6;  Isa.  14:  11 

Worm,  Earth 

Canker 

"        Palmer. 
"        Crimson. 

"         948 


Epheh. 


KpoKoSeiAo; 
;(€p(7aros 


exi5va. 


1.  Sas o->)s. 

2.  Rimmah aanpla. 

'a-ri\fjL<;. 

3.  Tole'ah o-KuiAijf.. 


Generic. 


Bufo  Pantherinus. 

1.  Testudo  Grseca. 

2.  Testudo  marginata. 

3.  Emys  Caspica. 

Echis  arenicola  (Sand 
viper). 


Tortrix  vitisana(?). 

Lumbricus. 

:Myriapoda, 


INSECTS. 

Under  this  head  are  classed  all  those  smaller  animals  not  included  in  the  previous 
tables.    They  are  arranged  not  scientifically,  but  rather,  for  facility  of  reference,  in 
alphabetical  order. 

English  Name. 

Hebrew. 

Greek. 

Zoological  Species 
found. 

Ant  (Prov.  6:6-8;  30:  24) 

Bee  (Ps.  118 :  12 ;  1  Sam.  14 :  25) 

Beetle  (Lev.  11:  21,22) 

Neraalah 

Deborah 

Chargol 

Chaphis 

Tola'ath 

Par'osh 

1.  Aroh,  or  Oreb... 

2.  Zebub 

Mv'PfAi?? 

pL€\iaaa 

6(|)iOju.a;(r) 

KOLvdapoi. 

Formica,  or  Myrmica. 

Apis  mellifica. 
Apis  Ligiistica. 
Bupreslis  (?). 

Coccus  ilicis. 
Pulex  irritans. 
Musea,  or  Culex. 

Hab.  2:  11 

Cochineal  {Isa,.  1:  18) 

Flea  (1  Sam.  24:  14;  26:  20).... 

Fly  (Ex.  8:  21;  Ps.  78:45) 

EccleslO:  1 

(//uAAo? 

Kuco/avia 

Isa.  7:  18 

Ilippobosca,  or  CEstrus. 
Culex. 

Vespa  Crabro. 

(Edipoda  migratoria. 
Locusta  peregrina. 
Truxali.s. 
Unidentified. 

Larva  of  Arctia  caja. 
CEdipoda  migratoria. 

Coccus  manniparus. 
Ehrenb. 

Tinea. 
Epeira. 

Gadfly. 

Gnat  (Matt.  23:  24) 

a/cpi's. 

Ppovx< 

aTTOLKy 
o<^iop.o 
aKpii. 

KapLTTT] 

Grasshopper  (Jud.  6:5;  Lev. ) 

11:22) 1 

Hornet  (Ex.  23:  28) 1 

Arbeh 

Chagab. 

Tzir'ah 

Lice  (Ex.  8:  16) 

Kinnim 

"9. 

)5. 

Locust  (Ex.  10 : 4-6 ;  Lev.  11 :  22) 
"    Bald 

Joell:4 

Joel  1:4;  Nab.  3 :  15 

1.  Arbeh 

2.  Sal'am 

3.  Chargol 

4.  Chagob 

5.  Gazam 

XT 

6.  Yelek 

Ps.  105:34;  Jer.  51 :  14,27. 
Deut.  28:  42 

7.  Tzelatzlal 

epKTu^ij. 

axpi's. 

epio-u/3ij. 

Isa.  33:4;  Am.  7  :  1 

8.  Gob 

Ps.  78:  46 

9.  Chasil 

Manna 

3Iosquilo. 

Moth  (Isa.  50:  9;  Job  13:  28; 
27: 18) 

'Ash 

Spider  (Isa.  59:  5) 

1.  Accabish 

apdxm 

Prov.  30:  28 

2.  Semamith. 

FISHEEIES  OF  PALESTINE. 

Waters. 

English  Name. 

Ichthyological  Species. 

Gennesareth,  Lake 

Bream 

Chromis  Nilotica. 

rClarias  macracanthus. 
<  Coraciniis. 

(Hemichromis. 

Labeo  barbiis  canis. 
Barbiis  longiceps. 
Cyprinodon  llmninonis. 

Jabbok,  River 

Sheat-fish 

Carp. 

Perch. 

Dog-fish  

Barbel 

■  Minnow 

Jordan,  River 

Kishon,  River 

Barbel. 
Bream. 
Blenny 

Blenniu 

s  lupulus. 

949 


WORDS   OBSOLETE    OR   AMBIGUOUS. 

Word. 

Passage. 

Explanation. 

Ahjects 

Ps.  35  :  15 

Outcasts ;  despised  persons. 

A  stone  of  impenetrable  (lit.  "  indomitable  ") 

hardness. 
Bind  under  a  curse  ;  charge  solemnly. 
Stir;  tumult;   commotion. 
Althoutch  it  be  so. 
(Lat.  laudare)  to  praise  ;  to  approve. 
Entirely;  completely. 
(Of  siny.  num.)  =  charitable  gift. 
From  all  off  =  afar  off;  at  a  distance. 
Punish  by  fine. 
A  sort  of  parsley. 
i.  e.,  in  one  instant  =  quickly. 
Dressed. 
Plainly ;  openly. 

(Lat.  area)  covered  chest. 

Dress  or  clothe. 

Bow  and  arrows. 

Old  form  of  astonished,  astounded. 

Reconciliation  of  two  persons  at  variance; 
from  this  adverb  springs  the  verb  "atone" 
(to  reconcile),  and  "  at-oneraent." 

An  old  part,  of  attend,  used  for  "attentive." 

"  Put  up  with  "  or  endure. 

Fringed  or  bearded  with  projecting  points. 

Tree;  large  timber. 

Plur.  of  "  beef;"  used  of  oxen  or  cows. 

Circumstanced  ;  situated. 

Discover;  report;  inform;  reveal;  accuse. 

Imprison  or  confine  closely. 

Pimples;  pustules;  swellings. 

Publish  loudly ;  blazon. 

Balled  ;  heading  to  blossom. 

Large  studs  ;  projecting  ornaments. 

Eruption  of  the  skin. 

Splendor ;  finery. 

Pound  or  bruise. 

Easily  broken ;  brittle. 

Coat  of  mail. 

(Fr.  bruit,  noise)  report ;  fame. 

About,  in  bad  sense.                                            \ 

Immediately. 

Men  who  stop  the  seams  or  leaks  of  ships 
with  tow. 

That  which  is  carried  ;  baggage. 

Heated ;  exasperated. 

Capital  of  a  pillar. 

Cracked  through  heat  and  drought. 

A  large  dish. 

Discharge  the  cost  or  pay  expenses. 

Sympathetic,  unselfish  habit  of  the  soul,  in- 
cluding our  words  love,  charity,  sympathy, 
benevolence,  beneficence,  philanthropy. 

(Lat.  cithara)  a  stringed  instrument;  the 
name  has  now  become  "guitar," 

Adhere:  remain  faithful. 

A  kind  of  crested  serpent;  the  basilisk. 

Indulge  so  as  to  spoil  a  child. 

The  corn-rose,  a  weed  found  among  corn. 

Slices  or  flakes  of  meal  or  fat. 

Adamant  or   dia- 
mond  

Eze.  3:9 

Adjure 

Josh.  6:26 

Ado 

Mark  5:39 

Albeit 

Eze.  13:7 

Allow 

All  to 

Luke  11 :48 

Jud.  9:53 

Alms 

Acts  3:3  ;  10  :  2 

Aloof 

Ps,  38: 11 

Amerce 

Deut.  22: 19 

Anise 

Anon 

Apparelled 

Apparently 

Matt.  23:23 

Matt.  13:20 

Luke  7  :  25 

Num. 12:8 

Ark 

Gen.  6 :  14 ;  Ex.  2 : 5,  6 ; 
37: 1 

Array,  to 

Matt.  6:29 

Artillery 

1  Sam.  20:  40 

Aston  led 

Job  17  :  8 

At  one 

Acts  7:26 

Attent 

Away  with 

Barbed 

2Chr.  6:40 

Isa.  1 :  13 

Job  41  :  7 

Beam  (see  Mote) 

Beeves 

Matt.  7:  3 

Lev.  22:21 

Bestead 

Isa.  8:21 

Bewray 

Bind 

Blaius 

Blaze  abroad 

Boiled 

Bosses 

Botch 

Bravery 

Bray 

Brickie 

Brigaudine 

Bruit 

By 

By  and  by 

Calkers 

Carriage 

Chafed 

Chapiter 

Charger 

Matt.  26  :  73 

Job  26:8;  Acts  9:14... 
Ex.  9  :  9 

Mark  1 :  45 

Ex.  9:31 

Job  15:26 

Deut.  28  :27 

Isa.  3:  18 

Prov.  27  :22 

Wisd.  15:13 

Jer.  46:4 

Jer.  10:22 

1  Cor.  4:4 

Matt.  13: 21;  Luke  21: 9. 
Eze.  27:9,  27 

lSam.l7:22;Acts21:15. 
2  Sara.  17:8 

Ex.  36:38 

Jer.  14:4 

Num.  7: 13;  Matt.  14: 8. 
Acts  21 :  24 

Charges  (beat) 

Charily 

ICor.  13 

Cithern 

1  Mace.  4 :  54 

Cleave 

Cockatrice 

Cocker 

Cockle 

Collops 

Gen.  2:  24;  Rom.  12:9. 
Isa.  11 :8 

Ecolus.  30:9 

.Job  31:  40 

Job  15:  27 

960 


WORDS    OBSOLETE    OR   AMBIGUOUS. 


Word. 


Passage. 


Colony Acts  16  : 1 


Explanation. 


Commend Rom.  3:5 

Commune Ex.  25:22;  1  Sam.  19 

1     3;  Ps.  4:4 

Comprehend Isa.  40  :  12  ;  Koni.  13:9 

Coucisiou Phil.  3  : 2 


(Lat.  co/o7iia)  a  foroipn  town  to  whose  in- 
habitants wore  iucordtd  \\>y  distiiiniiished 
services,  the  same  riulits  and  i)nviiege3  as 
the  citizens  of  Home  itself. 

Draw  comiiiendali(jn  upon  or  enhance. 


Coney. 


Confection. 
Consort,  to. 


Contrite Ps.  51:17 


Convenient.... 
Conversation. 


Parley  ;  hold  a  conference  ;  converse. 
Comprise;  include;  measure;  contain. 
Mere  cutting  otf;  opposed  to  circumcision  as 
I     religious  symbol. 
Lev.  11:5;  Ps.  104:18.!(Lat.  cunicuius)  a  rabbit ;  small  animal  like 

a  rabbit. 
Compound  of  various  ingredients. 
Associate  with. 
(Lat.  conlrUns)  bruised;  ground  to  powder; 

so  of  one  humbled  to  the  dust. 


Ex.30:35;Ecclus.38:8 
Acts  17:4 


Acts  24 :  25 ;  Rom.  1 : 
28;  Eph.  5:4 

(1)  Phil.  3:20;  (2)  1 
Pet.  1:15 


Convince Job  32:12;  John  8:46. 

Count |Ex.  12:4 

Esth.  7:4 

1  Kgs.  14:3 

Isa.  3:22 

1  Sara.  26:  11  ;  1  Kgs. 
14:3;  17:12;  2  Kgs. 
2:20 

Luke  10:40;  13:7 

Ex.  28 : 8 :  Acts.  19 :  19. 


Countervail..., 

Cracknels 

Crisping  pins.. 
Cruse 


Cumber 

Curious 

Damnation  or  con- 
demnation  


Rom.,  1  Cor.,  etc. 


Daysman Job  9 :  33. 

Deal,  a Ex.  29  :40. 

Debtor 

Deem 

Defenced 

Delicately 


Delightsome 

Discover 

Draught 

Draught  house- 
Ear,  to 

Earing 

Eraerods 

Endamage 

Ensample , 

Ensue 

Eschew , 

Eyeservice , 


Rom.  1  :14;  Gal.  5:3.. 

Acts  27:  27 

Isa.  36:1 

Deut.    28:56;     1  Sam, 

15:32 

Mai.  3  :  12 

Isa.  22:8 

Matt.  15:17 

2  Kgs.  10:27 

Isa.  30:24 

Gen.  45  :  6 

1  Sam.  5:6 

Eze.  4 

2  Cor.  10:  11 

1  Pet.  3: 11 

1  Pet.  3:11 

Eph.  6:6 


Fain Luke  15  :  16 

Fat 'Joel  2  :  24 

Fitches Isa.  28:25,  27 

Fret Lev.  13:51,55;  Ps.  39 

I     11 


Fray 'Dent.  28:26. 

Gainsay ILuke  21  :  15., 

Garner Matt.  3  :  12.., 

Gin lAm.  3:5 

Glister iLuke  9  :  29... 


Becoming ;  decorous. 

(1)  Citizenship ;  (2)  conduct   and  habits  of 

life. 
Convict. 

(Used  as  a  subsl.)  a  reckoning. 
(Lat.  contra  valere)  compensate  for. 
Hard,  brittle  cakes. 
Irons  for  crimping  or  curling  hair. 


Small  cup  or  vessel  for  holding  liquid. 

lEncumber;  occupy  unprofitably. 

jThat  with  which  great  pains  has  been  taken. 

These  words  were  used  as  equivalent  terms 
when  the  A.  V.  was  made  ;  sonietinies  with 
a  deep,  sometimes  with  a  lighter,  meaning. 

lUmpire;  arliitrator. 

'A  part  or  portion. 

:One  bound  by  or  under  an  obligation. 

I  Conclude  •  judge. 

j Fenced;  defended  by  fortifications. 

jTenderly;  minclugly. 
Delightful. 
Uncover. 
iDrain. 

Cesspool ;  depository  of  drainage. 
Plough  ;  till  the  ground. 
'Ploui;hing. 

'(Gr.  hieinorrhoids)  discharging  piles, 
'injure. 
j  Example. 
Pursue  diligently. 
lAvoid  ;  shun. 

.Service  performed  only  when  under  super- 
I     vision. 
Glad,  and  gladly. 
[Vessel  for  liquor  ;  same  as  "vat." 
iVetches;  small  kind  of  pea. 

To  corrode  ;  to  perforate  by  eating,  as  a  moth 

i     does. 

To  scare;  frighten  away. 

Speak  against— I.  e.,  contradict. 

(■ranary  ;  barn. 

Trap  or  snare  for  birds. 

Shine;  sparkle;  glitter. 


9ol 


WORDS    OBSOLETE    OR    AMBIGUOUS. 

Word. 

Passage. 

Explanation. 

Greaves 

Habergeon 

Haft 

Hale 

Halt 

Harness 

Head  tire 

1  Sam.  17:6 

Job  41:  26 

Jud.  3:22 

Armor-plates  for  legs. 

Coat-of-mail. 

Handle  of  knife,  dagger,  etc. 

Forcibly  drag,  as  an  arrested  person. 

( Verb  and  pari.)  walk  lame ;  crippled. 

Body-armor  of  a  soldier. 

Head-dress;  turban. 

A  ruin. 

Hole  or  covered  pit ;  grave. 

Hades,  place  of  departed  spirits. 

Gehenna,  place  of  torment  for  the  wicked. 

Handle  of  an  axe. 

Used  often  for  7ieut.  "  its." 

Trowsers  and  stockings  in  one  piece. 

Hocks  ;  joints  of  a  beast's  hind-legs. 

Hungry. 

Insupportable. 

Earnestly  ;  with  urgent  importunity. 

To  hazard  or  risk  life. 

"Jot"  is  "jod,"  the  smallest  Hebrew  letter 
(i  or  iota  in  Gr.).    Tittle  is  a  little  stroke  or 
horn  distinguishing  one   letter  from  an-  | 
other,  like  that  which  in   English  distin- 
guishes E  from  F,  or  G  from  C. 

The    old    plural    of   "  cow ;"    milch-kine  = 
milking-cows. 

The   bud  of  a  flower ;  carved  imitation  of 
one  ;  now  spelled  "  knob." 

Subst.,  want  or  deficiency  ;  v.,  to  be  deficient. 

An  expounder  of  the  Mosaic  Law. 

Lying  or  falsehood. 

Hinder ;  prevent. 

Wickedness;   crime. 

The  child  of  a  freed  slave. 

Desire;  will;  like. 

Desire  of  any  kind. 

Healthy;  vigorous;  strong. 

Magnificent. 

Marsh  ;  swampy  ground. 

Heavy  haraiuer,  of  which  "mallet"  is  the 
diminutive. 

Stomach  of  animals. 

Suitable;  accordant. 

(Lat.  metior)  measure. 

Measuring-rod ;  yard-measure. 

Walking  with  very  short  steps. 

Diminish  ;  lessen. 

(Sax.  mot)  minute  particle;  grain  ;  atom. 

Fortifications;  ramparts. 

Cattle-plague,  resembling  "  rinderpest." 

Bad;  worthless;  nothing. 
Old  form  of  "sneeze." 
Lower,  from  ob.solete  "  neath." 
Noxious;  hurtful;  grievous. 
Nothing  (same  as  "  naught"). 
Education;  training. 

Used  in  various  senses:  (1)  instead  of  "by;" 

(2)  for  "concerning;"  (3)  "out  of." 
That  against  which  one  stumbles. 
Strike  or  stumble  against;  cause  to  stumble. 

Ere;  before. 

Luke  12:58;  Acts  8: 3.. 
Gen.  32:31;  Luke  14: 

21 

1  Kgs.  22:34 

1  Esd.  3:6 

Deut.  13:16;  Jer.49:2. 

Ps.  49:14 

Acts  2:  27 

2  Pet.  2:4 

Heap 

Hell i 

Helve 

His 

Deut.  19:5 

1  Cor.  15:88 

Dan.  3:21 

Hosen 

Houghs 

2  Esd.  15:36 

Importable 

Matt.  12:  1 

Prayer  of  Manasses.... 

Acts  26:7 

Jud.  5:18 

Instantly 

Jeopard, to 

Matt.  5:18 

Kine 

Gen.  41:2;  1  Sam. 6:7. 
Ex.  25:83 

Knop 

Lack 

Lawyer 

Leasing 

Ex.  16: 18;  Mark  10: 21. 
Matt.  22  :85 

Ps.  4:2 

2  Thess.  2:7            

Lewdness 

Acts  18:14 

Libertine 

Acts  6:9 

John  3:8 

Ex.  15:9;  2  Tim.  4:3.. 

Jud.  3:29 

1  Chr.  22:5 

Eze.  47:  11 

Prov,  25:18 

Deut.  18  :  3 

List 

Lust 

Lusty 

Marish 

Maul 

Maw 

Meet 

Matt.  3  :  8 

Mete 

Matt.  7  :  2 

Meteyard 

Mincing 

Lev.  19:35 

Isa.  3  :  16 

Minisli 

Ex.  5  :  19 

Mote  (see  Beam) 

Munition 

Matt.  7:3 

Nah.  2  :  1 

Ex  9  : 3 
2Kgs."2':19;'Prov.'2o': 

14 

2Kgs.  4:.35 

Deut.  24:6 

Ps.  91  :3 

Gen.  29:15 

Eph.  6:4 

Murrain 

Naught 

Neeze 

Nether 

Noisome 

Nought 

Nurture 

Of 

(])Mark  1:9;  (2)  Acts 
13:  29;  (3)1  Cor.  15:47. 

Rom.  9:33 

^Nlatt.  18:9 

Offence 

OfTend 

Or  ever 

Ps.  90  :2;  Cant.  6  :  12; 
Dan.  6  :  24  ;  Acts  23  : 
15 

962 


WORDS  OBSOLETE  OR  AMBIGUOUS. 

Word. 

Passage. 

Explanation. 

Ouches *.. 

Ex.  28:11 

Settings  of  gold  or  silver  for  precious  stones. 

Strive  in  pain  or  pangs. 

Hard  to  do;  needing  etlort. 

Unsparing  toil. 

Surpass. 

Strip  oft'  bark  ;  rob  and  plunder. 

Small  level  piece  of  ground. 

Lop  ;  cut  oft',  es}>.  hair. 

Fragment  of  broken  pottery. 

Vat  to  receive  grape-juice  from  the  wine- 
press. 

Go  before ;  precede. 

Preacher,  or  proclaimer  of  divine  message. 

Stimulate;  challenge  to  action. 

Farmers  of  public  revenue;  esp.  native  col- 
lectors of  the  odious  tribute  imposed  by 
the  Roman  government. 

Alive;  lively;  active. 
Make  alive. 

Acquit;  conduct. 
Greediness;  rapacity. 
Make  prey  ;  capture  spoil. 
(Lat.  renes.  kidneys)  emotions;  aftections. 
Rear-guard  ;  the  defence  behind  an  army. 
Streaked  or  marked  with  circular  bands  or 
rings. 

A  place  or  spot  for  one  to  sit  or  stand  in. 

Except,  adv. 

Taste;  relish;  met.  relish  in  mind. 
Short;  deficient;  scanty. 
Scratch;  make  unmeaning  marks. 

Small  bag  or  wallet. 

Boil ;  per/.  "  sod,"  part.  "  sodden." 

Servant  or  attendant. 

(Sax.  sceard)  fragment ;  shred,  esp.  of  pottery. 

(Sax.  scrud)  shelter;  covering,  esp.  of  a  tree. 

A  small  silver  coin. 

Since;  forasmuch  as. 

Boiled  ;  from  the  verb  "seethe." 

(Fr.  sejourner)   to  dwell  temporarily,  as    a 
stranger  or  visitor,  not  a  settled  inhabitant. 
Once ;  formerly ;  of  old  time. 

Sadly;  grievously. 
Succeed ;  or  subst.  success. 

Rise,  source,  commencement, e.  </.,  "springs 
of  Pisgah"  (Deut.  4  :  49)— i.e.,  roots  or  foot 
of  the  mountain. 

(Sax.  s/edfi)  places. 

A  catapult  or  engine  for  throwing  stones. 

Immediately ;  at  once. 

Strictly. 

Scarcity  of  food;  severe  famine. 

A  streak. 

Past  tense  of  verb  to  "strike." 

Strew  or  scatter. 

Pain 

Rev.  12:  2 

Painful 

Pain  fulness 

Ps.  73:16 

2  Cor.  11:27 

Eze.  32  :  19 

Gen.  30 ':  37,'"38V'isa.' 18  ": 

2.  7 

2  Kgs.  9:2fi 

2  Sam.  14:21) 

Ps.  22:15 

Hag.  2:16 

Pass 

Pill,  Peel 

Plat 

Poll,  to 

Potsherd 

Pressfat 

Prevent 

Prophet 

Provoke 

Publicans 

1  Thess.  4  :  15 

1  Cor.  14: 22;  Acts  13:1. 

2  Cor.  9:  2 

Matt.  9: 10;  Luke  5: 27. 

Num.  16  :  30 ;  Heb.  4  : 
12 

Quick 

Quicken 

Ps.  71:20 

Quit 

1  Sam.  4:9;  1  Cor.  16: 
13 

Ravening 

Luke  11 :39 

Ravin 

Gen.  49  :  27 

Reins 

Ps.7:9 

Isa.  52:12;  58:8 

Gen.  30:  35 

Luke  14  :  8 ;  1  Cor.  14  : 
16 

1  Kgs.  3:18;  Matt.  11  : 
27 

Matt.  16:23 

Mic.  6:  10 

1  Sam.  21  :i:^ 

1  Sam.  17:40;  Luke  22: 
36 

Ex.  16:23 

2  Kgs.  4:43 

Isa.  30:14 

Eze  31  • 3 

Re  re  ward 

Ringstraked 

Room 

Save 

Savor 

Scant 

Scrabble 

Scrip 

Seethe 

Servitor 

Sherd  

Shroud    

Silverling 

Isa.  7:23 

Eze.  35:6 

Gen.  25:29;  Ex.  12:9.. 

Gen.  12:10;  19:9;  Ex. 

12:48 

Eph.  2:13;1  Pet.  3:  20. 
Gen.  19:9;  43:1;  Deut. 

6:22;  Jnd.  21:2 

Gen.  24:12 ;.Iud.  5:30. 
Deut.  4  :49;  1  Sam.  9  : 

26 

Sith 

Sod,  Sodden 

Sojourn 

Sometimes 

Sore 

Speed 

Spring 

Steads 

1  Chr.  5:22 

Wisd.  5:22 

Straightway 

1  Sam.  9:13;  Luke  5  : 
39 

Straitly 

Gen.  43:7;  Josh.  6  : 1 ; 

Mark  1:43 

Deut.  28:53;  Jer.  19:9. 

Gen.  30:  :M 

Acts  27:  17 

Matt.  21:8 

Straitness 

Strake 

Straw  to 

953 


WORDS  OBSOLETE  OR  AMBIGUOUS. 


Word. 


Passage. 


Sunder,  to Job  41 :  17 

Sundry Heb.  1 :  1 

Tal-eriug iNali.  2  :  7 

Taclies Kx.  26  :  6 

Tale Ex.  5 :  8,  18 ;  1  Sam.  18 : 

27 

Target 1  Sam.  17:6 

Tire 2  Kgs.  9:3U;  Isa.  3:18. 


Explanation. 


Tittle.  {See  Jot.) 
Touching 


Tongues . 


Lev.  5  :  13 ;  Ps.  45  :  1 

Matt.  18:19 

Acts  10:46 


Travail Isa.  53:11;  Jer.  30:6. 


Trow iLuke  17:9 

Twain Isa.  fi:  2 

Uudergird Acts  27: 17. 


Undersetter , 


Unicorn . 


1  Kgs.  7 :  30, 34.. 


Ps.  92  :  10. 


Unwittingly Josh.  20  :  3. 

Ware 'Acts  14  :  6.. 

Wax Luke  1 :  80. 

Whit 


Wimple. 


1   Sam.   3  :  18;    2  Cor. 

11:5 

Isa.  3:22 


Winebibber Matt.  11:19 

Winefat.  (&e  Fat.) 

Wise Lev.  19:  17 

Wist Ex.    16  :  15;    34 

Mark  14:  40 

Wit,  to 2  Cor.  8  :  1 

With jjud.  16:  7 

Withal :1  Kgs.  19  :  1 ;  Acts  25 


29; 


Wittingly jGen.  48 :  14 

Wont Matt.  27:15 

Wot |Gen.  .S9:8;  Ex.  32:1. 


Wreath  en 
Wrought . 


Yearn. 


Ex.  28:14 

Gen.  34  :  7  ;  Ex.  36  :  1 : 

Matt.  20  :  12;  26  :  10.!  Worked 
Gen.  43  :  30;    1    Kgs. 

3:26 


Separate:  part  asunder. 
Several;  varicms;  divers. 
jBeatiug,  as  on  a  taber. 
jCatclies  or  buttons;  any  fastening. 

[(Sax.  iellan)  reckoning;  total. 
■Liglit  shield  ;  buckler. 
Dress,  adorn,  es2>.  the  head;  suhst.  a  head- 
dress. 


Pr^jt).=concerning. 

Languages, ei;p. those  foreign  to,  or  unknown 
by,  tbe  speaker. 

Labor;  pain;  trouble  generally. 

Think;  imagine;  suppose. 

Two. 

Pass  ropes  round  hull  of  a  ship,  from  gun- 
wale to  gunwale,  and  then  stretch  tiiem 
fight,  so  as  to  keep  the  timbers  from 
starting  in  a  gale. 

The  pedestal  or  plinth  on  which  the  brazen 
bases  of  the  lavers  stood  in  Solomon's 
temple. 

Generally  allowed  to  be  a  wild  bull.  See 
Bictiovary. 

Unconsciously ;  unintentionally. 

Aware;  expectant. 

Grow  or  become. 

(Sax.  u-hit)  a  bit;  atom. 

Veil,  or  covering  for  face,  throat,  or  neck; 

probably    the    original    of    the    Eastern 

"yashmak." 
Immoderate  drinker  of  wine ;  drunkard. 

(Sax.  wise)  mode  or  manner,  or  means. 

(Sax.  wiste)  knew. 

(Sax.  loitan)  to  know. 

Young  twig  of  a  willow  ;  osier. 

With  the  same;  therewith. 

Intentionally;  knowingly. 

Accustomed. 

Know. 

Twisted;  turned;  " wreathen  work." 


Feel  pain  of  longing  desire  ;  hence,  express- 
ing the  working  up  of  uncontrollable 
emotion. 


954 


BOOKS,  CHAPTERS,  AND   VERSES   IN  THE   BIBLE. 


Number  of  books  in  Old  Testament 39 

Number  of  books  iu  New  Testameut '\]    27 

Total  number  of  books  in  Bible 66 

Number  of  chapters  in  Old  Testament 929 

Number  of  chapters  in  New  Testament 260 

Total  chapters Ijgg 

Number  of  verses  in  Old  Testament 23  214 

Number  of  versos  in  New  Testament .       7,959 

Total  verses 31^173 

Number  of  words  in  Old  Testament 592  439 

Number  of  words  iu  New  Testament 181*253 

Total  words 773,692 

Number  of  letters  in  Old  Testament 2,728  110 

Number  of  letters  in  New  Testament '838^380 

Total  letters 3,566,490 

The  word  Jehovah  or  Lord  occurs  6855  times. 

The  middle  chapter  in  the  Bible,  and  the  shortest  one,  is  Ps.  117;  the  middle  verse 
is  Ps.  118:8;  the  middle  book  of  tiie  Olii  Testament  is  Proverbs;  the  middle  cha|)ter 
is  Job  29;  middle  verse,  2  Chron.  20:  17;  the  shortest  verse,  1  Chron.  1:25.  The 
middle  book  of  the  New  Testament  is  2  Thess.  ;  middle  verse.  Acts  17:17'  the 
shortest  versc",  John  11:35.     Ezra  7:21   has  all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet. 

REVISED  NEW   TESTAMENT. 

(Computation  in  Rev.  Rufus  Wendell's  "Student's  Edition  of 
THE  Revised  Version,"  Albany,  1882.) 

No.  of  paragraphs 1,128 

No.  of  verses 7,0J3 

No.  of  words 179/J14 

The  total  number  of  words  belonging  to  each  writer  is  as  follows  : 

Paul  (fourteen  books) 50,649  I  Mark  (one  book) 14,854 

Luke  (two  books) 49,865  |  Peter  (two  books) 3,966 

John  (five  books) 34,236  I  James  (one  book) 2,3(i6 

Matthew  (one  book) 23,407  1  Jude  (one  book) 631 


y55 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Abana  and  Pharpar 11 

Abraham's  Oak ly 

Absalom's  Tuinb '21 

Addax 71G 

Adder,  Horned 24 

Adranuuelech,  Figure  of 26 

Ain  Sultan  (Founlainof  Elisha) 4:i2 

Alabaster  Vases 37 

Alexander  the  Great,  Head  of 37 

Alexandria,  Ancient,  Map  of 39 

Almond 40 

Aloes 41 

Altar  of  Burnt-offerint? 42 

Altar     of     Burnt-ottering     (^from     the 

Mishna) 42 

Altar  of  Incense 43 

Anion 47 

Amulets,  Egyptian 49 

Anchor 50 

Anise 52 

Anklets,  Assyrian 52 

Egyptian 52 

Autioch  in  Syria 56 

Antioclius  Epiphanes,  Coin  of 55 

a  to,  Monogram  of  Christ 9 

Apis 151 

Arab,  A  Modern 190 

Water  Carrier 141 

Arabia,  Sketch  Map  of 61 

Ararat,  View  of 63 

Arch,  Robinson's 64 

Archers,  Assyrian 70 

Egyptian 71 

Areopagus,  Mars'  Hill 65 

Ark  of  Covenant 67 

Armor  and  Arms 68-72 

Ass,  Eastern  Wild 77 

Assarion 580 

Assyria,  etc..  Sketch  Map  of 81 

Assyrian  King  and  Cup  Bearer 210 

Palace 80 

Astarte,  Figure  of. 76 

Athens,  View  of 83 

Augustus,  Coin  of 85 

Statue  of. 85 

Baal,  Altar  of. 88 

Baall)ec,  Ruins  of. 89 

Babylon,  Plan  of. 91 

Bake-oven,  Arabian 96 

Balances,  Egyptian 97 

Balm 98 

Banias 149 

Banner,  Roman,  etc 208 

Basins,  Assyrian 102 

Baskets,  Egyptian 103 

Battering-ram,  Ancient 104 

Battle-axes 69 

Egyptian 69 

Bear,  Syrian 105 

Beards,  Assyrian 105 

Egyptian 105 

Beds,  Asiatic 106 


Beer-sheba,  Well  at 107 

Behemoth 108 

Bellows,  Egyptian 110 

Beni-Hassaii,  Tomb  at 259 

Beruiee,  Head  of 112 

Bethany ll.i 

Bethesda,  Pool  of 115 

Bethlehem,  I'icture  of 116 

Birs  Nimrud 93 

Reconstructed 91 

Bison 887 

Boar,  Wild  137 

Book  of  Law  closed 140 

Bottle  inscribed  with  nameof  Tholiimes 

III 338 

Bottles  of  Skin 141 

Bound  between  Two  Soldiers 718 

Bows 718 

and  Quivers 71 

Bracelets,  Assyrian 142 

Bronze 142 

Gold,  Egyptian 142 

Iron 142 

of  Cowries 142 

Brick,  Assyrian 143 

Egyptian 143 

Bricks,    Jewish    Captives    making,    in 

Egypt 143 

Bridge,  Ituins  of. 64 

Bubale,  The 299 

Bulrush 145 

Burnt-ofFering,  Altars  of. 42 

C^sarea 149 

Philippi 149 

Camel 153 

Camp,  Plan  of 1.54 

Cam  phi  re 155 

Canaan,  Sketch  Map  of 156 

Candlestick,  Golden 157 

Captives,  Jewish,  before  Darius 163 

Carmel,  Mount 164 

Castor  and  Pollux 166 

Castor-oil  Plant ;>44 

Cedars  of  Lebanon 167 

Censers,  Egyptian 169 

Centurion,  Roman 162 

Cerastes,  Horned 24 

Chameleon 172 

Chariot,  Egyi)iiaii 173 

Chest  or  Box,  Egyptian 176 

Christ,  Monogram  of 207.208 

Cinnamon 186 

Claudius,  Coin  of 189 

Cobra,  Egyptian 76 

Coin,  Alexander  the  (ireai  37 

Antioclius  Ei)ii)hanes 55 

Augustus 85 

Claudius 189 

Polenio 112 

Coins  to  Commemorate  the  Capture  of 

Judaea 162 

Colossi  at  Thebes 616 

957 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Colntiins,  Street  of. 844 

Coney,  Syrian 197 

Corinth  and  Acrtj-Luriiitlius 200 

Cormorant 2u3 

Craue 203 

Cross,  Three  Forms  of  the 207 

Crown  of  Aretas 209 

Assyrian 209 

Herod  the  Great 209 

Lower  Egypt 209 

Upper  Egypt 209 

Cuciimher,  Squirting 210 

Cyprus,  Map  of 212 

Cyrus,  Reputed  Tomb  of 213 

Daggers 70 

Damascus,  View  of 215 

Wall  of. 216 

David,  Tomh  of. 222 

Dead  Sea,  Map  of 753 

View  of,  N.  W 7o5 

View  of,  Soutli 755 

Dead,  The  Judgment  of. 266 

Decapolis,  Map  of 226 

Denarius 580 

Roman 228 

Denderah,  Temple  at 265 

Diana  of  Ephesus 251 

Temple  of. 231 

Temple  of,  at  Ephesus 281 

Dog  Modelled  in  Clav 236 

Dove,  Turtle '. 238 

Eagle 245 

Eastern  House,  Plan  of 241 

Eoce  Homo  Arch 455 

Edom,  View  of. 251 

Egypt,  Sketch  Map  of. 254 

EiTvptian  Triad 256 

Elijah's  Sacrifice,  Place  of 272 

Elim 273 

Embalming  276 

Environs  of  Jerusalem 453 

Ephesian  Temple 281 

Er-Rahah,  Plain  of. 805 

Esdra'loM,  Plain  of. 461 

Ex. )dns,  Sketch  Map  of. 294 

Eyes,  Painting  of 295 

F.ALLOW  Deer 298 

Fans,  Winnowing 300 

Farthing 580 

Farthing,  A 301 

Fennel  1- hnver 308 

Ferret, The 302 

Figs  and  Fig-leaves 303 

Firman,  Turkish 517 

Fish-God,  The 214 

Fishes  of  Sea  of  Galilee .307 

Fitches 308 

Flagellum 771 

Flax 309 

Preparation  of. .309 

Foot-Race 324 

Fountain  of  Elisha 4.32 

Fox,  The  Syrian 313 

Frankincense 314 

Fringed  Garment,  Eastern 193 

Furnace,  Egyptian 316 

Furniture,  Eastern 316 

958 


Galilee,  Sea  of.  Sketch  Map  of 820 

Sea  of,  from  Tiberias 321 

Gallinule,  The  Purple 831 

Garjneiit,  Fringed 193 

Gate  of  Damascus 326 

Gaz.  lie 740 

Gecko,  The 302 

Gennesaret 160 

Gethsemane,  Garden  of 333 

Girdles,  Ancient 337 

Glasshlowers 338 

Glass-Bottles,  Egyptian 338 

Goat,  Syrian '. 339 

Gods  of  the  Chief  Egyptian  Triad 256 

Golden  Daric ' 580 

Gourd,  Wild 344 

Greece,  Sketch  Ma{)  of 347 

Greek,  A  Modern 190 

Guest-Chamber 242 

Hair,  Egyptian  Mode  of  Wearing 351 

Hamath,  Inscription  at 353 

Hands,  Washing  the 897 

Haram  Area 451 

Hare  ot  Mount  Sinai 358 

Harp,  Egyptian 359 

Hawk " 363 

Head-dress,  Assyrian  King  and  Queen...  365 

Damascus....'. 365 

Syrian 365 

Heliron,  Mosque  at 536 

View  of. 371 

Heliopolis,  Obelisk  at 629 

Herdsmen,  Egyptian 376 

Hermon,  Little 596 

Mount 371 

Herod  Agrippa,  Coin  of 579 

the  Great,  Bronze  Coin  of 378 

Herod's  Temple,  Plan  of 856 

Hezekiah,  Pool  of 450 

Hieroglyphics,  Alexander 255 

Ptolemais 255 

High  Priest 385 

Hiiipopotamus 108 

Hoe,  Egyptian 553 

Holy  Land,  Map  of 646-7 

Hoopoe,  or  Lapwing 509 

Hor,  Mount,  View  of. 389 

Horns  as  Ornaments 391 

Housetop,  Eastern 243 

Huleh,  Lake 564 

Hu.sks  396 

Hvena,  Striped 397 

Hyssop 397 

Incense,  Altar  of. 43 

Inn,  Eastern 403 

Inner  Prison,  Ancient 705 

Instruments,  Stringed 590 

Isis,  Egyptian 256 

Jacob's  Well 414 

Jatfa-Gate,  Interior  of  the 443 

Jaffa  (.Toppa) 475 

Jerusalem,  Eastern  Wall  of. 443 

Plans  f.f 447 

View  of,  from  the  vSouth 435 

Jews,  Wailing-Place  of. 454 

Jezreel,  Plain  of 461 

Jonah,  Traditional  Tomb  of 472 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Jordan,  Course  of 478 

Source  ol". 477 

Sources  of 1-l'J 

Joshua,  Traditioiiiil  Touib  of 482 

Judges,  Tomb  of. 147 

T()inl)s  of,  Plan  of. 14(5 

Judgment  of  tlie  Dead  (Egyptian) 2()tj 

Juniper  Bush 491 

Karnak,  Avenue  of  Sphinxes 26.") 

Temple  al 2r)7 

Kestrel 303 

Key,  Egyptian  Iron 495 

Kite 502 

Lachish,  Phin  of. 506 

Lamp,  Assyrian  Terra-C'otta  and  Glass...  50H 

(Jhaldsean 508 

Lamps,  Christian 508 

Laodit-sea,  Ruins  of 509 

Lapwing 509 

Laver,  Brazen 510 

Lebanon,  Cedars  of 167 

View  of.  513 

Leek,  Common 514 

Len tiles 515 

Leopard 515 

Leper,  Head  of. 516 

Leprous  Beggars 516 

Leviathan 517 

Lily 521 

Scarlet 520 

Lion 522 

Sculptured 93 

Lizard 523 

Locust,  Flying 525 

Locusts 524 

Loom,  Ancient  Roman 899 

Macedonia,  Map  of 535 

Maces  and  Clubs 70 

Mail,  Coats  of.  Assyrian 69 

Coats  of,  (jreek 69 

Coals  of,  Persian 69 

Mandrake 542 

Manna  Tree 543 

Map,  Abana  and  Pharpar 11 

Alexandria 39 

Arabia 61 

Assyria  and  Mesopotamia 81 

Mars'  Hill 65 

Mattock 553 

Measures  of  Capacity 5.54 

Medeba,  Ruined  Columns  at .5.55 

Memnon,  Vocal 616 

Menephthah  1 261 

Merom,  Waters  of 564 

Mesopotamia,  Sketch  Map  of 81 

Mill,  Women  Grinding  at 571 

Millet 572 

Mint 572 

Moab,  Mountains  of 577 

Moabite  Stone.  The 232 

Money  Bags,  Egyptian 96 

Mosque  at  Hebron 536 

Mourners,  Eastern 588 

MSS..  Fac-simileof. 123 

Mummies,  Bandaging  of 276 

Making  Cases  for 276 

Mummy-Case,  Lid  of. 277 


Mummy-Cases.  Forms  of 276 

Muslim  Tombs 443 

Mustard 591 

Myiib 591 

My  1  tie 592 

Nain,  View  of. 596 

Isa/areih,  View  of GOO 

Nebo,  The  g<;d 602 

Nebuchadnezzar,  Briek  of 603 

Cameo  of 602 

Nergal's  Emblem 612 

Niglit-.lar 6o9 

Nilometer,  The 611 

Nineveh,  Plan  of 613 

Nisroch 614 

Nose-Jewels 617 

Oak,  Abraham's 19 

Obdisk  at  On 264 

Oil-Press 624 

Oli.-Tree , 624 

Olives 623 

Olivet  from  the  West 626 

Omar,  Mosque  of 451 

On,  Obelisk  at 629 

Osiris,  Egyptian 256 

Ossifrage..  633 

Ostrich 634 

Owl,  Eagle 63.5 


Palace,  Assyrian 

Solomon's,  Plan  of 

Palm,  Date 

Partridge,  The  (Jreek 

Patmos,  Isle  of. 

Paul,  House  where  Imprisoned. 

Place  of  Shipwreck  of 

Portrait  of 

Peacock 

P»licau,The 

Penny,  Roman 

Pens,  etc 

Pentateuch,  Samaritan /.... 

Pergamos. 

i^eter.  Portrait  of. 

Pharaoh  of  Exodus 

of  Oppression 

Philistine 

Phylactery 

Pine  The  Eastern 

Pistachio- Nuts 

Plough,  Eastern 

Pomegranate  

Postures  in  Prayer,  Arab 

Eiryptian 

Hebrew 

Potter,  Eu^yptian.. 

Pottery,  Egyptian 

Priest, "a....! 

Prison,  Ancient  Inner 

Prisoners  before  S;irg(tn 

Propylon  at  Karnak 

Pygarg,  The 

Pyramid  of  Egypt,  Asceiit  of  ... 


.385, 


80 
638 
653 
658 
661 
662 
560 
6,J3 

6!'io 

657 
580 
6(^8 
762 
672 
675 
261 
260 
683 
687 
690 
618 
695 
697 
701 
701 
701 
699 
699 
703 
705 
l«-,3 
2(r, 
716 
263 


Quail J17 

Quivers,  Egyptian 718 

Rachel,  Tomb  of. 721 

959 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Rameses  II 260 

Haven 725 

Keeds 151 

Reboboam 780 

Retem 491 

Rings  and  Signets,  Assyrian 788 

Egyptian 738 

Porcelain 738 

Robinson's  Arch 440 

Roe 740 

Rome,  View  of. 743 

Rue 745 


Sackcloth,  Sitting  in 749 

Sacred  Bull,  Mummy  of 561 

Salsola  Kali 815 

Salt  Sea,  Map  of 753 

Salutation,  Modes  of 758 

Samaria.  Colonnade  of 759 

Sandals 192 

Sarcophagus 561 

Lid,  Egyptian 277 

Sargon,  Prisoners  before 163 

Scorpion 770 

Scourge 771 

Scribes :..  772 

Seal,  Phoenician 773 

Seikin 794 

Selah  or  Petra 777 

Sennacherib  on  his  Throne 779 

Shadoof,  Egyptian 610 

Shechera 787 

Sheepfold,  Eastern 789 

Shekel  ascribed  to  Simon  Maccabseus 579 

Shev  -Bread,  Table  of 792 

Shields  and  Spears 68,  70 

Assyrian 70 

Egyptian 68 

Shiloh,  Ancient 794 

Shishak,  Head  of 796 

Shittim-Wood 797 

Siloam,  Pool  of 802 

Simon  the  Tanner,  House  of 479 

Sinai,  Mount 805 

Outline  Map  of. 807 

Sistrum 590 

Slinger,  Assyrian 72 

Sravrna 813 

Snail 815 

Solomon's  Pools 819 

Sparrow 822 

Spears,  Assyrian 70 

Spikenard 823 

Standards,  Roman 16 

State,  Chair  of 865 

Stocks,  Ancient 826 

Stone  Water-Jars 899 

Stork,  The 828 

Street  of  Columns 844 

Sun,  Temple  of,  at  Baalbec 89 

Swift,  The 831 

Swords  and  Daggers,  Assyrian 70 

Sycamore 832 

Synagogue  at  Meiron 834 


Tabor,  Mount 844 

Tadnior  or  Palmyra 845 

Tamarisk ' 543 

Tares 848 

Tell  Hum,  Ruins  at 161 

Temple  according  to  Fergusson 854 

according  to  Lewin 854 

according  to  Porter 854 

according  to  Wilkinson 854 

at  Aboo  Simbel 265 

at  Hathor 265 

at  Karnak 257 

at  Thebes 257 

Great,  Columns  of 89 

Herod's 856 

of  Diana 281 

of  the  Sun 844 

Platform  of 853 

Reconstruction  of 854 

Teraphim 858 

Thebes,  Temple  at 257 

Thessalonica 860 

Thorn,  Palestine 861 

Threshing  Floor,  Egyptian 30 

Instrument  (Lower  View) 863 

Instrument  (Upper  View) 864 

Sledge  of  Palestine 864 

Throne  or  Chair  of  State 865 

Thyatira 866 

Thvine  Wood 865 

Tiberias 321 

Tiberius,  Head  of  Emperor 867 

Timbrel 868 

Tomb,  Aaron's 389 

Absalom's 21 

at  Beni-Hassan 259 

Muslim 443 

of  Jonah 472 

of  Joshua 482 

of  Judges 147 

of  Rachel 721 

Tree-Sparrow 822 

Triclinium,  Roman 248 

Troops,  Egyptian 896 

Trumpets 882 

Tyre 883 

Unicorn 887 

Upper  Room 242 

Vases,  Alabaster 37 

Vulture,  Egyptian 894 

Griffon,  or  Eagle 245 

Walking,  Girded  for 191 

Water-Carrier,  Arab ■: 141 

Water-Jars,  Stone 899 

Wheat.  Egyptian 900 

Vv'ind  Instruments 590 

Wine  Making,  Egyptian 904 

Wine  Press,  Treading  of 903 

Winged  Figures,  Egyptian 175 

Winnowing-Fans  ....' 300 

Writing-Materials 668 


Yoke  in  Use  in  Palestine. 


908 


Tabernacle,  General  View  of. 839; 

8.  E.  View 840  I 

Table  or  Triclinium 248i  Zidon 918 

960 


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